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THE KING and the GURU in EARLY HINDI SUFI POETRY Sufis Came

THE KING and the GURU in EARLY HINDI SUFI POETRY Sufis Came

THE KING AND THE GURU IN EARLY HINDI

Sufis came to with the advent of in the Indian subconti- nent in the late twelfth century. Mahmud of Ghazni in twelve or more successive raids between A.D. 1001 and A.D. 1027 ravaged and plundered the country as far as in Western India and as far as Kanauj in the east. But his only permanent settlement was at Lahore where he left a governor who administered the outlying provinces as best he could1. Later Muhammad Shihabuddin Ghuri advanced into the Indian sub- continent and conquered Multan in A.D. 1175-76 and Punjab in 1186. Subsequently he defeated P®thviraj, the ruler of Ajmer and and a leader of Hindu Kings in 1192 in Tarain (Taraori)2. This victory gave Muhammad Ghuri, Hansi, Sammana and all Northern India to the gates of Delhi3. Two years later he attacked the kingdom of Kanauj and defeated its ruler Jaycandra at Chandavar (near Etawa in UP)4. By the year 1206 practically the whole of Northern India from Ravi to Assam was under Turkish domination5. Sufi Saints entered India at almost the same time as Islam established itself in Northern India. Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti 6 came to Ajmer before the second battle of Tarain (A.D. 1192) and he laid the foundation

1 Murray T. TITUS, Indian Islam, Delhi (reprint) 1979, p. 6 (originally published in 1930 by Oxford University Press). 2 Tarain or Tarori was between Karnal and Thanesar. 3 Cf. Vincent SMITH, The Oxford , Oxford 1970, p. 234. 4 K.A. NIZAMI, Some aspects of Religion and Politics in India during the thirteenth century, Bombay 1961, p. 78. 5 This was the year when Muhammad Shihabuddin Ghuri was assassinated. As he marched towards Ghazni in march 1206 (A.H. 602) he was stabbed by an Ismaili fanatic at Dhamiak, a camping ground now in Jhelam district. The Oxford History of India, p. 236. 6 Shaikh Muinuddin was born in or about 1141 A.D. in Sijjistan in Iran. He came to India in 1192 A.D. and spent most of his time in Ajmer. He died in March 1235. For details see KHALIQ AHMAD NIZAMI. Some aspects of Religion and Politics in India during the thirteenth century, Delhi, Asia Publishing House, 1961, pp. 182-183, also Simon DIGBY, Tabarrukat and Succession Among the great Chishti Shaykhs of the , in Delhi through the Ages, ed. R.E. Frykenberg, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1986. 198 S.M. PANDEY of the Chishtiya sect in India. Before Muinuddin Chishti only one important saint Hujwiri (Data Ganj Bakhsh)7 had come from Ghazni and settled in Lahore. He was a great saint himself but he did not establish any order or sect in Inda although his treatise on ul Mahjub was a reference book for all Sufism. Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti and his eminent disciples and successors such as Bakhtiyar Kaki (d 1235), Shaikh Fariduddin Masud Ganj-i Shakar (Baba Farid) (A.D. 1175-1265), Shaikh (A.D. 1237-1325), Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Dihli (d 1356) popularised the Sufi movement in India8 and gave incentive to many Muslim and Hindi poets who wrote Sufi romances in Hindi. Many important Hindi Sufi poets belonged to the Chishtiya sect but there were other Sufi sects who produced Hindi poets including Suhrawardi, Mahdawis9 and sects10.

7 Hujwiri Abu}l Hasan Ali ibn uthman Al jullabi Al Hujwiri, the author of the earliest treatise on the life and doctrine of the Sufism Kashful Mahjub (the Discovery of the Hidden) was born in Ghazna but he spent all his life in Lahore and also died there A.H. 465-1072-73 A.D. 8 For the history of the Chishtis see KHALIQ AHMAD NIZAMI, op. cit., pp. 182-183. Also ATHAR ABBAS RIZVI, A History of , Delhi 1978, Vol. 1, pp. 114-188, Vol. 2 (1983), pp. 264-318. 9 , a guided one, twelfth Imam of the Shiah expected to return in order to purify Islam. In India traditions regarding the Mahdi received considerable popularity during the reign of Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq (1315 A.D.-1388 A.D.). A man named Rukn who claimed no schooling or instruction from anybody claimed to be Mahdi-i-Akhir uz-Zaman (Mahdi of the last days) and to be endowed with the inspired knowledge. He was beheaded along with his followers, disciples and associates by Firuz Shah Tughluq. Later Saiyid Muhammad of Jaunpur declared himself to be a Mahdi. He was born in Jaunpur in 1443 A.D. during the period of Mahmud Sharqi (1436 A.D. – 1457 A.D.). Mahadwi movement was a revivalist or reformist movement in Islam. Malik Muhammad Jayasi, a famous Sufi poet of Hindi, belongs to this tradition. For a detailed study see ATHAR ABBAS RIZVI, Muslim Revivalist Movements, Agra 1965, pp. 47-133. 10 The only orthodox sufi order which seems to have borrowed elements directly from in India and possibly other forms of Hindu mysticism was Shattari probably linked in its origin with the Bistami order. The followers of the Shattari order lived in forests like the yogis, on a frugal diet of fruits and herbs and subjected themselves to hard physical and spiritual exercises. Shaikh Muhammad Ghauth was an important sufi personality of this order who died in A.D. 1562. For details see AZIZ AHMAD, Studies in Islamic Culture in Indian Environment, Oxford 1964, pp. 137-138; see also KHALIQ AHMAD NIZAMI, The Shattari saints and their attitude towards the state, in Medieval India Quarterly, Aligarh 1950, vol. 1, no 2, pp. 56-70. Manjhan, the author of the Sufi romance Madhumalati (1545 A.D.) belonged to this sect. THE KING AND THE GURU 199

