Climate Engineering Contents

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0.1 Climate engineering ...... 1 0.1.1 Background ...... 1 0.1.2 Proposed strategies ...... 1 0.1.3 Justification ...... 3 0.1.4 Risks and criticisms ...... 4 0.1.5 Governance ...... 6 0.1.6 Implementation issues ...... 6 0.1.7 Evaluation of geoengineering ...... 7 0.1.8 See also ...... 8 0.1.9 References ...... 8 0.1.10 Further reading ...... 12 0.1.11 External links ...... 12 0.2 Weather modification ...... 13 0.2.1 History ...... 13 0.2.2 Cloud seeding ...... 13 0.2.3 Storm prevention ...... 14 0.2.4 Hurricane modification ...... 15 0.2.5 Weather modification and law ...... 15 0.2.6 In religion and mythology ...... 15 0.2.7 See also ...... 16 0.2.8 References ...... 16 0.3 Weather warfare ...... 17 0.3.1 See also ...... 17 0.3.2 References ...... 17 0.3.3 External links ...... 17 0.4 List of proposed geoengineering schemes ...... 17 0.4.1 Solar radiation management, cloud modification ...... 17 0.4.2 Ocean schemes ...... 18 0.4.3 Space projects ...... 18 0.4.4 Greenhouse gas remediation ...... 18 0.4.5 Other schemes ...... 18 0.4.6 See also ...... 18 0.4.7 References ...... 19

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0.5 Cloud seeding ...... 22 0.5.1 Methodology ...... 22 0.5.2 Eﬀectiveness ...... 23 0.5.3 Impact on environment and health ...... 23 0.5.4 History ...... 24 0.5.5 Uses worldwide ...... 25 0.5.6 Conspiracy theories ...... 27 0.5.7 See also ...... 27 0.5.8 References ...... 27 0.5.9 External links ...... 29

1 Environmental Modification Convention 30 1.1 Environmental Modification Convention ...... 30 1.1.1 Parties ...... 30 1.1.2 History ...... 30 1.1.3 Environmental Modification Technique ...... 30 1.1.4 Structure of ENMOD ...... 30 1.1.5 See also ...... 31 1.1.6 References ...... 31 1.1.7 External links ...... 31 1.2 United Nations Convention on Environmental Modification ...... 31 1.2.1 History ...... 31 1.2.2 Environmental Modification Technique ...... 31 1.2.3 See also ...... 31 1.2.4 References ...... 31 1.2.5 External links ...... 32 1.3 List of parties to the Environmental Modification Convention ...... 32 1.3.1 List of parties ...... 32 1.3.2 States that have signed but not ratified ...... 32 1.3.3 References ...... 32

2 Existing Facilities 33 2.1 Arecibo Observatory ...... 33 2.1.1 General information ...... 33 2.1.2 Design and architecture ...... 33 2.1.3 Research and discoveries ...... 35 2.1.4 SETI / METI ...... 35 2.1.5 Other uses ...... 36 2.1.6 Funding concerns ...... 36 2.1.7 Ángel Ramos Foundation Visitor Center ...... 37 2.1.8 List of directors ...... 38 2.1.9 In popular culture ...... 38 CONTENTS iii

2.1.10 See also ...... 38 2.1.11 References ...... 39 2.1.12 Further reading ...... 40 2.1.13 External links ...... 41 2.2 EISCAT ...... 41 2.2.1 History ...... 41 2.2.2 EISCAT facilities ...... 42 2.2.3 EISCAT 3D ...... 42 2.2.4 References ...... 42 2.2.5 External links ...... 43 2.3 High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program ...... 43 2.3.1 History ...... 43 2.3.2 Project overview ...... 43 2.3.3 Research ...... 44 2.3.4 Instrumentation and operation ...... 45 2.3.5 Site ...... 46 2.3.6 Related facilities ...... 46 2.3.7 Conspiracy theories ...... 46 2.3.8 See also ...... 47 2.3.9 References ...... 47 2.3.10 Further reading ...... 48 2.3.11 External links ...... 49 2.4 Ionospheric heater ...... 49 2.4.1 Current HF pump facilities ...... 49 2.4.2 References ...... 49 2.5 Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility ...... 50 2.5.1 Technical information ...... 50 2.5.2 External links ...... 50

3 Conspiracy Theories 51 3.1 List of conspiracy theories ...... 51 3.1.1 Ethnicity, race and religion ...... 51 3.1.2 New World Order ...... 53 3.1.3 False ﬂag operations ...... 53 3.1.4 Wars ...... 54 3.1.5 Assassinations and other deaths ...... 55 3.1.6 US Presidency ...... 56 3.1.7 Apocalyptic prophecies ...... 56 3.1.8 Technology and weapons ...... 57 3.1.9 Media ...... 59 3.1.10 Medicine ...... 60 3.1.11 Real groups said to be involved in conspiracies ...... 61 iv CONTENTS

3.1.12 Paranormal activity ...... 61 3.1.13 Miscellaneous ...... 62 3.1.14 See also ...... 64 3.1.15 Notes and references ...... 64 3.1.16 Further reading ...... 70

4 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 72 4.1 Text ...... 72 4.2 Images ...... 76 4.3 Content license ...... 82 0.1. CLIMATE ENGINEERING 1

0.1 Climate engineering versial. Some limited tree planting[11] and cool roof[12] projects are already underway. Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials.[13] Most experts and major reports advise against relying on geoengineering techniques as a simple solution to climate change, in part due to the large uncertainties over eﬀec- tiveness and side eﬀects. However, most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous climate change.[14] As a rule of thumb it would appear that the scale of risks and costs of each climate engineering option appear to be somewhat inverse: The lower the costs, the greater the risks.[14] Some have suggested that the concept of geoengineering the climate presents a moral hazard because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction.[15] Groups such as ETC Group[16] and individuals such as Raymond Pierrehumbert have called for a moratorium on deployment and out-of-doors testing of geoengineering techniques for climate control.[17][18]

