The Last 7 Millennia of Vegetation and Climate Changes at Lago Di Pergusa

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Climate Climate Sciences Sciences Dynamics Chemistry , M. Desmet of the Past of the Solid Earth Techniques 2 Geoscientific Methods and and Physics Atmospheric Atmospheric Atmospheric Data Systems Geoscientific Earth System Earth System Earth System Measurement Instrumentation ` Hydrology and ere Ocean Science Annales Biogeosciences The Cryosphere Natural Hazards and Earth System Model Development Geophysicae , B. Vanni 75 yr BP (Sadori and Narcisi, 2001). ects of the on-going climate change, 4 ﬀ ± ` a di Roma “La Sapienza”, 2060 2059 Open Access Open Access Open Access Open Access Open Access Open Access Open Access Open Access Open Access Open Access Open Access Open Access Open Access

, G. Zanchetta 2,3 Climate Climate Sciences Sciences Dynamics Chemistry of the Past Solid Earth Techniques ´ e de Tours, 37000 Tours, France Geoscientific Methods and and Physics Advances in Atmospheric Atmospheric Atmospheric Data Systems Geoscientific Geosciences Earth System Earth System Earth System Measurement Instrumentation Hydrology and Ocean Science Biogeosciences The Cryosphere Natural Hazards , O. Peyron 2 EGU Journal Logos (RGB) EGU Journal Logos and Earth System System and Earth Model Development ´ eHCO, Universit , E. Ortu 2 1 We performed palaeoclimate reconstructions by MAT and WA-PLS. Palaeoclimate Joint actions of increasing dryness, climate oscillations, and human impact shaped Results of the pollen-based study are integrated with changes in magnetic suscepti- This discussion paper is/has been under review for the journal Climate of the Past (CP). Please refer to the corresponding final paper in CP if available. UMR CNRS 6249 Laboratoire Chrono-Environnement, 16 route de Gray, CBAE, UMR 5059 CNRS, Univ. MontpellierDipartimento 2, di Montpellier, Scienze France della Terra,EA Via 6293 S. G Maria 53, 56126 Pisa, Italy Dipartimento di Biologia Ambientale, Universit In the present-day debate, concerningthe possible e understanding of biological responses to past climate variations assumes a great reconstructions based on the coreHolocene. Climate show reconstruction important points climate out fluctuationsness four phases throughout in of the the cooling last andThis enhanced three appears wet- millennia to be (2600–2000, the 1650–1100,the evidence 850–550, of recent local 400–200 past. responses cal to BP). global climate oscillations during 1 Introduction good observatory for the natural phenomena occurred in thebility last thousands and of a years. tephra layerthe characterization. Sicanians’ event, The radiocarbon tephra dated layer at was 3055 shown to be related to Compared to formerwork studies provides from a Lago reconstruction ofmillennia di the in Pergusa evolution central of (Sadori Sicily, vegetationparticularly and indeed and detailed climate Narcisi, completing on over previous 2001), the the results last this last 3000 with yr. new datathe which landscape is of thisinland privileged lake site. of Lago Sicily, di isand Pergusa, very exploited in continuously sensitive fact, since to besides the climate being prehistory. change The the and lake main sediments its turned territory out was to inhabited be a The aim of this studylens is of to palynology. Based investigate climate ondi changes a and Pergusa new human high-resolution (667 m activities pollen a.s.l.,reconstruction under sequence central of the (PG2) Sicily, climate from and Italy) Lago landscape covering changes the over the last recent 6700 past yr, in we central propose Sicily. a Abstract The last 7 millennia ofclimate vegetation changes and at Lago di(central Pergusa Sicily, Italy) L. Sadori Piazzale Aldo Moro2 5, 00185 Roma, Italy 25030 cedex, Besançon France 3 4 5 Received: 23 March 2013 – Accepted: 26Correspondence March to: 2013 L. – Sadori Published: ([email protected]) 8 AprilPublished 2013 by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. Clim. Past Discuss., 9, 2059–2094, 2013 www.clim-past-discuss.net/9/2059/2013/ doi:10.5194/cpd-9-2059-2013 © Author(s) 2013. CC Attribution 3.0 License. M. Magny 1 5 25 15 20 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | C ◦ E), at Phrag- 0 Atriplex 18 ◦ erent scientific Salicornia pat- ´ erez-Obiol and ff N, 14 0 31 ◦ (L.) Dumort. (belt d) and 2062 2061 ) occupies an endorheic basin with catchment 2 Lam., and an internal ephemeral zone directly de- Suaeda maritima Juncus maritimus erences are found in Sicily itself, in particular, between the inland and ff (Cav.) Trin., an inner discontinuous belt (Fig. 1c, b) of halophilous plants , catchment ca. 7.5 km 2 ´ on et al., 2010a, b; Magny et al., 2012). In this context, understanding re- ects of global warming on local vegetation and climate in highly sensitive ff ` o Brea, 1961) and the progressive aridification of last millenaries recorded in Wahlenb. (belt c), Duval-Jouve and many nytrophilous Asteraceae, both Asteroideae and Cichori- Climate in the area of Pergusa is cooler and moister than along the coasts, with In particular, Lago di Pergusa is, both for geographic location and human history,This in peculiarity is mainly due to the strong seasonality and the heterogeneity of its Although the high interest for the understanding of climatic and environmental evo- oideae (belt e).The lakexerophytic is grasslands at (Pignatti, present 1994) surrounded and by crop open cultures, landscapes often dominated abandoned. by The only Calvo et al., 1995) beforeconcentric the belts: water an body external belt regulationmites (Fig. of australis 1c, last a), years, some consisted meterscharacterized in wide, by several of almost only pending on theplant lake-level communities fluctuations (c, and