The Suhrawardi sect in India was founded by the disciples of Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi (A.H. 587 & A.D. 1191) who migrated to India due to the Mughal devastation. Shaikh Jalaluddin Tabrizi, Qazi Hamiduddin Nagawri, Saiyyid Nuruddin Mubarak Ghaznavi, Maulana Majduddin Haji, Shaikh Ziauddin were some of his celebrated disciples and khalifas (successors) in India11. Suhrawardis produced a very important poet in Hindi called Kutuban, who wrote Miragavati (1503 A.D.) a very well known work in Hindi literature. About a dozen Sufi romances were produced by Muslim poets in Hindi. These Hindi poets chose mostly Indian tales and introduced Sufi elements of love and beauty into them, following the models of the Persian poets Nizami (1142-1203)12 and Amir Khusrau13. These poets composed long narrative Mathnavis or romances in which Persian classical traditions were intermixed with Indian classical and folk traditions. The earliest poet in this tradition was Maulana Daud who composed the Candayan on the basis of the Lorik Canda tale, sung by Ahir singers in Northern India14.

11 For a detailed study see K.A. NIZAMI, Some Aspects of Religion and Politics in India during the thirteenth century, Delhi 1961, pp. 220-229. One of the important Shaikhs of this sect was Shaikh who was born in Kotaror (Multan) in 1182-83. He died in Multan in 1262. He had seven sons and a very large number of disciples all over Multan and Sindh. 12 Nizami Ilyas b. Yusuf Nizami was born in Ganja (now Kirovalbad) in 535 A.H. (1141 A.D.) is generally supposed to have died in A.H. 600/1203 A.D. but according to Y.E. Bertels there are grounds for favouring any date up to 1211. We owe the correct date to A.A. Aleskar Zade who discovered an old tombstone bearing the date 4 Ramadan 605/12 March 1209 on the actual spot. For hundreds of years pilgrims have visited Nizamis Mausoleum as if it were the tomb of a saint. Cf. Jan RYPKA, History of Iranian Literature, Dordrecht (Holland) 1960, p. 210. 13 Yaminu}ddin Abu}l Hasan Amir Khusrau Dihlavi was born in 651/1253 A.D. in Patiali in Eta district of and died in 725/1325 in Delhi. Throughout the whole of his literary career he took part in court life as a panegyric poet under successive rulers and dynasties, constantly adapting himself to contemporary trends. He did not give up his place at court when in A.H. 671/1272-73 he became Murid to the widely renowned Holy one of Delhi. Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya of . The significance of the Indian poet to Persian literature rests in his suggestive romantic epic poetry and especially in his khamsa wherein he adopts all Nizami's themes such as Layla o Majnun, Makhzanul Asrar, Khusrau o Shirin, Haft Paykar and Iskandarnama. 14 For details see S.M. PANDEY, The Hindi Oral Epic Loriki, Allahabad 1979 (intro- duction p. 21). 200 S.M. PANDEY

Important Sufi poets in Hindi Maulana Daud Maulana Daud's date of birth is not known. His only work Candayan refers to ∆almau, a small town in the Raibareli district in Uttar Pradesh. The date of the composition of Candayan is A.H. 781/1379 A.D.15. The poet refers to his contemporary King Firoz Shah Tughluq16 and mentions his own teacher Shaikh Zainuddin17 who was a disciple of Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-Dihli18 a famous Sufi Saint of the Chishtiya sect. The poet says: «It was the year seven hundred eighty-one when the poet composed this sweet poem. Then Shah Firoz was the king of Dilli and his vazir was called Jauna Shah19. His city ∆almau is beautifully situated and a fort stands above the city and the river Ganga flows below it»20.