0.1.1 Background

With respect to climate, geoengineering is defined by the University of Oxford Geoengineering Programme as "... the deliberate large-scale intervention in the Earth’s nat- [19] An oceanic phytoplankton bloom in the South Atlantic Ocean, ural systems to counteract climate change.” off the coast of Argentina. The aim of ocean iron fertilization Several organizations have investigated geoengineering in theory is to increase such blooms by adding some iron, which with a view to evaluating its potential, including the US would then draw carbon from the atmosphere and fix it on the Congress,[20] NASA,[21] the Royal Society,[22] and the seabed. UK Parliament.[23] The Asilomar International Confer- ence on Climate Intervention Technologies was convened Climate engineering, also referred to as geoengineer- to identify and develop risk reduction guidelines for cli- ing, is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the mate intervention experimentation.[24] Earth’s climatic system.[1][2][3] Climate engineering with the aim of reducing global warming has two categories of Some environmental organisations (such as Friends of the [25] [26] technologies- carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation Earth and Greenpeace ) have been reluctant to en- management. Carbon dioxide removal addresses a cause dorse solar radiation management, but are often more of climate change by removing one of the greenhouse supportive of some carbon dioxide removal projects, such gases from the atmosphere. Solar radiation management as afforestation and peatland restoration. Some authors attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing have argued that any public support for geoengineer- the Earth to absorb less solar radiation. ing may weaken the fragile political consensus to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.[27] Geoengineering has been proposed as a potential third option for tackling global warming, alongside mitigation [4] and adaptation. Scientists do not typically suggest geo- 0.1.2 Proposed strategies engineering the climate as an alternative to emissions control, but rather an accompanying strategy.[5] Reviews of geoengineering techniques for climate control have em- See also: List of proposed geoengineering schemes phasised that they are not substitutes for emission controls and have identified potentially stronger and weaker Several geoengineering strategies have been proposed. schemes.[6][7][8] The costs, benefits, and risks of many IPCC documents detail several notable proposals.[28] geoengineering approaches to climate change are not well These fall into two main categories: solar radiation man- understood.[9][10] agement and carbon dioxide removal. However, other No known large-scale climate engineering projects have proposals exist. taken place to date. Almost all research has consisted of The Geoengineering Climate: Technical Evaluation and computer modelling or laboratory tests, and attempts to Discussion of Impacts project of the National Academy move to real-world experimentation have proved contro- of Sciences funded by United States agencies, including 2 CONTENTS

NOAA, NASA, and the CIA,[29] commenced in March surface. These methods would not reduce greenhouse 2013, is expected to issue a report in fall 2014. gas concentrations in the atmosphere, and thus would not “An ad hoc committee will conduct a technical evaluation seek to address problems such as the ocean acidification of a limited number of proposed geoengineering tech- caused by CO2. In general solar radiation management niques, including examples of both solar radiation man- projects would have the advantage of speedy deployment agement (SRM) and carbon dioxide removal (CDR) tech- and effect when compared to other climate policies of niques, and comment generally on the potential impacts mitigation or carbon dioxide removal. While greenhouse of deploying these technologies, including possible en- gas remediation offers a more comprehensive possible solution to climate change, it does not give instantaneous vironmental, economic, and national security concerns. The study will: results; for that, solar radiation management is required. Solar radiation management methods[2] may include: 1. Evaluate what is currently known about the science of several (3-4) selected example techniques, in- • Surface-based (land or ocean albedo modification); cluding potential risks and consequences (both in- e.g. cool roof—using pale-colored roofing and tended and unintended), such as impacts, or lack paving materials. thereof, on ocean acidification, • Troposphere-based, for example cloud whitening – 2. Describe what is known about the viability for im- using fine sea water spray to whiten clouds and thus plementation of the proposed techniques including increase cloud reflectivity. technological and cost considerations, • Upper atmosphere-based: creating reflective 3. Briefly explain other geoengineering technologies aerosols, such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols, that have been proposed (beyond the selected ex- aluminium oxide particles, even specifically amples), and designed self-levitating aerosols.[32]

4. Identify future research needed to provide a credible • Space-based: space sunshade—obstructing solar ra- scientific underpinning for future discussions. diation with space-based mirrors, asteroid dust,[33] etc. The study will also discuss historical examples of related technologies (e.g., cloud seeding and other weather modification) for lessons that might be learned about societal Carbon dioxide removal reactions, examine what international agreements exist which may be relevant to the experimental testing or de- Main articles: Carbon dioxide removal, Greenhouse gas ployment of geoengineering technologies, and briefly ex- remediation and Carbon sequestration plore potential societal and ethical considerations related to geoengineering. This study is intended to provide a Carbon dioxide removal projects seek to remove careful, clear scientific foundation that informs ethical, greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. Proposed meth- legal, and political discussions surrounding geoengineer- ods include those that directly remove such gases from ing. the atmosphere, as well as indirect methods that seek The project has support from the National Academy of to promote natural processes that draw down and se- Sciences, the U.S. intelligence community, the National quester CO2 (e.g. tree planting). Many projects overlap Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the Na- with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration tional Aeronautics and Space Administration. The ap- projects, and may not be considered to be geoengineering proximate start date for the project is March 2013; a re- by all commentators. Techniques in this category include: port is expected be issued in fall 2014.”[30] • Creating biochar and mixing it with soil to create terra preta Solar radiation management • Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage to se- Main article: Solar radiation management quester carbon and simultaneously provide energy See also: Stratospheric sulfate aerosols (geoengineering) and Marine Cloud Brightening • Carbon air capture to remove carbon dioxide from ambient air [2][31] Solar radiation management (SRM) techniques • Planting trees to offset carbon emissions would seek to reduce sunlight absorbed (ultra-violet, near infra-red and visible). This would be achieved by de- • Ocean nourishment including iron fertilisation of the flecting sunlight away from the Earth, or by increasing oceans the reflectivity (albedo) of the atmosphere or the Earth’s 0.1. CLIMATE ENGINEERING 3

the hope of temporarily reversing some aspects of climate change and allowing the natural climate to be substantially preserved whilst greenhouse gas emissions are brought under control and removed from the atmosphere by natural or artiﬁcial processes.

Costs

Some geoengineering techniques, such as cool roof techniques, can be achieved at little or no cost, and may even offer a financial payback.[41] IPCC (2007) concluded that reliable cost estimates for geoengineering options had not been published.[42] More recently, early research into costs of solar radiation management have been published.[43] This suggests that “well designed sys- Significant reduction in ice volume in the Arctic Ocean in the tems” might be available for costs in the order of a few range between 1979 and 2007 years hundred million dollars per year.[44] These are much lower than costs to achieve comprehensive reductions in CO2 emissions. Such costs would be within the budget of 0.1.3 Justification most nations, and even a handful of rich individuals.[45] Tipping points and positive feedback In their 2009 report Geoengineering the climate the Royal Society adjudged afforestation and stratospheric aerosols as the methods with the “highest affordability” (meaning lowest costs). Furthermore stratospheric aerosol injection, having the highest effectiveness and affordability, would be the nearest approximation to the “ideal method”, with the (significant) disadvantage of high uncertainties considering safety and unwanted side effects. While afforestation scored highly for safety, it was found to be of limited effectiveness for treating climate change (see Table 5.1, Figure 5.1., pages 48–49)[2]

