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Zhijun

Eastward Spread of Wheat into – New Data and New Issues

Zhao Zhijun*

Key words: Wheat–Diffusion Agriculture–History Flotation Northern Frontier Zone

From the beginning of the 21st century, flotation tech- Introduction nique has been widely applied by Chinese archaeology It is well known that wheat was originated in the West as means of obtaining ancient plant remains during rou- . It was introduced into China, and eventually be- tine archaeological excavations. Up to the present, flo- came the dominant crop in the dry-land agriculture of tation work has been practiced at more than one hun- Northern China after replacing the major native crops dred archaeological sites of diverse time periods, and of foxtail millet and broomcorn millet. Yet, neither the large amounts of plant remains of high research poten- time when it arrived in China nor the routes through tial have been found, including wheat remains. These which it was introduced are made clear. Therefore, these new discoveries provide significant archaeological evi- are the major problems we are now dealing with. dence for a better understanding of the spread of wheat It has been widely agreed that the introduction of into China, the route and the temporal-spatial background wheat into China should have occurred before the his- in which the introduction events took place. The present torical time, because the script “来”for “wheat”has paper is aimed at synthesizing these new data, referring been identified from records on oracle bones of the Shang to those data of early wheat remains reported in last Dynasty. Some scholars even believed that the script of century, to explore these issues. “来”may be a metaphor of the introduction of wheat Note that the term of “early wheat remains”used from outside China, simply because this script means in this paper specifically indicate the data which were “coming” in both classic and modern dated 3000 BP or earlier. (He 1985), while, other scholars do not consent to this Previous Wheat Remains viewpoint (Luo 1990). Although wheat is commonly documented in pre-Qin literatures, the time and routes Before flotation technique is used in Chinese of its introduction are not mentioned at all. Therefore, archaeology, wheat remains were occasionally reported the spread of wheat into China has become a rigorous to be found at some archaeological sites, such as Donghui inquiry for archaeological study. Mound in Minle County, Gansu (Li Fan et al. 1989), Hard evidence for confirming the spread of wheat into Zhaojialai in Wugong County, (Zhongguo China should be surely those wheat remains from an- 1988), Diaoyutai in Boxian County, (Yang 1963), cient times. However, wheat remains are readily to de- and Shirenzi in Barkol, Wupu Tombs in Hami and the cay and not likely to be well preserved in archaeologi- burial site of Lop Nor, Xinjiang (Wang 1983). It must cal assemblages because of its organic composition. be pointed out that the wheat remains referred to in these Also, crop grains as small as wheat seeds are not easily archaeological reports were actually discovered by to be identified by the naked eye during excavation. This chance, and their taxonomic identification and dates may causes the difficulty for plant evidence collection. not be firmly assured and hence remained some contro-

* The Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, 100710 Email: [email protected]