15 Baras sat sai hoy ikyasi, tihi yahi kavi saraseu bhasi. [It was the year seven hun- dred eighty one when the poet composed this sweet poem]. 16 Firoz Shah Tughluq was made the king of Delhi on 23 March 1351. He died in A.D. 1388. 17 The Akhbar {ul-akhyar of Shaikh Muhaddis Dehlavi of 's time refers to Shaikh Zainuddin as being the teacher of Maulana Daud, the author of Candayan and disciple of Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlavi. Akhbarul Akhyar (Muhammad Hashim transl.), Delhi 1863 A.D., p. 147. Maulana Daud refers to Shaikh Jainadi in Candayan which is a short form of Shaikh Zainuddin. Sekh Jainadi haun pathi lava (Shaikh Jainadi brought me to the path). Candayan verse 9. 18 Chiragh Dihlavi (the lamp of Delhi) was a disciple of Nizamuddin Aulia (d. 1325 A.D.) and the last Chishti Saint of renown of Delhi who died in A.D. 1356. For a detailed study see MOHAMMAD HABIB, Shaikh Nasiruddin Mahmud Chiragh-i-Delhi as a great historical personality, in Politics and Society during the Early Medieval Period (edited by K.A. Nizami), Delhi 1974, Vol. 1, pp. 383-84. 19 Jauna Shah, according to a medieval Muslim historian Afif Khan-i-Jahan*, worked as Wazir for eighteen years and died in 1368-69 after he had reached the age of eighty. He was succeeded as Wazir by his son who had been named Jauna by Sultan Muhammad and was also given the title Khan-i-Jahan by Firuz (Firuz Shah Tughluq). MOHAMMAD HABIB, KHALIQ AHMAD NIZAMI (ed.), The Delhi Sultanat, Delhi, Peoples Publishing House, p. 613. [* Khan-i-Jahan was from Telang and his name before conversion to Islam was Kannu (flower)] He was a man of the greatest honour in his own community and had a position of distinction before the Rai of Telang. captured Rai and sent him to Delhi but the Rai died on the way. Khan-i-Jahan came obediently to Muhammad bin Tughluq and recited the ‘oath of Affirmation’ (kalima). The Sultan gave him the name Maqbul (accepted) and treated him with favour. Maulana Daud refers to his son who was given the title of Khan-i-Jahan after his death in (1368-69). He was called Jauna Shah]. 20 MATA PRASAD GUPTA (ed.), Maulana Daud K®t Candayan, Agra 1967, verse 17. THE KING AND THE GURU 201

Maulana Daud's candayan depicts the love story of Lorik the hero and Canda, the heroine Canda represents the divine beauty in the text and the hero is the seeker of her love.

Kutuban Kutuban was the author of Mirgavati in which the hero is a prince Rajkumar who is the lover of Mirgavati. Mirgavati like Canda, represents divine beauty on earth. The poet belonged to the Suhrawardi sect of the sufis and composed his text in A.H. 909/1503 A.D. His teacher was Shaikh Bu∂han21 of Barnawa, a place not very far from Delhi, although the poet himself was from Jaunpur and was a contem- porary of Husain Shah Sharqi (1458-1515 A.D.)

Jayasi Malik Muhammad Jayasi finished his work in A.H. 947/ 1540 A.D. during the reign of Sher Shah Sur (d. 1545). He was connected with the Chishti and Mahdawi sects of India. His direct teacher was Shaikh Burhan22, a Mahdawi saint of Kalpi but he also refers to Saiyid Ashraf23 Jahangir Simanani and his disciples who were Chishtis. In Padmavat Ratna Sen is the lover and is the divine beloved.

21 Bu∂han. The two important Muslim musicians of the day were Husain Sharqi, the last Sharqi King of Jaunpur (A.D. 1458) and the contemporary saint, Bo∂han of Barnawa. The saints dwelling became a rendezvous for musicians from Delhi, the Deccan and Jaunpur. S.M. IKRAM and Ainslie T. EMBREE, Muslim Civilization in India, New York 1964, p. 119; See also SHYAM MANOHAR PANDEY, Sufi Kavya Vimars, Agra 1968, introduction, p. 3. 21a SHYAM MANOHAR PANDEY, Madhyayugin Premakhyan, Allahabad 1982, p. 90. 22 Shaikh Burhan was a Mahdawi saint who had a very small and dingy cell in Kalpi where he sat meditating and engaged in reciting God's praises. He died in A.H. 970/1562-63 and was buried in the cell where he had spent most of his time medi- tating. Cf. BADAUNI, Muntakhab ut tawarikh (transl. Wolseley Haig), Calcutta 1928, Vol. III, p. 6, 8, 10, 12. 23 Saiyid Ashraf. Saiyid Ashraf Jahangir Simnani came from Simnan. In India he spent most of his time in Kachaucha, Faizabad, Uttar Pradesh. He died in A.H. 808/1406 at the age of 120 years. He was a Chishti saint and his teacher was Shaikh Alaul Haq from . For details see my book Madhyayugin Premakhyan, Allahabad 1982 (second edition), p. 96. 202 S.M. PANDEY

Manjhan Manjhan composed his Madhumalati in A.H. 952/1545 A.D., during the period of Salim Shah Sur24 (1553-1554 A.D.). The poet refers to the king in detail along with his teacher Shaikh Muhammad Ghawth (Ghaus) Gwaliyari of the Shattariya sect of sufis. In Madhu- malti Manohar, a prince, is the divine lover and Madhumalti is his beloved.