Ethics and responsibility

Climate change during the last 65 million years. The Paleocene– Climate engineering would represent a large-scale, in- Eocene Thermal Maximum is labelled PETM. tentional effort to modify the environment, which differ from inadvertent climate change through activities It is argued that climate change may cross tipping [34] such as burning fossil fuels. Intentional climate change is points where elements of the climate system may 'tip' viewed very differently from a moral standpoint.[46] This from one stable state to another stable state, much like raises questions of whether we as humans have the right to a glass tipping over. When the new state is reached, change the climate, and under what conditions this right further warming may be caused by positive feedback [35] obtains. Furthermore, ethical arguments often confront effects,. An example of a proposed causal chain lead- larger considerations of worldview, including individual ing to runaway global warming is the collapse of Arctic [36] and social religious commitments. This arguably means sea ice triggering subsequent release of methane. discussions of climate engineering should reflect on how The precise identity of such “tipping points” is not clear, religious commitments influence the debate.[47] For many with scientists taking differing views on whether specific people, religious beliefs are pivotal in defining the role of systems are capable of “tipping” and the point at which human beings in the wider world. Some religious com- this “tipping” will occur.[37] An example of a previous munities might claim that humans have no responsibility tipping point is that which preceded the rapid warm- in managing the climate, instead seeing such world sys- ing leading up to the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Max- tems as the exclusive domain of a Creator. In contrast, imum. Once a tipping point is crossed, cuts in anthro- other religious communities might see the human role as pogenic greenhouse gas emissions will not be able to re- one of “stewardship” or benevolent management of the verse the change. Conservation of resources and reduc- world.[48] The question of ethics also relates to issues of tion of greenhouse emissions, used in conjunction with policy decision-making. For example, the selection of a geoengineering, are therefore considered a viable option globally agreed target temperature is a significant prob- by some commentators.[38][39][40] Geoengineering offers lem in any geoengineering governance regime, as differ- 4 CONTENTS ent countries or interest groups may seek different global ployment of geoengineering and under what governance temperatures.[49] regime the deployment can be monitored and supervised. What most ethicists, policy-makers, and scientists agree This is especially important due to the regional variability on is this: Solar radiation management is an incomplete of the effects of many geoengineering techniques, bene- solution to global warming.[50] The possible option of fiting some countries while damaging others. The chal- geoengineering may reduce incentives to reduce emis- lenge posed by geoengineering is not how to get countries sions of greenhouse gases. It is argued that geoengineer- to do it. It is to address the fundamental question of who ing could be used to 'buy time' before drastic climate should decide whether and how geoengineering should be attempted – a problem of governance.[57] change happens, allowing mitigation and adaptation measures more time to be implemented and work.[51] But the opposition points out that the resources spent on geoengineering could be used for mitigation and efforts to reduce 0.1.4 Risks and criticisms emissions of greenhouse gases. Geoengineering also does not resolve other issues related to increasing levels of carbon dioxide.

Political viability

It has been argued that regardless of the economic, scientific and technical aspects, the difficulty of achieving concerted political action on climate change requires other approaches.[52] Those arguing political ex- pediency say the difficulty of achieving meaningful emissions cuts[53] and the effective failure of the Kyoto Pro- tocol demonstrate the practical difficulties of achieving carbon dioxide emissions reduction by the agreement of Change in sea surface pH caused by anthropogenic CO between [54] 2 the international community. However, others point to the 1700s and the 1990s. This ocean acidification will still be a support for geoengineering proposals among think tanks major problem unless atmospheric CO2 is reduced. with a history of climate change skepticism and opposition to emissions reductions as evidence that the prospect Various criticisms have been made of geoengineering,[58] of geoengineering is itself already politicized and being particularly Solar Radiaton Management (SRM) promoted as part of an argument against the need for (and methods.[59] Decision making suffers from intransitivity viability of) emissions reductions; that, rather than geo- of policy choice.[60] Some commentators appear funda- engineering being a solution to the difficulties of emis- mentally opposed. Groups such as ETC Group[16] and sions reductions, the prospect of geoengineering is being individuals such as Raymond Pierrehumbert have called used as part of an argument to stall emissions reductions for a moratorium on geoengineering techniques.[17][18] in the first place.[55] Geoenginering poses several challenges in the context of governance because of issues of power and Ineffectiveness jurisdiction.[44] Geoengineering as a climate change solution differs from other mitigation and adaptation strate- The effectiveness of the schemes proposed may fall short gies. Unlike a carbon trading system that would be fo- of predictions. In ocean iron fertilization, for exam- cused on participation from multiple parties along with ple, the amount of carbon dioxide removed from the transparency, monitoring measures and compliance pro- atmosphere may be much lower than predicted, as car- cedures; this is not necessarily required by geoengineer- bon taken up by plankton may be released back into the ing. Bengtsson[56] (2006) argues that “the artificial re- atmosphere from dead plankton, rather than being carried lease of sulphate aerosols is a commitment of at least sev- to the bottom of the sea and sequestered.[61] eral hundred years”. This highlights the importance for a political framework that is sustainable enough to contain a multilateral commitment over such a long period and yet Incomplete solution to CO2 emissions is flexible as the techniques innovate through time. There are many controversies surrounding this topic and hence, Techniques that do not remove greenhouse gases from the geoengineering has been made into a very political issue. atmosphere may control global warming, but do not re- Most discussions and debates are not about which geo- duce other effects from these gases, such as ocean acidifi- engineering technique is better than the other, or which cation.[62] While not an argument against geoengineering one is more economically and socially feasible. Discus- per se, this is an argument against reliance on geoengi- sions are broadly on who will have control over the de- neering to the exclusion of greenhouse gas reduction. 0.1. CLIMATE ENGINEERING 5