Volume 9 1 Eastward Spread of Wheat into China – New Data and New Issues versial issues. Fourteen barley and wheat specimens were chosen for For instance, the wheat remains of the Diaoyutai site AMS radiocarbon dating test. These plant remains were had been found inside a pottery li-鬲 tripod, which was all dated to a period between 3700 and 3300 BP, which firstly classified as a Neolithic pottery, while reclassi- exactly is the Siba Culture period (Flad et al. fied later as a pottery of Western Zhou (Yang 1963). forthcoming). This investigation, together with the tests Similar problems also occurred at the data of the followed up, has made it clear that the wheat evidence Zhaojialai site. Though the date is correct (contemporary from the Donghui Mound site are most likely to be left with the Longshan period), taxonomic identification is by the Siba Culture people ca. 3500 BP. still questionable. According to the report, the so-called Relatively, the data from the sites in Xinjiang are wheat remains are most likely to be the impressions left more reliable. The wheat remains found in these sites by the straws tempered within the mud for building the were well preserved, thanks to the arid condition of walls (Zhongguo 1988). However, straw remains can- environments, which ensured a precise taxo- not be easily used as hard evidence for taxonomic iden- nomic identification. The dates of these plant remains tification even when they are in fresh and living state, were also unquestionable, and all of them were dated let alone the dried-out impressions. to ca. 3500 BP. The most controversial data are the wheat remains New Data of Wheat Remains by Flotation recovered from the Donghui Mound site. They were first collected and studied in 1985 by Li Fan, a famous Since the beginning of this century, flotation has been agronomist in China. The wheat remains, identified as widely applied in Chinese archaeological fieldworks. To two species of Triticum aestivvum and T. compactum, date, wheat has been discovered at more than twenty were subsequently radiocarbon dated to ca. 5000 BP (Li archaeological sites through flotation. Most of them are 1989). The taxonomic identification is reliable; but the dated to before 3000 cal. BP and located in the areas date is highly suspicious due to the unclear context of along the in North China. We divide these dating materials, because Li was not familiar with ar- areas into three , which are the Haidai , chaeology and nobody knew how and from what kind the Central Plains region and the Northwest region, based of provenance the wheat remains were collected. on ecological characteristics and archaeological classi- By contrast, professional archaeologists dated the fications (Figure 1). Donghui Mound site to the Siba Culture period through 1. The Haidai region a regular archaeological excavation in 1987 (Gansu The Haidai region is a spatial concept for archaeo- Sheng and Jilin 1998). The Siba Culture represents an logical classification in China. In archaeological litera- early culture widely distributed along the ture it refers to the distribution areas of the Dawenkou , and dated to 3900–3500 cal. BP, which Culture and the Shandong Longshan Culture, including is about 1000 years later than that given by Li. However, Shandong Province, northern parts of Anhui and the two samples in the excavation report made the dat- Provinces (Luan 1997). The early wheat remains have ing issue even more ambiguously complicated. One of been identified through flotation from five archaeologi- them is the charcoal sample unearthed from the second cal sites in this region: Liangchengzhen in Rizhao layer of a trench (No. 87MDTG②) and has been radio- (Crawford et al. 2004), Jiaochangpu in Liaocheng (Zhao carbon dated to 3770 ± 145 cal. BP (calibrated), and 2004), Zhaojiazhuang in Jiaozhou (Wang 2007), this result falls well in the range of the Siba Culture pe- Daxinzhuang in Jinan (Chen 2007), and Zhaogezhuang riod as indicated above. The other one, however, is a in Yantai (Jin et al. forthcoming). sample of wheat remains dated to 4230±250 BP with- It is noteworthy that the archaeological wheat evi- out clear provenance, an unacceptable time span for con- dence from the sites of Liangchengzhen, Jiaochangpu ducting dendro-calibration, coincided with that given by and Zhaojiazhuang were primarily the wheat remains Li Fan. from the Longshan Period, dating to 4600–4000 cal. BP. Recently, experts from home and abroad conducted These data are not only the earliest but also the most a joint investigation to the Donghui Mound site. Soil reliable wheat evidence found in China at moment, be- samples collected from which were floated, and barley cause the sites have been excavated scientifically and and wheat remains have been recovered and identified. multidisciplinary studies were carried out during the

