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THESILK ROAD . ROADOF DIALOGUE: THEPAST AND THE PRESENT

The world science'sinterest in the studyof the Road is, in its way,countdown, a glance deep intocenturies; an attemptto retracelandmarks of historyand "changeof generations"... The InternationalProject "The - Roadof Dialogue"was approvedin 1987at the 24th sessionof the UNESCOGeneral Conference. The Silk Roadis a systemof caravanroads that in the ancienttimes and the MiddleAges traversedEurasia from the Mediterraneanto Chinaand did muchto fosterthe establishment and developmentof trade and culturalrelations between peoples and statesinvolved. The implementationof the Projectis expectedto answera question:how the mankind'smaiden peace contactsbetween peoples of the East and the West were realized.Besides, the study aims to back the collaboration,both scientificand cultural,between scholars that had once been involvedin the ancientroute sphere of influence.lt was UNESCODirector-General FedericoMayor who gavean all-embracingappraisal to researchers'mission: "The Silk Road that traversedsteppes, seas and providedevery to establishcontacts and dialogue, conduceto the mutualenrichment of outstandingcivilizations. The objectiveof the complex researchof the Silk Road is to makepeoples realize the necessityof resumingthe dialogue, seizethe historicalopportunity of developmutual understanding, expand contacts and mutually enrichcivilizations within the Silk Roadframework". In 1988,the UNESCOlaunched a project"lntegral Study of the Silk Roads- Roadsof Dialogue"as a part of the UnitedNations World Decade of CulturalDevelopment. The purpose was to throw lighton complexcultural interactions arising from contactsbetween the Eastand the West;to assistin shapingmany-sided and richcultural heritage of .Five international scientificexpeditions under the UNESCOaegis were carriedout: - Desertroute from Xian to (July-August 1990); - Sea routefrom Veniceto Osaka(October 1990 - March1991); - Stepperoute in the CentralAsia (April-June1991); - Nomadicroute in (July-August 1992); - Buddhistroute in Nepal(September 1995). Historically,geographically and culturologically,the Silk Roadis knownto havebecome a subjectof studyas far backas in the secondhalf of the 19 century.Greatly contributing to the subjectwere West European, Russian and Japanesescholars. ln 1877,a classicalscientific work ""by Germanscholar von Richthofenpresented the Silk Roadas a systemof routesthat connectedvarious parts of the vast Eurasianmainland. Later on, a term "SilkRoad" became firmlyestablished. Bibliography of scientificand popular-scienceworks aboutthe Silk Road numbersthousands of titles,including monographs; collected works; albums; booklets and articles.They providethe historyof the Silk Road;description of mainand subsidiaryroutes; ethniccomposition of population;description of towns;enumeration of goods;architecture and ProminentArchaeological Sites of CentralAsia on the Great Silk Road

HdTGOLIA

.|r' | ilq!-A-'1-.+. TheSilk and SpiceRoutes art; musicand epos;religion. Over the pasttwo decades,scientific and publicinterest in the historyof transcontinentalroad has visiblyincreased. It shouldbe notedthat internationalscientific conferences and seminarswere heldwithin the frameworkof the Project.These include. "Formation and Developmentof SilkRoad Routes in the CentralAsia: the Ancientand MedievalPerlods" (, October 1990); "lnteraction of Nomadicand SettledCultures on the Silk Road"(Alma-Ata, 15-16 June, 1992); "Epos of the Statesalong the Silk Road"(Turku, Finland, 3-7 June,1993); "Languages and Written Languagesalong the SilkRoad" (Cyprus, 30 September- 1 October,1994); "Revitalization of the SilkRoad: Development of CulturalTourism and Protectionof CulturalHeritage in " (,21-22 February, 1996). Of interestis the factthat special research institutions were set up in somecountries of the East(lndia, China, Sri Lanka)to studythe SilkRoad: Institute of Hirayamain Kamakura(Japan) issuinga yearbook'Archaeology and Art of the Silk Road";International lnstitute for Central AsianStudies in Samarkand(llCAS); International Institute for Studyof NomadicCivilizations in Ulan-Bator. An emphasishas to be laidon the publicationof UNESCOworks on universaland regional history.A specialinternational scientific committee for the "Historyof civilizationsof the "has issued6 volumes,the 4th of whichappeared in two books.The historyof civilizations dealswith a vastexpanse from the CaspianSea to the Chineseborders. lt was locationof the regionin the centerof the Asiancontinent that madeit the heartof greatmigration of peoples, disseminationof religionsand ideas,culture and art, strengthening of originalunity of the region. Nevertheless,reliable sources on the lifeand cultureof the reviewedperiod remain to be very scanty.The UNESCOpublications proved to be the quintessenceof long-termexplorations of archaeologists,orientalists, philosophers and culturologists and thus gave weight to the region's The Silk Road - Road of Dialogue: the past and the present