Control and predictability problems The geoengineering techniques would, in many instances, be vulnerable to being switched off or deliberately de- The full effects of various geoengineering schemes are stroyed. As examples, cloud making ships could be not well understood.[10] Matthews et al.[63] compared switched off or sunk and space mirrors could be tilted geoengineering to a number of previous environmental to make them useless. Anyone capable of exerting such interventions and concluded that “Given our current level power may seek to abuse it for commercial gain, military of understanding of the climate system, it is likely that advantage or simple terrorism. the result of at least some geoengineering efforts would follow previous ecological examples where increased human intervention has led to an overall increase in negative Termination shock environmental consequences.” If solar radiation management were masking a signifi- Performance of the systems may become ineffective, un- cant amount of warming and then were to abruptly stop, predictable or unstable as a result of external events, such the climate would rapidly warm.[75] This would cause a as volcanic eruptions, phytoplankton blooms, El Niño, sudden rise in global temperatures towards levels which solar flares, etc., potentially leading to profound and un- would have existed without the use of the geoengineer- predictable disruption to the climate system. ing technique. The rapid rise in temperature may lead to It may be difficult to predict the effectiveness of more severe consequences than a gradual rise of the same projects,[64] with models of techniques giving widely magnitude.[75] varying results.[65] In the instances of systems which involve tipping points, this may result in irreversible effects. Climate modelling is far from an exact science even when Weaponisation applied to comparatively well-understood natural climate systems, and it is made more complex by the need to un- In 1976, 85 countries signed the U.N. Convention derstand novel and unnatural processes which by defini- on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile [44] tion lack relevant observation data.[66] Use of Environmental Modification Techniques. The Environmental Modification Convention generally prohibits weaponising geoengineering techniques. However, Side effects this does not eliminate the risk. If perfected to a degree of controllability and accuracy that is not considered The techniques themselves may cause significant foreseen possible at the moment, geoengineering techniques could or unforeseen harm. For example, the use of reflective theoretically be used by militaries to cause droughts or [76] balloons may result in significant litter,[67] which may be famines. Theoretically they could also be used simply harmful to wildlife. to make battlefield conditions more favourable to one side or the other in a war.[77] Ozone depletion is a risk of some geoengineering techniques, notably those involving sulfur delivery into the Carnegie's Ken Caldeira said, “It will make it harder stratosphere.[68] to achieve broad consensus on developing and govern- ing these technologies if there is suspicion that gaining The active nature of geoengineering may in some cases military advantage is an underlying motivation for its create a clear division between winners and losers. Most development...”[78] of the proposed interventions are regional, such as albedo modification in the Arctic.[69] There may be unintended climatic consequences, such Effect on sunlight, sky and clouds as changes to the hydrological cycle[70] including droughts[71] or floods, caused by the geoengineering tech- Managing solar radiation using aerosols or cloud cover would involve changing the ratio between direct and in- niques, but possibly not predicted by the models used to [79] [72] direct solar radiation. This would affect plant life and plan them. Such effects may be cumulative or chaotic [80] in nature, making prediction and control very difficult.[73] solar energy. It is believed that there would be a significant effect on the appearance of the sky from strato- Not all side effects are negative, and an increase in spheric aerosol injection projects, notably a hazing of agricultural productivity has been predicted by some blue skies and a change in the appearance of sunsets.[81] [74] studies. Aerosols are affecting the formation of clouds, especially cirrus clouds.[82]

Unreliable systems Moral hazard The performance of the interventions may be inconsis- tent due to mechanical failure, non-availability of con- The existence of such techniques may reduce the political sumables or funding problems. and social impetus to reduce carbon emissions.[83] How- 6 CONTENTS ever, this issue has been researched in an in-depth study School at Oxford University have proposed a set of vol- by Ipsos MORI for NERC,[84] which does not support the untary principles, which may guide geoengineering re- Moral Hazard argument. Other modelling work suggests search. The short version of the 'Oxford Principles’[95] that the threat of geoengineering by a rogue state may is: in fact increase the likelihood of emissions reduction.[85] The issue of moral hazard means that many environmen- • Principle 1: Geoengineering to be regulated as a tal groups and campaigners are reluctant to advocate geo- public good. engineering for fear of reducing the imperative to cut greenhouse gas emissions.[86] • Principle 2: Public participation in geoengineering decision-making

0.1.5 Governance • Principle 3: Disclosure of geoengineering research and open publication of results Geoengineering opens up various political and economic issues. David Keith argues that the cost of geoengi- • Principle 4: Independent assessment of impacts neering the Earth is within the realm of small countries, • large corporations, or even very wealthy individuals.[87] Principle 5: Governance before deployment Steve Rayner agrees that not all geoengineering possibilities are expensive, and that some, such as ocean iron These principles have been endorsed by the House fertilisation, are within the reach of very wealthy indi- of Commons of the United Kingdom Science and viduals, calling them a “Greenfinger” (after the fictional Technology Select Committee on “The Regulation of Goldfinger).[88][89] David Victor suggests that geoengi- Geoengineering”,[96] and have been referred to by authors neering is within the reach of any individual who has a discussing the issue of governance.[97] small fraction of the bank account of Bill Gates, who The Asilomar conference was replicated to deal with the takes it upon him or her self to be the “self-appointed pro- issue of geoengineering governance,[97] and covered in a tector of the planet”.[90] However, it has been argued that TV documentary, broadcast in Canada. a rogue state threatening geoengineering may strengthen action on mitigation.[85] This may seem to eliminates any control over who gets 0.1.6 Implementation issues to decide when to cool the Earth and how this should be done.[87] The resulting power would be enormous, and There is general consensus that no geoengineering tech- could not necessarily be readily controlled by legal, po- nique is currently sufficiently safe or effective to solve the litical or regulatory systems.[88] The legal and regulatory problem of climate change, for the reasons listed above. systems may face a significant challenge in effectively Some environmentalists see some of the calls for geoengi- regulating the use of these technologies in a manner that neering to be researched as part of an explicit strategy to allows for an acceptable result for society. There are delay emissions reductions on the part of those with con- however significant incentives for states to cooperate in nections to coal and oil industries.[98] choosing a specific geoengineering policy, which make [91] All proposed geoengineering techniques require imple- unilateral deployment a rather unlikely event. mentation on a relatively large scale, in order to make a A small number carbon offsetting firms have in the past significant difference to the Earth’s climate. The least attempted to set up unregulated and unsupervised geo- costly schemes are budgeted at a cost of millions,[99] with engineering projects. In the long-run such firms may aim many more complex schemes such as space sunshade to sell carbon credits to individuals, firms or countries. costing far more. Geoengineering has the potential to cause significant Many techniques, again such as space sunshade, would environmental damage, and could even end up releas- require a complex technical development process before ing further greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.[92] Op- they are ready to be implemented. There is no clear insti- position to some early schemes has been intense, with tutional mechanism for handling this research and devel- respected environmental groups campaigning against opment process. As a result, many promising techniques them.[93] Some researchers have suggested that building do not have the engineering development or experimen- a global agreement on geoengineering deployment will tal evidence to determine their feasibility or efficacy at be very difficult, and instead power blocs are likely to present. [94] emerge. Once a technique has been developed and tested, its im- There is presently a lack of a universally agreed frame- plementation may still be difficult. Climate change is work for the regulation of either geoengineering activ- by nature a global problem, and therefore no one institu- ity or research. The London Convention addresses some tion, company or government is responsible for it. Who aspects of the law in relation to biomass ocean storage was to bear the substantial costs of some geoengineering and ocean fertilization. Scientists at the Oxford Martin techniques (especially CDR methods) therefore would be 0.1. CLIMATE ENGINEERING 7