2 Chinese Archaeology Zhao Zhijun

excavations. 2. The Central Plains region The Central Plains region is lo- cated at the core of the early Chi- nese civilization areas, encompass- ing the northern and central parts of Province and southern parts Mongolian Highland of and Provinces. The Central Plains region covers the major distribution areas of the Henan Longshan Culture. As a part of the archaeological project entitled “ on the Origin of Chi- nese Civilization”funded by the Ministry of Sciences and Technologies, we have conducted flotation work on many important Figure 1. The eastward spread of wheat into China sites in the Central Plains region. 1. West Asia 2. The Bronze Age cultures in the (2a. Andronovo, Some of these sites yielded the early 2b. Afanasevo) 3. Northern Zone 4. The Haidai region 5. The Central Plains wheat remains, such as Wadian in region 6. The Northwest region , Erlitou in Yanshi, Wangchenggang in Dengfeng, Huizui in Lingbao, 3. The Northwest region Xinzhai in Xinmi, Shangcheng (the site of an early Shang Archaeologically, the Northwest region in China re- city) in Yanshi, and the Yin Ruins in Anyang (Zhao fers to the upper Yellow River valley (Shaanxi, Ningxia, 2007; Zhao and Fang 2007). Apart from these sites re- the eastern parts of Gansu and Qinghai), the Hexi Corri- lated to the above project, it is reported that the early dor (western part of Gansu), and northern part of wheat remains were found from the Xijincheng site at Xinjiang. This large region covers the very important Jiaozuo (Wang and Wang 2008). Also, the early wheat trade route of the of Chinese historical period, remains were found and identified from the Zaojiaoshu and this to some extent suggests a trade significance of site in in 1990s (Luoyang 2002). this region due to its geographical location. It is in this Amongst these discoveries, the wheat evidence found sense that it may also stand at a key locality for wheat at the Wadian and the Xijincheng sites are the remains introduction event in the prehistorical social contexts. from the Longshan Period, dating to 4600–4000 cal. BP. And, it seems that this indication was partly corrobo- The wheat remains recovered and identified from the rated by the wheat evidence abundantly found in the sites of Erlitou, Huizui, Xinzhai, Wangchenggang and Northwest region before the application of flotation in Zaojiaoshu are the remains of the Erlitou Period, dating Chinese archaeology. to 3600–3400 cal. BP. The wheat evidence from the sites Recently, new wheat evidence has been reported from of Erlitou, Wangchenggang and Shangcheng were dis- the Northwest region, due large part to the application of covered in the layers and assemblages dating to the flotation. For example, the data were already published Erligang Period 3600–3400 cal. BP, roughly contempo- from the archaeological sites of Zhouyuan in , rary to the early Shang Dynasty. The continuous tempo- Shaanxi (Zhouyuan 2004), and Fengtai in Huzhu, Qinghai ral sequence of these data suggests that the wheat ap- (Zhongguo and Qinghai 2004). In addition, unpublished peared in the Central Plains region during the time of wheat evidence were also found from other sites, such as the Longshan period, contemporaneous with that in the those from Gansu Province include Heishuiguo in Haidai region, and then it quickly integrated into the local Zhangye, Huoshaogou and Bijiatan in Yumen, and Xishan farming system, and became an important crop plant in in Lixian, from Qinghai Province include Ningchang in the core area of ancient Chinese civilization during the Datong, etc (Figures 5–7). All these new wheat evidences period of the Shang Dynasty (Figures 2–4). were dated to about 3500 cal. BP.

Volume 9 3 Eastward Spread of Wheat into China – New Data and New Issues

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Figure 2. Wheat of Wadian, Henan (ca. 4500 BP) Figure 3. Wheat of Wangchenggang, Henan (ca. 3500 BP)

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Figure 4. Wheat of Shangcheng, Henan (ca. 3500 BP) Figure 5. Wheat of Donghuishan, Gansu (ca. 3500 BP)

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Figure 6. Wheat of Huoshaogou, Gansu (ca. 3300 BP) Figure 7. Wheat of Fengtai, Qinghai (ca. 3000 BP)

Apart from the new data obtained by flotation during site, we still believe the geographers’ report is not the archaeological excavations, a geographical team re- unquestionable. From archaeological viewpoint, the con- cently alleged that they have found wheat evidence from text of wheat remains is not clear and the provenance of the Xishanping site at in Gansu Province, and dating materials is unknown. the date they reported is 4700–4350 cal. BP (Li et al. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that the new wheat evi- 2007). Similar to the problems we have pointed out in dence found in Northwest region by flotation usually the study of the plant remains at the Donghui Mound comes out in association with barley; the latter is often

