Evolution of Meal Patterns and Food Choices of Japanese- American Females Born in the United States

Evolution of meal patterns and food choices of Japanese- American females born in the United States

Y Kudo1, GA Falciglia1* and SC Couch1

1Department of Health Sciences, Program in Dietetics and Nutrition Education, University of Cincinnati Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, 04267-0394, USA

Objectives: To examine trends in meal patterns and food choices across two generations of Japanese-American females born in the USA. Design: Cross-sectional cohort study. Setting: Gardena, a suburb of Los Angeles, California. Subjects: One-hundred and seventy-six Japanese-American females, participating in a morning exercise class from December 1998 to January 1999. Intervention: Eighty-eight Nisei (second generation) mothers and their Sansei (third generation) daughters completed a food frequency questionnaire, answering questions regarding meal patterns and consumption frequency of 51 food items. Results: The Sansei ate fewer meals per day compared with the Nisei. Mean frequencies of takeout foods and eating out were higher in the Sansei vs the Nisei. Mean intake of meats and eggs were similar between the two groups. However, mean consumption of traditional Japanese complement foods including ®sh, vegetables and legumes was lower in the Sansei vs the Nisei. Intake of more `Westernized' accessory foods, including salty snacks, regular soft drinks and alcoholic beverages, was higher in the Sansei vs the Nisei. Conclusion: Findings from this study indicate that meal patterns and food choices have changed in succeeding generations of Japanese-American females from traditional fare to a diet containing many complement and accessory foods that are higher in fat, sugar, sodium and calories. Health professionals should be advised to consider the whole diet in making nutrition recommendations to this population as well as providing information to this group on the nutritional bene®ts of many traditional foods. Descriptors: acculturation; ethnic; migrant; Japanese-American; diet; food habits European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2000) 54, 665±670

