South African Journal of Botany 2003, 69(3): 370–381 Copyright © NISC Pty Ltd Printed in South — All rights reserved SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY ISSN 0254–6299

The ethnobotany of the Midzichenda tribes of the coastal forest areas in : 1. General perspective and non-medicinal uses

M Pakia and JA Cooke*

School of Life and Environmental Sciences, George Campbell Building, University of Natal, Durban 4041, * Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]

Received 12 December 2002, accepted in revised form 2 April 2003

The coastal forests of Kenya represent a rare and threat- the Midzichenda for basic domestic needs, cultural obli- ened forest type, rich in biodiversity, with an estimated gations and to understand their natural environment. In flora of over 3 000 plant taxa, of which about 550 taxa addition some forest plant resources are traded at a low are endemic. The existing forest patches include sacred scale by some members of the community. The plant kaya forests, which are the historical forest village usage is based on ‘fitness’ for purpose, as well as on homes of Midzichenda tribes. Living in the kaya forest traditional virtues (faith, traditions and taboos) in the villages, the Midzichenda have had diverse experiences Midzichenda social system. There is a significant rela- over generations, giving rise to a rich traditional knowl- tionship between utility and labelling of plant taxa, but edge of . This paper presents some of this tradi- utility is not the only basis used in the traditional plant tional knowledge of plants among three Midzichenda classification. Some traditional preparation procedures tribes: Duruma, Giriama and Digo. The plant resources of plants for usage are important and can be justified by found in the forest areas are significantly important to orthodox science.

Introduction

The coastal forests of Kenya are part of the ‘ancient coastal current and future generations (Hutchings et al. 1996). The vegetation mosaic’ of eastern Africa, which is rich in biodi- need to systematically document indigenous knowledge on versity and forms one of the most important biological sys- traditional plant use cannot be over-exaggerated (Van Wyk tems in the world (Robertson and Luke 1993). Mugabe and 2002), hence the necessity to see conservation areas Clark (1998) noted in general terms that most of Africa’s bio- through the eyes of the plant resource users (Cunningham diversity is a source of cultural development, as plants and 2001), and for ethnobotanical studies to be seen as indis- animals play specific major roles in the cultural evolution of pensable to many conservation and management issues. In local human societies. Despite its biotic capital, Africa is the the recent past, ethnobotanical studies have gained momen- World’s poorest continent, experiencing economic decline tum in Africa (Cunningham and Höft 1997) and at the and food insecurity. These problems result, in part, from Kenyan coast a number of ethnobotanical publications have environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity (Mugabe been produced (Greenway 1940, Glover et al. 1969, and Clark 1998). Although debates on sustainable develop- Schmidt 1991, Beentje 1994, Heine and Legáere 1995). ment have taken place since the 1992 World Summit in Rio, This study presents an overview of the traditonal plant loss and degradation of natural habitats in Africa have con- knowledge of Midzichenda tribes, through a qualitative tinued unabated (Balmford et al. 2002), mainly through over- analysis of plant labelling and usage, and is presented in two exploitation and habitat change. papers. In this first paper, non-medicinal plant uses (build- In Kenya there are about 70 coastal forest patches ing, food, crafting, tying material, poison, symbolic etc.) and (Burgess et al. 1998) and these include the kaya forests, the the general perspectives of the traditional plant knowledge historical forest village homes of Midzichenda tribes estab- system (plant identification and classification) are discussed. lished in the 16th Century (Spear 1978). After living in and The medicinal plant usage, which was noted to be the most interacting with the natural forest for centuries, the important category of use is addressed separately in a sec- Midzichenda developed a rich heritage of traditional plant ond paper. knowledge. However, information on the interaction between plants and people, folk taxonomies, and plant-related Material and Methods mythology still remain poorly recorded (Van Wyk 2002). The major current concern is the rapid loss of this traditional Ethnobotanical information was collected by interviewing 18 knowledge before it is accurately recorded for the benefit of reputable persons in the community, whose profession South African Journal of Botany 2003, 69(3): 370–381 371 involved significant contact with and good knowledge of forests, specifically the Digo, Duruma and Giriama. The plants: kaya elders, local healers, house constructors and plant families and were the most blacksmiths. Ethnobotanical information on the Digo was utilised (Figure 1). The main plant-use categories, based on gathered from eight respondents in six kaya forest areas the number of taxa used in each category (utility index), in and four respondents in other nearby forest areas. These descending order of importance were: building/timber, craft, respondents were interviewed between April 1995 and food, tying material, symbolic and poison. It is worth noting February 1996. Three Duruma respondents in kaya here that in this analysis, two of the major uses (medici- Mtswakara and three Giriama respondents in kaya Fungo nal/magical and firewood) have been excluded. On the basis were interviewed between March 1998 and June 1999. of plant parts used (for the above listed uses), the stem was These 18 respondents are listed in the citations. Interviews the most important and the latex was the least important. were conducted with an individual respondent while walking The relative importance of each main use category (utility along specific transects in the forests, crossing through pre- index) and the relative importance of each plant part (plant- determined different vegetation types, thus allowing for iden- part index) is summarised in Table 1. tifying and discussing as many different plant taxa as possi- ble. Ethnobotanical information collected included: vernacu- Plants for building and timber lar names of plants, plant uses, harvesting procedures and The used for building residential houses, granaries, preparation methods. Differences between respondents livestock yards and sacred huts are selected from among were considered intra-cultural diversity and most of the infor- and species that have strong, hard and durable mation gathered was considered genuine, except where, by . suaheliensis, , subjective assessment, the information seemed unreliable. sulcata, brevicaudata and Scorodophloeus fischeri are a few notable examples. Results and Discussion

General plant usage among the Midzichenda KEY: Plant Family Codes The information concerning the species names, uses and 25 1. Fabaceae other anecdotal evidence from the respondents were com- 2. Euphorbiaceae bined into an ethnobotanical inventory, which is presented 3. 20 4. as Appendix 1. The species in the inventory have been 5. grouped according to plant families. The species within each 6. 7. family are arranged alphabetically. After each scientific 15 name, the vernacular name is given, with an abbreviation of 8. Combretaceae 9. Moraceae the dialect i.e. ‘Dur’ for Duruma, ‘Gir’ for Giriama, and ‘Dig’ 10. Sapindaceae for Digo. All the plant names and plant uses by the different 10 tribal groups are given (except for medicinal and magical

values), including alternative names and uses either given NUMBER OF TAXA USED 5 by the same or different respondents. The authors’ conclu- sions from the ethnobotanical data collected were based upon a qualitative analysis of the information given by the 12345678910 respondents. PLANT FAMILIES (coded, see key) In this study a total of 184 taxa, in 58 plant families, were recorded to be of ethnobotanical importance, exclusive of medicinal values, to communities living around the kaya Figure 1: Important plant families for general ethnobotanical use