4 Chinese Archaeology Zhao Zhijun more numerous than the former. This is very different the only route connecting the East and West in ancient from the situation in other regions mentioned above. times. There existed other channels; for example, the Eurasian Steppe route and the sea route. Discussion 1. The Eurasian Steppe Route According to the above descriptions, flotation plays an The Eurasian Steppe route started from the southern important role in the present archaeology, and provides and Mongolian Highland, traversed through significant information for the study on the eastward to West Asia, and finally arrived in . diffusion of wheat into China. There were several very active Bronze Age cultures dis- Up to date, the early wheat remains have been identi- tributed in the vast Eurasian steppe around the time pe- fied at more than thirty archaeological sites in North riod when wheat was first introduced into China. For China, including both the new data obtained by flota- example, the Afanasevo culture, distributed on the south- tion technique in recent years and the previous data col- ern Siberia and the western part of the High- lected by chance in the past. Based on the reliable evi- land dating to ca. 5000 cal. BP. Another important dence recovered through archaeological excavations and Bronze Age culture in the Eurasian steppe is the with unquestionable dates, a conclusion can be drawn Andronovo culture, which was indeed an archaeologi- that wheat was most likely introduced into China at a cal complex containing many small local Bronze Age time period around 4500 cal. BP, roughly contempora- cultures flourished about 4000–3000 cal. BP. These neous with the Longshan period in the Haidai region small Bronze Age cultures dispersedly distributed in and the Central Plains region, and the Qijia Culture in western Siberia and Central Asia, and the easternmost Northwest region. fringes already reached to the Khangai of Interestingly, all of the earliest wheat evidence found Mongolian Highland. at different regions emerged at nearly the same time span The Bronze Age cultures in the Eurasian Steppe were around 4500 cal. BP. In other words, wheat occurred similarly characterized by metal production such as cop- simultaneously at different regions in a wide geographi- per and bronze (artifacts represented by ornaments and cal range from the northwestern inland China to the east- weapons), animal breeding (cattle, sheep and horses), ern coast, forming a zone which stretches for several and farming (barley, wheat and millets). They might have thousand kilometers. This leads to such inquiries: how a special subsistence pattern combining animal breed- was wheat introduced into China? And, through which ing and hoe agriculture. The similarities shared by these route, or routes, was wheat imported into China? Bronze Age cultures in the Eurasian Steppe indicate to In historical period, particularly since the Qin and Han some extent an extensive communication between them. Dynasties, the Silk Road was the major trade route con- These connections gave rise to a channel or a bridge of necting the East and the West. The Hexi Corridor was communication between the two sides of the Eurasian an unavoidable passage of the Silk Road, and there was Steppe, i.e., the West Asia and the . a time that nearly all wheat evidence came out of the Simultaneously, there was a special archaeological northwestern part of China, that lead to the hypothesis complex in Northern China, named the Northen Zone that wheat was actually introduced to China through the (or Northern Frontier), during the period of 5000–3000 course of the Silk Road. It spread along the northern cal. BP. Although the distribution areas of this culture edge of Xinjiang, the Hexi Corridor and further east- varied in terms of size and localities, it was primarily wards to the Central Plains region and the Haidai region. located along the course of the Great Wall, forming a Yet, this viewpoint is not supported by archaeological narrow zone, stretching in a northeast-southwest orien- evidence, because the radiocarbon dating results at dif- tation (Yang 2004). It covers administratively northern ferent localities along this route do not exhibit an earlier parts of Hebei, Shanxi and Shaanxi Provinces and south- date in the west than in the east. Moreover, most of the ern part of central , and encompasses earliest wheat evidence known to date were discovered geographically the Yanshan Mountains, the Daihai Lake in the Haidai region and are more diagnostic and reliable. Basin, the Ordos desert, the Hetao Plains of Yellow Therefore, the hypothesis preferring the route of the Silk River, etc. Also, the Northern Zone is distributed at a Road for the introduction of wheat is questionable. transitional ecological zone between semi-dry climate It should be noted that the Silk Road is by no means and dry climate ranges in North China, and the typical