Usman Usman composed his Citravali in A.H. 1022/1613 A.D., during the period of Jahangir (d. 1627). He belonged to the Chishti sect of Sufis. His teacher was Shaikh Nizami Chishti25 whose tomb still exists in Narnaul, Rajasthan on the Delhi-Ajmer railroad. The poet himself was from the Ghazipur district of Uttar Pradesh. There are also other poets in this tradition such as Shaikh Nasir, Khwaja Ahmad etc. The last poet in this tradition was Shaikh Rahim who finished his work BhaÒa Prem Ras in 1915. For the present discussion I will be concentrating only on the four early poets who describe their contemporary Kings and their spiritual teachers in greater detail than do the later poets. For example Maulana Daud described Firoz Shah Tughluq in the following words: «Firoz Shah is a great king of Dilli. The royal umbrella and throne are suitable for him. He is a great scholar and a great fighter in the battle field who defeats his enemies. He is very generous in giving gifts and dona- tions. Words fail to praise him. He loves justice and treats everyone, small or big, equally. He is prosperous and rich. The whole world gives him blessing “O great valiant king, Glory be on you! You should rule Dilli (Delhi) for ages, giving us your protection”»27.

24 Shaikh Muhammed Ghaus (Ghawth) was a Shattari saint who lived during the period of Humayun and Akbar. Humayun had great faith in him. During the period of Sher Shah he was compelled to go to Gujarat. He returned to Agra during the time of Akbar. He died in A.H. 970/1562 A.D. and was buried in Gwalior. For a detailed study see my book Sufi Kavya Vimarsa, Agra 1968, pp. 130-159. 25 SHYAM MANOHAR PANDEY, Madhyayugin Premakhyan, Allahabad 1982 (second revised edition), p. 108. 26 For a detailed study see SHYAM MANOHAR PANDEY, Love symbolism in Candayan, in Bhakti in Current Research (ed. Monika THIEL-HORSTMANN), Berlin 1983, pp. 286-287. 27 Maulana Daud K®t Candayan (ed. MATA PRASAD GUPTA), Agra 1967, p. 7, verse 8. THE KING AND THE GURU 203

After this short description the poet Maulana Daud praises Firoz Shah Tughluq's minister Khanjahan in five verses. He praises Khanjahan's wisdom, intellect, knowledge and his other qualities28. He is like Varruci29 well versed in the scriptures and like Kar∞a in generosity30. He dispels the poverty of the poor. His prestige has reached far and wide31. In verse 12 Maulana Daud describes Khanjahan's superb physical beauty and refers to his qualities as a warrior. When he rides his horse, then the serpent God, Vasuki32, trembles in the nether land (Patalaloka) and so does Indra33 in heaven. «With his sword he cuts the heads of ene- mies. There is no parallel to his sword which destroys his enemies»34. Maulana Daud further says: «Khanjahan is like a pillar for this earth. Had this pillar not been here the earth would have shaken. For him Turks and Hindus are equal. He speaks the truth. He is just to all. God has given him greatness»35. In the same poetic manner Maulana Daud calls Malik Mubarak36, the Governor of ∆almau where the poet lived. Mubarak is an unequalled warrior and a generous king. He is Yuddha vira (a battle hero) and dana vira (liberality hero)37. In fact Maulana Daud's descriptions are traditional but these descrip- tions indicate that kings, ministers and Governors of a particular territory should have three qualities. They should be expert in battle, warfare, generous and just. Here the poet seems to be following the Sanskrit poetic tradition where a Vira has been classified into four categories.

28 For details on Khanjahan see note 19. 29 Varruci: The name of a Sanskrit grammarian and a poet. In the medieval period Varruci had become the symbol of knowledge and intelligence. See also Padmavat 91/8, 446/8. 30 Kar∞a appears in the Mahabharata. He was born to an unmarried mother, Kunti, and was famous for his generosity. 31 Cf. Candayan, op. cit., verse 10. 32 Vasuki, name of a serpent. According to Hindu mythology he is the sovereign of the snakes. He is believed to support the universe and to have been used as a string to whirl the mountain Mandar in churning the ocean for am®t (nectar). 33 Indra: He is supposed to be the King of the Gods and the regent of the visible heavens. 34 Cf. Candayan, verse 13, 14. 35 Cf. Candayan, verse 14. 36 Cf. Candayan, verse 15. 37 Malik Mamarakhu dar kar singaru, dan jujh bar kin aparu (candayan 15/1). «Malik Mubarak is a jewel among the groups of the soldiers. He is an excellent liberality and battle hero». 204 S.M. PANDEY