Table 1: Number of plant taxa used for each use-category and for each plant part

Plant-part used Stem Roots Bark Latex Whole plant Relative utility-index Use category (100% = 239) Building/timber 63 0 0 0 0 0 5 28.5% Craft/carving 42 1 4 3 0 1 1 21.8% Food/spices 1 37 10 3 0 0 0 21.3% Tying material 8 0 5 0 7 0 0 8.4% Symbolic 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.9% Poison 0 1 2 0 0 1 3 2.9% Tabooed for certain use 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 2.9% Cosmetics 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1.3% Meteorological indicators 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 2.1% Other uses 6 3 4 0 0 2 4 7.9% Relative plant-part index (100% = 239) 53.1% 18.0% 10.9% 2.9% 2.9% 1.7% 10.5% 372 Pakia and Cooke

Although stems make up most of the building materials used son. The wild fruits locally commercialised include: (Table 1), specific reeds (Cyperus exaltatus) and grasses Ancylobotrys petersiana, Dialium orientale, comoren- (Panicum maximum and Panicum sp.) are used for roof sis, Syzygium guineense and kirkii. Collection of thatching. Hardwood and good quality timber species wild for consumption in a household was usually carried (Afzelia quanzensis, Milicia excelsa) are prefered for timber. out by children. However, because these species are becoming rare due to Wild food plants utilised for their leaves are mainly the over-exploitation, other species (Brachystegia spiciformis, vegetable species which include: Amaranthus sp., Solanum Albizia spp. and Syzygium guineense) are becoming alter- nigrum, Launea cornuta, Oxygonum sp, Bidens pilosa, native sources of sawn timber. Talinum caffrum, Talinum portulacum and Cleome sp. Although most of these are collected from the wild, it is com- Plants for craft work and tying material mon for farmers to nurture small populations of wild veg- Plant species with elastic and/or durable are used for etable species occurring on their farms. A few introduced making a variety of traditional household items: e.g. mortars vegetable species e.g. Solanum hybridus are actively culti- (Dobera loranthifolia), pestles (Manilkara sansibarensis, vated, but not the indigenous wild species. Some of the wild Terminalia spinosa), -graters ( rhodog- vegetable species listed above are very popular and are naphalon), traditional plates (Milicia excelsa) and cooking commonly found in local markets. sticks (Garcinia livingstonei). Due to their elasticity, some Fruits of Adansonia digitata and Tamarindus indica are (e.g. Combretum illairii) and scandent shrub species common food spices and food flavours, collected both for (e.g. Grewia plagiophylla, Millettia usaramensis, and commercial and for domestic use. Tamarindus indica is Lantana camara) are used for making fish-traps, bird-traps grown at homesteads for shade, fruit (food spice/flavour) and bows, while the relatively water-resistant inner bark and leaves (medicine), while Adansonia digitata is nurtured fibres of Brachystegia spiciformis and Julbernardia magnis- in farm fields for its fruits (food spice/flavour), leaves (medi- tipulata are used to weave fish traps. The straight growing cine, vegetable) and fruit-shells (palm sap containers). The and relatively lightweight species (e.g. crinita) are Adansonia digitata ‘caves’ are revered as sacred areas used for making arrow shafts. The fibrous leaves of where healers treat their patients. A stem used as a condi- compressa are woven into floor mats, baskets ment was that of pseudopulchellus, which is burnt and hats, while the rachis of the leaves of Encephalartos and the smoke used to flavour fresh milk. hildebrandtii are woven into traditional baskets. Spreading The root tubers of only three wild plant species were (Panicum maximum) and soft branches recorded as being utilised for food by the Midzichenda: (Indigofera sp.) are used for making brooms. The shells of Dioscorea dumetorum, Thilachium africanum and baobab fruits are used to make containers used in tradition- Gonatopus boivinii. The wild root tubers were described as al sap tapping. ‘famine foods’. This perhaps was not surprising, considering Stems of selected climber species (e.g. Schlechterina the labour intensive process of making the tubers edible. mitostemmatoides, Lagenaria sphaerica, Combretum illairii, The D. dumetorum tubers are collected and sliced into very Loeseneriella africana and Cissus spp.), and the inner bark small pieces that are soaked in running water for 2–3 days, of some tree and shrub species (Brachystegia spiciformis, to reduce the ‘bitter taste’. However, from an orthodox sci- Julbernardia magnistipulata, Ficus spp., Acacia spp., entific perspective, the D. dumetorum tubers contain a toxic Grewia plagiophylla and Sterculia rhynchocarpa) are impor- alkaloid dioscorine (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962) and tant tying materials. These are in addition to -fibres of soaking in running water leaches out the water soluble toxi- palm species (Hyphaene compressa) and sisal-like species cant to the point where the flesh is palatable. Most wild plant (Sansevieria spp.). Athough the plant materials used for roots utilised for food need a longer and more complicated tying have been considered as a separate use category preparation time (Guinand and Lemessa 2001) which prob- (Table 1), these are very much encompassed into building ably justifies the restriction of their use to times such as and crafting uses. famine periods. The use of the wild tuber species for food by the Midzichenda is shared with other communities. Food, spice and poisonous plants Dioscorea dumetorum is a famine food in many parts of In addition to cultivated crop plants, the Midzichenda tribes Africa and Thilachium africanum is a famine-food in rely considerably on wild food plants, particularly fruits, veg- (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Gonatopus etables, root-tubers, food-spices and food-flavours. Wild boivinii is used as famine food in (Guinand and fruits represent the most utilised wild food plants (Table 1), Lemessa 2001). sourced from mainly shrub and species. Wild edible The existence of extensive knowledge of wild food plants fruit species include: Deinbollia borbonica, Lecaniodiscus is an indication that the Midzichenda probably combined a fraxinifoilius, Syzygium guineense, squarrosa, hunter–gatherer lifestyle with animal and crop farming in the Carissa tetramera, Vitex payos, and past. However, the observed lower reliance on wild food Ancylobotrys petersiana. The wild fruits were described as plants today was most likely facilitated by the introduction of hardship foods, eaten mainly during hunting, pole cutting new crop varieties and new farming technologies from the and fishing, when individuals are away from home for a rel- Middle East, Far East and Europe, in the pre- and post-colo- atively long period. To some community members though, nial era. This led to the increasing settlement of people out- the collection of selected wild fruits is a commercial activity side the forest areas (Spear 1978). and, therefore, occurrs regularly when the fruits are in sea- Most poisonous plants are locally recognised as such and South African Journal of Botany 2003, 69(3): 370–381 373 in everyday life these plants are used for their toxicity such plant taxa, criteria which are equally significant in modern as in fish poisoning, as arrow poisons and against pests. It (Beentje 1994). Interestingly though, the respon- is understood that one would suffer from poisoning if any dents failed to correctly identify Schlechterina mitostemma- part of a poisonous plant e.g. Adenium obesum and toides in its sapling stages. The leaves of S. mitostemma- kombe, is taken orally. These species are toides, the main identification part, transform from small lin- known to contain toxic compounds (Beentje 1994, Watt and ear leaves, with deeply dentated lobes at the sapling stage, Breyer-Brandwijk 1962); for example Strophanthus kombe to a relatively larger elliptic ones with a cunate base, and contains the poisonous glycosides strophanthoside and acute apex at the mature stage. However, all the respon- cymarol (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). dents consistently and correctly identified S. mitostemma- toides at its mature stage, a reflection that developmental Cosmetic and other plant uses stages, which are structurally varied, remain unnoticed. In Although only a few plant species used for cosmetics and differentiating Cynometra suaheliensis from Scorodo- fragrance were recorded, this shows the traditional recogni- phloeus fischeri the leaf features were not reliable, thus the tion of plants as being part of a ‘seductive world’. Leaf buds bark of the stem was used as a supporting identification fea- (Caesalpinia insolita) are used as lipsticks, root-bark ture. The bark of C. suaheliensis was described as ‘black’ (Dalbergia boehmii) as perfume and fruits (Zanthozylum and that of S. fischeri as ‘white’ by the respondents, while holtzianum) are burnt for their fragrance and as air freshner. Beentje (1994) describes them as ‘reddish brown’ and ‘grey’ Other minor plant uses included: toiletry (leaves of Abutilon respectively. The colour of the bark of the stem was also zanzibaricum), as candles (sticks of Euphorbia nyikae), in important to distinguish between Euclea natalensis (black) apiculture (Ocimum gratissimum leaves as bee-hive baits and Euclea racemosa (white). Also Hugonia castaneifolia and sticks of Grewia forbesii used in honey harvesting), as was correctly identified only from stem features. Root colour detergents (fruits of Jatropha sp.) and toothbrushes (sticks and taste were important to distinguish Uvariodendron kirkii of Salvadora persica, Diospyros cornii and Euclea natalen- from Artabotrys modestus, but the exact details in this iden- sis). Leaves of Zanthoxylum chalybeum are used for making tification were not understood. a tea that has medicinal value. The phenology of some As shown above, neither the identification criteria nor the species (Deinbollia borbonica, Milicia excelsa, plant part used for identification were consistent for all taxa. Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus and Chlorophytum como- In addition, identification methods were not necessarily sim- sum) is interpreted as a meteorological signal by the ilar between respondents. Midzichenda, to spell out seasonal changes, particularly related to crop farming; while the presence of Stylochaeton Folk taxonomy salaamicus indicates a high water table. Generally, the above observations indicate that the plant Based on field observations, the respondents recognised species are selected and used mainly on the basis of ‘qual- and identified most plants by name or by attribute, mainly on ity’ features i.e. fitness for purpose. However, the reasoning the basis of utility attachment. Commonly, a plant has a pos- behind the prohibition of some species for building poles itive or a negative value, sometimes both, and hence gets to (e.g. Vangueria infaustia, Mystroxylom aethiopica, Canthium be recognised and labelled. This observation is similar to kilifiensis and Meyna tetraphylla) and for firewood (e.g. that of Malinowski (1954), who argued that ‘the road from Vangueria infausta, Pyrostria bibracteata and Pyrostria phyl- the wilderness to the savage’s belly and consequently to his lanthoidea) and the restriction of poles of only Grewia pla- mind is very short’, interpreted as ‘the pre-literate people giophylla and Ormocarpum kirkii for building sacred huts, think with their stomach’ (Morris 1984). However, in the were not understood. The species tabooed for building inventory (Appendix 1) some plant taxa were lexicalised, yet and/or for firewood were in most cases used for other pur- had no known use (e.g. Sellaginella eublepharis, poses, particulalrly medicinal. Also there was a restriction on Cynanchum gerrardii, Laportea lanceolata and Memecylon the plant species used for funeral rites (Grewia plagiophylla, amaniense). Other species were unlabelled but had a use Thespesia danis, Ormocarpum sennoides and Cussonia (e.g. Hibiscus altissimus and Pycnocoma littoralis). These zimmermannii), and the species used to commemorate a examples tend to disqualify Malinowski’s argument that tra- deceased family member (Terminalia spinosa and Grewia ditional communities have a ‘utilitarian eye’. Probably by just plagiophylla). It is clear that in addition to fitness for purpose, being conspicuous (Memecylon amaniense, Cynanchum traditional values and social norms form part of the selection gerrardii and Clerodendrum sansibarense) or by being a criteria of species to be used for a given purpose, proving notorious weed (Chlorophytum suffruticosum, Cenchrus cil- that socio-cultural systems are more complex (Prince and iaris, Dactyloctenium geminatum, sechellen- Thomson 1997) than were probably assumed. sis, Megastachya aucronata, Setaria sp. and Sporobolus fimbriatus) a taxon is recognised and is lexicalised. Mostly, Traditional plant identification the unlabelled species were small, herbaceous, under- growth species e.g. Dorstenia sp., Huernia archeri, In the field, respondents identified plant taxa by colour, tex- Siphonochilus kirkii and Crossandra pungens. Most of the ture and shape of parts, particularly leaves, fruits, bark of unlabelled species were, however, consistently and correct- stem, roots and . Occasionally, the taste of the roots ly remembered in subsequent encounters, meaning that was employed. Leaf features (shape, texture and size) were among the taxa referred to in interviews, none was com- the most commonly used features for the identification of pletely unconceived even though not labelled or used. 374 Pakia and Cooke