d,latifolia constituted and e by belts), halophilous mainlyula and characterized by seasonal chenopods as annual precipitation between 500–700(Enna mm weather and station). Archive mean data annualcipitation from three temperature decreased meteorological of stations during show 13.4 vulnerable the that to pre- second climate half changes,ferent of lying aridity at last indices present century. (Fig. at The 1b, the lake Duro border is et of particularly al., three 1997). areas The with dif- lacustrine vegetation (Fig. 1c, Lago di Pergusa667 is m a.s.l. located (Fig. 1a). in Thecisi, study central 2001 site Sicily, features and were Southern thereinarea already references) described Italy 0.5 km (Sadori and (37 and are Nar- composed hereafter by summarized. Pliocene The marineand lake (sandstone, groundwaters (surface claystone) and deposits, hasotranspiration. solely experienced This strong fed lake-level by phenomenon variations rainfall climatic made imputed variations. it At to present evap- very the lake sensitive level to surface is seasonal controlled. and long-term Sadori, 2007; Sadori and Narcisi, 2001). 2 Study area former studies (e.g. Frisia et al., 2006; Magny et al., 2011, 2012; P impact on their environmentbase, (or case do by case both) (Mercuri must et be al., considered 2011; Sadori ona et a al., crucial di 2010). and privilegedhistory. position to study the landscape changes occurredclimate since (Zampino pre- et al.,al., 1997), 1995, the 1996; Di high Pasquale(Bernab rate et of al., 1992; biodiversity Quezel and et endemism al., (Brullo 1993), the et long human history and expected di the coast (Noti etinhabited al., since 2009; the Sadori Palaeolithic and andactivities interactions Narcisi, have between to 2001; climate be Tinner changes expected. et Ithumans and is al., human and clear 2009). that their Sicily in environment such was sites exists, a but close the relationship between way individuals or groups adapt to or lution under Mediterranean conditions, duecological to the analyses scarcity there of are siteshistory only suitable for a of palaeoe- few south-central works Mediterranean.variability that of Besides, retrace landscapes the they and vegetation underline2005; and local an Carri climate responses important to spatial climatesponses to changes climate (de changes Beaulieuinteresting, in et as Sicily, al., the its largest centralkey Mediterranean geographic region island, position for is in the particularly the understanding Mediterranean of Basin Holocene makes climates it and a environments. Important the recent past and possibleand evolution under Lionello, 2008). future climate Palaeoclimate forcing reconstructioniting (IPCC, gives 2007; the a Giorgi e basis forareas. predicting and lim- interest. Open questions remain on local responses to global climate changes during 5 5 25 15 20 10 25 15 20 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | C at ◦ (Ten.) ` o Brea, Rhamnus L. and Quercus virgiliana ) became a rich and important sp. and two wood fragments) Quercus suber Scirpus Willd., 2064 2063 Castrum Hennae Quercus pubescens L., L. ` Quercus ilex ere et al., 2004). These analyses allow us to establish stratigraphic correlations A tephra layer, highlighted by magnetic susceptibility, was morphologically and geo- Magnetic susceptibility (MS) was measured in the cores at 5 mm resolution with Human activity is documented in central Sicily since the Palaeolithic Age (Tusa, croscope at a magnificationtographs of (Reille, 400X. 1992, 1995, Pollen 1998) grain identification and was on based the on reference pho- collection of Laboratoire et al., 2009), indicatingdiscussed comparable performances further. on To major perfectlyNarcisi elements, compare (2001), and our the will tephra data not layer with found be in those core obtained PRG13.3 was by re-sampled Sadori and and re-analyzed. Pollen analysis Pollen extraction from the sediment300 samples followed terrestrial Goeury and pollen de grains Beaulieu (1979). were counted on average under a transmitted light mi- Philips SEM 515 atploying the a Dipartimento 20 kV disecond, acceleration Scienze and voltage, della ZAF 100 s Terra, correction.used University live To (usually of time avoid with Pisa, alkali counting, sidecussed em- loss, 2100–2400 ca. elsewhere, especially especially shots 10 in µm). Na, per comparison Performance with aet wave of al., dispersion window the 2010; spectroscopy spot (Caron Cioni instrument et was is al., 1997; extensively Marianelli dis- and Sbrana, 1998; Sulpizio et al., 2010; Vogel were processed toplant find samples plant (two macroremains seedhave suitable been samples selected to ascribed for be AMS to radiocarbon radiocarbon analysis. dated. Four chemically analyzed. The sedimentin was epoxy washed, resin filtered, andcroscopy screened dried (SEM). Energy-dispersive-spectrometry for and (EDS) glass then analyses shardsscoriae of embedded fragments fragments glass shards using were and scanning performed using electron an mi- EDAX-DX micro-analyser mounted on a without any gaps or redundancies. 3.2 Dating Plant macrofossils were not visible to the naked eye, so several sediment samples useful for constructing the master sequences (PG2), guaranteeing complete records (Vanni gusa (Fig. 1a) in 2006technique. Particular with care a was UWITEC paid coring toity recover platform corer. and Twin with store cores a the were top percussion retrieved,the decimetres and piston with University segments coring a of were grav- Franche-Comte extracted (France). and stored at 4 a Geotek multi-sensorsplit core cores logger with (Gunnwhich the and was adapted Best, MS2E1 for 1998). surface-scanning fine-resolution MS sensor volume was magnetic-susceptibility from measured measurements Bartington on Instruments, 3 Methods 3.1 The sediment core A 6.26 m long sediment record (composed core PG2) was retrieved from Lago di Per- also during Greek times (Touringlake Club (Fig. Italiano, 1989). 