Introduction culturally unique. The traditional diet of the Japanese was ®sh- and vegetable-based until the end of the nineteenth Studies on eating patterns among the Japanese immigrants century (Yanagihara, 1977). Due to the doctrine of Bud- to the USA have previously shown that Japanese-Amer- dhism introduced from China in the sixth century, Japanese icans consumed a diet higher in animal fats and simple people had been legally prohibited from consuming animal carbohydrates, and lower in complex carbohydrates than products with the exception of ®sh. Consequently, the Japanese individuals consuming a traditional diet (Wenkam traditional Japanese diet was extremely low in fat and and Wolff, 1970; Marmot and Syme, 1976; McGee et al, cholesterol, high in carbohydrates (mainly from rice), 1984; Tsunehara et al, 1990; Egusa et al, 1993; Fujimoto vegetables, ®sh and salt (Tanaka et al, 1992). The prohibi- et al, 1994). Further, a consistent relationship has been tion of animal products exclusive of ®sh continued until the demonstrated between the acculturated diet of Japanese- 1850s when Japan once again allowed migration from its Americans and the prevalence of diet-related chronic dis- borders after two centuries of self-imposed isolation (Yana- eases among this population. The mortality rate of coronary gihara, 1977; Ohnuki-Tierney, 1993). Around 1880, shortly heart disease experienced by Japanese-Americans during after the isolation ended, Japanese people began to emi- the 1960s, for instance, was lower than the mortality rate of grate to Hawaii and the West Coast of the USA (Ohnuki- the USA, but higher than that of Japan (Marmot and Syme, Tierney, 1993; Takahashi, 1997). 1976). These ®ndings suggest that changes in lifestyle with The ®rst immigrants (Issei) were young adults aged from acculturation or urbanization over time may have signi®- approximately 20 to 30 y at their arrival. Further emigration cant effects on diet, nutrition and health. from Japan was then prohibited by the Immigration Act of The acculturation experience of Japanese immigrants 1924. Since the age distribution of the Issei was closely and their descendants in the USA is historically and clustered, their children (Nisei) and grandchildren (Sansei) constituted two fairly discrete succeeding generations of *Correspondence: GA Falciglia, Program in Dietetics and Nutrition Japanese-Americans (Fujimoto et al, 1994). In addition, the Education, College of Allied Health Science, University of Cincinnati Japanese-American population has maintained much Medical Center, 355 French Building East, PO Box 670394, Cincinnati, homogeneity in terms of ethnicity. Fujimoto et al (1994) OH 45267-0394, USA. Guarantor: GA Falciglia. reported that intra-marriage was common at least through Received 10 January 2000; revised 10 April 2000; accepted 20 April 2000 the third generation (Sansei), and inter-marriage rates were Evolution of meal pattern and food choices Y Kudo et al 666 infrequent. Currently, there are few surviving Isseis, and agreed to participate in this study. Eighty-eight Nisei and Niseis and Sanseis account for the majority of the Japanese Sansei pairs met the inclusion criteria as stated above. All population in the USA. subjects signed informed consent to participate in this study. The diet of Japanese-Americans was generally considered to re¯ect the historical and cultural background dis- Materials and methods cussed above, suggesting that their nutritional problems A questionnaire using a multiple-choice format, available may be unique to changes in food patterns re¯ecting in both English and Japanese, was developed to obtain acculturation. However, while the majority of previous demographic characteristics and dietary intake information studies focused on nutrient intake in relationship to diet- regarding meal patterns and food choices. Demographic related chronic disease, generation- and gender-speci®c variables collected included age, education, employment, eating habits and food patterns associated with ethnic immigration year of ancestors, and residence status. identity during the acculturation process within Japanese- Since the purpose of this study was to determine usual Americans are understudied. Investigation of food patterns meal patterns and food choices instead of nutrient intake, may elucidate dietary sources of nutrients and may aid in dietary intake information was obtained using a self-admi- identifying problematic eating behaviors (ie those that may nistered food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). The FFQ list contribute to chronic disease). This information could developed for this study consisted of 51 food items includ- subsequently be used to design effective dietary interven- ing popular American and Japanese foods. Approximately tion strategies to facilitate the adoption of eating behaviors half of