hard to agree. Roll-out of such technologies is therefore In a 2009 review study, Lenton and Vaughan evaluated likely to be delayed until these issues can be resolved. a range of geoengineering schemes from those that se- Due to the potentially uneven changes caused by geo- quester CO2 from the atmosphere and decrease longwave radiation trapping, to those that decrease the Earth’s re- engineering interventions, legal issues may also be an [6] impediment to implementation. The changes resulting ceipt of shortwave radiation. In order to permit a com- from some geoengineering techniques (particularly SRM parison of disparate techniques, they used a common methods) may benefit some people and disadvantage oth- evaluation for each scheme based on its effect on net ra- ers (although modelling studies have indicated that the diative forcing. As such, the review examined the scientific plausibility of schemes rather than the practical con- effects would be much less unequal than the effects of climate change that the geoengineering would be mask- siderations such as engineering feasibility or economic cost. Lenton and Vaughan found that "[air] capture and ing). There may therefore be legal challenges to the implementation of geoengineering techniques by those who storage shows the greatest potential, combined with afforestation, reforestation and bio-char production”, and perceive that they are adversely affected by them.[100] noted that “other suggestions that have received considerable media attention, in particular “ocean pipes” appear to be ineffective”.[6] They concluded that "[climate] geo- 0.1.7 Evaluation of geoengineering engineering is best considered as a potential complement to the mitigation of CO2 emissions, rather than as an al- Most of what is known about the suggested techniques ternative to it”.[6] is based on laboratory experiments, observations of natural phenomena and on computer modelling techniques. In October 2011, a Bipartisan Policy Center panel issued Some geoengineering schemes employ methods that have a report urging immediate researching and testing in case analogues in natural phenomena such as stratospheric sul- “the climate system reaches a 'tipping point' and swift re- [102] fur aerosols and cloud condensation nuclei. As such, medial action is required”. studies about the efficacy of these schemes can draw on information already available from other research, such National Academy of Sciences as that following the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo. However, comparative evaluation of the relative merits The National Academy of Sciences ran a 21-month of each technology is complicated, especially given mod- project which studied how humans might influence elling uncertainties and the early stage of engineering de- [101] weather patterns, assessed dangers and investigated pos- velopment of many geoengineering schemes. sible national security implications of geoengineering Reports into geoengineering have also been published attempts. The project was funded by the CIA, the in the United Kingdom by the Institution of Mechani- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and cal Engineers[7] and the Royal Society.[8] The IMechE NASA.[103] report examined a small subset of proposed schemes According to the two-volume study released in February (air capture, urban albedo and algal-based CO2 cap- 2015: ture schemes), and its main conclusions were that geoengineering should be researched and trialled at the small scale alongside a wider decarbonisation of the There is no substitute for dramatic reduc- economy.[7] tions in greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate the negative consequences of climate change, The Royal Society review examined a wide range of geo- a National Research Council committee con- engineering schemes and evaluated them in terms of ef- cluded in a two-volume evaluation of proposed fectiveness, affordability, timeliness and safety (assigning climate-intervention techniques. Strategies to qualitative estimates in each assessment). The report di- remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere vided schemes into “carbon dioxide removal” (CDR) and are limited by cost and technological imma- “solar radiation management” (SRM) approaches that turity, but they could contribute to a broader respectively address longwave and shortwave radiation. portfolio of climate change responses with The key recommendations of the report were that “Parties further research and development. Albedo- to the UNFCCC should make increased efforts towards modification technologies, which aim to in- mitigating and adapting to climate change, and in par- crease the ability of Earth or clouds to reflect ticular to agreeing to global emissions reductions”, and incoming sunlight, pose considerable risks and that "[nothing] now known about geoengineering options should not be deployed at this time.[104] gives any reason to diminish these efforts”.[8] Nonethe- less, the report also recommended that “research and development of geoengineering options should be under- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change taken to investigate whether low risk methods can be made available if it becomes necessary to reduce the rate The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) of warming this century”.[8] has assessed the scientific literature on climate engi- 8 CONTENTS neering (referred to as “geoengineering” in its reports). 0.1.9 References The IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report was published in 2007. It states:[42] [1] United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) (July 2011). Climate Engineering: Technical Status, Fu- ture Directions, and Potential Responses (PDF) (Report) Geo-engineering options, such as ocean (GAO-11-71). Center for Science, Technology, and En- fertilization to remove CO2 directly from the gineering. p. 3. Retrieved 2011-12-01. atmosphere, or blocking sunlight by bringing material into the upper atmosphere, remain [2] Royal Society (September 2009). Geoengineering the largely speculative and unproven, and with the Climate: Science, Governance and Uncertainty (PDF) risk of unknown side-effects. Reliable cost es- (Report) (RS Policy document 10/09). p. 1. ISBN 978- timates for these options have not been pub- 0-85403-773-5. Retrieved 2011-12-01. lished [3] Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming: Mitigation, Adaptation, and the Science Base (1992), Committee on Working Group I’s contribution to the IPCC’s Fifth As- Science, Engineering, and Public Policy (COSEPUP) sessment Report was published in 2013. It states:[105] [4] Fox, T (November 2009). Climate change have we lost the battle (PDF). Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Re- Models suggest that if SRM methods were trieved 2011-06-14. realizable they would be effective in countering increasing temperatures, and would be less, but [5] Wigley, T. M. L. (Oct 2006). “A com- still, effective in countering some other climate bined mitigation/geoengineering approach to changes. SRM would not counter all effects of climate stabilization”. Science 314 (5798): climate change, and all proposed geoengineer- 452–454. Bibcode:2006Sci...314..452W. doi:10.1126/science.1131728. ISSN 0036-8075. ing methods also carry risks and side effects. PMID 16973840. Additional consequences cannot yet be antic- ipated as the level of scientific understanding [6] Lenton, T.M.; Vaughan, N.E. (2009). “The radiative forc- about both SRM and CDR is low. There are ing potential of different climate geoengineering options”. also many (political, ethical, and practical) is- Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 9 (15): 5539–5561. sues involving geoengineering that are beyond doi:10.5194/acp-9-5539-2009. the scope of this report. [7] “Geoengineering – Giving us time to act?". I Mech E. Retrieved 2011-03-12. 0.1.8 See also [8] “Geoengineering the climate”. The Royal Society. 2009. Retrieved 2009-09-02. • Arctic geoengineering [9] US NRC (2011), “Box 5.1: Geoengineering, in: Chap- • Carbon negative fuel ter 5: Key Elements of America’s Climate Choices”, America’s Climate Choices. A report by the Committee on • Convention on Biological Diversity America’s Climate Choices, US National Research Council (US NRC), Washington, DC, USA: National Academies • Earth systems engineering and management Press, ISBN 978-0-309-14585-5, p.53.