In the folk taxonomy, some basic categories were parallel Hamisi Kazungu Kalume, kaya guard for kaya Gandini (Duruma) to the ‘species’ level of Linnean nomenclature. For example, and healer trainee, Kwale. different species in the same genera were identified as such Hassan Humbo, kaya elder for kaya Sega in Kwale District. e.g. Cynometra suaheliensis (mufunda-uche) and Cynometra Hussein Siwa, kaya elder for kaya Diani, Kwale District. webberi (mufunda-ulume); Acacia adenocalyx (munga), Majaliwa Mwalimu, traditional healer, Vuga, Kwale District. Mtaveta Kadzomba, local blacksmith near kaya Fungo, Kilifi District. Acacia etbaica (mugundi), and Acacia mellifera (chikwata- Mungwari Mwagwaha, a practising spiritual healer for kaya Fungo, kombe); and Acacia nilotica (muoti), Acacia reficiens (kir- Kilifi District. erengwa), Acacia robusta (mutsemeri), and Acacia zanz- Mwanasha Ganzori, traditional healer in Tiwi, Kwale District. ibarica (muhega-kululu). However, some species in different Mwayaya Chuphi, kaya elder for kaya Mtswakara and retired local genera or families were placed in one basic category in the house constructor, Kwale. folk taxonomy. For example, ‘Muvundza-jembe’ referred to Mzee Ali Mwagoga, kaya elder for kaya Lunguma, and traditional Grandidiera boivinii (in Flacourtiaceae), Acalypha fruticosa, healer, Kwale District. Acalypha echinus and Mildbraedia carpinifolia (the last three Rashid Mambeya, kaya elder for kaya Gonja in Kwale District. are all in Euphorbiaceae); while ‘Mufunga-mambo’ in Giriama, Swaleh Dzilala, kaya elder for kaya Waa, and traditional healer, referred to Ceropegia seticorona (in Asclepiadaceae) and Kwale District. Ipomoea shupangensis (in Convolvulaceae); and in Duruma it References referred to Pentarhopalopilia umbellulata (in ) and Rhoicissus revoilii (in Vitaceae). Balmford A, Bruner A, Cooper P, Costanza R, Farber S, Green RE, From this study it could not be precisely concluded that Jenkins M, Jefferiss P, Jessamy V, Madden J, Munro K, Norman the Midzichenda folk classification is an expression of intel- M, Naeem S, Paavola J, Rayment M, Rosendo S, Roughgarden lectual interest using structural and morphological compo- J, Trumper K, Turner RK (2002) Economic reasons for conserv- nents as suggested by Berlin et al. (1974). Nor can it be ing wild nature. Ecology 297: 950–953 termed a system of symbolic logical ordering of the natural Beentje H (1994) Kenya , and Lianas. National world from the perspective of social reality and practical Museums of Kenya, Nairobi interests, as argued by Levi-Strauss (1966). But generally, Berlin B, Breedlove DE, Raven PH (1974) Principles of Tzeltal Plant as observed by Brokensha and Riley (1980), while working Classification. Academic Press, New York with the Mbeere in Kenya, utility was a major factor in plant Brokensha D, Riley BW (1980) Mbeere knowledge of their vegeta- labelling and folk taxonomy. There was no simple correlation tion, and its relevance for development. In: Brokensha D, Warren DM, Werner O (eds) Indigenous Knowledge Systems and between utility and the traditional nomenclature, contrary to Development. University Press of America, New York the argument of Hargreaves (1976). Since the vernacular Burgess ND, Clarke GP, Rodgers WA (1998) Coastal forests of plant names and tribal uses of plants is a large field of knowl- eastern Africa: status, endemism patterns and their potential edge, criss-crossing different social groups, a further study causes. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 64: 337–367 targeting different social groups as respondents is neces- Cunningham AB (2001) Applied Ethnobotany. Earthscan sary to establish a holistic view of the Midzichenda folk tax- Publications Ltd, London onomy. The unlabelled species, or species not associated Cunningham AB, Höft R (1997) Bulletin of the African Ethnobotany with any use, could be reflecting the limited knowledge of the Network, No. 1 WWF/UNESCO/KEW People and Plants respondents selected, rather than portraying a tribal knowl- Initiative. Harare, edge status. Glover PE, Magogo FC, Bandari HA (1969) A Digo-botanical Glossary from the Shimba Hills. Kenya National Parks, Nairobi, Kenya Acknowledgements — We are grateful to People and Plants Greenway PJ (1940) A Swahili-botanical English dictionary of plant (UNESCO) for funding the fieldwork of this study, and to the names. Unpublished University of Natal for the financial support in the writing and publi- Guinand Y, Lemessa D (2001) Wild-food Plants in Ethiopia: cation through the University of Natal Research Fund. We also Reflections on the Role of ‘Wild-foods’ and ‘Famine-foods’ at a thank the respondents for sharing their knowledge with us, and the Time of Drought. Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia (United Nations kaya elders for allowing us to work in their sacred forest areas. We Development Programme), Addis Ababa gratefully recognise the taxonomic expertise and assistance of Hargreaves BJ (1976) Killing and curing: succulent use in Chitipa. Quentin Luke (National Museums of Kenya) and Dehn von Ahlefeldt Cactus and Succulent Journal 48: 190–196 (University of Natal). Heine B, Legáere K (1995) Swahili Plants: An Ethnobotany Survey. Köppe Verlag Publishers, Cologne Citations (List of Respondents) Hutchings A, Scott AH, Lewis G, Cunningham AF (1996) Zulu Abdallah Ali Mnyenze, kaya elder for kaya Kinondo, and traditional Medicinal Plants: An Inventory. University of Natal Press, healer, Kwale District. Pietermaritzburg Ali Ali Mwadzipea, retired ranger with Kenya Wild Life Services, Levi-Strauss C (1966) The Savage Mind. Weidenfeld and Nicolson Chirimani, Kwale District. Ltd, London Athuman Mwachausa, kaya elder for kaya Diani, Kwale District. Malinowski B (1954) Magic, science and religion. In: Magic, Science Badi Omar Mwamarifah, traditional healer in Tiwi, Kwale District. and Religion and Other Essays by Malinowski. Reprint by Robert Bakari Ali Jiza, traditional house constructor, kaya Muhaka, Kwale Redfield. Doubleday and Company Inc., New York District. Morris B (1984) The pragmatics of folk classification. Journal of Charo Ngoba, local house constructor, near kaya Fungo, Kilifi Ethnobiology 4: 45–60 District. Mugabe J, Clark N (eds) (1998) Managing Biodiversity: National Gatoka Foyo, practising spiritual healer for kaya Mtswakara, Kwale Systems of Conservation and Innovation in Africa. Acts Press, District. Nairobi South African Journal of Botany 2003, 69(3): 370–381 375

