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Aerogels for Optofluidic Waveguides

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Aerogels for Optofluidic Waveguides micromachines Review Aerogels for Optofluidic Waveguides Yaprak Özbakır 1,2, Alexandr Jonas 3,*, Alper Kiraz 2,4,* and Can Erkey 1,* 1 Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Koc University, 34450 Sarıyer, Istanbul, Turkey; [email protected] 2 Department of Physics, Koc University, 34450 Sarıyer, Istanbul, Turkey 3 Department of Physics, Istanbul Technical University, 34469 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey 4 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Koc University, 34450 Sarıyer, Istanbul, Turkey * Correspondence: [email protected] (A.J.); [email protected] (A.K.); [email protected] (C.E.); Tel.: +90-212-338-1866 (A.J. & A.K. & C.E.) Academic Editors: Wei Wang, Chia-Hung Chen and Zhigang Wu Received: 7 January 2017; Accepted: 17 March 2017; Published: 29 March 2017 Abstract: Aerogels—solid materials keeping their internal structure of interconnected submicron-sized pores intact upon exchanging the pore liquid with a gas—were first synthesized in 1932 by Samuel Kistler. Overall, an aerogel is a special form of a highly porous material with a very low solid density and it is composed of individual nano-sized particles or fibers that are connected to form a three-dimensional network. The unique properties of these materials, such as open pores and high surface areas, are attributed to their high porosity and irregular solid structure, which can be tuned through proper selection of the preparation conditions. Moreover, their low refractive index makes them a remarkable solid-cladding material for developing liquid-core optofluidic waveguides based on total internal reflection of light. This paper is a comprehensive review of the literature on the use of aerogels for optofluidic waveguide applications. First, an overview of different types of aerogels and their physicochemical properties is presented. Subsequently, possible techniques to fabricate channels in aerogel monoliths are discussed and methods to make the channel surfaces hydrophobic are described in detail. Studies in the literature on the characterization of light propagation in liquid-filled channels within aerogel monoliths as well as their light-guiding characteristics are discussed. Finally, possible applications of aerogel-based optofluidic waveguides are described. Keywords: aerogels; optofluidics; optical waveguides; microfluidics; nanostructured materials; microchannels; laser ablation 1. Introduction Being based on the integration of microfluidics with optics, optofluidics allows for controlling the interaction of fluids with light at small spatial scales and developing new optical devices for detection, imaging, and chemical and biological analysis [1–4]. Optofluidic waveguides that enable the controlled routing of light in integrated optofluidic systems are an important component of many of these devices. Light guiding can be achieved by using either total internal reflection (TIR) or interference [5]. Interference-based light guides require the waveguide core region to be covered with multiple reflective layers so as to achieve near-perfect light confinement due to constructive or destructive interference. Bragg waveguides [6], Bragg fibers [7], photonic crystal fibers [8], and anti-resonant reflecting optical waveguides (ARROWs) [9,10] are primary examples of such interference-based waveguides. They require relatively complicated fabrication and coating techniques. In contrast, TIR-based waveguides can be simply obtained by a waveguide core material having a refractive index sufficiently higher than the refractive index of the surrounding cladding medium [11,12]. This principle applies to both Micromachines 2017, 8, 98; doi:10.3390/mi8040098 www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines Micromachines 2017, 8, 98 2 of 22 principle applies to both planar waveguides and optical fibers [13]. If TIR occurs inside a waveguide, planarthe light waveguides losses due to and light optical leakage fibers out [ 13of]. the If TIRwaveguide occurs insideare extremely a waveguide, low. the light losses due to lightTIR-based leakage out liquid-core of the waveguide optofluidic are extremelywaveguides low. can be easily obtained provided a low refractive indexTIR-based cladding liquid-coremedium can optofluidic be found. waveguides For example, can since be easily the obtainedrefractiveprovided index of awater low refractive is much higherindex cladding than the medium refractive can index be found. of the For surroundi example, sinceng air, the light refractive can be index guided of water in a iswater much stream higher pouringthan the out refractive of a water-filled index of the bottle surrounding by TIR when air, light the canincident be guided angle inof a light water on stream the