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Hawaii Fit, and Was Now Public Purchase

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Hawaii Fit, and Was Now Public Purchase th all rny campaign iest,and this?The the bus and said, get off my bus"- d to thank the bus isgoing to be okav rt, I thanked him pin on his lapel.sa re stories of their 'aluable service of eturningveterans 5, 1946, the rnen iwn by President 11 In a few cases, '. In August1g46, rge Otsuka, who Hawaii fit, and was now public purchase. When Japanattacked Pearl Harbor, nearly 158,000persons of Japanese <ahad no further ancestry lived in Hawaii-more than 35 percent of the popuiation. ;t, it was difficult Surely, if there were dangersfrom espionage,sabotage and fifth column l. activity by American citizens and resident aliens of Japaneseancestry, . As the acerbic danger would be greatest in Hawaii, and one would anticipate that the neseAmericans: most swift and severe measuresof control would be taken there. Noth- ing of the sort happened. heirblood.... in the American Less than 2,000 Nikkei in Hawaii were taken into custody during : injustice to be the war-barely one percent of the population of Japanesedescent. :s ftrr which we Many factors contributed to this reaction, so fundamentally different from the government's alarmed activity on the West Coast. Hawaii was more ethnically mixed and racially tolerant than the West Coast. Race relatirtns in Hawaii before the war were not infected with the virulent antagonismsof 75 years of anti-Asian agitation. Anti- Asian feeling certainly existed in the territory-for instance, there had been an attempt to suppressJapanese language schools,l but it did not represent the longtime views of well-organized groups as it did on the West Coast and, without statehood, xenophobia had no effective voice in the Congress. In Hawaii, the spirit of aloha prevailed, and white supremacy never gained legal recognition.2 The larger population of ethnic Japanesein Hawaii mattered, too. It is one thing to act the bully in venting frustration and historical prejudice on a scant two percent of the population; it is very different to disrupt a local economy and tear a social fabric by locking up more 261 262 PERSoNALJUSTIcE DENIED into Hawaiian societY' JaPanese of the territory's people. And, of course, in Hawaii the u than one-third 1885, when economic and social of exclusion from military areas would have been mean- half-measure economy attracted the faPanese ingless. borers,n social terms' the Army had much greater control Finally, in large Between 1885 and 1894' 2i in Hawaii. Martial law was declared in December of day-to-day events grated to Hawaii, and most staYe suspending the writ of habeas co{pus, so that through the critical 1941, in 1899, Hawaii was annexed tc first months of war, the military's recognized power to deal with any ritory. Planters, fearing that the was far greater than on the West Coast' emergency be extended to Hawaii, brough' The Individuals were also signiftcant in the Hawaiian equation' was ot lowing Year contract labor War Department gave great discretion to the commanding general of the Territory of Hawaii' JaPane each defense area and this brought to bear in Hawaii and on the West waii in the 1890's and eventui ancestry. coast very different attitudes toward persons of Japanese The ofiic Japanese communitY' General DeWitt fixedly distrusted those of Japanesedescent and fought ioHawaii was high between 19 General Delos Em- even minor modification of the exclusion orders. single malel tion, mostlY Young "G' mons, who became commanding general in Hawaii shortly after Pearl migration was ended bY the Harbor had retired General short in disgrace, took a very different 1910, one-fourth ofthose oflal view. Emmons restrained plans to take radical measures with the local born. A Press, language schools population, raising practical problems of labor shortages and trans- emerged in the islands'5 until the pressure to evacuate the Hawaiian Islands had sub- port"tio.r In 1940, nearlY three-qua sided. Emmons does not appear to have been a man of dogmatic racial ([r of Hawaii was native-born' views; in rather practical terms, he appears to have argued quietly but scent comPrised less than 2 Pt for treating the Issei and Nisei asloyal to the United States' consistently percent were American-born' )' unless evidence to the contrary appeared. He urged the use of Nisei te taken over bY the Nikkei' r' in the Army's combat forces; his military intelligence officers scoffed mainland. BY the outbreak ol at the Western Defense Command's view that the loyal could not be integrated into the Hawaiian e distinguished from the disloyal;3 and he firmly rejected the antiJap- and territorial government' br to anese stance of the United States Attorney in Hawaii, emphasizing medi tors, Practicing law and the war Department that it was not backed by any evidence of espi- by old line haole (white) fami onage or sabotage. A few months after succeeding DeWitt as com- manding general on the West Coast, Emmons suggestedto the War Department that the size of