1d) In the the1961; Bronze close Giannitrapani and surroundings and of Iron the Pluciennik, AgeHistory, V, periods 1999; 6, are Tusa, 2–4) 1992). well reportedtled documented Diodorus that by (Bernab Siculus the Sicanians, area then (Library of by of the Siculis. Pergusa territory. Greeks, around Under Siracusans the 3000 yr and Romans, Carthaginians Enna agocentre ( alternated was for in first wheat trade set- and remained so also under the Byzantines and the Arabs. Ten., alaternus 1992). Traces from theof Eneolithic Cozzo Matrice, Age, located besides on others, a hill are at found the in edge of the the nearby catchment site of the lake and active traces of natural vegetation are represented by rare trees of 5 5 25 15 20 10 20 25 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | erent ap- ) and con- ◦ ff 60 yr BP by ± ) and “bioindic” (CEREGE , latitude: 30 to 45 ◦ 10 to 40 − 2066 2065 ´ e University, France). Pollen percentages were http://www.r-project.org/ The tephra characteristics and its chemical composition perfectly match with those (Sulpizio et al., 2010; Wagnerradiocarbon et al., on 2008), charred and material which was from dated the to top 3150 of the eruption (Coltelli et al., 2000). In ses particularly complex, producing a(Table 1). dispersion of Compositionally, chemical a data single-shardmoreitic of field, ranges the partially principally glassy straddling matrix from the mugeritic photephritic compositions. and ben- determined by Sadoriproduced and for Narcisi comparison (2001), (Fig.Narcisi and (2001) 3, particularly the Table with 1). featuresthe the of Etna As Volcano new the eruption, extensively set which tephra discussed was of at strong by enough Lago data Sadori to di make and ashes Pergusa reach are the Balkans similar to that from the record is 2.9). The tephratypes comprises of principally fragments dark, can brown, blockycal be fragments. or Two distinguished: ovoid the vesicles rarest,is and is characterized a characterized by prevailing by a glassy a crystallinea matrix, few groundmass lesser spheri- whereas mostly extent composed the by bythis most plagioclase, second common pyroxene and and type, type to glass rarely is by usually olivine. interstitial Ti-Fe or oxides can are be absent. also This present. makes In the analy- posed of greyish siltysandy laminae. clay Some and gradational darkvery contacts to dark have very levels been are identified. darkthe present. Oxydised silty core. Bioturbation spots clay Variations and and alternating in shellceptibility fragments with the analyses occur silty sediment (Fig. at 2). density and ashes the The were dispersed bottom magnetic also in of susceptibility highlighted less trendand than by 475 shows cm), 10 magnetic corresponding cm the to sus- of presence theIn sediment tephra of correspondence between of 47–53 with cm the the in ashes, composite the magnetic core core susceptibility section (between 01-C2. peaks 465 at 53 (the mean SI of 4.1 The core and its chronology Visual core descriptionconsists was of carried olive grey out. to From brownish mottled bottom silty core clay. The to upper part 310 cm of the the core sediment is com- 4 Results (leave-one-out and bootstrap). Asdistinct another subsets validation in test, thetion. we modern This have pollen step distinguished database produced two two byused modern applying respectively datasets, a for each the random containing training samples 573PLS and samples selec- the and that validation were MAT of methods. transferusing Statistical functions R, processing based especially packages on and “rioja” WA- transfer ( Website). functions were performed More details onand these the two WAPLS, we methods use the arerestricted to modern given the pollen Mediterranean dataset in area developed (longitude: Peyrontaining by 1146 Dormoy et samples. et The al. al. number (2009) (2012). ofof selected For components analogues was the taken 8 was (MAT) MAT and 2 the number (WA-PLS), based on the results of the cross-validations proaches: the modern analogueson technique of “MAT” (Guiot, past 1990), assemblages basedpartial to on modern least a pollen compari- square assemblages,which method and requires the “WA-PLS” a weighted developed real average- studies by statistical focusing ter Mediterranean calibration. regions Braak The (e.g.2012; Desprat and MAT Pross et has Juggins al., et been 2013; (1993) al., usedMediterranean Peyron et regions 2009) in (Finsinger al., and a et 2011, al., the numberity 2010; of WA-PLS Peyron in et has linking al., recently modern 2012), showing pollen been its data successfully reliabil- to tested climate in in the Italian area (Finsinger et al., 2007). calculated on the basis of total arboreal and non-arboreal3.4 terrestrial pollen grains. Climate reconstruction Climate reconstructions inferred from pollen data are based on two di Chrono-Environnement (Franche-Comt 5 5 25 15 20 10 15 20 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ) ) and Olea decid- Ephedra Artemisia Fagus to ca. 20 %, ., ff ) at less than type. . Poaceae and Quercus Olea , Cichorioideae un- 75 yr BP just below Corylus Ulmus ± pollen grains are recorded are currently recorded from Artemisia , m ) and hazel ( Secale Quercus pubescens Rumex Fagus , , then by 2068 2067 Centaurea cyanus 40 yr BP.AP % are between 60 and 80 %, pollen ) pollen (both peaking at 40 %), olive-tree ( ± Plantago and . and Labiatae are recorded as a continuous signal, Pistacia ff 75 yr BP in core PRG1 was detected between ca. 465 Quercus erentiated cereals and erently stated. ff ± ff , Ranunculaceae, Apiaceae, Asteroideae undi show low percentages but also slight variations. Papaver type and dominant pollen types decrease as well as Ulmus Plantago are recorded continuously. 