surface pouring of outthe waterof a water-filled filament is bottle greater by TIRthan when the critical the incident angle angle(see Figure of light 1 on [14]). the surfaceHowever, of thein manufacturing water filament optofluidicis greater than devices, the critical a solid angle cladding (see Figure material1[ 14]). is However, typically inrequired. manufacturing In TIR-based optofluidic liquid-core devices, waveguides,a solid cladding the materialcore liquid is typically is confined required. within Inchannels TIR-based fabricated liquid-core in a waveguides,suitable solid the material core liquid that simultaneouslyis confined within acts channels as the waveguide fabricated incladding a suitable [15, solid16]. In material order to that guide simultaneously light by total acts internal as the waveguidereflection with cladding low attenuation, [15,16]. In order the cladding to guide lightmaterial by total should internal be non-absorbent reflection with and low have attenuation, a much lowerthe cladding refractive material index should than the be non-absorbentcore material and(ncore have > ncladding a much), and lower a refractivesmooth interface index than should the core be presentmaterial between (ncore > n claddingthe core), andand a smoothcladding interface material should. When be these present requirements between the are core met, and claddingthe light remainsmaterial. confined When these in the requirements waveguide areliquid met, core, the lightmaintaining remains high confined intensities in the waveguideover long propagation liquid core, distances.maintaining Devices high intensitiesbased on TIR-based over long liquid propagation core optofluidic distances. waveguides Devices based have on been TIR-based attracting liquid an increasingcore optofluidic attention. waveguides For instance, have beenCai et attracting al. [17] demonstrated an increasing direct attention. detection For instance, and quantification Cai et al. [17 of] Ebolademonstrated virus in directan integrated detection optofluidic and quantification device including of Ebola virussolid-core in an integratedand liquid-core optofluidic waveguides. device Sampleincluding preparation solid-core andand liquid-core target pre-concentration waveguides. Sample were preparationperformed andin targeta polydimethylsiloxane pre-concentration were(PDMS)-based performed microfluidic in a polydimethylsiloxane chip, followed (PDMS)-based by singlemicrofluidic nucleic acid chip, fluorescence followed by singledetection nucleic in liquid-coreacid fluorescence optical detection waveguides in liquid-core on a silicon optical chip. waveguides Jung et al. on a[18] silicon used chip. a TIR-based Jung et al. liquid [18] used core a TIR-basedoptofluidic liquid waveguide core optofluidic for efficient waveguide light fordelivery efficient in light PDMS-based delivery in PDMS-basedphotobioreactor photobioreactor (PBR) for (PBR)cyanobacteria for cyanobacteria growth. growth.TIR-based TIR-based waveguides waveguides were built were builtby coating by coating a thin a thin layer layer of of amorphous amorphous fluoropolymerfluoropolymer (Teflon(Teflon AF) AF) on on the the inner inner walls walls of PDMS of PDMS channels; channels; thus, total thus, internal total internal reflection reflection occurred occurredat the interface at the betweeninterface the between Teflon AFthe layerTeflon and AF the layer culture and medium.the culture They medium. performed They experiments performed withexperiments both regular with andboth Teflon regular AF-coated and Teflon PBRs AF-coate for a comparisond PBRs for of cella comparison growth. They of cell demonstrated growth. They that photosyntheticdemonstrated cellthat growth photosynthetic improved bycell up growth to 9% in improved the optofluidic by waveguide-basedup to 9% in the PBR optofluidic compared waveguide-basedto the regular PBR. PBR compared to the regular PBR. Figure 1. TotalTotal internal reflection reflection (TIR) in a stream of water flowing flowing through a hole drilled at the bottom of a glass bottle. Light from a laser sourcesource is coupled into the waterwater streamstream [[14].14]. Adapted from “Liquid“Liquid Fiber Fiber Optics” Optics” by Freeberg, by B.,Freeber 2011 Highg, B., School 2011 Physics High PhotoSchool Contest, Physics http://www. Photo Contest,aapt.org/Programs/contests/winnersfull.cfm?id=2687&theyear=2011 http://www.aapt.org/Programs/contests/winnersfull.cfm?id=2687&theyear=2011. Copyright [2017] by. Copyright American Association [2017] by American of Physics Association Teachers. Reprintedof Physics withTeachers. permission. Reprinted with permission. In applications involving aqueous solutions, the refractive index of the core liquid is around In applications involving aqueous solutions, the refractive index of the core liquid is around 1.33 1.33 (refractive index of water). However, a limited
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