• Five Ways to Save the World [10] “WWF condemns iron fertilization scheme to ﬁght global warming”. News.mongabay.com. 2007-06-28. Retrieved • Haida Gwaii geoengineering controversy 2012-09-06.

• List of geoengineering topics [11] Fearnside, P. (1999). “Forests and global warming mitigation in Brazil: opportunities in the Brazilian forest sector for responses to global warming under the “clean de- • Macro-engineering velopment mechanism"". Biomass and Bioenergy 16 (3): 171–189. doi:10.1016/S0961-9534(98)00071-3. • Planetary engineering [12] “Cool Roofs and Title 24”. The California Energy Com- • Project Stormfury mission. Retrieved 2009-02-25.

• Terraforming [13] Boyd, P.W. et al. (2007). “Mesoscale Iron Enrichment Experiments 1993–2005: Syn- • Virgin Earth Challenge thesis and Future Directions”. Science 315 (5812): 612–617. Bibcode:2007Sci...315..612B. • Weather control doi:10.1126/science.1131669. PMID 17272712. 0.1. CLIMATE ENGINEERING 9

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[86] “Geo-Engineering – a Moral Hazard”. celsias.com. 14 • IPCC AR5 WG1 (2013), Stocker, T.F. et al., eds., November 2007. Retrieved 9 September 2010. Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Ba- sis. Working Group 1 (WG1) Contribution to the [87] David Keith. “Engineering the Planet” (PDF). pp. “3– 4,8”. Retrieved 2008-04-08. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 5th Assessment Report (AR5), Cambridge Univer- [88] “CLIMATE CHANGE: THE QUICK FIX?". BBC News. sity Press . Climate Change 2013 Working Group 1 Retrieved 2010-03-30. website. 12 CONTENTS

0.1.10 Further reading • Climate Engineering Kiel Earth Institute and Mar- silius Kolleg of Heidelberg University, since Sept • Macnaghten, Phil; Owen, Richard (Novem- 2011 ber 2011). “Environmental Science: Good Governance for Geoengineering”. Nature 479 • Engineering the Climate : Research Needs and (7373): 293. Bibcode:2011Natur.479..293M. Strategies for International Coordination October doi:10.1038/479293a. PMID 22094673.– 2010 report from the U.S. House of Representatives Abstract only (subscription required) • Cost evaluation study of 6 geoengineering schemes • Royal Society (September 2009). Geoengineering the Climate: Science, Governance and Uncertainty Articles (newspapers and magazines) (PDF) (Report) (RS Policy document 10/09). p. 1. ISBN 978-0-85403-773-5. Retrieved 2011-12-01. • Geoengineering may be our best chance to save what • GAO (July 2011). Climate Engineering: Technical sea ice is left by Peter Wadhams Scientific American Status, Future Directions, and Potential Responses December 15, 2012 (PDF) (Report) (GAO-11-71). Center for Science, • Geo-engineering - A Tool in the Fight to Tackle Cli- Technology, and Engineering. Retrieved 2011-12- mate Change, or a Dangerous Distraction? by Jon 01. Taylor, Climate Change Programme Manager at • Launder, Brian; Thompson, J. Michael T., eds. WWF-UK, September 11, 2012 Huffington Post (December 2009). Geo-Engineering Climate • Field test stashes climate-warming carbon in deep Change: Environmental Necessity or Pandora’s ocean; Strategically dumping metal puts greenhouse Box?. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0- gas away, possibly for good July 18, 2012 Science 521-19803-5. News • Eli Kintisch (2010). Hack the Planet: Science’s • Geoengineering: An Interim strategy to curb global Best Hope, or Worst Nightmare, for Averting Climate warming? - An interview with John Latham Catastrophe. ISBN 978-0-470-52426-8. • What the UN ban on geoengineering really means • Jeff Goodell (2010). How to Cool the Planet: Geo- November 1, 2010 by Fred Pearce of New Scientist engineering and the Audacious Quest to Fix Earth’s Climate. ISBN 978-0-618-99061-0. • Geoengineering sparks international ban, first-ever congressional report Juliet Eilperin Washington Post • Morton, Oliver (May 10, 2007). “Climate change: October 30, 2010 Is this what it takes to save the world?". Nature 447 (7141): 132–136. Bibcode:2007Natur.447..132M. • Threat of global warming sparks U.S. interest in doi:10.1038/447132a. PMID 17495899. – Ab- geoengineering by Juliet Eilperin of the Washington stract only (subscription required) Post October 3, 2010 • James Rodger Fleming (September 15, 2010). Fix- • The powerful coalition that wants to engineer the ing the Sky: The Checkered History of Weather and world’s climate: Businessmen, scientists and right- Climate Control. Columbia University Press. ISBN wing thinktanks are joining forces to promote 'geo- 978-0-231-14412-4. engineering' ideas to cool the planet’s climate Clive Hamilton The Guardian, September 13, 2010 • Granger Morgan, Katharine Ricke (2010). An Opin- ion Piece for IRGC. Cooling the Earth Through So- • Bill Gates’ cloud-whitening trials 'a dangerous ex- lar Radiation Management: The need for research periment', The Guardian, May 14, 2010 regarding and an approach to its governance. ISBN 978-2- Bill Gates 9700672-8-3 • We need birth control, not geoengineering, The • If Cutting Carbon Emissions Isn't Working, What’s Guardian, April 6, 2010 Next? March 2012 “Suck It Up” book review • “The Geoengineering Gambit”, Technology Re- view, Jan. 2010 0.1.11 External links • Re-Engineering the Earth July 2009 The Atlantic

Studies • Geo-engineering in the Southern Ocean, by John Paull, Australian National University, 2009 • Royal Society “Geoengineering the Climate: Sci- ence, Governance and Uncertainty.” Report. ISBN • 10 Ideas That Are Changing The World: 6.Geoengi- 978-0-85403-773-5. September, 2009 neering Time (magazine), March 2008 0.2. WEATHER MODIFICATION 13

• Geoengineering Retrospective Overview of articles on geoengineering by Julia Levitt, Worldchanging, August 2008

• “Futuristic ﬂeet of 'cloudseeders’" John Latham BBC News. Feb. 15, 2007

• Geo-engineering website, describing current methods/proposals done to revert climate change by geoengineering, by Sam Carana

• Climate Engineering Is Doable, as Long as We Never Stop Wired (magazine), July 2007 A tornado in central Oklahoma. Weather modiﬁcation re- • Geoengineering links, GeoCrisis annotated list, searchers aspire to eliminate or control dangerous types of 2006? weather such as this.