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Edited by J van Staden 376 Pakia and Cooke

Appendix 1: A list of plant species of general ethnobotanical importance to Midzichenda tribes. The species in the inventory below have been grouped according to plant families (in upper case and bold). The species (in bold and italics) within each family are arranged alphabetically. The vernacular names are given with an abbreviation of the dialect in reference: ‘Dur’ for Duruma, ‘Gir’ for Giriama, and ‘Dig’ for Digo

ACANTHACEAE Tabernaemontana elegans Stapf Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anders. s.l. Mudigizo (Gir); Chibombo (Dig) Tsalakushe (Dur/Gir); Vongonya (Gir); Futswe (Dig) The Digo describe the species as poisonous. The species is used as a vegetable. ARACEAE AMARANTHACEAE Gonatopus boivinii (Decne.) Engl. Psilotrichum sericeum (Roxb.) Dalz. Chera (Dur); Konzwi (Gir); Kundzwi/Uluanga (Dig) Demu (Dur) The root-tubers are used as famine food. The Duruma use the species as a vegetable. Stylochaeton salaamicus N.E. Br. Toro-nyika (Dur); Kirazi/Konzwi (Gir); Nyaa/Chinyaa (Dig) ANACARDIACEAE The presence of this species is an indicator of a high water table. Lannea schweinfurthii (Engl.) Engl. var. stuhlmannii (Engl.) Kokwaro ARALIACEAE Munyumbu (Dur/Gir); Mnyumbu/Mnyumbu-madzi/Mchumbu (Dig) Cussonia zimmermannii Harms The Giriama use the stem to make traditional three-legged Munyala (Dur/Gir); Mnyala (Dig) stools. The Digo use the timber for funeral rites. Ozoroa insignis Del. ssp. reticulata (Bak. f.) J.B. Gillett Mtsalatsanga (Dur); Msalasanga (Dig) ASCLEPIADACEAE The Digo use the bark of the root on traditional baskets to prevent Cynanchum gerrardii (Harv.) Liede leakage. Katudi (Dur) Ozoroa obovata (Oliv.) R. & A. Fernandes There was no use identified for this species. Msalasanga/Mtsalatsanga (Dur); Msalasanga (Dig) The Digo use the bark of the root on traditional baskets to prevent leakage. Hyphaene compressa H. Wendl. Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. Mukoma/Mulala (Dur/Dig) Mung’ongo (Dur); Mng’ongo (Dig) The fruits are edible. Leaf fibres are used for weaving mats, bas- The fruits are edible and the wood is a source of sawn timber kets and hats and also as tying materials. A local palm sap is planks. tapped from the species.