5 %) and a relative increase of Poaceae (ca. 10 to 30–40 %), becom- ) between 5 to 10 %, beech ( < and suber Quercus Quercus ilex Olea Ulmus cf. 30 % to is continuously present from this zone to the top of the diagram. Poaceae also C and tephra-inferred dates following IntCal09 (Reimer et al., 2009). The new > , dominating the previous subzone, shows a strong decrease. It seems first re- 14 ., Apiaceae, Asteroideae undi Pollen zone 4 (PZ4): 4–3 m (ca. 2600–1885 cal BP). AP % are between 20 and 45 %, Pollen Zone 3 (PZ3) is split into two subzones. AP % are between 45 and 65 %, Pollen Zone 2 (PZ2): 5.7–4.7 m (ca. 5375–3150 cal BP). The Sicanian’s tephra layer, Pollen Zone 1 (PZ1): 6.26–5.7 m (ca. 6730–5375 cal BP). The bottom of the se- The four radiocarbon ages obtained from macroremains are consistent with the ra- Calculations were done using the program Clam (Blaauw, 2010), which calibrated ff pollen concentration ranges from 9200 to 76000, and the number of taxa from 32 to while both Chenopodiaceae decrease,while other herbssubzone do 3b not (PZ3b: show 4.5–4 significant m;Olea changes. ca. Pollen 3000–2600 cal BP). APplaced % by are between 45fragilis and 60 %. tend to increase despitedo many not rapid show variations. significant Among changes. other herbs, Chenopodiaceae Quercus pollen concentration ranges from 1652. 000 Pollen to subzone 3a 85 000, (PZ3a: 4.7–4.5 andand m; the 65 ca. %. number 3150–3000 cal This of BP). short taxa AP zone from % is are 26 characterized between to by 50 the sudden increase of ing dominant from thisChenopodiaceae, zone to theshow top a slight of increase. Undi thethis sequence; zone several up herbs to (inat top the particular core. end ofCyperaceae the zone. (more The than zone 1uous is %). also and Pollen characterized evergreen percentages by types ofthis the and zone; dominant continuous Poaceae) presence taxa show of ( important and rapid variations within radiocarbon dated at 3055 and 475 cm. AP %to are between 110 000, 30 and and the 65 %,marked number by pollen of an concentration abrupt taxa ranges decrease from from of(from 12 28 AP 000 % to from 45. 80 The to 50 transition %, to involving both this oak pollen pollen types zone is with percentages higher than 1 %, since the bottom of the core. quence is radiocarbon dated to 5780 concentration ranges from 19 000 to 135ciduous 000, and and the evergreen number oak of ( taxaand from elm 27 to ( 37. De- 5 % are thedo main not taxa. represent Arboreal more than pollenRanunculaceae, 20 % is Chenopodiaceae, of dominant the in totaldi pollen. this Among pollen herbaceous taxa, zone cerealia, and Poaceae A total of 123 pollenwere and identified. spore Due types to (includingdetail is 35 the obtained tree high for and the sedimentation period, shrubresolution with rate taxa of an and of average ca. of 75 the a 50 herbs) arboreal yr). sample last every taxa) Data 6 3000 and cm yr, from 5 (i.e. a a (“ecological core temporal groups” quite PG2 and good are total concentration). shown in Figs. 4 (arboreal and non the core PG2 covers the lastrate 6700 of calendar core years. PG2 Figure3000 was 2 cal. lower shows BP in that appearing the theyears “constant” sedimentation deeper BP until part (cal present-day. of BP) Ages unless the are di core expressed as and calendar that4.2 it increased since Pollen results the tephra layer. diocarbon age available forelaborate the an age/depth tephra model (Sadori based and on linear Narcisi, interpolation 2001) (Fig. 2, and Table were 2). used to core PRG1 Sadori and Narcisi (2001) obtained an age of 3055 5 5 25 15 20 10 25 15 20 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | and of Pistacia Pistacia Ephedra and Quercus and of Chenopodi- Pistacia characterize this last zone. (5 to 20 %), and followed by 33 BP. An important further ± Quercus ilex and a slight expansion of , and anthropogenic taxa as a whole. Quercus Juniperus erences in the temporal resolution of the (at ca. 425 cm in PG2 and at ca. 100 cm ff is worthy of mention. Urticaceae show the type, marks the transition to this new zone. Olea 2070 2069 Plantago and Secale Quercus pubescens 5 to 20 %), continuous percentages of cultivated trees 30 yr BP. AP % are between 25 and 50 %, pollen con- < ( ± Olea (5 to 30 %) following an increase of deciduous Quercus ilex Quercus pubescens ) and percentages of 5 % of 45 %), mainly due to evergreen > Quercus . A consistent peak of Cichorioideae (20 %) just preceeds a slight expan- ff Castanea , . A strong increase in anthropogenic pollen is worthy of mention. Poaceae are Pollen Zone 7 (PZ7): 0.4 m to surface (ca. 170 cal BP to present). AP % are around Pollen Zone 6 (PZ6): 2–0.4 m (ca. 1000–170 cal BP). The bottom of this zone is Pollen Zone 5 (PZ5): 3–2 m. It is split into two subzones. AP % are between 20 Juglans opening. Changes in forest canopy sucharidification as and/or opening temperature can decrease be or interpreted to either (human) as forest due clearance. to It is clear that tation belts that formedpossibility in that case PRG1 of was taken lakeRepeated in level lake a lowering body periodically (Calvo reductions emerged can part etsediment explain of al., why in the 1997, the lake PG2, last Fig. is while 2500 advanced. 