Volume 9 5 Eastward Spread of Wheat into China – New Data and New Issues subsistence pattern here varied seasonally between ani- as the Haidai region in China was most likely to have mal breeding and hoe agriculture. occurred through the river valleys between the two areas, Since the Northern Culture was flanked by two pro- such as the Luan River valley in the east, the Sanggan/ found cultural traditions – the Bronze Age cultures of Yongding River valleys in the middle, and the Yellow the Eurasian Steppe in north and the Neolithic/Bronze River valley located along the two edges of the Hetao cultures of the Central Plains region of China in south – Plains in the west, and so forth. These north-south river its cultural components consisted of the artifacts char- valleys formed the channels helping the cultural con- acterized by typical Eurasian Steppe styles (such as tacts between the Northern Zone and its southern bronze ornaments, bronze daggers and bronze knives neighbor, i.e., the fertile loess plains and alluvial plains with animal heads handled pottery cups with everted of the middle and lower Yellow River areas. These mul- rims, etc.) and the artifacts characterized in typical Cen- tiple channels arranged from east to west may be of some tral Plains styles (such as the pottery vessels painted or help for us to understand the simultaneous occurrence with cord markings), apart from its own cultural charac- of wheat in the Central Plains and the Haidai regions teristics (such as the pottery vessels with zigzag lines around 4500 BP. and appliqué snake patterns). It should be emphasized that the early contacts of The bronze artifacts in the Eurasian Steppe styles have cultures between the West and the East through the Eur- been often seen in the Central Plains region, such as the asian Steppe route, including the eastward spread of bronze daggers and knives with animal head-shaped wheat, may have nothing to do with human migrations, pommels, bronze axes with sockets and ornaments of also due large part to the Northern Zone. The Northern animal pattern. This indicates a possible southward cul- Zone was a powerful cultural entity, which not only tural diffusion from the Eurasian Steppe (Lin 1987). played a medium role of cultural contacts but also stood Therefore, the Northern Zone might have played an im- as a barrier to any large scale migration between the portant medium role of cultural contacts, simply due to Eurasian Steppe and the middle/lower Yellow River its middle location between the two cultural areas. areas. Many scholars have already analyzed the importance 2. The Sea Route of the medium role of the Northern Zone for the early Apart from the Eurasian Steppe route, there is still cultural contacts. Their discussions were primarily fo- another possibility for the eastward spread of wheat. It cused upon the bronze artifacts of the Eurasian Steppe is the sea route. Wheat might spread into China along styles. Recently, some scholars began to notice the me- the coast areas of and . dium role of the Northern Zone for the eastward spread As far as we know, after originated from the West of sheep. We now suggest adding the wheat which may Asia, wheat rapidly spread into Europe to the west, the also be grateful to the Northern Zone to help its east- Niles valley to the south and the Indus valley to the ward spread from the Eurasian Steppe to the Central southeast. The plant soon became the major crop in the Plains region. agriculture of the Indus Civilization. From the Indus The West Asia is the homeland for the origin of crop valley, wheat might gradually spread along the coast wheat and domestic animal sheep, and also the one of areas of the Indian subcontinent, and reached to South- the earliest centers for the development of bronze east Asia as well as the southern coast area of China, industry. Therefore, it is most likely that these three then continuously moved along the coast areas of China, items, wheat, sheep and bronze, were introduced together and finally reached the Shandong Peninsular. This as a cultural package into the Eurasian Steppe from the hypothesis, to some extent, can explain why most of the West Asia, and subsequently brought to the Mongolian earliest wheat evidence so far identified is discovered in Highland and then submitted to the Northern Zone in the Haidai region, which centers upon the Shandong China. As long as the Northern Zone received this cul- Peninsular. tural package, the transferring route was re-orientated The hypothesis of the sea route is not established to the south, and finally, the three items reached the purely on speculation. In 2002, the early wheat remains Central Plains. were discovered by flotation from the Huangguashan The cultural diffusion and communication between site at Xiapu County, Fujian Province. The site is lo- the Northern Zone and the Central Plains region as well cated on a beach facing Taiwan Strait, and dated to 4000