potential,its abilityto preservecenturies-long identityand takepart in adoptinggeopolitical decisions. In additionalto scientificand cultural programs,transport and economicprojects are underwayto revivethe Silk Road.Thus, the greattranscontinental railway is intended to connectcountries of Europewith the Far East.In May 1997,a sectionMeshed-serahs was over to enable the countriesof the CentralAsia to get an accessto the Persian The Great llall of China Gull and the countriesof Europe- to the CentralAsia. The Silk Roadin its "railway"version fromthe Atlanticto the PacificOceans is goingto be revived.In 2009,construction of a highway WesternChina - WesternEurope viaKazakhstan and the RussianFederation started. Besides,it was interestcaused by the project"Silk Road"that made it possibleto put the wholeor a part of the Projecton the World HeritageList. In particular,several expert seminars were carriedon in the CentralAsia China.In November2005, participantsof the UNESCO "Regionalseminar on periodicalreportinf within the frameworkof the Conventionon the World Culturaland NaturalHeritage Protection" adopted a plan of actionsto prioritizethe serial nomination"China - CentralAsian Silk Road".This conceptderived support from a seminar held in Turfan(China, August 2006). Attending the seminarwere fifty participantsfrom the CentralAsiancountries, China and the UNESCO.The Chinaseminar results made it possible to nominatethe Silk Road Project.In October2006, a UNESCOregional seminar on the serial nomination(Samarkand, Uzbekistan) approved a strategyof the nominationof the Silk Road section"China - CentralAsia". The strategyprovided for: 1. Elaboratinga universalconceptual document on the entireSilk Roadto substantiateits world significance.The documentwill be submittedto the World HeritageCommittee. 2. Revisingand agreeingpreliminary lists of monuments- nomineesof the CentralAsian countriesat a meetingto be held in one of these countries. 3. Agreeingapproaches and terms of the first nominationof objectsin the CentralAsia and China. 4. Drawingup a packageof documentsto develop"a template"(standard format) for Silk Roadnominations. 5. Developingagreed approachesto managementand strategyof management. 6. Drawingup a generalplan of necessary resources. 7. Preparinga sponsorshipapplication. 8. ldentifyingcoordination between the CentralAsian countries and China. The concept was approved in April 2007 in Dushanbe,() by five participating countries:Republics of ,, Chinese court ladies in the silk dress ProminentArchaeoloeical Sites of CentralAsia on the Great Silk Road

Tajikistan,Uzbekistan and the People' Republicof China. It was universallyadmitted that the serial transnationalnomination of theSilk Road is one of the most promisingconceptions to givea correctassessment to the importance of the richestcultural heritage of the Central Asia.This document dealing with Silk Road objectsin specificcountries notwithstanding, it is, nevertheless,recognized that a network Caravun of merchonts from the West of roadsthat embracesthe verv definition of the Silk Road had traversedborders of, at least,fifteen modern countries on the expanse betweenChina and the Mediterranean.The documentis expectedto providea paradigmfor subsequentidentification and nominationof culturalobjects throughout the SilkRoad. After the conceptwill be approvedby the WorldHeritage Committee, it is suggestedto nominate,in thefirst turn, monuments situated in the CentralAsia and China; to examineserial monuments westwards,in the Mediterranean,as wellas monumentsof the Indiansubcontinent, including , and Pakistan.When nominating objects, experts are committed to recognize and respectthe culturaldiversity, interaction and integrationof variouscultures. The objects in questionare expectedto demonstratemutual exchange and assistancein trade,science andtechnologies, as wellas in art and culturalheritage. The SilkRoad nomination has been initiatedto urgecountries and peoplesto recognizecommon history, cultural interrelations; to propagandizecommon development of humancivilizations to complywith diversity principles. The conceptionwas discussedat internationalseminars in Xian(November 2007); Xian (May 2008); (May 2009). The firstsession of the coordinationcommittee on puttingthe SilkRoad serial nomination on the UNESCOWorld Heritage list was heldin Xian,November 2009.

The Silk Road:History and Routes Throughthe instrumentalityof itsbranching network caravan roads, the SilkRoad connected the Westand the Eastof Eurasia.Caravan routes crossed China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,, and Uzbekistan.The roadsled to Koreaand Japanin the east; Easternand WesternEurope, in the west;India in the south;Near and MiddleEast in the south-west.These were roadswith two-waytraffic to complywith achievementsof scientificthought, cultural values and religionsof the reviewedperiod. These were effective linesof informationdissemination through the mediationof merchants,travelers and diplomats (Zuyev,1 960, p.87-89). No definiteanswer has ever existed regarding the dateof the SilkRoad' putting into service. One can indicateseparate sections of the roadonly that go backto the lll-ll millenniumsBC Ancientties had beenestablished thanks to the developmentof lazuritein the mountainsof Badakhshan.The mineralwas exportedto lran,, , Egypt and Syria. In the middleof the I millenniumBC the Badakhshanlazurite came to China.Along with "the Lazurite route",there existed "The Nephriteroute" that connectedEastern Turkestan with China. In the middleof the I millenniumBC the so-called" route" started working; it set in a large