the items were adapted from Hankin's questionnaire conducive to achieving optimal nutrition status and health (Hankin et al, 1991). The other items, particularly Japa- for the Japanese-American population. Toward this pur- nese-culture speci®c foods, were added from the list of the pose, this cross-sectional cohort study was designed to 1996 National Nutritional Survey conducted in Japan examine trends in meal patterns and food choices across (Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan, 1998). Each two succeeding generations of Japanese-American females subject was asked to rate her usual weekly frequency of born in the USA. consumption of the listed foods as well as meals, snacks and eating out. The reliability of the FFQ questionnaire was tested by running Chronbach's a using SPSS statistic soft- Methods ware. The range of Chronbach's a was 0.62 to 1.00. Sample population Instructions were provided on all forms and question- Subjects for this cross-sectional study were second genera- naires in English and Japanese. Nisei mothers were given tion (Nisei) and third generation (Sansei) Japanese-Amer- two sets of questionnaires at exercise classes, one set to ican females (daughters and grand-daughters, respectively complete by themselves and one set to give to their of immigrants from Japan) raised and educated in the daughters. Completed questionnaires were returned to the United States, and currently residing in Los Angeles, researchers by mail. California. Nisei were recruited through announcements made at a daily morning exercise class for senior citizens Data analyses during December 1998 through January 1999 at a commu- Mean frequency scores for meals, snacks, eating out and nity gymnasium in Gardena City, a suburb of Los Angeles, individual food items were used to describe dietary patterns California. According to the 1990 US Census (Bureau of and food choices for two generations of Japanese-American the US Census in Gardena, Los Angeles, 1990), the females. Signi®cant differences in food consumption and ethnicity of the suburb is predominately Asian (31.9%), meal patterns between the two generations were determined of which Japanese-Americans comprise 18% of the suburb by Student's t-test (STATA statistical software, 1999). A population of 53,848. signi®cance criterion of P < 0.05 was used for all analyses. Rosters and background information on Japanese-Amer- The model proposed by Kocturk-Runefors (1991) was ican females registered in the exercise classes were avail- used to further elucidate the nature of the dietary changes able through the leader of the senior citizen organization. that had occurred after migration among the Japanese- Some 80 ± 85% of approximately 400 regular senior parti- American study participants. According to this model, cipants aged over 60 y were Japanese-Americans, of whom dietary habit changes are suggested to proceed in a con- 65% were Nisei females. Once recruited, the Nisei were tinuum, where `identity' and `taste' form the opposing asked to provide promotional information about the study poles. Further, the model purports that, when designing a to their daughters. Sansei interested in participating in the menu, an immigrant asserts his=her cultural identity by study contacted the researchers and were recruited by selecting foods from the `identity' pole of the continuum. telephone. These foods include staple foods, which are usually carbo- Inclusion and exclusion criteria were as follows. The hydrate-rich with a neutral taste. When new foods are Nisei mothers had to (1) be of pure Japanese descendants incorporated into the diet, however, food selection proceeds born in the US (eg both parents migrated from Japan to the from the `taste' pole of the continuum, which consists US); (2) have married a Japanese-American male whose primarily of accessory foods including fats, herbs and ancestors had also migrated from Japan to the US, and (3) spices, sweets and snacks. In between the staple and have at least one daughter. The Sansei daughter group accessory foods lie the complement foods which the included: (1) those whose parents and both sets of grand- model suggests change more gradually with acculturation parents were of Japanese descent; and (2) those living than accessory foods but more quickly than staple foods. separately from their Nisei mothers. The Nisei mothers or To assess whether this model held true in the present the Sansei daughters who were born in the USA but spent study, food items on the FFQ were grouped into staple, their childhood in Japan for education were excluded. The complement and accessory foods and were arranged into sample pool for this study was 220 Nisei females. One- hierarchical order within each group based on mean fre- hundred and seventy-nine Nisei had Sansei daughters who quency of consumption. Food schemes were then compared

