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River of Conquest RIVER OF CONQUEST: COLONIAL ENCOUNTERS IN THE N’DONGO KINGDOM OF CENTRAL WEST AFRICA (c. 1575 – 1641) by JORGE HAYES E’SILVA submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the subject ARCHAEOLOGY at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROF JCA BOEYENS CO-SUPERVISOR: MS JP BEHRENS JULY 2011 STATEMENT I declare that River of Conquest: Colonial Encounters in the N’dongo Kingdom of Central West Africa (c. 1575 – 1641) is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references.* Jorge Hayes E’Silva Student number: 0409-267-8 *Note: The candidate suddenly passed away on 21 August 2010 and is hence unable to vouch for the above. In lieu of this the supervisors of the dissertation therefore sign the declaration on his behalf. Prof JCA Boeyens Supervisor Ms JP Behrens Co-supervisor Date: 15 July 2011 ii REMEMBERING JORGE HAYES E’SILVA (21/12/1949 – 21/08/2010) By Dr Ute Seemann Jorge Hayes E’Silva was born on 21 December 1949 on a farm in northern Angola, probably called ‘Shebeya’. He was the fourth son and has a twin sister. His mother was a descendant of the Dorsland (Thirstland) trekkers of the late 19th century. His father was a farmer and big game hunter, originally from Coimbra in Portugal. Jorge grew up in a Portuguese-speaking home. He attended primary school with the nuns in Elizabethville (today Lubumbisha) in the then Belgian Congo. He and his siblings were taught in French. Following the uprising in the Congo during the early 1960s, the family relocated to southern Angola and then, at the beginning of the Angolan Civil War and Independence from Portugal (1975), fled to Namibia. Jorge always said he educated himself ‘in the Angolan bush’. He had a tendency to roam by himself and collect natural history specimens. He had an innate sense of ‘bush survival skills’. He finished his schooling at Jan van Riebeeck High School in Tamboerskloof, Cape Town, having been ‘thrown into’ an Afrikaans language environment. Aged 17/18 he served his military duties with the South African Navy, based in Simon’s Town. He mentioned to me that he was rejected for submarine duties because ‘he was too individualistic’. He then worked as a draftsman on an oil rig in the Amazon Delta, Brazil. Jorge met his wife Anita in 1978 in Windhoek; by then he was nicknamed ‘papillon’ because of his almost compulsive collecting of butterflies, scorpions and spiders. Anita says when they got married and moved into his flat in Tamboerskloof, it was full of terrariums with live scorpions and spiders. iii Their son Sebastian was born in 1979 and daughter Ruby in 1981. From the early 1980s Jorge worked for Grinaker / LTA Construction in the safety / health / and environmental field in which capacity he spent five years (from 2002 to 2007) in Luanda, Angola, directly after cessation of hostilities. In East London in 1991, Jorge enlarged his collections with crocodile and other large predator skulls, acquiring frozen specimens and boiling the flesh off in a make-shift garden cauldron. I met Jorge in 1991 in Hout Bay when excavating the East and West Forts for my master’s degree in archaeology, working during weekends and any spare time we could get. Both of us were in full-time employment, but united in our passion for archaeology. Jorge had experience in excavating fossils in the Karoo. He achieved his UNISA undergraduate degree in about 1992, supported fully by his wife and children and everybody who had befriended him. He then went on – as his time allowed – to complete a BA (Honours) at the University of Cape Town and eventually a master’s degree with UNISA, based on his experience as site manager on most of my research - and contract archaeological sites within the context of historical archaeological work. Jorge’s professional transfer to Angola made it possible to use his expertise in early colonial fortifications (achieved by assisting me and discussing my own work over many years in detail) as a basis for his work on early Portuguese fortifications along the Kwanza River, which we visited during my stay with him and Anita in 2002. Jorge retired from work in 2008, to devote his time fully to his passion for the natural world and to write up his dissertation.