Exploring the Uncanny Valley of Mind

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Exploring the Uncanny Valley of Mind Exploring the Uncanny Valley of Mind. An Investigation of Human Uniqueness Concepts, Control Perceptions, and Threat Experience in the Face of Emotion-Sensitive Artificial Intelligence Der Fakultät für Human- und Sozialwissenschaften der Technischen Universität Chemnitz vorgelegte Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades doctor rerum naturalium (Dr. rer. nat.) im Promotionsfach Psychologie Jan-Philipp Stein (geboren am 15.06.1988 in Mannheim) Tag der Einreichung 30.04.2018 Tag der Disputation 24.04.2019 Erstgutachter Prof. Dr. Peter Ohler, Technische Universität Chemnitz Zweitgutachter Prof. Dr. Josef Krems, Technische Universität Chemnitz I Acknowledgments “We give each other souls.” So beantwortet zumindest Rodney Brooks, emeritierter Professor des Massachusetts Institute of Technology, eine grundlegende metaphysische Streitfrage. Seelen sind letztlich wie Farben: Nehmen wir sie wahr, weil es sie gibt – oder gibt es sie nur, weil wir sie wahrnehmen? Bevor sich die folgende Arbeit (im weiteren Sinne) mit diesem Gedankenexperiment auseinandersetzt, möchte ich sie den Menschen widmen, die mir meine Seele nicht nur verleihen, sondern sie beflügeln, anspornen und mir teuer werden lassen. Allen voran gilt das meinem Mann, dessen Liebe stets Kraft für neue Bemühungen spendet: 사랑해요, 여보! Ebenso danke ich meiner Familie – meinen Eltern und Großeltern, Heide, Lina, Frank, Markus, Stefanie, Inken, Matthias, sowie den Schwiegereltern und Daeyeon in Korea – für die nicht minder wertvolle Gewissheit, ein Zuhause in allen Himmelsrichtungen zu haben. Einen ganz besonderen Dank möchte ich natürlich meinem Doktorvater Prof. Dr. Ohler aussprechen. Danke, Peter, für die Freiheiten, die Du mir gelassen hast, wenn ich es mir wünschte, und jeden kritischen Ratschlag, den Du bereithieltest, wenn ich es brauchte! Die Zeit bei Dir war eine einmalige Erfahrung, die mich immer begleiten wird. Für die Zweitbegutachtung dieser Dissertation danke ich ebenfalls Prof. Dr. Krems ganz herzlich. II Der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft und der TU Chemnitz bleibe ich tief verbunden für ihre großzügige Unterstützung, die mich drei Jahre lang angstbefreit und fokussiert an diesem Vorhaben arbeiten ließ. Ganz sicher werde ich die vielen Eindrücke aus anderen Teilen der Welt, die mir das DFG-Graduiertenkolleg „CrossWorlds“ schenkte, niemals vergessen. Selbiges gilt natürlich auch für die anregenden und aufmunternden Gespräche mit Kolleginnen und Kollegen. Ich bedanke mich vor allem bei Timo für seine unerschütterliche Ruhe und Hilfsbereitschaft, sowie bei Benny, Daniel und Kevin; nicht nur für die gemeinsamen wissenschaftlichen Erfolge, sondern vor allem für viele lustige Momente in Chemnitz, Fukuoka und San Diego! Zugleich sollen auch die Begegnungen mit Georg, Katrin, Madlen, Matthias, Niki, Sabine und Susanne nicht vergessen sein, die alle auf ihre Weise zu einem entspannten Arbeitsalltag beigetragen haben. Danke dafür. Völlig außer Frage steht, dass das Abenteuer „CrossWorlds“ ohne Alexander, Benedikt und Ingmar nicht halb so unbeschwert gewesen wäre. Euer scharfsinniger Humor war unbezahlbar – egal ob er bei Team-Meetings, Seilbahnfahrten oder der obligatorischen Feierabendpizza zum Einsatz kam. „Freunde sind die Familie, die man sich aussucht.“ Auch wenn meine Herkunftsfamilie wenig Wünsche offenlässt, erfüllt es mich mit tiefer Dankbarkeit, dass sich Martin, Gregor, Charlaura, Eva, Marijke, Caro, Romy, Kai, Marlen, Heajung, Jiao und Katharina dazugesellt haben. Ihr seid der Jackpot! (Und ohne Def geht seit zwanzig Jahren sowieso nichts.) Zu guter Letzt widme ich diese Arbeit dem Kater, der jedes an diesem Schreibtisch geschriebene Wort kritisch gegengelesen hat. Ich hoffe, Du bist mit dem Ergebnis einverstanden, Gilbert. III Summary (German) Inspiriert von den enormen technologischen Fortschritten der letzten Jahrzehnte beschäftigt sich die vorliegende Dissertation mit der Wahrnehmung emotionssensitiver künstlicher Intelligenz (KI) und nimmt dabei vor allem die Bedeutung von erlebter Menschenhaftigkeit in den Fokus. Bei der Entwicklung meiner Hypothesen finden Befunde von kognitionswissenschaftlichen Studien ebenso Beachtung wie philosophische und kulturpsychologische Literatur. Tatsächlich gipfelt die interdisziplinäre Recherche in einer deutlichen Vermutung: Da das Erkennen von Geistes- und Gefühlszuständen in anderen Lebewesen von vielen Personen als Kernkomponente ihrer menschlichen Einzigartigkeit betrachtet wird, laufen affektive Technologien mit ähnlichen Fähigkeiten Gefahr, unheimlich oder abstoßend zu wirken – sie werden zu unliebsamen ‚Eroberern‘ einer urmenschlichen Domäne. In einer ersten empirischen Studie (N = 92) finde ich Hinweise auf die Gültigkeit der getroffenen