the prohibited area be reduced and that it end the exclusion of persons not actually or potentially dangerous; WAR BREAKS OUT in addition, Certificates of Exemption from the exclusion orders were issued so that a program of gradual return to the West Coast was set Following the Pearl Harbor a in motion. turned over to the military, people who were believed to The territorial governor invc the writ of habeas corpus, iu IMMIGRATION TO HAWAII JAPANESE the territory under martial I danger of invasion is removt The first arrived as contract laborers in 1868. Ofthe original Japanese exercised bY the governor t 149 laborers, 92 stayed after their contracts expired and disappeared I i HAWAII 263 again to Hawaii until into Hawaiian society. Japanesedid not come l, of course,in Hawaii the swiftly industrializing 1gg5,when economic and socialunrest in Japan's .swould have been mean- exporting contract la- economy attracted the Japanesegovernment to borers.' had much greater control laborers mi- Between 1885 and f894, 28,69f Japanesecontract ,vasdeclared in December their contracts' grated to Hawaii, and most stayed on after completing sothat through the critical but not yet a ter- In 1899, Hawaii was annexed to the United States rd power to deal with any contract labor would ritory. Planters, fearing that the mainland ban on ;t Coast. laborers. The fol- be extended to Hawaii, brought in 26, 103 contract r Hawaiian equation. The establishing year contract labor was outlawed by the Organic Act general lowing re commanding of also emigrated to Ha- the Territory of Hawaii. Japanesebusinessmen n Hawaii and on the West of the emerging waii in the 1890's and eventually became leaders ons of Japaneseancestry. from community. The official number of immigrants Japan fought Japanese rpanesedescent and a substantial propor- to Hawaii was high between 1900 and 1910, but rders.General Delos Em- until this mostly young single males, moved on to the mainland Ilawaii shortly after Pearl tion, 'ace, very different migration*asendedbythe..Gentlemen'sAgreement''of1907_08.By took a in Hawaii were native- 19i0, one-fourth of those of Japaneseancestry calmeasures with the local culture A press, language schoolsand other elements oflapanese abor shortagesand trans- born. emerged in the islands.5 HawaiianIslands had sub- population tn ig+0, nearly three-quarters of the ethnic Japanese ln a rlan of dogmatic racial of de- of Hawaii was native-born. (In contrast, Californians Japanese to haveargued quietly but population' and 64 comprised less than 2 percent of the state's sloyal to the United States, scent Nisei percentwereAmeri"u.'-bo.,''loDespitewhitefearsthatHawaiiwould He ulged the useo[ far better than on the Le taken over by the Nikkei, race relations were ntelligenceofficers scoffed Nisei were becoming mainland. By the outbreak of World War II' that the kryal could not be earning placesin the municipal 'm11- integrated into the Hawaiian economy, rejected the anti-Jap- and administra- and territorial government, becoming schoolteachers in Hawaii.emphasizing to owned practicing law and medicine' and working in businesses d l,v anycvidence of espi- tors, line haole (white) families'7 rcceedingDeWitt as com- by olcl ronssuggested to the War I areabe reduced and that r or potentially dangerous; WAR BREAKS OUT Lthe exclusionorders were to the West Coast was set was immediately Following the Pearl Harbor attack, control of Hawaii turnedovertothemilitary,andstepsweretakenatoncetocontrol operations' people who were believed to present real risks to wartime Act' suspended I The territorial governor invoked the Hawaii Defense Organic Act' placed the writ of habeas corpus, and, through Hawaii's II "during and until the the territory under mlrtial law the emergemcy 'ers dangerofinvasionisremoved.''Herelinquishedallpowersnormally in 1868.Of the original and employees of exercised by the governor and by ludicial officers ts expirecland disappeared 264 IERSoNALJUsrrcE DENTED recommendations of Robr the Territory to the commanding general of the Hawaiian Department.s "suspicious taken the same line. Suc Enemy agents and characters" were immediately rounded anti-Japanese clamor fron up by Army Intelligence; by December 10, 44g Japanese,German and stern measures to control Italian nationals were interned, along with 43 American citizens.e In Honolulu the atn Sabotage at the time of Pearl Harbor would have been easy, since his ffrst radio addressto tl the city's utilities as well as the storage tanks of private oil companies the Hawaiian Departn were concentrated in a limited area and were not adequately protected. of no intention or desire on After the attack, rumors of sabotage and fifth column activities abounded. mass concentration camp People reported cars zig-zagging along highways or parking acrossroads worry, provided he is not to block traffic, shots being fired from ambush or from cars, guiding swaths cut in sugarcane or pineapple {ields to point out important out mentioning the Japan Emmons i installations, and signals to enemy planes.
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