6 The Silk Road - Road of Dialogue: the past and the present

bend of HwangHo, traversedthe easternand northernspurs of Altai, of Kazakhstan and BlackSea regionreached lands of Greeksand Etruscans. The Silk Road is believedto start operatingas singlediplomatic and trade artery.lt was ZhangQian who initiatedthe idea.In 138BC, an ambassadorialcaravan came out of the Han capitalto accompanyprince Zhang-Qian sent on a missionto the unknowncountries of the West by EmperorWudi. Thirteen years later, Zhang Qian came back.He reachedprovinces of modernAfghanistan and was the firstto havearrived in the CentralAsia directlyfrom internal regionsof China.He was followedby caravanswith silk to the West;and caravanswith goods fromthe Mediterranean,Near and MiddleEast and the CentralAsia for China[Bichurin, 1950, p.147-1681.However, archaeological explorations in the CentralAsia, Kazakhstan, Altai, and Chinaprovided incontestable evidence of spreadingthe Chinesesilk, lranian carpets on the territoryof Eurasialong before the Tsan'smission. A silk horsecloth with Phoenixembroidered on it, and an lraniancarpet discovered in the courseof excavationsof "royal"burial mounds Pazyrykon Altaiare datedto the 5 centuryBC Contributingto the spreadingof precioussilk werenomadic and semi-nomadictribes of Saksand Scythiansthat helped silk into the Central Asia and Mediterranean,to Europeand India" Thus,the Silk Roadstarted in Changan,capital of China,to makefor a crossingover Hwang Ho, regionof Lanchjouand furtheralong the northernspur of Nan Shanto the westernoutskiris of the GreatWall of Chinaand "Outpostof JasperGates". In this place,the road forkedto fringethe desertTaklimakan from the northand the south.The northernroute crossed oases ,Turfan, Shiho and Beshbalykto a valleyof the riverlli; the middleroute - fromGoachan to Karasharu,Aksu and via a pass Bedelto the shoreof lssyk Kul;the southernroute - via Dunhuan,, Garkend and Kashgarto the CentralAsia, , India and the Mediterranean, the so-called"southern road"; the northernroute - from Hamiand Turfanto Semirechye,south of Kazakhstan,Priaralye, . The northernroute became particularly brisk in the 6-7 centurieswhich is explainedas being due to the following.First, Turkic kagans were headquarteredin - Semirechyeto thus controltrade routes; second, rich Turkic kagans and theirentourage became large consumers of overseascommodities [Bartold, 1963, v.2, p.31} This routewas arterial,so a greaterportion of ambassadorialand trade caravanstraversed it in the 7-14 centuries. FromZhetysu and Prijungaryefrom China,specifically from the westernterritories (modern ),via the Jungargates the caravansreached the Alakulshore and throughpiedmonts of JungarAlatau to the valleysof Lepsand Karatala,a pass in lli, regionKapchagay. Thenthe roadled to ZailiyskiyAlatau and then through Kastek or Kurdaypass to the Chuyand Talasvalleys, to the towns ,Navaket, and, finally,to the largesttown of SouthernKazakhstan - lspidjab,or Sayram.From here the roadled to Tashkentand furtherto Samarkand,Bukhara, ;to lran,Afghanistan and India. Let's come back to one of the startingpoints on the Kazakhstansection of the Silk Road- town lspidjab,and thenproceed to Europeon the way of ByzantineAmbassador franian carpetfrom Zemarchto Turkickagan Dizabul. From lspidjab the caravan Pazyryk burial ProminentArchaeological Sites of Central Asia on the Great Silk Road

roadled to Arsubaniketon Arysi,to -Taraband further downstreamSyr Daryato Priaralye.Otrar was a focal point of manycaravan routes. From here, one roadled to Shavgar; anotherto a crossingover Syr Daryato the town Vesidju. The latterwasknown to be motherlandof outstandingscholar of the OrientAbu Nasral-Farabi. A routeto Khorezmand Urgenchwas laid throughKyzyl Kum, and from there to Prikaspiy,Povolzhye and Europe. Anothersection of this routeskirted the Aral sea from the north and led to the southernPriuralye to towns and crossingsover the riverUral (Jaik);further through Volga Silkfahric (detail) steppesto Volga,Don, BlackSea areas,Balkans and .One couldget to Zhetysufrom Almalyk via Horgos;from hereto Chuyand Talasvalleys, lspidjab; to shoresof lssykKul from Kashgarvia passesof Tien Shan.This sectionof the SilkRoad was verybrisk in the 13-earlier14 centuries where towns of the Golden Hordesprang up in the lowerreaches of Volga.The roadtraversed Saraychik, Saray-Batu to Kafu,then by sea to Constantinople.Roads went awayfrom the main routeof the Silk Way that traversedSouthern Kazakhstan and Semirechye,then led to the regionsof the Central and EasternKazakhstan, to steppeDesht-i Kypchak later known as Sary-Arka,to banksof lrtysh,Altai, Siberia and Mongolia. Two stagesare singledout in the Silk Roadoperation period. Initial period, or "Proto-Silk Road"is chronologicallyrelated to the formationof the firststates in the CentralAsia and Kazakhstan(Bactria, Khorezm, states of Saks- Zhetysuand Priaralye).The Chinesesilk and lraniancarpets are knownfrom excavationmaterials of the famous"royal" burial mounds of Altai:Pazaryk, Bashadar, Tuekty, Shibe, Katanda, Ulandryk, Uzuktala, Ak-Alah and Berel; sepulchersof Xinjiang:Subashi, Kyzyluyuk, Zathunluk; Semirechye: lssyk; Tuva: Arzhan. Thus, first,or initialstage of the SilkRoad is datedto the 6 - firsthalf of the 2 centuriesBC Attached to thisstage are towns-headquarters and "royal"sepulchers of Saks,Usuns, Hunnu, Savromat and Sarmats,ancient towns of the CentralAsia. The secondstage of the Silk Roadstarts with ZhangQian's travelin 138BC and ends with the adventto powerof the Ming dynastyin 1405when a landsegment of the Silk Road dilapidateddue to China'sself-isolation and rapiddevelopment of the sea route.Disputable is a dateof cessationof the Silk Road.However, unreliability of landroutes and the progress retainedby the Chinesefleet since the 16 centurymean that in the end of the saidcentury the Silk Roadas tradeand culturalintermedium between the Eastand the Westceased to exist.