ANNONACEAE ASPHODELACEAE Uvaria lucida Benth. ssp. lucida Cholorophytum comosum (Thunb.) Jacq. Mudzala-komba/Mudzala-ubomu/Dzala-bomu (Dur); Mudzala Asichana-amwaka/Ria (Gir) (Gir); Mngweni-mlume/Mngweni-madevu/Mngweni-mkulu (Dig) The flowering time of the species is understood to indicate the The fruits are edible. onset of long rains. Uvariodendron kirkii Verdc. Chlorophytum subpetiolatum (Baker) Kativu ined. Mwangajine (Dur); Murori (Gir); Mwangajine-mlume/Mzondohera- Mundogo (Dur) nguluwe (Dig) The fruits are used in a traditional game. The stem is used for building poles. Chlorophytum suffruticosum Bak. Bunduki (Dur) APOCYNACEAE No use was identified for this species. Adenium obesum (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. Mwadiga (Dur/Dig), Mwanyoka/Mwadiga (Gir) ASTERACEAE The species is understood to be poisonous. Bidens pilosa L. Ancylobotrys petersiana (Klotzsch) Pierre Todza (Dur/Dig) Muhonga/Muhonga-udide (Dur); Mutongazi/Mutungazi (Gir); The Duruma use the species as a vegetable. Mbohoya (Dig) Brachylaena huillensis O. Hoffm. The fruits are edible. The Giriama use the leaves as fodder to Muphuphu (Dur/Gir); Muhuhu (Gir/Dig) improve milk production from livestock. The stem is used for building poles, and is preferred for fuel and Carissa tetramera (Sacleux) Stapf for carving. Muloe (Dur); Mtandamboo/Nvuje-ya-tsi (Gir) The fruits are edible. BIGNONIACEAE T.-Dyer Markhamia zanzibarica (DC.) Engl. Muhonga-ulume (Dur); Mpira (Dig) Mtwawanda/Mtalawanda (Dur); Mpalawanda/Mlangazuka (Dig) The fruits are edible. The Digo use the latex to make a birdlime The Duruma use the stem for building poles, for making tradi- and the stem for crafting. tional beds, bows, and in making snares. The Digo used to make Saba comorensis (Bojer) Pichon sandals from the wood. Muhonga (Dur); Muungo (Dig) The fruits are edible. The Duruma and Digo use the latex to make a birdlime and the stem for crafting. Adansonia digitata L. Strophanthus kombe Oliv. Muuyu (Dur/Gir/Dig); Mkulu-kazingwa (Dig) Muzigande (Dur); Mwambalu (Gir) The fruits are edible and used as food spice/flavour. The Duruma The species is understood to be poisonous. South African Journal of Botany 2003, 69(3): 370–381 377

use the fruit shell to make a container used for collecting palm of a sacred hut. The fruits are edible, the stem is used for building sap during tapping. and for making domestic tools, and the inner bark is used as tying Bombax rhodognaphalon K. Schum. material. Mware (Dur/Gir/Dig) The stem is a source of timber. COMBRETACEAE Combretum illairii Engl. BORAGINACEAE Mwamba-ngoma (Dur/Dig); Muchirang’ombe (Dur); Mufunga- Cordia monoica Roxb. mambo (Gir) Musasa (Dur); Mzondohera-nguluwe (Dig) The stem is used as tying material and sticks for making fish The Duruma use the stem for building poles. The Duruma and traps. Digo use the leaves as sandpaper to smooth arrow shafts. Combretum schumannii Engl. Muryanyani/Mukongolo (Dur); Muryanyani (Gir); Mkongolo/ BURSERACEAE Mryanyani (Dig) Commiphora africana (A. Rich.) Engl. var. africana This species is popular for building poles and for fuel. The hollow Mubambara (Dur); Tola (Gir) stem is used to make traditional beehives. The stem is used for making domestic tools e.g. three-legged Pteleopsis sp. stools. Mutula-makwalala (Gir) Commiphora edulis Engl. ssp. boiviniana (Engl.) Gillett The stem is used for building poles. Murya-kwembe (Dur); Mukwembe (Dur/Gir); Mryakwembe (Dig) Terminalia prunioides Laws. The Duruma and Giriama use the species to make a living fence. Mwarambe/Mwanga-msuhu (Dur) Commiphora eminii Engl. ssp. zimmermannii (Engl.) Gillett The stem is used for poles and for firewood. Mudendende (Dur); Mukaya (Gir) Terminalia spinosa Engl. The stem is source of sawn timber planks, which the Giriama use Mwanga (Dur/Gir/Dig) to make traditional coffins. The Duruma use it to make coconut The Duruma and Giriama use the stem for building poles and for graters. making pestles. The Giriama use the stem to make spiritual marker posts (vigango) to commemorate respectable deceased CACTACEAE family relatives. Opuntia vulgaris Mill. Mwatsa (Dur) CUCURBITACEAE The fruits are edible and the species is used as a living fence. Lagenaria sphaerica (Sond.) Naud. Mwambo/Mzigande (Dur) CAPPARACEAE The stem is used as a tying material. Boscia angustifolia A. Rich. var. angustifolia Mugu (Dur) CYPERACEAE The Duruma use the stem for building poles. Cyperus exaltatus Retz. Cleome sp. Mkangaga (Gir) Mwangani (Dur) This species is used for thatching traditional grass houses. The species is used as a vegetable. Thilachium africanum Lour. DICHAPETALACEAE Mkizataa/Mtunguru (Dur) Dichapetalum zenkeri Engl. The Duruma and Giriama use the roots as famine food. Mtundukula (Dur); Mtsonga-nyomba (Dig) The fruits are edible. CELASTRACEAE Elaeodendron schlechteranum (Loes.) Loes. DIOSCORIACEAE Mukibuthri (Gir); Chikunguni-chilume (Dig) Dioscorea dumetorum (Kunth) Pax The Digo use the stem for building poles and for firewood. Mariga (Dur/Gir/Dig); Mani (Dig) Maytenus undata (Thunb.) Blakelock The root-tubers are used as famine-food. Mulimbolimbo (Dur) The Duruma use the inner bark for making birdlime. DRACAENACEAE Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes. Sansevieria arborescens Cornn. Mubafyebafye (Dur) Chongwa (Dur/Gir); Kitengwa (Gir) To the Duruma it is taboo to use the species for firewood and for Duruma and Giriama use the leaves as tying material. The building. Duruma use the leaves to make arrow poison. Sansevieria fischeri (Baker) Marais CLUSIACEAE Konje-mutsi (Dur) Corchorus olitorius L. The Duruma use the leaf fibres as tying material. Chikosho (Dur) Sansevieria kirkii Bak. The species is used as a vegetable. Makonje-ga-msuhuni (Dur); Makonje-mala/Mwanangira (Gir) Grewia forbesii Mast. Duruma and Giriama use the leaf fibres as tying material. Mubavubavu (Dur/Dig); Mubavu-ng’ombe (Gir); Mubavubavu- Sansevieria robusta N.E. Br. mkulu (Dig) Chongwa (Dur) Dry sticks are burnt to smoke off bees during honey harvesting. The Duruma use the leaf fibres as tying material. Grewia plagiophylla K. Schum. Mukone (Dur/Gir); Mkone (Dig) EBENACEAE This an important species in symbolic values i.e. the Duruma use Diospyros consolatae Chiov. the stem in burial rites; the Giriama use the stem to make ances- Muhi-wa-chidzomba (Dur); Mubate (Gir) tral markers (koma); and the Digo use the stem for building poles The stem is used for building poles. 378 Pakia and Cooke