Sahitya Darpa∞a a text on Sanskrit poetics, which was composed during the period of Alauddin Khilji (d 1316) mentions four types of vira (hero). These are 1. Yuddha vira (battle hero) 2. dana vira (liberality hero) 3. dharma vira (religious hero) 4. daya vira (a hero of compassion) 38 Maulana Daud calls Malik Mubarak, the Governor of ∆almau, a unique jujha vira and dana vira. The Sanskrit word Yuddha (battle) has become jujha here. According to Monier William's Sanskrit dictionary Yuddha Vira is a battle hero or warrior and a dana vira is a liberality hero or a munificent man. But it has to be remembered that these two qualities of a king have been emphasised in Islamic tradition itself. A King should be generous, truthful and just. Sharif Muhammad bin Mansur bin Said Fakhr-i-Mudabbir a contemporary of Qutubuddin Aibak and Iltutamish (1210-1236) composed a book Abadul Harb Wash Shujaah (rules of war and bravery) and dedicated it to Iltutamish. In the book he mentions that a king should be generous, just and should be a military commander39. It is interesting to see that here a Muslim poet follows Indian liberal- ity conventions and combines it with Muslim qualities of a king who should be generous, just and a commander in the battlefield. The poet describes the king's qualities even though his main aim is to describe the love between Lorik and Canda in which of Prem () and Virah (Firaq or Judai) plays an imprtant role40. In fact Lorik is a lover who seeks the divine beauty in Candayan.

Kutuban's Mirgavati The second important poet in this tradition, Kutuban, describes Husain Shah Sharqi who ruled the Kingdom of Jaunpur from 1458 to 1505 A.D. Kutuban describes Husain Shah in the following words:

38 See VISVANATHA KAVIRAJA PRAıITA, Sahitya Darpa∞a, translated into Hindi by NIRUPANA VIDYALANKARA MERA™HA (Meerut), Sahitya Bhandar, 1974 Chapter 3, verse 233-234, pp. 266-267. Sahitya Darpa∞a was composed during the period of Alauddin Khilji (1296 A.D. – 1316 A.D.). 39 Cf. YUSUF HUSAIN, Indo Muslim Polity, Simla, Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 1971, pp. 217-228. 40 SHYAM MANOHAR PANDEY, Love symbolism in Candayan, in Bhakti in Current Research (ed. Monika THIEL-HORSTMANN), Berlin 1983, pp. 269-293. THE KING AND THE GURU 205

«Husain Shah is a great King. The throne is appropriate for him. He is a pan∂it (learned), intelligent and clever. He reads the scriptures and knows their meaning. He is like YudhiÒ†hira41 who holds to dharma or piety. I wish he should live long and protect me. He gives unlimited donations. Even Bali42 and Kar∞a43 could not equal him. Gandharvas44 serve him. He is wise, clever and knows all the languages. I have not seen anyone as competent as he is. He listens to his people. He is a distinguished king»45. In verse 8 the poet describes the military power of the king. «Many kings who have royal umbrellas come to serve him. When his horses run, the earth is filled with dust. When his elephants run in the battle- field, the serpent God (Vasuki) who holds the earth and Indra (the God of heaven) both tremble in fear»46. He does not ignore his dharma (duty and religion). He is a generous king and tries to end the poverty of the people. Nobody could compare to him. He never commits sins. He is religious and meditates upon God day and night47. He reads scriptures (Pura∞as)48 and interprets them profoundly so much so that even learned scholars become surprised.

41 YudhiÒ†hira literally means ‘firm (or steady) in battle’. Name of the eldest of the reputed sons of Pan∂u (really the child of P®tha or Kunti by the God dharma or yama from whence he is often called dharma-putra or dharma-raja). He was the leader of the great war related in the Mahabharat between the Pandavas and the Kurus. He ultimately succeeded Pandu as King, first reigning over Indra-prastha and afterwards, when the Kuru princes were defeated, at Hastinapur. He was a symbol of dharma. Monier Williams's Sanskrit English dictionary, Oxford, reprint 1974, p. 855 (First Edition, 1899). 42 Bali was a generous king among the daityas (son of virocana). Priding himself on his empire over the three worlds he was humiliated by Vishnu, who appeared before him in the form of a vamana or dwarf, son of kasyapa and aditi and the younger brother of Indra and obtained from him the promise of as much land as he could pace in three steps. Vishnu then expanded himself and deprived Bali of heaven and earth in two steps but left him the sovereignty of Patala or the lower regions. Monier Williams, Ibid. 43 Kar∞a: A generous King and warrior; see note 30. 44 Gandharva: a class of gods who inhabit the heaven of Indra and constitute the orchestra at all the banquets of the principal deities. They are celestial musicians. In epic poetry they belong with the apsaras to Indra's heaven, sharing also in his battles. 45 Cf. Kutuban k®t M®gavati (ed. MATA PRASAD GUPTA), Agra, verse 7. 46 Cf. M®gavati, verse 7, 8. 47 Cf. ibid., verse 8/6, 7. 48 Pura∞a is used by sufi poets to mean Muslim religious scriptures. Here it probably means the Quran. There is a misprint in Mata prasad Gupta's edition in the verse «Pa®hahî (Kuran) ka†hin jo hoi» 10/1 whereas the original should be «Purana ka†hin jo hoi». Husain reads Pura∞a which is difficult. Pura∞a has become the kuran in Mata prasad Gupta's edition. It was very common for Hindi sufi poets to use Hindi vocabularly for technical Muslim terms. 206 S.M. PANDEY