Silk and golden peachesof Samarkand As has been notedabove, the Silk Road initiallyserved for exportof Chinesesilk to the Europeancountries. lt is alsoknown that goods manufactured in Rome,Byzantine, lndia, lran, Arabcaliphate and laterRussia and Europeancountries were importedto China.A listof unusual, exoticgoods is large:myrrh and labdanum;jasmine water and ambergris,cardamom and nutmeg,ginseng and bileof python,carpets and clothes,dyestuff and minerals,diamond and jasper,amber and corals,ivory and "fishtusks", gold and silverbars, furs and coins,bows and arrows,swords and spears.Transported over the Silk Roadfor salewere horsesof Fergana,

I The Silk Road - Road of Dialogue: the past and the present

Arab and Nisiyaracers, camels and elephants,rhinoceros and tions,cheetahs and gazelles, hawksand falcons,peacocks, parrots and ostriches.Traders were engagedin sellingcultural crops,including grape, peach, melon, vegetables and greens,as well as spiceand sugar. In an introductionto his "GoldenPeaches of Samarkand"E.Schefer wrote: "The name of this book - "GoldenPeaches of Samarkand"was chosento resemblegolden apples of Hesperidiaand concurrentlypeaches of immortalitythat the Chineselegend localizes far in the West, as well as "GoldenTravel to Samarkand"by J.E. Flacker,and a melodyby F. Delew"Golden Road to Samarkand"to the play "Hasan"by Flacker.To set asidethese vague associatlonswith mythsand music,the goldenpeaches has existedin reality.Twice in the 7 century,the unusualgolden peacheswere made a gift and sent to the Chinesecourt by the SamarkandKingdom. "They were as largeas gooseeggs, and as theircotor looked like gold,they were called"golden peaches". Several young plants with these kinglyfruits were broughtby ambassadorialcaravan via of Serindiaand cultivatedin the court gardens of Chanan.A speciesof these peachesremains unknown, likewise their taste.Tempting due to their inaccessibility,the goldenpeaches of Samarkandsymbolized all exoticand longer-for, all mysteriousand alluring"[Schefer, 1981, p.13-14]. Still,the Chinesesilk remainedto be majorand permanentitem that, together with gold,turned intoan internationalcurrency. Silk as a gift was highlyappreciated; kings and ambassadors were lavishlygifted with this product;free lanceswere rewardedwith the silk as salary;state debtswere clearedoff. Sourcescite numerousevidences of this sort.Thus, Shahinshah of lran KhosrovI Anushirvanreceived a silk Chinesegarment Ushari (together with other gifts)from a ChineseEmperor that depicteda king in crown and adornments.Silk was held in reverence, as was apparenton palacefrescoes of the rulersof China,Central Asia and EasternTurkestan. Silk clothesof nobilitywere beautifiedwith all the attributes,details and even stitches. It was naturalthat silk and a part of goodstransported via the Silk Road remainedin towns it traversed.Archaeologicalfinds give weight to the fact.When excavatinga sepulcherMardan in Otrar oasis,archaeologists discovered seven Chinese coins "U-shu"going back to the 1-4 centuriesindicating to ties betweenChina and Kangyuy.A centerof the statewas locatedon Syr Darya,so it was no merecoincidence that Chinese sources refer to the following:"...pending communicationswith foreignproorietors and in an effort to value their fame in the remote outskirts,the Chinesecourt did not breakoff ties with Kangyuy' [Bichurin,1950, p.186]. Worthy of note are silverjugs from the collectionof preciousutensils of Semirechyewith a cross-shaped stamp:a masterof the product soughtto claim his work as the Byzantineone. Gold Byzantine solids were in use as foreign currency.Kuzma Indikoplav (6 cenruty)narrates about a disputebetween a Byzantine and a Persianmerchants on Iranian gemmas 5-6 centuries Prominent Archaeological Sites of Central Asia on the Great Silk Road whoseruler was powerful.The Byzantinewon afterhe showeda coin that was usedworldwide whilethe Persianpresented a silvercoin only.[Mets, 1966, p. 367]. A uniquefind that mattersmost for the studyof the internationaltrade on the Silk Road is a silvertreasure from Otrar.Compositionally, it is of cashand prizenature. Coins collection is uniqueto includemint-places of EasternTurkestan towns - Almalyk,Pulad, Emil (Omyl) and Ordu al-Azam;of Crimean,Asian Minorand Azerbaijanitowns - Sivas,Konya and Tabriz;of Kazakhstan- Otrar and Jend.The coin collectionis believedto date to the secondhalf of the 1260s;the mintage- 1240-60s.Of no less uniqueis silverware:nameplates of decorativebelts with Uygurinscriptions: woven bracelets of CentralAsian origin; wicker bracelets manufactured in Povolzhye;belt buckle manufactured by a handicraftworkshop in Asia Minor.The treasure containsa sort of "visitingcards" of townsen routeof the Silk Roadof the MongolianEmpire [Baipakov,Nastich, 1981, p. 20-59].The Otrartreasure included silver bars in the form of lenses and ovalbars. The barsmust have been used as money,as evidencedby writtensources. Thus, Florentinemerchant Francesco Balducci Pegolotti wrote that merchantsmaking their way from Europeto the Eastshould take linenfabric with them,sell them in Urgenchand stockup with soms (silverbars) used in thosecountries [Bartold, 1965, v. 3, p.59]. Not only goods were transportedthrough the Silk Road but also fashionfor socially predeterminedartistic styles within a certainethno-cultural environment was spreadalong the route.An opinionis that it was the Silk Roadthat contributed to the wide spreadingof Timurid stylein ceramicsnotable for bluegamut against the whitebackground. lt sprangup at the imperiafworkshops of Chinaduring the dynastyof Yuan (1279-1368),then widelyspread in lran,Turkey, the GentralAsia [Smagulov,1986, p. 48]. Excellentspecimens of ceramicbowls, vasesin cobaltare exhibitedin manymuseums.