1c)the yr this PRG1 the are same core. recorded period in was 4 m entirely of recorded in5.2 the upper 70 Vegetation cm history: of climate versus humanThe forcing pollen diagrams (Figs. 4 and 5) show, from bottom to top, a tendency to forest rates must be present in thecisi upper (2001). part The of fall core of PRG1,in as PRG1), supposed followed by by Sadori a and peakcan Nar- of be easily found inaceae both recorded cores, in while PG2 the are peaks not of detected in PRG1. Considering the chenopods vege- 5 Discussion 5.1 Comparison between PG2 and PRG1The cores PRG1 core recordsca. the 6700 last yr in 12 000 626 yr cm. Comparisonlar in of vegetation 456 the dynamics, cm, two but cores while also (Fig. important thelast 6) di new shows 3 that core, millennia, they PG2, confirming record simi- spans that a hiatus/es or a strong reduction in the sedimentation 40 %, pollen concentration rangesto from 3400 43. to The 5300, recovery and( of the number of taxaIt from is 40 also to note an increase in cerealia, two zones. slight but meaningful expansionstart of of a continuous curve. The zone ends withradiocarbon a peak dated of to Chenopodiaceae. 1032 centration ranges from 3700zone is to characterized 23 at 000, its andby bottom the an by a number increase phase of ofof of increase taxa evergreen Poaceae, for from the both 34 oak-types, dominantChenopodiaceae. followed to taxon. Anthropogenic 53. taxa The seem This zone to ends be less with important an than expansion in the previous a slight expansion of Poaceae show a decrease atthropogenic the taxa beginning show of a this zone decrease1000 together cal too. with BP): Pollen other it subzone is herbs. 5bincluded, mainly An- (PZ5b: characterized and 2.7–2 by m; a the ca. lowering correspondent 1620– of arboreal increase taxa of to 20 Poaceae %, and anthropogenic taxa. The the increase of Chenopodiaceae,oideae first undi matching the onesion of of Cyperaceae, Cichorioideae, becoming more and importantof Aster- towards the the zone top is of marked the diagram. by The an end abrupt peak ofand Chenopodiaceae 45 %, (40 %). pollen concentrationfrom ranges 33 from 10 to 000 48. torecover of 45 Pollen 000, AP subzone and ( the 5a number (PZ5a): of 3–2.7 taxa m; ca. 1885–1620 cal BP): A slight opening of the wooda is decrease found, in tree both(evergreen pollen oaks, mesophilous suddenly olive). (deciduous Two drops shrub oaksfragilis from taxa and show 50 elm) increase, to namely and 25mainly %, Mediterranean between showing taxa 25 and 35 %, showing many rapid variations. It is important to note 46. The top of this zone is radiocarbon dated to 1961 5 5 25 20 15 10 25 15 20 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | er- ff Olea (Pignatti 1 − are found. Since Vitis and and companion species of species indigenous in Italy ) is now found in the whole since 4900 cal BP cannot be cult to consider as natural the is of note. Wild olive-tree ( Linum ffi Secale Secale , a Mediterranean mountain species Plantago Olea Olea europea , as well as S. stricta 2072 2071 , a synanthropic herb whose finding is attentively , the other is Centaurea cyanus ) is regarded as autochthonous in Sicily and requires a typical and C and precipitation varying between 300 and 1000 mm yr ◦ Plantago lanceolata S. cereale belt closer to the lake centre would mean increasing Poaceae percent- (rye) is a cereal with a distinct pollen grain, distinguishable from that of oleaster Papaver var. Secale Phragmites Under this light it is not certain at all that the increase of herbs recorded at 5400 cal Many edible plants such as cereals, pulses and fruit trees are in fact native to As a matter of fact prehistoric populations did not change the landscape on a broad Two arguments (Sadori and Giardini, 2008) are used to explain this lack of evidence Except for the bottom of the PG2 pollen sequence (PZ1), which records a forested of the warmest areas of Mediterranean. It is then di Matrice, is documented atent the scenario edge is of found Lagocrops, since di like ca. Pergusa 3700 catchment cal (Fig.3200 BP, 1d). cal when A BP di aneuropea important and abrupt spreadMediterranean of climate characterized byperature summer of 14–20 aridity with anand Nimis, average annual 1995). tem- Thearea cultivated colonized olive tree by ( the evergreen oak-forests, but the wild natural olive-tree is typical that cannot be distinguished(Reille, from 1992). those of other BP is due to forest clearance.taken Also as the presence an of evidence of cultivation, even if the presence of a Copper age site, Cozzo of both cultivated and1978). spontaneous cerealsother as cereals. well At present as twois of species the are other found cultivated grasses in thenative (Andersen, Italian to flora Sicily (Pignatti, (and 1982): ofwild one some rye central and and growing southern frombe Italian 600 distinguished. regions), to named 1700 mountain m a.s.l. or taken Pollen into grains account of as evidence the of two human species presence cannot in central Europe, has pollen grains often hard to distinguish from other plants). Mediterranean regions and their pollenonomic grains, level, often are not found identifiable during atgrams. the a An satisfying whole exemplification tax- can Holocene be and made even with before cereal in pollen the type, pollen which dia- includes pollen botanical issues (many anthropogenic indicators are indigenous and some others are vulnerability to climate change (forest clearance is not just produced by humans) and scale and a widespread human impactranean is environments found (Mercuri only et since al., the 2012; Romanal., Roberts period 2004, et in al., Mediter- 2011) 2011; and Sadori, hardly 2013;lacustrine detectable Sadori settlements et before in the the Bronze Italianbloomed Age, peninsula when in were a present, the number and ofably the Po peri- Terramare plain because culture (Cremaschi water2004; et in Magny al., that et al., 2006; period 2009, Mercuri became 2011; Zanchetta et a et al., less al.,and 2012a). 