• Terraforming Earth IV: The Question of Methane August 11, 2005 Jamais Cascio 0.2.1 History

• Geoengineering: 'A Bad Idea Whose Time Has Wilhelm Reich performed cloudbusting experiments in Come' discussion on NPR the 1950s to 1960s, the results of which are controversial and not widely accepted by mainstream science. • “Geoengineering: A Climate Change Manhattan Project” by Jay Michaelson, Stanford Environmen- Dr Walter Russell wrote of weather control in Atomic tal Law Journal, 1998 Suicide 1956."--give him complete power to cause rains, wherever he desires, on deserts or meadows and to dissipate cyclones while forming.” Videos (documentaries, interviews, video reports) For the 2008 Olympics, China had plans to utilize 30 airplanes, 4,000 rocket launchers, and 7,000 anti-aircraft • A Debate on Geoengineering: Vandana Shiva vs. guns in an attempt to stop rain. Each system would Gwynne Dyer – video report by Democracy Now! shoot various chemicals into any threatening clouds in the hopes of shrinking rain drops before they reached the • 5 ways to save the earth, BBC documentary about stadium.[2] geo-engineering, 20 February 2007 In January, 2011, several newspapers and magazines, in- • Wonderfest 2010: Dare We Try to Engineer Earth’s cluding the UK’s Sunday Times and Arabian Business, re- Climate?, Speakers: Julio Friedmann, Jane C.S. ported that scientists backed by the government of Abu Long, Location: Stanley Hall, Berkeley (CA), 11 Dhabi, the capital of the United Arab Emirates, had cre- July 2010 ated over 50 artificial rainstorms between July and August 2010 near Al Ain, a city which lies close to the country’s • Project Earth (TV series) on climate engineering border with Oman and is the second-largest city in the Abu Dhabi Emirate. The artificial rainstorms were said • Can we Trust Technological Fixes, Including Cli- to have sometimes caused hail, gales and thunderstorms, mate Engineering, When the Driving Force is Fi- baffling local residents.[3] The scientists reportedly used nancial Profit?, Chris Williams, The Real News ionizers to create the rainstorms, and although the results are disputed, the large number of times it is recorded to have rained right after the ionizers were switched on dur- 0.2 Weather modification ing a usually dry season is encouraging to those who support the experiment.[4] Weather modification is the act of intentionally manipulating or altering the weather. The most common form of weather modification is cloud seeding to increase rain 0.2.2 Cloud seeding or snow, usually for the purpose of increasing the local water supply.[1] Weather modification can also have Main article: Cloud seeding the goal of preventing damaging weather, such as hail or hurricanes, from occurring; or of provoking damag- Cloud seeding is a common technique to enhance ing weather against the enemy, as a tactic of military or precipitation. Cloud seeding entails spraying small economic warfare. Weather modification in warfare has particles, such as silver iodide onto clouds in order been banned by the United Nations. to affect their development, usually with the goal of 14 CONTENTS

Cloud seeding

increasing precipitation. Cloud seeding only works to the extent that there is already water vapor present in the air. Hail cannons at an international congress on hail shooting held Critics generally contend that claimed successes occur in in 1901 conditions which were going to lead to rain anyway. It is used in a variety of drought-prone countries, including eyewall with silver iodide. The project was run by the the United States, the People’s Republic of China, India, United States Government from 1962 to 1983. A simi- and the Russian Federation. In the People’s Republic lar project using soot was run in 1958, with inconclusive of China there is a perceived dependency upon it in results.[6] Various methods have been proposed to reduce dry regions, and there is a strong suspicion it is used to the harmful effects of hurricanes. Moshe Alamaro of the “wash the air” in dry and heavily polluted places, such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology[7] proposed using Beijing. In mountainous areas of the United States such [5] barges with upward-pointing jet engines to trigger smaller as the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, cloud storms to disrupt the progress of an incoming hurricane; seeding has been employed since the 1950s. critics doubt the jets would be powerful enough to make any noticeable difference.[6] Alexandre Chorin of the University of California, Berke- ley, proposed dropping large amounts of environmen- tally friendly oils on the sea surface to prevent droplet formation.[8] Experiments by Kerry Emanuel[9] of MIT in 2002 suggested that hurricane-force winds would disrupt the oil slick, making it ineffective.[10] Other scientists disputed the factual basis of the theoretical mechanism assumed by this approach.[11] The Florida company Dyn-O-Mat and its CEO, Peter Cordani proposed the use of a patented product it developed, called Dyn-O-Gel, to reduce the strength of hurricanes. The substance is a polymer in powder form (a polyacrylic acid derivative) which reportedly has the ability to absorb 1,500 times its own weight in water. The theory is that the polymer is dropped into clouds to remove their moisture and force the storm to use more energy to move the heavier water drops, thus helping to dissipate the storm. When the gel reaches the ocean surface, it is reportedly dissolved. Peter Cordani teamed up with Mark Daniels and Victor Miller, the owners of a government contracting aviation firm AeroGroup which operated unique tactical aircraft. Using a high altitude B-57 Bomber, AeroGroup tested the substance dropping 9,000 pounds from the B-57 aircraft’s large bomb bay disbursing it into a large thunder- Project Stormfury storm cell just off the east coast of Florida. The tests were documented on film and made international news show- ing the storms were successfully removed on monitored 0.2.3 Storm prevention Doppler radar. In 2003, the program was shut down because of political pressure through NOAA.[12] Numerical Project Stormfury was an attempt to weaken tropical simulations performed by NOAA showed however that it cyclones by flying aircraft into storms and seeding the would not be a practical solution for large systems like a 0.2. WEATHER MODIFICATION 15 tropical cyclone.[13] on behalf of the Secretary of Commerce, under authority of Public Law 92-205, 15 USC § 330B, enacted in Hail cannons have been used by some farmers since the [20] 19th century in an attempt to ward off hail, but there is no 1971. reliable scientific evidence to confirm their effectiveness. Another new anti-hurricane technology[14] is a method Proposed US Legislation for the reduction of tropical cyclones’ destructive force - pumping sea water into and diffusing it in the wind at 2005 U.S. Senate Bill 517 and U.S. House Bill 2995 the bottom of such tropical cyclone in its eyewall. U.S. Senate Bill 517[21] and U.S. House Bill 2995[22] were two bills proposed in 2005 that would have expanded experimental weather modification, to establish 0.2.4 Hurricane modification a Weather Modification Operations and Research Board, and implemented a national weather modification policy. Various ideas for manipulating hurricanes have been sug- [15] Neither were made into law. Former Texas State Senator gested. In 2007, “How to stop a hurricane” explored John N. Leedom was the key lobbyist on behalf of the various ideas such as: weather modification bills. • Using lasers to discharge lightning in storms which 2007 U.S. Senate Bill 1807 & U.S. House Bill 3445 are likely to become hurricanes Senate Bill 1807 and House Bill 3445, identical bills introduced July 17, 2007, proposed to establish a Weather • Pouring liquid nitrogen onto the sea to deprive the Mitigation Advisory and Research Board to fund weather hurricane of heat energy. modification research[23][24] • Creating soot to absorb sunlight and change air temperature and hence convection currents in the outer 0.2.6 In religion and mythology wall.