* He was a passionate archaeologist, a gifted naturalist and linguist, and an amazing friend in his quiet and dignified way. His untimely death (from an inherited illness) came as a great shock to all who knew him. iv *Supervisors’ note: When Jorge Hayes E’Silva passed away on 21 August 2010, he was busy preparing the final draft of his master’s dissertation. He had already collated all the revised chapters in a single document, but undoubtedly would have wished to edit and improve the manuscript even further. We are much indebted to Dr Ute Seemann who, aided by Jorge’s wife Anita, provided us with the most recent version of the manuscript as well as with Jorge’s research notes. We have endeavoured to resolve some textual inconsistencies and incomplete references, but have refrained from making any major changes to the contents of the most recent draft. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation was researched and partly written in Angola and completed in South Africa. I thus firstly thank and acknowledge the invaluable contribution of my Angolan field assistant and driver, Adriano Luis Pascoal, who was always enthusiastic and dedicated to the completion of this project. I also thank my local field guides, Manuel Matias Mucaji (Massangano, Dondo, and Cambambe) and Castro Pedro Gonçalves (Muxima) for sharing their local knowledge with me. Charles van der Bijl was always prepared to listen and read parts of my manuscript for which I am grateful. I thank my supervisor Prof. J.C.A. Boeyens and joint supervisor Ms J.P. Behrens at UNISA for making this dissertation possible. Dr. Ute A. Seemann was a constant source of advice for which I am most indebted. A warm thank you goes to my daughter and son-in-law, Ruby and Anthony de Gouveia, for their assistance in solving challenges with my computer. Last but not least my sincere appreciation to my wife Anita for all her patience and encouragement during the completion of my dissertation. vi DEDICATION IN MEMORY OF MY BROTHER ANTONIO “TEX" WHO WALKED AMONG THE TALL GRASS WITH THE IMPALA AND THE LEOPARD IN THE KINGDOM OF THE N’GOLA vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page REMEMBERING JORGE HAYES E’SILVA iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi LIST OF FIGURES xi LIST OF TABLES xvi ABSTRACT xvii EXTRACT xviii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Chapter Outline 1 1.2 Previous Research 1 1.3 Time and Space 3 1.4 Objectives 4 1.5 Methodology 7 1.6 Dissertation Structure 9 CHAPTER 2: AN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 12 2.1 Chapter Outline 12 2.2 Historiography 12 2.2.1 Marginalising the African Voice 13 2.2.2 Cultural Contact 14 2.2.3 The Voiceless 14 2.2.4 Archaeological Benchmark 15 2.3 Historical Archaeology 16 2.3.1 Time Period 17 2.3.2 Method 17 2.3.3 The Modern World 17 2.3.4 Colonialism 18 2.4 Archaeological Theory 19 2.4.1 Post-Colonial Theory 21 2.4.2 Middle Ground Model 21 2.4.3 The Terra Nullis Model 23 2.4.4 Colonialism within a Shared Cultural Milieu 25 CHAPTER 3: THE CROSS AND THE SWORD 29 3.1 Chapter Outline 29 3.2 Ceuta 29 3.3 Voyages of Discovery 31 3.4 The Papal Bulls as Sanction for Conquest 33 3.5 The Religious Orders 34 3.6 The Reformation Influence 36 3.7 Encounter with the Bakongo 37 viii CHAPTER 4: FROM KINGDOM TO EMPIRE 47 4.1 Chapter Outline 47 4.2 The N’Gola 47 4.3 The First Voyage of Paulo Dias de Novais (1560) 49 4.4 The Second Voyage of Paulo Dias de Novias (1575) 51 4.5 São Paulo de Loanda 54 4.6 Santa Cruz 56 4.7 Anzele 56 4.8 Muxima 57 4.9 Macumbe 58 4.10 Cultural Material 59 4.11 Massangano 60 4.12 The Death of Paulo Dias de Novais 61 4.13 Cambambe 61 4.14 Queen Jinga 62 4.15 The Impact of the War of Conquest 64 4.16 Markets Re-open 65 CHAPTER 5: SÃO PAULO DE LOANDA 73 5.1 Chapter Outline 73 5.2 Fort São Miguel 73 5.3 Portuguese Colonial Architecture in Luanda (1575–c.1641) 83 CHAPTER 6: RIVER OF CONQUEST 89 6.1 Chapter Outline 89 6.2 Santa Cruz (Tombo) 89 6.3 Muxima 99 6.4 Massangano 114 6.5 Dondo 134 6.6 Cambambe 141 CHAPTER 7: PUNGU-A-NDONGO 172 7.1 Chapter Outline 172 7.2 The N’Gola Royal City 172 7.3 Kabassa 173 7.4 A Future Search for a Royal City: What to Look for 175 7.5 The Múlèmba Tree 179 CHAPTER 8: COLONIAL ICONOGRAPHY AND EUROCENTRICISM 182 8.1 Chapter Outline 182 8.2 The Cross of the Order of Christ 182 8.3 The Padrão: Symbol in Stone 183 8.4 The Meaning in the Stone 184 8.5 Fort São Miguel 185 8.6 Nossa Senhora do Cabo Church 186 ix 8.7 São José de Calumbo Church 187 8.8 Muxima 191 8.9 Eurocentricism 195 8.10 Triumphalism 197 CHAPTER 9: BEYOND THE KINGDOM 199 9.1 Chapter Outline 199 9.2 Literary Sources and Authors 199 9.3 Empire in the East 202 9.4 The Swahili Coast 203 9.5 Kilwa Kisiwani Island 204 9.6 Sofala 206 9.7 Mozambique Island 209 9.8 The Zambezi 213 9.9 Malindi 217 9.10 Iberian Unification 218 CHAPTER 10: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 224 10.1 Material Culture 224 10.2 Research Questions 226 10.3 Legacy 228 REFERENCES 232 x LIST OF FIGURES Page CHAPTER 1 Fig.
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