It is clear from these descriptions that Kutuban in Mirgavati closely follows Candayan. Husain Shah is a great warrior, scholar and a generous king. He follows dharma. Malik Muhammad Jayasi who composed his Padmavati in 1540 A.D. describes «Sher Shah Sur (d 1545 A.D.) and tells that the king of Dilli is radiant like the sun. He is expert in using swords. He has defeated all the kings as had done Sikandar49. Mountains also break into pieces when the King of the Sur dynasty invades with horses and elephants. The Earth gets covered with dust. Indra in the sky and the serpent God in the nether land start hiding themselves with fear. Meru mountain starts sinking and the ocean starts getting dry. Sher Shah has conquered even those castles and forts which other kings could not conquer»50. The poet says that Naushervan51 was famous for his justice but Sher Shah has surpassed him. He is comparable to «umar»52 in justice. Jayasi describes Sher Shah's justice and wisdom in the same way as does Maulana Daud in Candayan. Like his predecessors Jayasi describes the physical beauty of the king in one full verse. Sher Shah is more beautiful than the moon. He is radiant like the sun. Nobody could look at him53. In verse 17 Jayasi describes his generosity. Hatim tai54, Bali and Kar∞a could not compare to him in generosity. People praise him and say that gold rains in his kingdom (i.e. he gives gifts of gold). Sher Shah is so generous in the world that no-one was born like him before, nor will anyone be born like him in the future. Sher Shah gives unlimited gifts. It is needless to say that Jayasi follows Maulana Daud and Kutuban in describing Sher Shah as a great warrior. His descriptions of Sher Shah's

49 Sikander: The original Hindi word in the text is iskandar Zulqarnain which means Alexander the great, King of Greece. Shirreff has interpreted Zulqarnain (a title of Sikander) differently which seems out of context. A.G. SHIRREFF, Padmavati, Calcutta, Royal Asiatic Society, 1944, see note 31, p. 9. 50 Malik Muhammad Jayasi, Padmavat (ed. VASUDEV SARAı AGRAVAL), verse 13. 51 Nausherwan: The celebrated king of Persia surnamed Adil or the just. He ascended the throne in 531 A.D. The prophet Muhammad used to speak of his good fortune in being born when so just a king reigned. He died in 579 A.D. For details see A.G. SHIRREFF, Padmavati, p. 12, note 36. 52 {Umar: The second Khalifa or successor of the prophet Muhammad. He was famous for his justice. 53 Cf. Malik Muhammad Jayasi, Padmavat (ed. VASUDEV SARAı AGRAVAL), verse 13. 54 Hatim tai: The name of an arabian chief surnamed tai from his tribe tai, famed for his boundless liberality. THE KING AND THE GURU 207 justice and generosity are detailed but there is nothing very original in them. Similarly Manjhan in madhumalati praises Salim Shah Sur (1545- 1553-54 A.D.)55. Salim Shah has defeated all his enemies. He is like YudhiÒ†hir in following dharma and is like Hariscan∂a in following truth. The whole world gives its blessings that the king may rule this earth as long as the sun and moon shine on the earth56. (v 11, 12, 13). It appears from the above descriptions that these Sufi poets in Hindi describe their contemporary Kings. But these descriptions are not neces- sarily factual. In Persian Mathnavi tradition it was necessary for poets to describe a contemporary king, for example Nizami, Amir Khusrau all describe their contemporary Kings. Hindi sufi poets have followed Persian liberality traditions although they have introduced Indian similes and metaphors. For Hindi poets YudhiÒ†hira57 becomes an embodiment of Dharma and Hariscandra58 a follower of truth. For generosity they recall the heroes Kar∞a59 and Bali60 along with Nausherwan61 and Hatimtai62. From these poetic descriptions of the king which are more the imaginations of the poets than historical truths, it becomes clear that a king should be a great warrior, superbly generous and truthful to his subjects. All these poets incorporate these ideals in their descriptions of the king. They give importance to the king's physical beauty also. The king has all the temporal power invested in him.