2006, available delay resource 2012) in (Sadori prob- proofs et coming al., from pollen records of the Mediterranean basin: natural that this climate change couldance, have cultivation, been pasture). enhanced A by clear aand human strong 5) impact land-use only can (forest since be clear- 2600 seenevidence cal in of BP the human (zone diagrams presence. 4), (Figs. while 4 before, since around 3700 yr BP, there is considered. Poaceace could havevegetation belt either around the formed lake vast itself,of or forest grasslands both. opening In (either or the human aThe first or case climate position hydrophylous there induced), of is in a the theous clear second PRG1 PG2 indication only core core, a (Sadori climatic neither and(a clue. Narcisi, marginal 2001) nor would in central factages in register water in the body the lake reductions like diagram)precipitation the would and cause previ- expansions. both We a also forest opening have and to the consider lowering that of the a lake reduction level of and human changes can provide the ignition of a never-ending dryinglandscape process. around the site, thelandscape upper dominated zones by (PZ Poaceae and 2environment, characterized to two also 7) by possibilities show many the for other evolution understanding herbs. of In the an this Poaceae open expansions have to be environments such as the Pergusa one are highly vulnerable and that minor climatic or 5 5 25 15 20 10 25 20 10 15 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | is erences ff ect might Pistacia ff trees/shrubs Pistacia decline is followed by a rapid succession Olea 2074 2073 , but we have to consider that Lago di Pergusa (ca. 2800 cal BP), in parallel with the definitive pollen at Pergusa, knowing that these percentages . These elements support the hypothesis of a transition Olea ) are found as a continuous signal over the last millennia. Olea europea Quercus Ephedra fragilis pollen soon before 3000 cal BP is found in Adriatic cores and in Italian Olea Secale, Linum, Vitis At Lago di Pergusa the deterioration of climate conditions accompanies the evolution Based on the order of these events, the record suggests a successional dynam- Even if the more obvious interpretation of pollen data points to human action as the tion of temperatures ofet the al., warmest/coldest 2003). month It for South-Western is Europe clear (Davis that although similarities exist, there are distinct di 5.3 Climate reconstruction Table 3 shows that thestruction reliability of of summer both precipitationstructions methods and for is winter PG2 good, temperature. were performed Quantitative inmer/winter for climate particular temperature annual recon- for and temperature and precipitation the precipitation, (Fig.and recon- and 7). precipitation sum- Values parameters of are thewith expressed seasonal the as temperature results anomalies obtained and from thus PG1 can core be (Peyron compared et al., 2012) and with the reconstruc- of human activities that become strongercultures over ( the last 2.5 millennia.Moreover, Pollen indicators herbaceous of taxa foundcase nowadays of in water decrease, the are lacustrine quite vegetation important. belts in the ranean landscape. The exploitation ofdocumented olive in by Greece both during macroremains the andis Bronze pollen Age documented (Kouli, has 2012). been at PresenceSicily of the olive (Stika early stones et Iron al.,evidence Age 2008), of some archaeological this centuries site step later wasral of than found area the Selinunte, at of pollen Gorgo southwestern distribution spread Basso of lies of (Tinner in Pergusa. et No a al., 2009), privilegedexploited inside in position the the to Bronze natu- Age observe (Fig. past 1d). land-use, in a zone widely and strongly values than in thestalagmite early stopped Holocene to and grow acrease after small of peak 2800 centered calcontinental at BP, suggesting ones ca. (Combourieu-Nebout enhanced 3100 et dryness. yret al., BP. An The al., 2013; in- 2012, Di 2013), Rita and indicating Magri, that 2009; this Mercuri was a rather general change in the Mediter- a cave in northern Sicily (Frisia et al., 2006), shows lower oxygen and carbon isotope The speleotheme portion from ca. 3600 to ca. 2800 cal BP from Grotta Carburangeli, found in both Pergusa sequences butof it more is never thermophilous more and than 5not drier % the supports conditions onset the around of hypothesis the the site, Mediterranean “macchia”. or of intenseics grazing, following but a human-induced perturbationhave of amplified the the local aridification vegetation, phasenia whose reconstructed e by in Sicily lake over level theprevious oscillations last cores three (Magny millen- from etclearly Lago al., show 2011, di that 2012). Pergusa the Stable (Sadori more isotope et arid curves al., period from 2008; of the Zanchetta Holocene et is al., found 2007) after 3000 cal. BP. of short increase in oaks,and but an it also increase coincides of decline with of the spread deciduous of at 3200 cal BPtypical scrub from or mixed “macchia” oak-forests taxa, to a Mediterranean sort inland-forests of infiltrated pioneer by vegetation. The fact that favoured (or allowed) the spreadCichorioideae of and thermophilous Asteroideae, and less stronglyChenopodiaceae moisture-demanding increasing and taxa. since overwhelming Poaceae 3200 could cal invegetation BP fact belts have with occurring formed when abundant the ephemeral theshortage lake and a level change decreased towards (Sect. drierAsteroideae 2, climate should conditions. Fig. In not 1c) this be for casedryness a Cichorioideae considered ones. and water Also as mesophilous anthropic arboreal taxa indicatorscorrespondence like elm with (Figs. and the 4 deciduous spread oaks of and decrease olive. in 5), but as are comparable to the ones thatwestern were found coasts at of Gorgo Sicily, Basso during (Tinner the et al., phases 2009), of