Dialogueof cultures. A conceptof four "worldkingdoms' that symbolizedvast regionsand countrieswere spreadin the early MiddleAges. Each "kingdom" had its own distinctiveadvantages in the eyes of contemporaries.lt was the establishmentof mightystates, such as Chinaunder the powerof Suy (589. 618)and Tan (618-907),kingdoms of Indianrulers with a centerin the town Kanaudjaon Ganges,as well as a ffiH unionof Turksfrom the Pacificto the Blacksea, Persiaand Byzantine- that formed a basisof the conceptof "four world monarchies".Under the concept, thesemonarchies were locatedalong fourcardinal points: empire of "kingof elephants"(lndia) in the south;"king of jewelry"(lran, Byzantine) in the west; The map by Mahmad Kashgari. 11 century The Silk Road - Road of Dialogue: the past and the present

"Kingof horses"(Turkic kaganates) in the north;"King of people"(China) in the east.Moslem adherentsof thisconcept termed "King of elephants"as "Kingof wisdom"paying tribute to the importanceof Indianphilosophy and science;"King of people"as "Kingof stateadministration and industry"(bearing in mindfamous Chinese inventions); "King of horses"as "Kingof predatoryanimals"... Theydistinguished two kingsin the West:one of them ("Kingof kings")was kingof Persia and thenArabs; another ("King of men"owing to population'sbeauty) of Byzantine[Marshak, 1971,p.77l.This concept is manifestin wall paintingsnear Samarkand where one of them depictedChinese emperors, others - Turkishkhans and IndianBrahmans: third - Persian kingsand Romanemperors [Bartold, 1966, V.6, p. 216]. It was the modelnature of the Bagdadpainting that explainedcarving on thick layerof plaster(carved stucco). Panels depicted grapevines with bunchof ripegrapes, tulips, rosettes, palmettos,belts of rhombs,borders of meanders,bunch of plants.Motifs of fretwork,separate elementsof ornament,style - all thesefind the closestparallels in fretworkthat decorateswalls of palacesin Afrasiaband ,Samarra and Fustat. In otherwords, artistic tastes of Bagdadmasters and fashionfor capitalstyle of the caliphatespread all overthe Silk Roadto embraceoutlying regions of the Moslemurban expanse. Authorsfrom differentcountries, contemporaries of the remotepast, glorified not only achievementsof a state but also eulogizedadoption of valuesof othercultures by native people.The developmentof the worldculture is basedon interactionof culturesas evidenced by creativework of the famousSufi poet-JalaleddinRumi (1207-1273)who had his say about mutualtolerance: "lt is frequentthat a Turkand an Indianget alongwith each other.And it is frequentthat two Turksare likeforeigners. Hence, the languageof unanimityis quiteanother story:unanimity is dearerthan unified language" [Literature of the Orient..., 1970,p. 15a]. Alongwith merchandise,cultural samples and specimensof appliedarts, architecture and wallpainting, the Silk Roadacted as a spreaderof musicand danceart, performances,a sort of medieval"variety". Performances of musiciansand dancers,animal tamers, acrobats and mimes,magicians - all thesecalled for no interpretation;travelling troupes had no language barriers."Those expressing themselves by bodilymovements are all understoodequally", wrote Erasmusfrom Rotterdam[1969, p.aa7l. Similar numbers were shown to Greekbasileus, Kiev prince,Turkic kagan, and Chineseemperor. It has to be keptin mindthat foreignorchestras made a part of court personnel.They did performancesboth in case of "officialcourt ceremonies"and "unofficialcourt celebrations". Of interestis a descriptionof receptionceremony for ambassadorsarranged by a Turkic kaganin his headquartersnear Suyab."Kagan, - notedwitness of this ceremony,Buddhist pilgrimXuan Zhuang, - orderedto bringwines and startmusic...Foreign music sounded to the accompanimentof metallicringing. The musicbeing of barbariansnotwithstanding, it, nevertheless,fell soothingly on the ear,gladdened heart and thoughts" [Zuyev, 1960, p.88-8g]. The musicof the West,towns of EasternTurkestan and the CentralAsia, enjoyedparticular popularityin Tan China.Musical traditions of Kuchaand Kashgar,Bukhara and Samarkand blendedwith the Chinesemusical traditions. It shouldbe notedthat lranian,Sogdian and Turkicactors made a greatcontribution to the choreographicculture of China.Enjoying the greatestpopularity were dancers."Western nonchalantdance'was ordinarily performed by boysfrom Tashkentdressed in blousesof ProminentArchaeological Sites of central Asia on the Great Silk Road