Diospyros cornii Chiov. Pycnocoma littoralis Pax Mukulu (Dur/Gir); Mkulu (Dig) No vernacular name was identified for this species. The fruits are edible. The stem is used for building poles and as The Duruma use the stem for building poles. a source of sawn timber, which is used to make traditional beds Suregada zanzibariensis Baill. and coconut-graters. Sticks are used as toothbrushes. Chikuro/Mudimu-tsaka (Dur); Mudimu-wa-tsakani (Gir); Mdimu- Diospyros natalensis (Harv.) Brenan tsaka (Dig) Katsungwi-ka-tsakani/Mutsungwi (Gir) The stem is used for building. The fruits are edible. Synadenium pereskiifolium (Baill.) Guill. Diospyros squarrosa Klotzsch Kimangio (Dur); Mwatsa (Gir); Chiyuyu/Tupa (Dig) Mdzungu-muho (Dur); Mupweke (Dur/Gir); Mpweke (Dig) The latex is used for fish-poisoning. The Duruma use the latex as The fruits are edible and the stem is used for building poles and a pesticide. for making bows and walking sticks. Uapaca nitida Müll. Arg. Euclea natalensis A. DC. ssp. obovata F. White Mkoko-luanda (Dur) Mukipa (Gir) The Duruma use the stem for building poles. The stem is used for building poles and sticks are used as tooth- brushes. FABACEAE Euclea racemosa Murray ssp. schimperi (A. DC.) F. White Subfamily CAEASALPINIOIDEAE Mubafyebafye (Dur); Muyesa (Gir) Afzelia quanzensis Welw. It is taboo to use this species for building purposes. Mubambakofi (Dur/Gir); Mwamba (Gir); Mbambakofi (Dig) The wood is a source of high quality timber. The Duruma and ERYTHROXYLACEAE Giriama use the stem to make mortars and household utensils Nectaropetalum kaessneri Engl. var. kaessneri e.g. plates and traditional stools. Muryalutswa (Dur) Brachystegia spiciformis Benth. The Duruma use the stems for building poles. Murihi (Dur/Gir); Mrihi (Dig) The wood is a source of sawn timber. The inner bark is used as EUPHORBIACEAE a tying material and for weaving fish traps. The Duruma use the Acalypha echinus Pax & K. Hoffm. stem to make mortar and branches are used to make tool han- Muvundza-jembe (Dur); Mubulushi-ulume (Gir) dles. The stem is used for building poles. Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. var. fruticosa Muburuga/Mutere (Dur); Mburuga/Mbate (Dig) Muvundza-jembe/Msasa-ngudu (Dur); Mutsatsa (Gir); Mtsatsa/ The Digo use the fruits in a local game. Chitsasa/Mphatsa (Dig) Caesalpinia insolita (Harms) Brenan & Gillett The stem is used for building poles. Mtambuu (Dur) Antidesma venosum E. Mey ex Tul. The stem is used for building poles. The Duruma women chew Mdzenga-tsongo (Dur/Dig) stem buds to colour their lips. The Digo use the root-bark to make fishing nets stronger. Cynometra suaheliensis (Taub.) Bak. f. Aristogeitonia monophylla Airy Shaw Mufunda/Mufunda-uche (Dur); Mfunda (Dig) Mwembe-msuhu (Dur) The Duruma and Digo use the stem for building poles and for The Duruma use the stem for building poles. making pestles. The Duruma make traditional furniture from the Bridelia cathartica Bertol. f. timber. The fruits are said to be poisonous to goats. Mkalakala (Dur/Gir); Musimbiji (Gir); Mwambeberu (Dig) Cynometra webberi Bak. f. The fruits are edible. Mufunda/Mufunda-ulume (Dur) Croton pseudopulchellus Pax The Duruma use the stem for building poles and for making pes- Mulaga-pala (Dur); Muyama/Mufukizo (Dur/Gir) tles. The stem is used for building poles. The Duruma and Giriama Julbernardia magnistipulata (Harms) Troupin use smoke from dry sticks to add flavour to milk. Mukuwa (Dur); Muzahe (Gir); Mkuwa/Ukwe (Dig) Euphorbia nyikae Pax var. neovolkensii (Pax) Carter The Duruma and Giriama use the stem to make tool handles and Mwatsa/Mwatsa-komba (Dur); Ganga (Dur/Dig); Kithongothongo/ for building poles. The inner bark is used as tying material and Chaa/Chaa-komba (Gir) the Duruma use it to weave fish traps. The Digo use the stem to The Duruma and Giriama use the species as a living fence and make canoes. dry sticks as candles. Scorodophloeus fischeri (Taub.) J. Leonard Euphorbia tirucalli L. Muphande (Dur) Muphila (Gir) The Duruma use the stem for building poles and the timber is The latex is used to fix feathers on to arrow shafts. used to make traditional furniture. Jatropha sp. Tamarindus indica L. Msabuni/Kabono-koma (Dur) Mukwaju (Dur/Gir); Mkwadzu (Dig) The Duruma use the fruits as a detergent. The fruits are used as food spices and to flavour food. Mildbraedia carpinifolia (Pax) Hutch. var. carpinifolia Muvundza-jembe (Dur); Mtsonga-nyomba (Dig) FABACEAE The Duruma use the stem for building poles and the Digo use the Subfamily MIMOSOIDEAE stem to make arrow shafts. Acacia etbaica Schweinf. ssp. platycarpa Brenan Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Mugundi/Chikwata/Magwada (Dur) Mukwamba (Dur); Chikwamba/Mkambakamba/Mkwamba-lungo The stem is used for building poles. (Dig) Acacia mellifera (Vahl) Benth. ssp. mellifera The Digo use the bark of the roots to make fishing nets stronger. Chikwata-kombe (Dur); Kikwata (Gir); Chikwata (Dig) South African Journal of Botany 2003, 69(3): 370–381 379

The stem is used for building poles. GUTTIFERAE Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd. ex Delile ssp. subalata (Vatke) Brenan Garcinia livingstonei T. Anders. Muoti (Gir) Mfidzofidzo (Dur/Dig); Mufodzohi (Gir) The wood of this species is highly preferred for fuel. The fruits are edible. Pronged twigs are used for making stirring Acacia reficiens Wawra ssp. misera (Vatke) Brenan rods for cooking. Kirerengwa (Gir) The Giriama use the stems for building and the inner bark for HERNANDIACEAE tying material. The wood of this species is also highly preferred Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq. ssp. americanus for fuel. Muhwahwa (Dur); Mchusa (Dig) Acacia robusta Burch. ssp. usamabarensis (Taub.) Brenan The Duruma use the hollow stem to make drum trunks. The Digo Mtsemeri (Gir) use the stem to make canoes. The stem is used for building and the wood is preferred for fuel. Acacia sp. HIPPOCRATEACEAE Mkalino (Gir) Hippocratea africana (Willd.) Loes. var. richardiana (Cambess.) The Giriama use the wood for fuel. N.K.B. Robson Acacia zanzibarica (S. Moore) Taub. var. zanzibarica Mukipesa (Gir) Mulozi/Mupiga-kululu/Mwongololi (Dur); Muhega-kululu (Dur/Gir) The stem is a popular tying material. The wood is preferred for fuel. Albizia anthelmintica (A. Rich.) Brongn. LAMIACEAE Mporojo (Dur/Gir) Hoslundia opposita Vahl The Duruma and Giriama use the stem for making traditional fur- Mjongolo (Dur); Mutsereza-moyo (Gir); Mtserere (Dig) niture and household tools. The Giriama use the hollow stems to The fruits are edible. make traditional beehives. Ocimum gratissimum L. var. macrophyllum Briq. Syn O. viride Albizia versicolor Welw. ex Oliv. Willd. Mtsani/Mtsani-ndzovu (Dur/Dig) Luvumbani/Muvumba-manga (Gir); Vumbamanga (Dig) The wood is a source of sawn timber. The Giriama use leaves as bait to attract bees into a hive.