on wild the olive-treemain maximum cause of development. olive expansion occurringhave at to Pergusa between consider 3200 and that 2800 increased cal BP,we temperature and decreased precipitation might have findings of more than 20 % of 5 5 25 15 20 10 25 15 20 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | O 18 δ erent methods and other ff is found. After 2700 cal BP Olea erence between methods occurs over the ff 2076 2075 n-Puertas et al., 2009). Stable isotope records from lake Shkodra ı ´ erences in the reconstruction of the amplitude of changes, both meth- erent, mixed and hard to disentangle, clues from pollen, signalling both a ff ff ˜ nar Lake (Mart Our data show that the first phase of opening of forests recorded in the core lasted A solution to come over from this impasse was to use present-day lacustrine veg- These arguments support the hypothesis that landscape changes recorded at Per- Despite di Enough precipitation should have been available in the ancient Greek site of Mor- yses of the sediments (Zanchetta et al., 2013) show several anomalies between by frequent thoughoccurred slight around vegetation 3200 changes. cal BP,human A when impact an strong is expansion change uncontested of to and of get overlapped two the a di natural environment climatic change. and We a were human in impact. fact able etation studies, climate reconstructionsproxies from from pollen the using same di site and from nearby sites. Preliminary data from isotope anal- ment could have leadchange either to or an to environmentally aand deterministic history. complete view neglect of socio-cultural of possible environmental impactfor on more human than action two millennia, from ca. 5400 to ca. 3200 cal BP, a period characterized 6 Conclusions In order to assessand the unavoidable degree need of toto human-environment carry human interactions out history there scientific like is investigationsobservatory Lago the on for di urgent climate natural Pergusa. changes Lago archives andeasily di linked human distinguished Pergusa activity, turned even only if out byone. the to pollen. Failure two be to signals This a cannot consider is privileged be the not complex a interactions negative between issue humans at and their all, environ- but a positive phases of precipitation increase that we reconstruct in Sicily. gusa over the recentimpact past on were vegetation. mainly related to climate stress more than to human erosional activity in Tunisia (Marquer et al., 2008), which seems well correlated with structed in Morocco (Cheddadi et al., 1998) and with the phases of more important nia) is medium/high between 2600Accesa and (central 2000 cal Italy) BP between (Fouacheimportantly ca. et this 2800 al., period 2010) and and roughly 2000the at coincides cal lake amount with BP of the (Magny highest precipitationin et phase Zo (2500–2140 al., of cal 2007). the Most BP)(Albania) lake in level show and southern the Spain wettest(Zanchetta as period et al., reconstructed of 2012b). the TheBP) last first chronologically two comprehend 4500 phases the cal ofsion last BP cooling two (Giraudi (2600–2000, at periods et 1650–1100 ca. of cal al., the 2500–2000 2011). Calderone cal glacier A BP expan- general correlation is found with climate trends recon- found at 1650–1100, 850–550, 400–200 cal BP. gantina, nearby Pergusa, ascent. a BC public (Malcolm Bell, fountain personal wasnote communication, fed what 31 only January happened 2013). by in It rainy other is water interesting Mediterranean to in sites: the the 4th lake level at lake Malik (Alba- to the reliability ofman modern pollen impacts data may for influencereconstructions the these appears reconstruction to modern of show climate, pollen solid given results samples, that and our hu- a pollen-based consistentods trend climate through underline time. a clearmillennia. climate This trend trend towards was aridificationmoisture. interrupted A and by first warming several cooling phases over phasecorresponds characterized the is to by reconstructed last a between cooling 3 maximum 2600 and of and precipitation. 2000 Other cal phases BP, which of cooling and moisture are last 3000 yr (Fig. 7)tions can with be more due marked toPLS, changes human particularly impact using when and the the to MAT. variabilityimpact. These the of For fact strong that the modern oscilla- MAT last pollen is 3000 spectraneeds more yr, is sensitive the to highly than amplitude be due WA- of interpreted to the human with changes reconstructed caution. with However, the if MAT high criticism was often addressed between methods. The most important di 5 5 25 15 20 10 25 15 20 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | ´ on- ´ alez- ect on ff ` a degli Studi di Enna “Kore”, , 2013. ´ eriz, P., Gil-Romera, G., Badal, E., Carri 2078 2077 ´ aez, J. 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F. and Juggins, S.: Weighted averaging partial leastTinner, squares W., van regression Leeuwen, (WA- J. F. N., Colombaroli, D., Vescovi, E., van der Knaap, W. O., Henne, P. Wagner, B., Sulpizio, R., Zanchetta, G., Wulf, S., Wessels, M., Daut, G., and Nowaczyk,Zampino, N.: D., Duro, A., Piccione, V., and Scala, C.: Fitoclima della Sicilia – Termoidrogrammi Sulpizio, R., Van Welden, A., Caron, B., and Zanchetta, G.: The Holocene tephrostratigraphic Vogel, H., Zanchetta, G., Sulpizio, R., Wagner, B., and Nowaczyk, N.: A tephrostratigraphic Stika, H.