lranian typeand highpointed caps sown in beads.They were girdled by longsashes with ends flappingduring dance. "Dance of Chach" was performedby two younggirls in transparent robesdecorated with multi-colorembroidery and silverbelts. Their clothes were supplanted by chemiseswith narrowsleeves, pointed caps with goldenbells and red brocadeslippers. A dance"Maidens of the Westwhirling in vortex"was performedby Sogdiangirls in vermilion gowns,green wide trousersand red suedeboots [Sheffer, 1981,b p.82].As is known,during a banquetof the Byzantineempress the Russianprincess Olga was entertainedby men of motleyand equilibristswhile during festivities of Manuilt arrangedin honorof SeljukSultan Arslan ll a Turkicacrobat played risky somersaults [Darkevich, 1976, p. 151].Carnivals were a great successin all times;these traditions were durablein Moslemcountries in laterperiods as well.lt is knownthat during Novruz masquerades were arranged in Bagdadin the presence of the caliph. Archaeologicalfinds along the Silk Road routestestify to the developmentand mutual enrichmentof cultures.Thus, significant is a collectionof terracottaof the Tanperiod depicting dancers,actors in mask,and musicalensembles on camelsidentifiable with representatives of the CentralAsian peoples.

Spreadingof religions. The Silk Roadplayed a greatrole in disseminatingreligious ideas. Missionaries traversed it to disseminatefaith across overseas countries. came from Indiavia the Central Asia and EasternTurkestan; Christianity and latertslam came from Syria,lran and Arabia. As viewedby researchers,Buddhism penetrated from Indiato Chinavia the CentralAsia sincethe middleof the 1 centuryBC Greatlycontributing to the spreadingof this religionin EasternTurkestan and Chinawere CentralAsian theologiansand missionaries,particularly, Sogdians, Parthiansand Kangyuys.Buddhist monuments were discovered on the routeof the Silk Roadthat traversedthe CentralAsia. These includea Buddhistmonastery of the 1 - 3 centuries that has for many years been excavatedin Termezon Karatobe;a cult erectionin the valleyof Sanzar(Sogd); Buddhist monuments discovered on the siteGyaur-kala in Merv;a Buddhistmonastery of the 7-8centuries in Adjinatepe,valley of Vakhshin the southof Tajikistan [Litvinskiy,Zeymal, 1971, p. 110-115].Testifying to the strongimpact of Buddhismon Turkssince the 6 centuryis SuangTsan. He writesabout goodwill attitude of a kaganof the westernTurks to this religion.Other researchers point out that in the firsthalf of the Z centurysome rulersof the westernTurks adopted Buddhism or patronizedthis faith.A. Gabainassociated this with Turks'transitionto settledmode of lifeand urbanism[Gabain, 1961,p.506]. Fullyexcavated were ruinsof the two Buddhisttemples - Ak-Beshimand Suyabgoing back - to later7 earlier8 centuries[Kyzrasov, 1959; Zlobin, 1961]. Notethat the Silk Roadalso contributed to the spreadingof Christian1yfrom the Westto the East.The impetuswas givenin the firsthalf of the 5 centuryin the EasternRoman Empire (Syria) where"a hereticsect" of adherentsof priestNestorius sprang up. A teachingof Nestoriuswas denouncedat EphesusCouncil in 431,following which Nestorianswere mercilesslypersecuted, and had to escapeto lran.While at lran,they establisheda schoolat borderingNisibin and thus closeranks of the politicalopposition of Byzantine.Rich Syrian merchants and artisans have lost marketsin constantinoplemoved eastwards. The Silk Road - Road of Dialogue: the past and the present