6 Chinese Archaeology Zhao Zhijun

BP. Archaeologists believe that the cultural assemblage asian Steppe, where distributed many small Bronze Age of the Huangguashan site is closely related to the cul- cultures linked to each others, and played like a cultural tures on the islands in as well as in South- channel to transfer this package further east to the North- east Asia (Jiao and Rowlett 2006). This may be viewed ern Zone in China, and then the eastward spread direc- as a source to support the hypothesis of sea route. tion turned to south, and the package eventually reached In fact, the sea route of cultural diffusion has been to the core area of ancient Chinese civilization, i.e., the discussed by many scholars, e.g., the spread of domes- Central Plains and Haidai regions. Nevertheless, it is tic rice and rice agriculture, the distribution of the shoul- most likely that the Eurasian Steppe had been a main dered stone artifacts, the origin of bronzes in southwest- route connecting the West and the East long before the ern part of China, etc. We suggest that the possibility of use of the well-known Silk Road. the diffusion of wheat through the sea route should be Another possibility of the eastward spread of wheat added into this discussion as well in the future. is the route along the Silk Road of the historical time, i. 3. The Silk Road e., spread from West Asia to Central Asia, continuously At all events, the possibility that wheat was introduced transferred along the northern part of Xinjiang, then into China by the route through the Hexi Corridor can- passed through the Hexi Corridor, and eventually reached not be rejected. As mentioned above, a geographical team to the Northwest region of China. alleged recently that they discovered wheat evidence And finally, the sea route is also a possibility, as we dated to 4500 BP in the Northwest region. If this date have seen many examples in the following historical eras. can be confirmed by further archaeological work, we References can at least say that wheat emerged in this region simul- taneous with the Central Plains and Haidai regions. If Chen, Xuexiang 陈雪香. 2007. Haidai Diqu Xinshiqi Shidai this datum works well, wheat is also likely to have been Wanqi zhi Qingtong Shidai Nongye Wendingxing Kaocha brought into China through northern part of Xinjiang 海岱地区新石器时代晚期至青铜时代农业稳定性考察 (An Examination of the Continuity of Agriculture in the and the Hexi Corridor, i.e., the same pathway as the Silk Haidai Region from the Late Neolithic through the Bronze Road during the historical time. Age). PhD dissertation, Shandong University. Because there was not a strong cultural barrier in the Crawford, Gary 凯利·克劳福德 et al. 2004. Shandong Rizhao Hexi Corridor before 4000 BP, the eastward spread of Shi Liangchengzhen Yizhi Longshan Wenhua Zhiwu Yicun wheat through the Silk Road might correlate to human de Chubu Fenxi 山东日照市两城镇遗址龙山文化植物遗 migrations. In other words, wheat brought into China 存的初步分析 (A Preliminary Analysis of the Longshan by this way was most likely a byproduct of human Culture Plant Remains from the Liangchengzhen Site in migration. Rizhao City, Shandong). Kaogu 考古 (Archaeology) 9: 73– 80. Conclusions Flad, Rowan et al. Forthcoming. Early Wheat in China? Re- As we have seen in the plant evidence obtained through sults from New Studies at Donghui Mound in the Hexi flotation in the past ten years, especially the earliest Corridor. wheat remains which are closely with the study of the Gansu Sheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 甘肃省文物考古研 spread and introduction of wheat, we now can conclude 究所 (Gansu Institute of Archaeology) and Jilin Daxue Beifang Kaogu Yanjiushi 吉林大学北方考古研究室 that wheat was most likely to have been brought to China (Department of North Archaeology, Jilin University). 1998. around 4500 BP, roughly contemporaneous with the Minle Donghui Shan Kaogu 民乐东灰山考古 (Excavation Longshan Culture period in the Central Plains and the Report of the Donghuishan Site in Minle). Beijing: Kexue Haidai regions. Though the details of the spread routes Chubanshe. of wheat cannot be assured, yet, we suggest that wheat He, Bingdi 何炳棣 et al. 1985. Zhongguo Nongye de Bentu might have been brought into China through several dif- Qiyuan 中国农业的本土起源 (Native Origins of Chinese ferent routes: Agriculture). Nongye Kaogu 农业考古 (Agricultural The first possibility is the Eurasian Steppe route. Archaeology) 2: 72–80. Sometime between 5000 and 3000 BP, a cultural pack- Jiao, Tianlong and Barry V. Rowlett. 2006. Typological analy- age containing wheat, sheep and bronze industry spread sis of stone adzes from Neolithic sites in Southeast China: from their homeland of the West Asia into the vast Eur- Implications for cultural change and regional interaction.

Volume 9 7 Eastward Spread of Wheat into China – New Data and New Issues

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8 Chinese Archaeology Zhao Zhijun

Zhouyuan Kaogudui 周原考古队 (Zhouyuan Archaeological (Plant Evidence from the Wangjiazui Locality of the Work Team, IA, CASS). 2004. Zhouyuan Yizhi (Wangjiazui Zhouyuan Site, Flotation, Analysis and Taxonomic Didian) Changshixing Fuxuan de Jieguo ji Chubu Fenxi 周 Identification). Wenwu 文物 (Cultural Relics) 10: 89–96. 原遗址( 王家嘴地点) 尝试性浮选的结果及初步分析

Postscript: The present paper is published for the first time. It is written in English by the author himself.

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