FABACEAE Subfamily PAPILIONOIDEAE Abutilon zanzibaricum Mast. Craibia brevicaudata (Vatke) Dunn ssp. brevicaudata Muhangusa-mavi/Muvandoha (Dur); Mugalagala/Muhangusa- Muphande/Muchokoi (Dur); Muhande (Gir); Mphande/Chikunguni mavi (Gir); Mtsutsatsaru/Mbangula-mavi (Dig) (Dig) The leaves of the species are used for toiletry. The species is preferred for building and for fuel. Thespesia danis Oliv. Dalbergia boehmii Taub. ssp. boehmii Muhowe (Dur/Gir/Dig); Muhohe (Gir) Murandze (Dur/Dig) The fruits are edible and the stem is used for building, for making The Digo use root-bark chips in oil as a perfume. bows and cooking sticks. The Duruma use the sticks in burial Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. & Perr. rites. Muphingo (Dur); Muhingo (Gir); Mphingo (Dig) The species is popular for building and for carving. MELASTOMATACEAE Erythrina sacleuxii Hua Memecylon amaniense (Gilg) A. & R. Fernandes Mgala (Dur); Mulungu (Gir); Mwamba-ngoma/Mbamba-ngoma Chitambuu (Dur) (Dig) No use was identified for this species. The stem is used for making the wooden trunks of drums. Memecylon fragrans A. & R. Fernandes Indigofera sp. Chaloe (Dur) Mushero/Kashero (Gir); Lihago (Dig) The Duruma use the stem for building poles. The species is used to make brooms. Lonchocarpus bussei Harms MORACEAE Muphumbuluzi/Msumari-bara (Dur) Ficus bussei Mildbr. & Burret The Duruma use the stem for building poles. Mugandi (Dur); Mgandi (Dig) Millettia usaramensis Taub. ssp. usaramensis The leaves are used as sandpaper. Muvamva (Dur); Mvava/Msumari (Dig) Ficus stuhlmannii Warb. The Duruma and Digo use the stem for building poles. The Digo Chigandi-ulimbo (Dur); Uzi-kaha (Dig) use the sticks to make fish traps and wooden nails. The species is used as a source of fire sticks. The inner bark is Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A. Chev. used as a tying material and for making ropes. Mutupa (Gir) Ficus sycomorus L. The Giriama use the leaves in fish poisoning. Muriro/Mudigizo (Dur); Muriro/Mugandi (Dig). Ormocarpum sennoides DC. ssp. zanzibaricum Brenan & Gillett The Duruma and Digo use the inner bark for making ropes and Mupingwa/Kakwaju (Dur); Humbo-ra-nguluwe/Mpingwa/Chikwadzu for basketry. (Dig) Ficus tremula Warb. The Duruma use the sticks in burial rites. The Digo use the stem Mtanga-muho (Dur) for poles to build a sacred hut. To the Duruma it is taboo to use the species for firewood. Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C. Berg FLACOURTIACEAE Muvure (Dur); Mwamba (Gir); Mvure (Dig) Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merrill. The stem is popular for making mortars, traditional plates and Munyondoya (Dig) three-legged stools. The timber is of very good quality. The phe- The fruits are edible. nological changes of the species are used as meteorological sig- nals to explain seasonal changes; when the species loses its 380 Pakia and Cooke

leaves, it is land preparation time; and when the species flowers, Talinum portulacifolium (Forssk.) Aschers. ex Schweinf. it is time to sow the . Komba (Dur/Gir) This species is used as a vegetable. OCHNACEAE Talinum sp. Ochna mossambicensis Klotzsch Mwerere (Dur) Mucherere (Gir); Mtsometsome (Dig) This species as vegetable. The fruits are edible. Ochna thomasiana Engl. & Gilg RHAMNACEAE Mwarika/Charika (Dur); Mukwalino/Mudhahabu (Gir); Mtsonga- Ziziphus pubescens Oliv. mahana (Dig) Mugogodera (Dur) The Duruma and Giriama use the stem for building poles. The The fruits are edible and the stem is used for building. Digo use the sticks to make fish-traps. RUBIACEAE OLACACEAE Canthium kilifiensis Bridson Ximenia americana L. Mkoropha/Mtsamula-ndolwa (Dur) Mutundukula (Dur/Gir); Mdhoto (Gir); Mtundukula (Dig) It is taboo to use this species for firewood and building. The fruits are edible. Canthium mombazense Baill. Mkoropha (Dur) PASSIFLORACEAE The Duruma use the stem for building poles. Schlechterina mitostemmatoides Harms Gardenia volkensii K. Schum ssp. volkensii Mufunga-nyama (Dur); Mwanangira (Gir) Muchimwemwe (Dur); Chimwemwe (Gir/Dig) The stem is used as a tying material. The pronged twigs are used for making cooking stirring rods. Heinsia crinita (Afzel.) G. Tayl. ssp. parvifolia (K. Schum & POACEAE Krause) Verdc. Cenchrus ciliaris L. Mfyefye (Dur); Mulanza (Gir); Mfyofyo (Dig) Nyasi (Gir) The fruits are edible. The stem is used for making arrow shafts. No use was identified for this species. Hymenodictyon parvifolium Oliv. ssp. parvifolium Dactyloctenium geminatum Hack. Mulindi (Dur); Mukirindi (Gir) Nyasi (Gir) The Duruma and Giriama use the species for fire sticks, and for No use was identified for this species. making symbolic fires. Enteropogon sechellensis (Baker) Th. Dur. & Schinz. Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus Hiern Nyasi (Gir) Mutsome (Dur); Munyukufu (Gir); Mtsome (Dig) No use was identified for this species. The fruits are edible. The Duruma and Giriama use the stem for Heteropogon contortus (L.) Roem. & Schult. building poles. When the fruits are ripe it is maize harvesting Katsuchi (Dur); Todza/Nguji (Dig) time. The species is used for thatching traditional grass houses. Meyna tetraphylla (Hiern) Robyns ssp. commorensis (Robyns) Hyperthelia dissoluta (Steud.) W.D. Clayton Verdc. Mutsuchi (Dur) Mutsamula-ndolwa (Dur) The species is used for thatching traditional grass houses. It is taboo to use this species for building and for fuel. Megastachya aucronata (Poir.) P. Beauv. Polysphaeria parvifolia Hiern Nyasi (Dur) Mmangitovu/Mmangomango (Dur); Mumangwi (Gir); Mtsonga- No use was identified for this species. nyomba (Dig) Panicum maximum Jacq. The fruits are edible and the stem is used for building poles. Bondo (Dur); Mondo (Gir); M’bondo (Dig) Psydrax recurvifolia (Bullock) Bridson The Duruma and Giriama use this species for thatching tradition- Mufidzifidzo (Dur) al grass houses and for making brooms. The Duruma use the pronged twigs to make stirring rods for Panicum sp. cooking. Kamondo-katite (Gir) Pyrostria bibracteata (Bak.) Cavaco. The species is used as Panicum maximum above. Mufumula-ndolwa (Gir) Setaria sp. It is taboo to use this species for firewood. Mujowe (Dur) Pyrostria phyllanthoidea (Baill.) Bridson No use was identified for this species. Mufumula-ndolwa (Gir) Sporobolus fimbriatus (Trin.) Nees. It is taboo to use this species for firewood. Nyasi (Gir) Vangueria infausta Burch. ssp. acuminata Verdc. No use was identified for this species. Muviru (Dur/Dig) The fruits are edible. It is taboo to use this species for building POLYGONACEAE and for firewood. Oxygonum sp. Chindiri (Dur); Kimbiri (Gir) RUTACEAE This species is used as a vegetable. Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. var. chalybeum Mudungu (Dur/Gir); Mdungu/Mjafari (Dig) PORTULACACEAE The leaves are used for making tea. Talinum caffrum (Thunb.) Eckl. & Zeyh. Zanthoxylum holtzianum (Engl.) Waterm. Komba (Dur/Gir) Mjafari (Gir) This species is used as a vegetable. The Giriama burn the fruits for their fragrance and as air fresh- ner. South African Journal of Botany 2003, 69(3): 370–381 381