As a result,the remotestregions of Asia provedto be connectedwith Syrians.Their colonies and tradingoutposts stretched from the Mediterraneanto the "CelestialEmpire". Remarkable monumentsof culturewere discoveredin oases of this route that crossedmountains and lowlands. In researcherN.V. Pigulevskaya's view, Syrians made a great contributionto the worldscience and culture.They gave the Orientaccess to antiquity-basedtrend of the world culturedevelopment" [1 979, p.13-141. In the 7-8 centuries, was widelyspread in townsof the CentralAsia, South Kazakhstanand Semirechye;Christian churches came up and the christeningperformed. Under PatriarchTimothy (780-819), a kingof Turks,perhaps, Karluk Jabgu adopted Christianity. At the turn of the 9-10centuries, a specialKarluk metropolis was established;hristian churches were activeinTaraz and Merk;also, Christians resided in townson Syr Darya[Bartold, 1964, v.2, p.285-287;2941. Some sourcessay that in the 11 centuryChristians converted a Mongoltribe of Kereites intoChristianity. In "TheHistory of Mongolians>Rashid-ad-Din noted: "Faith of Christ- peace uponhim! - cameto them(Kereites), and they adopted it" [Works...,1988, p.94] Nestoriansplayed an importantrole in the,.Chinghizkhan'sEmpire. Suffice it to say that a nephewof KereitVan-, routed by the Emperor,Nestorian Sorgahtani-beki was a wife of Chinghizkhan'syounger son Tuluy,mother of two greatkhans - Munkeand Khubilay,and a conquerorof lranKhulagu. According to reports,Christians of the llivalley had their own church in Kayalyk,as well as theirvillage and monasteryof the 14 centuryon the shoreof lssykKul where relicof Saint Matthewwas kept. Remainsof an erectionon the siteAk-Beshim were ownedby Christianchurch. lt was a structure,square in plan,ceiled by a dome and locatedin a rectangularcourtyard. When excavatingnecropolises in the townsJamukata and Navaket,archaeologists uncovered Christian burialswith silverand bronzecrosses. Also, a nephritecross was foundon the site Krasnaya Rechka.A stone mortardiscovered on the site Tortkoltobe,identifiable with the town Sharab, is keptat the SouthKazakhstan regional museum. lt has symbolsof Christianity- crossand dove.A ceramicmug with a Syrianinscription "Peter and Gabriel"was foundin a layerof the 6-8 centuries.Pertaining to productsof Nestorianartisans are two silverdishes famed as Anikovskoyeand Grigorovskoyewith plotsfrom earlyChristian iconography. The Grigorovskoye silverdish-discos of the 9-10centuries had picturesdrawn as flat projectionwith additional engraving.Background and separateparts of the dishare gilded.Three interwoven medallions 'Ascension", provideplots as follows: "Wivesat the coffin"and "Crucifixion",and in spans- "Danielin the lion'smouth", "Peter's renunciation" and "Guardat the Lord'scoffin". Pertainingto the outstandingmonuments of religiousart and religioussymbols of Central AsianChristians, Turks by nationality(from Christianity in the areato the end of the 14century) are Kayraks- tombstoneswith Nestorianinscriptions and symbols[Kokovtsev, 1902 p. a28].A mainportion was discoveredin Semirechyeand EasternTurkestan later 19-earlier 20 centuries; however,finds of this sort havecontinued to our daysas well.Thus, excavations on a citadelof the Krasnorechenskiysite revealedtwo kayrakswith Syrianinscriptions in the foundationof the 11-12centuries. They were used twice. One of kayraksis datedto 789; another- to 909. On the firstthere is a name"maiden Yalanch". These are the earliestSyrian epitaphs on stonesis an intermediateamong finds of this sort,of whichkayraks of the 5-6 centurieswere found in Syria and kayraksof the 12-14centuries in Semirechyeand EasternTurkestan.