European Journal of Clinical Nutrition Evolution of meal pattern and food choices Y Kudo et al 667 against each other and against similarly arranged Japanese Sansei daughters. Compared with the Nisei mothers who dietary data collected from historical documents at the turn usually ate three meals per day, the Sansei daughters ate of the century (Tanaka et al, 1992, Wenkam and Wolff, signi®cantly fewer meals, of which breakfast was the most 1970; Yanagihara, 1977) to assess generational changes in frequently skipped. The mean weekly frequencies of take- food selection patterns. This latter dietary data was chosen out foods and eating out, in contrast, were signi®cantly to re¯ect the period when ®rst-generation Japanese immi- higher in the Sansei daughters, compared with the Nisei grants migrated from Japan to the USA. mothers. Results Food choices Sample population characteristics Tables 3 ± 5 present mean weekly frequency of intake of Table 1 summarizes demographic characteristics of the 88 selected food items (as speci®ed on the FFQ) for the Nisei Japanese-American females who participated in this study. mothers and the Sansei daughters. The 51 food items on the The majority of subjects were descendants of Japanese FFQ were classi®ed into three food categories: animal immigrants who came from Japan to the USA between origin foods and fats (Table 3); plant origin foods (Table the 1880s and the 1920s. The mean age (+ standard 4); and sweets, snacks, beverages and seasonings (Table 5). deviation) of the Nisei mothers was 72.3 (+ 5.6) y, while In the animal origin food group, neither the consumption that of the Sansei daughters was 43.2 (+ 6.3) y. Both of meats nor that of eggs was signi®cantly different groups had a minimum of a high school education. between the Nisei mothers and the Sansei daughters Ninety-three percent of the Sansei completed more than (Table 3). Among the seafood group, fresh and dried ®sh 2 y of college, while only 32% of the Nisei received more consumption was lower in the Sansei vs the Nisei. Among than a college education. More than half of the Nisei the dairy foods, the Sansei consumed cheese more often mothers lived in an Asian neighborhood (68%), and 30% than the Nisei. Within the fat group, the Sansei consumed lived alone. No Nisei mothers were working, and the butter and margarine signi®cantly less often than the Nisei. median range of annual income was $30,000 ± 39,999. In In the plant origin food group, the consumption of contrast, the Sansei daughters predominantly lived outside legumes was lower in the Sansei daughters compared to of an Asian community (61%), and only 7% lived alone. their Nisei mothers (Table 4). This difference between Almost all of the Sansei daughters (93%) had either full- time (70%) or part-time jobs (23%), and they mostly earned Table 2 Mean (+ standard deviation) weekly frequencies of meals, more than $50,000 in income per year (77%). take-out foods and eating out in diets of Nisei mothers and Sansei daughters