-P., Heiss, A., and Zach, B.: Plant remains from the early Iron Age in western Sicily: Vanni Sadori, L., Jahns, S., and Peyron, O.: Mid-Holocene vegetation history of the central Mediter- Tusa, S.: La Sicilia e la preistoria, Palermo, Sellerio, II Ed., 1992. Sadori, L., Mercuri, A. M., and Mariotti Lippi, M.: Reconstructing past cultural landscape and Touring Club Italiano: Guida d’Italia: Sicilia. Milano, 6th Ed., 1989. Sadori, L., Zanchetta, G., and Giardini, M.: Last Glacial to Holocene palaeoenvironmental evo- Sadori, L., Giraudi, C., Petitti, P., and Ramrath, A.: Human impact at Lago di Mezzano (central Sadori, L. and Narcisi, B.: The Postglacial record of environmental history from Lago di Pergusa, Sadori, L. and Mercuri, A. M.: Mediterranean culture and climatic change: past patterns and Sadori, L. and Giardini, M.: Environmental history in the Mediterranean basin: microcharcoal Sadori, L. and Giardini, M.: Charcoal analysis, a method to study vegetation and climate of Sadori, L.: Postglacial Pollen Records of Southern Europe, in: Encyclopedia of Quaternary 5 5 25 20 30 15 10 25 20 15 10 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | O 2 O/ 2 K ) + O Na σ 2 O 2 K ClO Total Na 5 O 2 OP 2 3340 1863–1989 6485–6670 30 911–988 30 57–151 ± ± ± ± OK 2 C yr BP Calendar age BP (2 14 2086 2085 MnO MgO CaO Na tot FeO 3 O 2 Al 2 TiO 2 SiO Lago di Pergusa. Chemical data for the tephra layer from core PG2 (this paper) and Lago di Pergusa (core PG2). AMS radiocarbon dates. Poz-36023 wood 618 5780 Laboratory code MaterialPoz-36022 Depth (cm) wood 36 130 Ua-42146 seeds 302–310 1961 Ua-42145 seeds 194 1032 PG2-2PG2-3PG2-4 54.59PG2-5 53.81 2.40PG2-6 52.47 1.78 17.53PG2-7 52.09 1.95 17.67 7.31PG2-9 52.86 1.94 16.65 8.26 0.32PG2-10 51.86 1.90 16.58 9.84 0.05PG2-11 52.47 1.95 2.07 17.31 9.74 52.81 0.19PG2-12 2.07 3.09 16.98 4.49 9.09 52.92 1.97 0.17PG2-13 3.42 16.46 5.67 10.34 5.82 53.21 2.21 16.73 0.16PRG1-1 3.36 7.38 0.17 9.56 5.15 51.98 2.12 16.19 4.54PRG1-2 9.80 3.22 5.94 55.56 4.76 2.11 3.42 16.78 3.77 0.55 0.35PRG1-3 9.97 6.16 55.56 0.21 2.04 5.27 16.53 2.59 7.24PRG1-5 9.81 0.38 3.43 0.5 55.19 0.32 2.44 4.20 16.72 3.52 4.20 10.06 0.52PRG1-6 4.61 100 6.48 52.31 0.38 2.12 0.25 16.23 2.95 4.74 6.94 9.16 0.48PRG1-6b 0.26 0.23 2.82 52.84 10.36 2.00 5.06 16.53 3.29 100 6.60 8.58 0.58PRG1-7 52.99 4.49 0.23 3.55 100 0.19 0.38 2.01 16.72 0.78 3.57 4.16 9.46PRG1-8 2.16 5.10 0.18 8.92 100 2.88 6.36 0.10 52.94 3.42 16.31 0.23 7.35 8.84 0.34 5.14 16.07 100 3.04 0.07 0.43 52.53 1.90 2.22 4.74 6.17 0.73 9.47 100 9.95 0.21 0.54 4.40 0.20 10.2 0.42 2.18 2.60 16.94 0.22 3.63 8.54 3.73 4.88 0.80 7.43 100 0.10 0.41 3.18 16.55 0.28 4.53 100 0.27 5.31 0.52 9.2 4.20 0.80 3.25 0.30 6.30 8.63 0.61 100 9.77 4.36 3.33 0.16 4.98 7.37 0.51 6.27 100 0.28 5.47 3.97 6.45 0.71 8.14 0.78 100 0.31 0.15 0.64 4.86 3.56 4.36 9.54 0.44 4.47 0.17 3.47 100 0.60 8.47 6.74 3.71 0.45 0.46 100 7.19 3.42 0.86 9.08 0.79 0.46 5.18 0.17 100 0.42 10.29 4.66 0.24 0.86 2.65 100 0.22 0.97 2.76 8.6 100 0.40 9.83 100 0.38 0.21 0.86 8.57 0.20 0.80 7.89 100 0.76 100 0.76 7.83 7.42 0.51 0.59 Table 2. Table 1. PGR1 (Sadori and Narcisi, 2001). Samples from PRG1 were newly analysed. Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | , Phrag- Salicornia Aridity map of RMSE RMSE 2.2510 2.1922 2.0308 63.379 31.509 140.02 3.8203 3.5166 3.4569 79.956 70.438 197.11 , e – (b) 2 2 r r 0.724 0.6861 0.7225 0.5401 0.8232 0.6098 0.6916 0.5842 0.6673 0.4817 0.797 0.5815 Suaeda maritima d - latifolia , RMSE 2.8169 2.7423 2.5040 77.57 48.555 169.84 RMSE 3.7689 3.3858 3.3719 74.0907 67.2396 191.0206 2088 2087 Atriplex 2 2 0.5674 0.5085 0.5778 0.3105 0.5799 0.4255 0.5505 0.5267 0.5716 0.2512 0.5815 0.3695 r r , c – Sketches of lacustrine vegetation: A. maximum lake level, B. (c) Location map of cores PG2 and PRG1. The ellipsis roughly marks (a) ) ) Juncus maritimus 1 1 C) C) − − ◦ ◦ ( ( C) C) ◦ ◦ ( ( T T , b – T T C) C) ◦ ◦ ; g – microbial mat (from Calvo et al., 1995, modified). 1d. Main archaeological Lago di Pergusa. Climate reconstructions inferred from pollen data based on the mod- Lago di Pergusa: Winter Prec (mm/season) Summer Prec (mm/season) Pann (mm yr Winter Prec (mm/season) Summer Prec (mm/season) Pann (mm yr Apparent Performance Winter Summer Tann ( Empirical validation Winter Summer Tann ( Climatic parameter WA-PLS (2 components) MAT (8 analogous) – Chara the lake perimeter when core PRG1Sicily (Sadori and and selected Narcisi, 2001) mean wasDuro annual sampled. et precipitation al., for three 1997,minimum selected redrawn). lake meteorological level. stations (from Dominantmites australis taxa of thef lacustrine vegetation concentricsites belts: around a Lago di – (Bronze Pergusa: 1 Age, – Iron Case Age); BastioneEnna 3 (Copper (Neolithic – Age, Age, Malpasso Bronze Copper Age, (IronGreek Age); Greek Age); period); 2 period, 7 4 – Middle – Realmese – Ages); Riparoriod); 6 Calcarella di – 9 (Bronze Contrada Cozzo – Age, S. Matrice Capodarso Iron Tommaso (Copper11 (Bronze (Copper Age); Age, Age); – Age, 5 8 Montagna Bronze – - di Age, Monte– Marzo Giulfo Greek Morgantina (Greek (Greek period); (Greek pe- period); 10 and 12trada – Roman – Runzi periods); Rocche Rossomanno (Roman 14 (Greek (Greek period); – period); modified). period, Contrada 16 Middle Gaspa – Ages); (Roman Canalotto 13 period); (Middle 15 Ages) – (from Con- Sadori and Giardini, 2008, Fig. 1. Table 3. ern analogue techniquemethod “MAT” “WA-PLS” (Guiot, developed by 1990) ter and Braak and the Juggins weighted (1993). average-partial least square Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | 2090 2089 75 yr BP (Sadori and Narcisi, 2001). ± Lago di Pergusa: PG2 core. Lithology, Uncalibrated Volume susceptibility, linear interpo- Lago di Pergusa: total Alkaly vs Silica diagram (Le Bas et al., 1986) for tephra in Pergusa cores (PRG1 and PG2). Fig. 3. Fig. 2. lation of AMS calibratedto dates. the A ash thin event black dated layer, in observed PRG1 in at the 3055 section 01-C2, corresponds Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | , , Aster- Pistacia Quercus , , Vitis

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