Spiritual leader (Guru) As well as praising their Kings the Sufi poets in Hindi praise their teacher too. Poets call their teachers Shaikh, pir or Guru and they represent spiritual power. Maulana Daud remembers his teacher Shaikh

55 Salim Shah Sur was the son of Sher Shah Sur. After Sher Shah died in 1545 A.D. he was given the throne. He ruled until 1553-54. He transferred his capital to Gwalior. 56 Manjhan, Madhumalati (ed. MATA PRASAD GUPTA), Allahabad 1961. 57 YudhiÒ†hira, see note 41. 58 Hariscandra, name of the 28th king of the solar dynasty in the tretayuga. He was son of trisanku and was celebrated for his piety. According to Marka∞∂eya Pura∞a he gave up his country, his wife, his son and finally himself to satisfy the demands of Visvamitra; after enduring incredible sufferings he won the pity of the Gods and was raised with his subjects to heaven. For details see Monier Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, Oxford 1974, p. 1220 (First Edition 1899). 59 Kar∞a, see note 30. 60 Bali, see note 42. 61 Nausherwan, see note 51. 62 Hatim tai, see note 54. 208 S.M. PANDEY

Zainuddin63 who was a disciple and nephew of the famous Chishti Sufi Saint Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-Dihli, the successor of Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya after his death in A.D. 1356. The poet says «Shaikh Janaidi (Zainuddin) put me on the path and on that righteous path all my sins were destroyed. He caused all my sins to flow away in the Ganga river and put me on the boat of Dharma (righteousness). Through his mercy my spiritual eyes were opened. Then I learned the alphabet and started writing in Turki (arbo-persian) alphabet. Shaikh Janaidi's (Zainuddin) family tradition is pure. If one serves him, all the sins of a devotee are washed away»64. Kutuban adores his teacher Shaikh Bu∂han, a Suhrawardiya saint who perhaps lived in Barnawan about sixty miles southwest of Delhi and about thirty five miles north east of Meerut in Uttar Pradesh. Kutuban says: «Shaikh Bu∂han is a true pir. By remembering him one becomes pure». Kutuban says that he always remembered the Suhrawardi saint Bu∂han and all his sins were then washed away. He says «my pir is the greatest of all. If he shows the path, people reach their destination quickly. People get salvation easily by following his path»65. Malik Muhammad Jayasi mentions Saiyid Ashraf Jahangir Simnani who was a great Sufi Saint. Saiyid Ashraf Jahangir Simnani came to India from Simnan and settled down in Kachaucha in the Faizabad district of Uttar Pradesh. The saint died in 1405 A.D. about 135 years before the composition of Padmavat in A.D. 1540. Jayasi says «In the family tradition of Saiyid Ashraf there was one Shaikh Haji66 and one Shaikh Kamal67. Both were bright like lamps. They were great pirs who destroyed the sins of their devotees. Even though Saiyid Ashraf was not a contemporary of Jayasi, Jayasi still remembers him with the utmost respect and says that Saiyid Ashraf lit up the light of love in his heart. He says «my path was filled with darkness, he dispelled this darkness. He was a boatman who put my boat across. That Chishti saint was like a bright spotless moon and was the Makhdum (Lord) of this world. I was a slave belonging to this tradition»68.

63 Shaikh Zainuddin, see note 17. 64 Cf. Maulana Daud, Candayan (ed. MATA PRASAD GUPTA), verse 9. 65 Cf. Kutuban, M®gavati (ed. MATA PRASAD GUPTA), verse 6. 66 Shaikh Haji was a Chishti saint and a son of Saiyid Ashraf. See SHYAM MANOHAR PANDEY, Madhyayugin Premakhyan, Allahabad 1982, p. 95. 67 Shaikh Kamal: He was also a son of Saiyid Ashraf. PANDEY, Ibid., p. 95. 68 Padmavat, op. cit., verse 18. THE KING AND THE GURU 209

Another Saint whom Jayasi remembers is a Mahdawi saint, Shaikh Burhan who gave knowledge (jñana) to the poet. The poet describes the whole tradition of Shaikh Burhan. Shaikh Burhan's teacher was Alahdad who was the disciple of Saiyid Muhammad Jaunpuri, a famous Mahdawi Saint of the medieval period. Shaikh Burhan was himself a great Mahdawi Saint who lived in Kalpi in Uttar Pradesh. Abdul Qadir Badauni had met him in 1559-60 A.D. on his way to Chunar69 in the Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh. Jayasi says «I started writing poetry through his instructions. I am his disciple and only through his mercy I will be able to see God»70. Here we do not find details of the Guru's activities and his profound influence on the disciple, but he acknowledges his Guru's spiritual power which gave him incentive to write his famous book Padmavat and other works71. Manjhan, the author of Madhumalati refers to Shaikh Muhammad (Ghaus) who was a Shattari saint and a great friend of Humayun. Manjhan describes Shaikh Muhammad Ghaus in four verses. In verse 14 he says «Shaikh is dear to God. His knowledge is profound. Anyone who remembers him and comes to him attains spiritual knowledge (jñana, Gyan) and his sins are destroyed. He puts a crown on the heads of his devotees. If he loves somebody he cleans his heart. He becomes a king in this world»72. The poet further says «Ghaus gives spiritual power (siddhi) and happiness to the people. He is beyond all sorrows and sufferings in this world. He is always absorbed in meditation. He gives spiritual power to his disciples without much effort. As with the touch of a diamond paras (Parasa), a base metal becomes gold, similarly if someone comes to see Shaikh Muhammad, he obtains spiritual power, siddhi, without any effort, even if he does not have profound courage»73. Manjhan describes his Guru in some detail. His spiritual power, his power to destroy the sins of the devotees, his power of giving knowledge to his disciples have all been described extensively by the poet.

