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A Tragedy in Search of a Scandal: a Linguistic Study of Aggressive Journalism in North America After the 2012 U.S

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A Tragedy in Search of a Scandal: a Linguistic Study of Aggressive Journalism in North America After the 2012 U.S A Tragedy In Search Of A Scandal: A Linguistic Study Of Aggressive Journalism In North America After The 2012 U.S. Embassy Attack In Benghazi, Libya Tero Virtanen University of Tampere School of Language, Translation and Literary Studies Degree Program in English Language, Literature and Translation Master’s Thesis December 2018 Tampereen yliopisto Viestintätieteiden tiedekunta Englannin kielen ja kirjallisuuden maisteriopinnot VIRTANEN, TERO: A Tragedy In Search Of A Scandal: A Linguistic Study Of Aggressive Journalism In North America After The 2012 U.S. Embassy Attack In Benghazi, Libya Pro gradu -tutkielma, 128 sivua Joulukuu 2018 ________________________________________________________________________________ Tämä pro gradu -tutkielma käsittelee metaforan, synekdokeen, toiseuttamisen, modaalisuuden, nominalisaation ja transitiivisuuden käyttötapoja yhdysvaltalaisten uutislähteiden verkossa julkaistuissa artikkeleissa, jotka käsittelevät Yhdysvaltojen Libyan lähetystöön vuonna 2012 tehtyä hyökkäystä. Tutkielman tavoite on tarjota yleiskatsaus tunnettujen kielellisten keinojen käytöstä uutisotsikoissa ja artikkeleissa sekä selvittää, onko demokraattien ja republikaanien kannattajiksi miellettyjen uutislähteiden konventioissa poliittisen ideologian motivoimia eroja näiden kielellisten keinojen käyttötapojen suhteen. Lisäksi tutkielma pyrkii selvittämään, edustaako pitkään jatkunut Benghazi-uutisointi uuden tyyppistä poliittisen hyökkäyksen muotoa – hyökkäysaihetta (attack topic). Tutkielman metodologinen lähestymistapa koostuu kriittisen diskurssianalyysin ja korpuslingvistiikan yhdistelmästä. Tekstejä tarkastellaan kriittisesti yhteiskunnallisten diskurssien ilmentyminä, pyrkimyksenä yhdistää kvalitatiivisen ja kvantitatiivisen lähestymistavan keinoja. Korpuslingvistisenä päätyökaluna toimii WordSmith-korpusohjelmisto, jonka avulla tutkitaan aineiston sanamääriä ja kollokaatiota. Aineisto koostuu kahdeksan eri uutislähteen manuaalisesti kerätyistä verkkoartikkeleista. Artikkelit on koottu pääkorpukseen ja erilaisiin alakorpuksiin, jotta aineistoa voidaan analysoida sekä yleisluontoisesti että kontrastiivisesti. Aineisto käsittää yhteensä 11 641 uutisartikkelia ja 7 593 692 sanaa. Tutkielma esittelee kriittisen diskurssianalyysin tutkimusmetodina ja kartoittaa aggressiivisen journalismin muotoja Yhdysvaltain poliittisissa uutisissa. Teoriaosissa käsitellään jokaista kielellistä ilmiötä yleisluontoisesti ja havainnollistetaan niiden käyttötapoja Benghazi-uutisoinnissa. Analyysiosissa tarkastellaan metaforan, synekdokeen, toiseuttamisen, modaalisuuden, nominalisaation ja transitiivisuuden käyttötapoja ja -määriä aineiston demokraatteja ja republikaaneja tukevissa uutislähteissä. Tämän lisäksi analyysiosissa tarkastellaan erityisesti demokraattien ja republikaanien uutislähteiden välisiä kontrasteja osana Benghazi-hyökkäysaihetta. Tutkimuksen tulokset osoittavat, että demokraattien ja republikaanien uutislähteiden konventioissa on selkeitä eroja, jotka ilmenevät Benghazia koskevien uutisten yhteydessä. Republikaaneja tukevat uutislähteet osoittautuivat aggressiivisemmiksi sekä kielellisten keinojen että julkaisumäärien suhteen. Aineiston melko rajattu aihepiiri ja koko estävät suuremmat yleistykset, mutta republikaanien mediatahot käyttivät selvästi demokraatteja useammin tutkittujen kielellisten keinojen hyökkäävämpiä muotoja. Tulokset viittaavat myös siihen, että Benghazin hyökkäyksiä koskeva narratiivi on rakennettu näitä kielellisiä keinoja käyttäen kahdella eri tavalla: demokraatit ilmaisevat Benghazin tragediana, republikaanit skandaalina. Tulosten perusteella Benghazin synnyttämää ilmiötä voidaan tietyssä mielessä pitää uutena poliittisen journalismin hyökkäysmuotona. Alkuperäistä hyökkäysaiheen premissiä hälventää se, että Benghazin käyttökelpoisuus tehokkaana poliittisena aseena vaikuttaa olevan ajan ja osuman summa. Sitä ei voi valmistaa kielellisin tai diskursiivisin keinoin tyhjästä tai missä tahansa olosuhteissa. Avainsanat: kriittinen diskurssianalyysi, korpuslingvistiikka, ideologia, Benghazi, metafora Table of Contents 1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................1 2. Language and Political News........................................................................................................3 2.1 Ideology and Institutionalized Forms of Discourse..................................................................4 2.1.1 Political Discourse............................................................................................................5 2.1.2 News Discourse................................................................................................................7 2.2 Political Bias and Aggressive Journalism.................................................................................9 2.2.1 News Bias.......................................................................................................................10 2.2.2 Aggression in Political Journalism.................................................................................12 2.3 Benghazi – An Attack Topic?.................................................................................................15 2.3.1 Features of an Attack Topic...........................................................................................16 3. Materials.......................................................................................................................................19 3.1 Publications Based on Size and Political Bias........................................................................21 3.2 Retrieval..................................................................................................................................23 4. Methodology.................................................................................................................................27 4.1 Critical Discourse Analysis.....................................................................................................28 4.1.1 Criticism and Critical Standpoints.................................................................................29 4.1.2 Categories and Terminology...........................................................................................30 4.2 Corpus Linguistics...................................................................................................................34 4.2.1 Specialized Corpora........................................................................................................34 4.2.2 Precursory Work.............................................................................................................35 4.3 WordSmith: Key Functions.....................................................................................................37 5. Analysis………………………………..........................................................................................43 5.1 Lexical Features.......................................................................................................................45 5.1.1 Metaphors........................................................................................................................46 5.1.1.1 Concept Metaphors..............................................................................................48 5.1.1.2 Radial Categories.................................................................................................55 5.1.2 Metaphors in Benghazi Reporting...................................................................................61 5.1.2.1 Reification, Personalization, Depersonalization..................................................62 5.1.2.2 Conceptual Domains............................................................................................64 5.1.2.3 Event and Leader……….....................................................................................70 5.1.3 Synecdoche.............................................................................................................76 5.1.4 Synecdoche in Benghazi Reporting.................................................................................79 5.1.5 Othering...........................................................................................................................81 5.1.6 Othering in Benghazi Reporting......................................................................................84 5.1.7 Modality..........................................................................................................................87 5.1.8 Modality in Benghazi Reporting.....................................................................................90 5.2 Syntactic Features.....................................................................................................................92 5.2.1 Nominalization.................................................................................................................93 5.2.2 Nominalization in Benghazi Reporting...........................................................................97 5.2.3 Transitivity.......................................................................................................................99 5.2.4 Transitivity in Benghazi Reporting...............................................................................105 5.2.4.1 Process Types....................................................................................................106 5.2.4.2
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