SALVADORACEAE STERCULIACEAE Dobera loranthifolia (Warb.) Harms Cola minor Brenan Mukupha/Muswaki (Dur); Mukuha/Muswaki (Gir); Mswaki (Dig). Muhosa-kitsoka (Gir); Chitsapu (Dig) The sticks are used as toothbrushes. The Duruma and Giriama The stem is used for building poles, for making pestles and for use the stem to make domestic tools. fuel. Salvadora persica L. var. persica Dombeya taylori Bak. f. Mrungurungu (Dur); Mujungumoto (Dur/Gir) Mugwale/ Muchira-ng’ombe (Gir) The sticks are used as toothbrushes and the wood is preferred The stem is used for building poles. for fuel. Sterculia appendiculata K. Schum. Mufune (Dur/Gir); Mfune (Dig) SAPINDACEAE The stem is source of sawn timber planks. Deinbollia borbonica Scheff. Sterculia rhynchocarpa K. Schum. Mupalamwaka (Dur); Mdala-mwaka/Musukari; Mwenda-kuzimu Mugoza (Dur); Muoria (Gir); Mgoza (Dig) (Gir); Mpwakapwaka (Dig) The inner bark is a popular tying material. The fruits are edible. The phenology of the species (flowering and fruiting) is used as a meteorological signal to explain seasonal URTICACEAE changes. Laportea lanceolata (Engl.) Chew Haplocoelum foliolosum (Hiern) Bullock ssp. mombasense Lwavi-lubomu (Gir) (Bullock) Verdc. No use was identified for this species. Mufungasanzu (Gir) The Giriama use the stem for building and for firewood. VERBENACEAE Haplocoelum inoploeum Radlk. Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. Mufungatsandzu (Dur); Mufungasanzu (Gir); Mfunga-sandzu Mutsu/Mkoko (Dur) (Dig) This species is used for building poles and for fuel wood. The species is commonly used for building. Clerodendrum incisum Klotzsch Lecaniodiscus fraxinifolius Bak. Mukamasi (Dur); Chinuka/Mtsasa (Dig) Munyanyakanda (Dur); Mkwalino/Mbelenga (Gir); Mremero The Digo use the stem to make arrow shafts. (Dig). Clerodendrum sansibarense Güerke ssp. sansibarense The fruits are edible and the stem is commonly used for building. Mukulasiku (Gir) Pancovia golungensis (Hiern) Exell & Mendonca No use was identified for this species. Mpalamwaka-wa-msuhuni/Mpalamwaka-msuhu (Dur) Lantana camara L. The Duruma use the stem for building. Mushomoro (Dur/Gir); Mshomoro/Mjasasa (Dig) The fruits are edible. The sticks are woven into bird traps. SAPOTACEAE Vitex mombassae Vatke Manilkara mochisia (Bak.) Dubard Mufudu-madzi (Dur/Gir); Mfudu-madzi (Dig) Munago (Dur/Gir); Mnago (Dig) The fruits are edible. The Duruma and Giriama use the stem for The fruits are edible and the stem is used for making traditional building poles. beehives and domestic tools. Vitex payos (Lour.) Merr. var. payos. Manilkara sansibarensis (Engl.) Dubard Mufudu (Dur); Mufudu-unga (Dur/Gir); Mfudu/Mfudu-unga (Dig) Mung’ambo (Dur); Mung’ambo-kapehe (Gir) The fruits are edible. The stem is used for building poles. Manilkara sulcata (Engl.) Dubard VITACEAE Mwarika/Charika (Dur); Mutsedzi (Dur/Gir); Mbate-tsaka/Mutsami Cissus phymatocarpa Masinde & L.E. Newton (Gir); Mtsedzi (Dig) Mudokadoka (Dur); Mtsuma-pengo/Mtsuma-pengo-utite (Gir) The fruits are edible and the stem is used for building poles, for The stem is used as a tying material. making traditional furniture and domestic tools (e.g. cooking Cissus quinquangularis Chiov. sticks). Mudokadoka (Dur); Mtsuma-pengo (Gir); Dokadoka/Mbugubugu Mimusops obtusifolia Lam. (Dig) Mugama-muho (Dur) The stem is used as a tying material. The fruits are edible. The Duruma use the stem to make pestles. Cissus rotundifolia (Forssk.) Vahl var. rotundifolia Mimusops somaliensis Chiov. Bugubugu (Dur); Ribugu/Mtsuma-pengo ubomu (Gir); Mugama (Dur); Mgama (Dig) Dokadoka/Mbugubugu (Dig) The fruits are edible. The Duruma use the stem for making pes- The stem is used as a tying material. tles and coconut-graters. Cissus sylvicola Masinde & L.E. Newton Vitellariopsis kirkii (Bak.) Dubard Bugubugu (Dur); Mtsuma-pengo (Gir); Dokadoka (Dig) Chitengwa (Dur); Chilishangwe (Dur/Dig); Mkilishangwe (Dig) The stem is used as a tying material. The Duruma use the stem for building poles and for firewood. ZAMIACEAE SELAGINELLACEAE Encephalartos hildebrandtii A. Br. & Bouche var. hildebrandtii Selaginella eublepharis A. Br. Chitsapu/Mudazi-weru/Mtikiti (Dur); Kitsapu/Kirori (Gir) Nyaa (Dur) The Duruma and Giriama use the leaf rachis for basketry. No use was identified for this species.

SOLANACEAE Solanum nigrum L. s.l. Munavu (Dur/ Dig) This species is a popular vegetable.