69 See Badauni, Muntakhabut-tawarikh (transl. Haig), Vol. III, pp. 10-12. 70 Malik Muhammad Jayasi, Padmavat (ed. MATA PRASAD GUPTA), Allahabad (Bharati Bhandar), 1963, verse 20 8/9. 71 Jayasi, Ibid., verse 20/7. 72 Cf. Madhumalati, verse 14. 73 Cf. Madhumalati, verse 16/6, 7. 210 S.M. PANDEY

In summary Hindi Sufi texts describe Kings as a temporal power. The King is a warrior, expert in using weapons in battle. He is generous in giving gifts. He exercises his wisdom in exercising justice, but in most cases his power is physical or external. The Guru or pir is the custodian of the spiritual power. The Guru or Pir imparts spiritual knowledge, gives power to realise God and gives siddhi to his disciples. All his activities are internal. He purifies the heart, destroys sins and leads to the path of dharma. According to the Hindi Sufi texts the King should also possess some of the spiritual qualities but the emphasis in the texts is more on the Kings physical and military strength. The King should be able to defeat his enemies and be a battle hero (yuddha vira) as well as a liberality hero (dana vira). The Guru or Pir represents the eternal power in the text. Both King and Guru command respect in these Hindi Sufi texts. There was also some kind of interaction between the Sufi saints and the Kings in the medieval period. For example, Shaikh Muhammad Ghaus of the Shattari sect, a spiritual teacher of the Hindi poet Manjhan, had great influence on Humayun and thus during the reign of Sher Shah, Shaikh Muhammad Ghaus was compelled to go to Gujarat74. The Chishti saints of the Sultanat period had conflicts with some of the Kings75. But some great poets such as Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan served the courts and were closely connected with Sufi saints Kings such as Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya and others76. All these discussions do not fall within the scope of this paper. However it cannot be denied that Sufi Saints had tremendous power and influence on the people. They had their own Vilayat (kingdom) and occasionally antagonised Kings. But sometimes they gained favour

74 For details see SHYAM MANOHAR PANDEY, Sufi Kavya Vimarsa, Agra 1968, pp. 138, 139; Badauni, Muntakhabut Tawarikh (transl. Haig), Vol. III, p. 8; History of the rise of the Mahomedan Power (original Persian of Mahomed Kasim Firishta), transl. John Briggs, Calcutta 1909, Vol. II, p. 195. 75 See Simon DIGBY, A Sufi Shaykh and the Sultan: a conflict of claims to authority, a lecture given to the Istituto Universitario Orientale Naples on 27/28 May 1986 (unpublished); also Simon DIGBY, The Sufi Shaikh as a source of authority, in PuruÒarth (Paris) 9, 1986, pp. 57-73; ATAHAR ABBAS RIZVI, A in India, Delhi, Munshiram Manohar Lal, 1983, Vol. 2, pp. 348-389. 76 Cf. MOHAMMAD WAHID MIRZA, The life and works of Amir Khusrau, Lahore 1962, p. 116; Simon DIGBY, The Sufi Shaikh as a source of authority, in PuruÒarth (Paris) 9, 1986, pp. 69-70. THE KING AND THE GURU 211 from Kings and Kings were also sometimes their disciples. The Kings sometimes went to visit the tombs of the Saints77. Our Hindi Sufi poets referred to both kinds of authority. The Kings who dominated through royal authority and the Sufi saints who had spiritual authority in that period.

I-80134 Napoli (Italy) SHYAM MANOHAR PANDEY Istituto Universitario Orientale P.S. Domenico Maggiore, 12

77 Cf. Tabarrukat and Succession among the great Chishti Shaykhs of the Delhi Sul- tanate, A paper read by Simon Digby at the University of Wisconsin Madison (USA), Oct. 31st-Nov. 2nd 1979, pp. 33-37. Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq while campaigning in Rajasthan around A.D. 1332 visited the tomb of Mu{in-al Din Chishti … The ascen- dancy of the Shaykh Nasir Al Din Muhammed (Chiragh-Dihli), eldest nephew of Maulana Zayn-al-Din and of the latters brother was established at the death of the Shaykh. The tomb of Chiragh-Dihli, the entrance gate and the massive and defensible walls date from the Tughluq period and indicate the patronage of Sultan Feroz Shah Tughluq. Ibid., p. 37 … visited the tomb of Nizam Al Din Auliya but makes no note of a visit to that of Nasir Al Din Mahmud. Ibid., p. 37.

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