13 ProminentArchaeological Sites of Central Asia on the Great Silk Road

A Christiancommunity in Navaketis borneout by not onlytombstone Syrian inscriptions but also by Sogdianinscriptions on ceramicsand corollasof khums.One of themsaid: "This khum is intendedfor teacherYaruk-Tegin Master Pastun. May it (khum)be filled,amen, amen!". A word"teacher" is identicalto termsof Turkic-Sogdianepitaphs - "teacher,tutor". A concluding"amen!" meant, beyond any doubts, that Yaruk-Teginwas a leaderof the Christiancommunity. A shorterinscription was seenon anotherkhum: Masterof this khum is Pastun".Also, a two-line Sogdianinscription was discoveredon a vessel excavatedon the site Pokrovksto the west from Navaketthat said:"This vessel is a gift of Pakap community.Drink this wine, sovereign... Sovereign Ali-Bilge,may you be happyand prospering!".An inscriptionwas engravedon khum'swall in Taraz: Rulerlltag"; on a corollaof khumdiscovered on the site Kysmychithere was written:"Bishop Shirfan" [Lifshits,1989, p. 81-83] By natureof paleography the inscriptiongoes backto the 9-10centuries or evenearlier 11 century. Followersof ,a religioustrend in lran,3 century,with a greatnumber of worshippers from ltalyto China,also usedthe ancientroute. Manichaeismas a synthesisof Zoroastrianismand Christianity;it adopted an ideaof messianismfrom Sogdian carqvsn in the rate of the Christianity;and an ideaof the strugglebetween good Turkicnoble. Tomb of Anii. China.6 c. and evil,light and darknessfrom . lt was Sodgiansthat played a crucialrole in the spreadingof thisreligion. In the beginningof the 8 century,a supremeleader of Manicheanshad a residencein Samarkand.Note that Manichaeism hadfor a longtime co-existed in the CentralAsia equally with other religions; Buddhism had a stronginfluence on pantheon,terminology and evenconcept of Manichaeism. It shouldbe notedthat Manichaeismhad its followersin Semirechyeand the southof Kazakhstan,first of all,among settled population. An ancientUygur manuscript of Manichean work "SacredBook of Two Principles"discovered in Turfanoasis says that this bookwas written in the town Argu-(Altyn-Argu Talasi-ulushe, Talas-ulushe) in orderto awakena faith in the countryof ten arrows".The pointis aboutthe well-knowntown Taraz[Klyashtorniy, 1964, p. 130-1311.Sources report that Manicheancloisters existed in otherSemirechye towns as well,including and Chigilbalyk. Among probable Manichean relics there is a bronze medallionin the formof moon(crescent) discovered in Tarazto symbolizea Manicheanastral deity[Senigova, 1968, fig. 1.1]. Residentsof medievaltowns professed another world religion - Zoroastrianismthat arose on theterritory of ancientlran in the 7-6centuries BC Ritually,it worshippedfour elements in r4 The Silk Road - Road of Dialogue: the past and the present the Universe:water, fire, earth and air.Zoroastrian monuments are foundin the CentralAsia, Sogd,Syr Daryatowns and Semirechyeto manifestthemselves in the ruinsof structuresrelated to towersof fire. Findsof this type are retracedin burialsinside ossuaries - clay boxesfor bones;khum interments. Corpse postures in crypts-nauses,as wellas heapsof bonestestify to the deceased'saffiliation to Zoroastrianism. It was Sogdiansthat first brought Zoroastrianism to Kazakhstantowns in the 6-7 centuries. Recentlydiscovered remarkable monuments in Syr Daryatowns provedto be relatedto Sogd. Among Turks,particularly, Kangars (Kengers), there spreadreligious views of Sogd in the MiddleAges that had,most probably, been revised to be adjustedto localreligious views. Many Zoroastrianism-relatedcults kept on existingin the townsof Kazakhstaneven after lslam'sadvent in the region.Thus, archaeologists discovered altars-hearths of the 12 centurydug on a floor in Otrar.Richly fretted, they servedfor kindlingfire and thus echoedgreat fires of Mazdaism in homesof townspeople,even those who adoptedlslam and wrotein Arabicscript. However,lslam that pavedits way throughthe use of not only "fireand sword"but also due to "smooth-spokenspeech" of Moslemmerchants, gradually superseded Christianity, Buddhism, Zoroastrianismand localcults of the East.The new religionestablished itself in scoresof Silk Roadtowns and in steppes.Testifying to the spreadingof lslamare excavatedburials. Note that in the secondhalf of the 9-10centuries funeral rituals changed to complywith canonstypical for Moslems- in pits,crypts of raw brick.The deceasedwas put with a head north-westwards; face- southwards.No accessorieswere placed in burials.A largequantity of glazedcrockery givesweight to the spreadinglslam. Ceramics was basedon the use of decorativeelements of Arab script.A part of inscriptionsis of decorativenature (cannot be read);however, some of them quotewishes, edifications, advises of religiousnature. As for metalfabric, fashion for productsof copperand bronze,also decorated with inscriptionsof religiousnature, was widely spread.The pointis, in the firstturn, about a largegroup of lampsand couplingsfor basicposts of yurtsin the form of highcylinders on feet. Archaeologicalexcavations found that trade routesfrom Europeto Asia and backtraversed medievalCentral Asia in differentplaces, including steppes, , and fertile valleys. As maintrade artery, the Silk Roadconcurrently contributed to the developmentof cooperation betweenmany peoples.Routes of the Silk Road unitedancient states from Chinato the Mediterraneanand EasternEurope, played a crucialrole in integratingeconomies and cultures of the peoplesof the Eastand the West.For thousands of years,trade and diplomaticcaravans movedalong the Silk Roadto strictlycomply with main routesEast-West and North-South. Eachcountry involved in the systemof internationaltrade and culturalcontacts made its own contributionto the developmentand transferof materialand spiritualcultures. An eloquent testimonyto this is outstandingarchaeological monuments located on varioussections of this ancientinternational route. A uniquerole of the SilkRoad in the historyof peoplesof Eurasiais universallyrecognized. Of no lessimportance is its contributionto the dialogueof culturesas evidencedby UNESCO ten year Project"lntegral Study of the Silk Roads- Roadsof Dialogue"that broughtdistant countriestogether and consolidateddifferent peoples. Karl Baipakov

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