Meal patterns Nisei Sansei P-value Table 2 demonstrates signi®cant generational differences in meal and eating patterns between the Nisei mothers and the Breakfast 6.9+ 0.5 5.0+ 2.4 0.00 Lunch 6.8+ 0.7 6.4+ 1.0 0.01 Dinner 7.0+ 0.0 6.7+ 1.1 0.03 Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the Japanese-American Nisei Take-out foods 1.3+ 1.1 2.9+ 1.7 0.00 mothers and Sansei daughters Eating out 2.0+ 1.3 4.6+ 2.6 0.01

Nisei mothers Sansei daughters Second generation Third generation (n 44) (% (n))a (n 44) (% (n))a Table 3 Differences in intake of animal origin foods and fats between the Nisei and the Sansei Age 30 ± 39 32 (14) Mean frequencies= 40 ± 49 50 (22) week + s.d. 50 ± 59 18 (8) Difference 60 ± 69 30 (13) Food items Nisei Sansei (%)a P-value 70 ± 79 57 (25) 80 ± 89 14 (6) Meats Education Beef=ground beef 2.2+ 1.5 2.4+ 1.6 9 NS High school 59 (26) 5 (2) Hamburger 0.9+ 0.9 1.1+ 1.2 22 NS Vocational school 9 (4) 2 (1) Pork 1.0+ 0.9 0.8+ 0.7 20 NS College 18 (8) 39 (17) Ham=luncheon meats 1.1+ 1.0 1.1+ 1.2 0 NS University 9 (4) 45 (20) Sausage=hot dog 0.6+ 0.7 0.4+ 0.6 33 NS Graduate school 5 (2) 9 (4) Chicken 3.1+ 1.4 3.4+ 1.5 10 NS Living in an Asian neighborhood 68 (30) 39 (17) Eggs 1.9+ 1.5 1.4+ 1.5 26 NS Living arrangements Seafood Alone 30 (13) 7 (3) Fish=dried ®sh 1.7+ 1.2 0.9+ 1.3 47 0.00 With husband 61 (27) 70 (31) Shell®sh 0.6+ 0.8 0.5+ 0.9 17 NS With relatives=others 9 (4) 23 (10) Canned ®sh 1.1+ 0.8 0.9+ 0.9 18 NS Employment Dairy foods Full time 70 (31) Milk 3.8+ 2.9 3.1+ 2.9 18 NS Part time 23 (10) Yogurt 1.0+ 1.6 0.9+ 1.2 10 NS Not working 100 (44) 7 (3) Cheese 1.0+ 1.0 1.7+ 1.7 70 0.01 Annual income (US$) Fats Less than 20,000 20 (9) Butter=margarine 3.8+ 2.5 2.9+ 1.9 24 0.03 20,000 ± 29,999 23 (10) 7 (3) Bacon 0.5+ 1.0 0.4+ 0.6 20 NS 30,000 ± 39,999 18 (8) 2 (1) Salad dressing=mayonnaise 3.3+ 2.0 3.5+ 2.0 6 NS 40,000 ± 49,999 7 (3) 14 (6) Vegetable oils 2.8+ 1.7 2.7+ 2.2 4 NS 50,000 or more 32 (14) 77 (34) NS not signi®cant. aPercentages may not add to a total of 100 because of rounding. a% Difference total frequencies of (Sansei 7 Nisei=Nisei)6100.