Annahme. Es zeigt sich, dass empathisch agierende Figuren in einer virtuellen Umgebung deutlich stärkere Ablehnung hervorrufen, wenn Probanden dahinter keine Menschen (Avatare), sondern ein hochkomplexes KI-System (autonome Agenten) vermuten. Nachdem persönliche Beobachtungen und Aussagen der Versuchspersonen wiederholt auf die Rolle von Bedrohungswahrnehmnungen hindeuten, stelle ich diese Variable ins Zentrum einer zweiten Untersuchung. Mithilfe vertiefender Literaturrecherche entwickle ich ein „Model of Autonomous Technology Threat“ („Modell der Bedrohung durch autonome Technologie“), welches zwei potentielle Determinanten von Technologieaversion kombiniert: Während die distale Facette übergeordnete Einstellungen zu menschlicher Einzigartigkeit bündelt, wird zudem ein starker Einfluss von unmittelbaren (proximalen) Wahrnehmungen postuliert, etwa dem erlebten Ausmaß an situativer Kontrolle oder der Sorge um die eigene physische Unversehrtheit. IV Ein neues Virtual-Reality-Experiment, in dem Probanden (N = 125) mit einem angeblich autonomen – tatsächlich jedoch ferngesteuerten – Agenten interagieren, dient dazu, das Modell statistisch zu überprüfen. Obgleich sich durchaus Hinweise zur Bedeutsamkeit des distalen Pfades abzeichnen, erweisen sich vor allem proximale Faktoren als signifikanter Prädiktor von Bedrohungsempfinden und infolgedessen der Nutzerakzeptanz. Mit einer dritten Studie soll schließlich exploriert werden, inwieweit die Wahrnehmung von Menschenartigkeit auch bei nicht verkörperlichten, emotionssensitiven KIs Relevanz besitzt. Zugleich rücke ich nun Kultureinflüsse in den Fokus, indem ich Versuchspersonen verschiedener kultureller Herkunft (N = 89) eine automatisierte Emotionserkennungssoftware kennenlernen lasse. Während chinesische Probanden, deren kulturelle Sozialisation tendenziell ein breiteres Verständnis von ‚Beseeltheit‘ umfasst, nur kurzzeitig vom Feedback der affektiven Software in Erregung versetzt werden, lässt sich bei deutschen Versuchspersonen ein deutlich längerer Anstieg physiologischer Aktivierung feststellen. Zugleich zeichnet die Messung subjektiver Empfindungen ein überraschendes Bild: Die emotionssensitive Maschine – in diesem Fall ein abstrakter, mechanischer Kasten – wird umso positiver bewertet, je mehr Menschenhaftigkeit Probanden in ihr erkennen. Angesichts der drei durchgeführten Studien komme ich zu dem Schluss, dass lediglich Szenarien mit verkörperlichter KI im Sinne des entwickelten Bedrohungsmodells beide Pfade bedienen, was für eine eindeutig aversive Reaktion erforderlich sein könnte. Die Gestaltung der Software in Studie 3 spielte unterdessen für das unmittelbare Kontrollerleben der Versuchspersonen keine Rolle; eine mögliche Erklärung, warum sich Attributionen von Menschenähnlichkeit hier sogar positiv in den subjektiven Evaluationen niederschlugen. V Summary (English) Inspired by the enormous technological advancements of previous decades, this doctoral thesis revolves around users’ perception of emotion-sensitive artificial intelligence (AI), with particular focus on the role of human likeness attributions. For the development of my hypotheses, I acknowledge both cognitive scientific as well as philosophical and cultural psychological literature. Eventually, my interdisciplinary review culminates in one central assumption: Since many people regard the recognition of mental and emotional states in other entities as a core component of their human uniqueness, affective technology with similar capabilities runs the risk of being seen as uncanny or aversive—turning into a discomforting ‘challenger’ of an inherently human domain. Indeed, a first empirical study (N = 92) provides evidence for the validity of my hypothesis. My findings show that empathically acting characters in a virtual environment are met with much stronger aversion if participants suspect them to be controlled by highly complex AI (autonomous agents) instead of other humans (avatars). Acknowledging statements from my participants which repeatedly hint towards the importance of threat perceptions, I turn this concept into the main subject of a second study. Based on additional literature research, I develop a “Model of Autonomous Technology Threat”, which combines two potential determinants of technology aversion: Whereas the model’s distal facet summarizes overarching attitudes about human uniqueness, I also postulate a strong influence of immediate (proximal) perceptions, including the experience of situational control or users’ concern about their immediate physical well-being. Using yet another virtual reality (VR) setting, I ask participants (N = 125) to interact with an allegedly autonomous—in fact remotely controlled—digital agent under different conditions, which allow for a statistical comparison of my proposed model. Although the yielded
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