European Journal of Clinical Nutrition Evolution of meal pattern and food choices Y Kudo et al 668 Table 4 Differences in intake of plant origin foods between the Nisei and Table 5 Differences in intake of sweets, snack, beverages and seasoning the Sansei between the Nisei mothers and the Sansei daughters

Mean frequencies= Mean frequencies= week + s.d. week + s.d. Difference Difference Food items Nisei Sansei (%)a P-value Food items Nisei Sansei (%)a P-value

Plant origin foods Sweets and snacks Legumes: Pie=cake 1.3+ 1.2 1.1+ 1.5 15 NS Dry beans=peas 1.0+ 1.2 0.3+ 1.0 70 0.00 Chocolate=candy 2.3+ 2.1 2.6+ 2.2 13 NS Tofu 3.0+ 1.8 1.6+ 1.6 47 0.00 Ice cream 1.3+ 1.6 1.1+ 1.3 15 NS Vegetables Japanese sweets 1.2+ 1.5 0.5+ 0.8 58 0.00 Fresh vegetables 6.0+ 1.8 5.1+ 2.3 15 0.02 Salty snacks 2.0+ 1.8 2.8+ 2.1 40 0.03 Frozen vegetables 1.3+ 1.3 1.3+ 1.4 0 NS Beverages Canned vegetables 1.2+ 1.2 1.3+ 1.3 8 NS Coffee 4.7+ 3.0 4.7+ 3.1 0 NS Potatoes=fried potatoes 1.2+ 0.8 1.8+ 1.4 50 0.01 Green tea 5.1+ 2.5 2.3+ 2.2 55 0.00 Japanese dried vegetables 1.5+ 1.4 0.7+ 1.3 53 0.00 Soft drinks (regular) 1.6+ 1.9 3.2+ 3.0 100 0.00 Japanese pickled vegetables 3.3+ 2.3 1.3+ 1.5 61 0.00 Alcoholic beverage 0.1+ 0.3 0.5+ 1.1 400 0.00 Mushroom 0.8+ 1.1 0.8+ 1.2 0 NS Seasoning Seaweed 1.7+ 1.3 1.3+ 1.6 24 NS Soy sauce 4.5+ 1.8 3.0+ 1.9 33 0.00 Fruits Miso=miso soup 2.1+ 1.4 1.0+ 1.5 52 0.00 Fresh fruits 6.2+ 1.9 4.7+ 2.2 24 0.00 Teriyaki sauce 1.3+ 1.3 1.4+ 1.4 8 NS Canned fruits 1.4+ 1.3 0.7+ 1.0 70 0.00 Catsup 1.4+ 1.1 1.3+ 1.5 7 NS Fruit juice 4.4+ 2.5 4.7+ 2.9 7 NS Sauce mix=BBQ sauce 0.7+ 0.8 0.7+ 1.1 0 NS Staple foods Rice 6.5+ 1.2 5.1+ 2.2 22 0.00 NS not signi®cant Bread=rolls 5.3+ 1.9 4.8+ 2.2 9 NS a% Difference total frequencies of (Sansei 7 Nisei=Nisei)6100. Ready-to-eat-cereals 2.9+ 2.6 2.5+ 2.3 14 NS Oriental noodles 1.9+ 1.3 1.6+ 1.5 16 NS Pasta 1.2+ 1.1 1.8+ 1.3 50 0.01 Japan, rice as a staple food was generally consumed three Pancakes 0.5+ 0.6 0.6+ 1.1 20 NS times a day. In the complement group, the most frequently NS not signi®cant eaten were vegetables, namely mushrooms and seaweed, a% Difference total frequencies of (Sansei 7 Nisei=Nisei)6100. while the least frequently consumed were dairy foods. For the accessory foods, soy sauce and miso were eaten at every meal, and fats formed a minor part of the diet. generations could be attributed to the lower consumption of In comparison with the Japanese diet before migration, beans, peas and tofu (soybean curd) in the Sansei vs the rice remained a staple food in the Nisei diet, while breads Nisei. Among the vegetables, the consumption of fresh and cereals were newly incorporated into this group. vegetables was lower in the Sansei compared to the Nisei, Within the complement food category, the vegetables= as was intake of Japanese-style dried and pickled vegeta- mushrooms=seaweed group, which was eaten the most bles. The consumption of potatoes (including fried pota- frequently before migration, maintained the same ranking toes), in contrast, was higher for the Sansei vs the Nisei. in the Nisei diet. However, the legumes=beans=tofu group, With respect to fruit consumption, fresh fruits were con- seafood and eggs were replaced in the hierarchy of the food sumed more often and canned fruits were consumed less selection scheme by meats and dairy foods. Within the often in the Sansei vs the Nisei. For staple foods, rice and accessory food category, soy sauce and miso, which pre- pasta appeared to change places in dietary priority in viously were top ranking condiments in the traditional succeeding generations. The Sansei consumed rice signi®- Japanese diet, were displaced by fats in the Nisei diet. cantly less often than the Nisei. For the Sansei daughters as compared to their Nisei For `accessory' type foods, such as sweets, snacks and mothers, the order of rice remained unchanged among the beverages, Sansei daughters consumed more of the `Wes- staple food category. Within the complement food cate- ternized' versions of these food items than their Nisei gory, only one food shift occurred. The legumes= mothers (Table 5). Speci®cally, the Sansei had higher beans=tofu group was replaced in the hierarchy by seafood. intakes of salty snacks, regular soft drinks and alcoholic With respect to accessory foods, fat maintained a top beverages than the Nisei. In contrast, Nisei mothers con- position in the ranking scheme. Conversely, sweets rose sumed more of the traditional Japanese snacks and bev- to a higher rank, replacing fresh fruits. Snacks and soft erages, such as Japanese sweets (cooked sweet beans, drinks rose one position in the hierarchy while soy sauce, manjyu and yokan) and green tea. Also, the Nisei's use miso and green tea fell three. of traditional Japanese spices, such as soy sauce and miso, was greater as compared to their Sansei daughters. Discussion Food selection patterns Several important generational differences in meal patterns Table 6 compares food selection schemes across three and food choices were found between the Sansei and the generations of Japanese-American females. Schemes were Nisei in this study. The changes in meal patterns observed designed according to the model by Kocturk-Runefors indicate that, as the custom of three meals a day has faded (1991). The scheme depicting the Japanese diet before across generations, their appears to be a concurrent increase migration represents the typical Japanese diet during the in the use of take-out foods and frequency of dining out. period of migration from the late nineteenth to the early The changing dining habits of the Sansei may be partly twentieth centuries of Japan, and served as an ancestral attributable to a changing demographic pro®le among scheme for comparative purposes. During this period in Japanese-American females. A greater proportion of

European Journal of Clinical Nutrition Evolution of meal pattern and food choices Y Kudo et al 669 Table 6 Food selection schemes for succeeding generations of Japanese-American females. The hierarchy of food selection within each group is compared to the food selection continuum (far left column) proposed by Koctuck-Runefors (1991). Foods at the Identity pole of the continuum in each group of subjects represent foods that are attached to cultural identity. Foods at the Taste pole of the continuum in each group are foods that enhance the taste of basic foods. Numbers in parentheses denote mean frequencies of intake per week

Food selection continuum Japanese diet before migration Nisei mothers Sansei daughters

Staple foods Staple foods Staple foods Identity Rice Rice (6.5) Rice (5.1) Bread (5.3) Bread (4.8) Cereals (2.9) Cereals (2.5) Complement foods Complement foods Complement foods Vegetables=mushrooms=seaweed Vegetables=mushrooms=seaweed (17.0) Vegetables=mushrooms=seaweed (13.6) Legumes=beans=tofu Meats (8.9) Meats (9.2) Seafood Dairy foods (5.8) Dairy foods (5.7) Eggs Legumes=beans=tofu (4.0) Seafood (2.3)

! Meats Seafood (3.4) Legumes=beans=tofu (1.9) ! Dairy foods Eggs (1.9) Eggs (1.4) Accessory foods Accessory foods Accessory foods Soy sauce=miso Fats (10.4) Fats (9.5) Soy sauce=miso (6.6) Sweets (5.3) Fresh fruits (6.2) Fresh fruits (4.7) Sweets (6.1) Coffee (4.7) Green tea (5.1) Soy sauce=miso (4.0) Coffee (4.7) Snacks (3.8) Taste Snacks (3.4) Soft drinks (3.2) Soft drinks (1.6) Green tea (2.3)

Sansei were employed, had a higher income level and thus Japanese describe rice as `self ', and that the term for could afford the luxury of eating or obtaining meals outside cooked rice in the Japanese culture means `meal'. Vege- the home. tables in the Japanese diet are also referred to as `nature' in This growing trend among younger Japanese Americans the seasonal essays of Yanagihara and Yanagihara (1992), a to `eat out' may contribute to a reduction in intake of foods master of the cuisine for the ceremony of tea. Since rice and attached to Japanese cultural identity, as was observed in vegetables have layers of meaning in everyday Japanese this study. These foods included ®sh, legumes such as tofu, life, occupy a prominent place in the Japanese-American vegetables, green tea, and Japanese ¯avorings. Most of food selection scheme, and are healthful food choices, these foods appear to be dif®cult to obtain outside the maintaining interest in these foods may play a key role in home. Nestle (1994) reported that Asian cuisine is typically promoting overall nutritional status and health among altered in restaurants to contain more animal products and Japanese-Americans. less traditionally Japanese ingredients. For similar reasons, Our ®ndings with respect to accessory foods also follow traditional Japanese accessory foods may be replaced by the model proposed by Kocturk-Runefors. This researcher more `Westernized' additives, potentially contributing to suggested that, when new foods are incorporated into the higher intakes of fat, salt and sugar. diet of immigrants, they frequently are foods comprising One of the favorable ®ndings in food selection across the accessory food group, including sweets, snacks and soft generations of Japanese-American females was that the drinks. We observed that salty snacks, soft-drinks, and consumption of meats and eggs, generally considered alcoholic beverages were consumed at a higher frequency predominant sources of saturated fat and cholesterol in in succeeding generations, while the intake of more tradi- the American diet, did not increase from the Nisei to the tional Japanese accessory foods, for example cooked sweet Sansei. Further, intake of obvious fat, such as butter and beans and spices, decreased. Increasing consumption of margarine, declined in the diet of the Sansei compared to snacks, soft drinks, and alcoholic beverages in the Sansei the Nisei. These ®ndings support recent data from Tsune- diets compared to the Nisei may re¯ect Kocturk-Runefors' hara et al (1990) demonstrating that dietary fat intake has (1991) views that accessory foods are not culturally recog- declined over the last few decades among Japanese Amer- nized as `real foods'. As such, these researchers suggest icans. Our ®nding, in combination with those from Tsune- that the consumption of these foods is likely to be ignored hara, is noteworthy given that total fat intake was reported by individuals, resulting in over-indulgence. Excess intake to be on the increase among Japanese-Americans from the of accessory foods can potentially contribute to increased turn of the century to the pre-World War II years (Wenkam intakes of fat, sodium, sugar and calories, all undesirable and Wolff, 1970). dietary changes from the health point of view. Japanese- The scheme of food selection patterns described in this American females should be alerted that some food trade- study indicated that, among all food items examined, rice offs may have negative health consequences. and vegetables ranked among the most frequently con- In conclusion, ®ndings from this study support the sumed foods in the diet across three generations of Japa- notion that dietary changes have occurred among succeed- nese-American females. These ®ndings follow the model of ing generations of Japanese-American females. Transition Kocturk-Runefors, which suggests that succeeding genera- from the traditional Japanese diet to a more `Westernized' tions of immigrants will maintain intake of foods attached diet is observed mainly in the accessory food category, with to cultural identity longer than foods that enhance the taste increased use of salty snacks, soft drinks and alcoholic and palatability of basic foods. Additional support for this beverages. Further studies are needed to determine the model comes from Ohnuki-Tierney (1993), who, in reasons for the observed dietary changes and whether describing the Japanese food culture, reports that the dietary alterations in accessory foods may contribute to

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