Climatologists have run simulations of hurricane control based on selective heating and cooling (or prevention of evaporation).[16]

0.2.5 Weather modiﬁcation and law

US and Canada agreement

In 1975, the US and Canada entered into an agreement under the auspices of the United Nations for the exchange of information on weather modiﬁcation activity.[17]

1977 UN Environmental Modiﬁcation Convention

Main article: Environmental Modiﬁcation Convention

Weather modification, particularly hostile weather warfare, was addressed by the “United Nations General As- sembly Resolution 31/72, TIAS 9614 Convention[18] on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques.” The Conven- Witches concoct a brew to summon a hailstorm. tion was signed in Geneva on May 18, 1977; entered Magical and religious practices to control the weather are into force on October 5, 1978; ratified by U.S. President attested in a variety of cultures. In ancient India it is said Jimmy Carter on December 13, 1979; and the U.S. rati- that yajna or vedic rituals of chanting manthras and of- fication deposited at New York January 17, 1980.[19] fering were performed by rishis to bring sudden bursts of rain fall in rain starved regions. Some American Indi- US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- ans like some Europeans had rituals which they believed tion could induce rain. The Finnish people, on the other hand, were believed by others to be able to control weather. As In the US, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin- a result, Vikings refused to take Finns on their oceango- istration keeps records of weather modification projects ing raids. Remnants of this superstition lasted into the 16 CONTENTS twentieth century, with some ship crews being reluctant [5] Hunter, Steven M. (U.S. Bureau of Reclama- to accept Finnish sailors. tion). 2007. Optimizing Cloud Seeding for Water and Energy in California. California En- The early modern era saw people observe that during bat- ergy Commission, PIER Energy‐Related Environ- tles the firing of cannons and other firearms often initiated mental Research Program. CEC‐500‐2007‐008. precipitation. http://www.energy.ca.gov/2007publications/ In Greek mythology, Iphigenia was offered as a human CEC-500-2007-008/CEC-500-2007-008.PDF sacrifice to appease the wrath of the goddess Artemis, [6] http://environment.newscientist.com/article/dn7995. who had becalmed the Achaean fleet at Aulis at the be- html - Alamaro proposal and energy critique ginning of the Trojan War. In Homer's Odyssey, Aeolus, keeper of the winds, bestowed Odysseus and his crew [7] “Moshe Alamaro’s brief bio”. Ala- with a gift of the four winds in a bag. However, the maro.home.comcast.net. Retrieved 2011-06-04. sailors opened the bag while Odysseus slept, looking for [8] “Chorin proposal”. Newscientist.com. Retrieved 2011- booty (money), and as a result were blown off course by 06-04. the resulting gale.[25] In ancient Rome, the lapis manalis was a sacred stone kept outside the walls of Rome in a [9] “Kerry Emanuel’s Homepage”. Wind.mit.edu. 2002-05- temple of Mars. When Rome suffered from drought, the 15. Retrieved 2011-06-04. [26] stone was dragged into the city. The Berwick witches [10] “Could humans tackle hurricanes? - earth - 14 Septem- of Scotland were found guilty of using black magic to ber 2005 - New Scientist Environment”. Environ- summon storms to murder King James VI of Scotland ment.newscientist.com. Retrieved 2011-06-04. by seeking to sink the ship upon which he travelled.[27] Scandinavian witches allegedly claimed to sell the wind [11] “Oil on troubled waters may stop hurricanes - earth - 25 in bags or magically confined into wooden staves; they July 2005”. New Scientist. Retrieved 2011-06-04. sold the bags to seamen who could release them when [12] “Rain, Rain, Go Away”. Discover Magazine. becalmed.[28] In various towns of Navarre, prayers peti- tioned Saint Peter to grant rain in time of drought. If the [13] Subject: C5d) Why don't we try to destroy tropical cy- rain was not forthcoming, the statue of St Peter was re- clones by adding a water absorbing substance ?, NOAA moved from the church and tossed into a river.[29] HRD FAQ [14] WIPO. "(WO/2006/085830) A METHOD OF AND A DEVICE FOR THE REDUCTION OF TROPICAL CY- 0.2.7 See also CLONES DESTRUCTIVE FORCE”. Wipo.int. Re- trieved 2011-06-04. • Global warming [15] “How to stop a Hurricane”. CBC. Retrieved 2012-11-19. • Climate engineering [16] Hoffman, R, “Controlling Hurricanes,” Scientific Ameri- • Weather forecasting can, Oct 2004. • Operation Popeye [17] “Agreement Relating to the Exchange of Information on Weather Modification Activities” (PDF). Retrieved 2011- • Beijing Weather Modification Office 06-04. • Project Cumulus [18] “Environmental Modification Convention”. Fas.org. Re- • Alberta Hail Project trieved 2011-06-04. • Chemtrail conspiracy theory [19] “Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques”. • Fog Investigation and Dispersal Operation (FIDO) United States Department of State. Archived from the original on 2007-09-14. Retrieved 2007-09-28.

0.2.8 References [20] “15 USC CHAPTER 9A - WEATHER MODIFICA- TION ACTIVITIES OR ATTEMPTS; REPORTING REQUIREMENT”. Retrieved April 18, 2012. [1] Gelt, Joe. “Weather Modification: A Water Resource Strategy to be Researched, Tested Before Tried”. Uni- [21] S. 517 [109th]: Weather Modification Research and De- versity of Arizona. Retrieved April 17, 2012. velopment Policy Authorization Act of 2005, proposed by [2] Demick, Barbara, “China plans to halt rain for Olympics,” U.S. Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison of Texas and then U.S. Los Angeles Times, January 2008. Representative (later Senator) Mark Udall of Colorado (GovTrack.us) [3] Leigh, Karen. , “Arabian Business”, January 3, 2011. Re- trieved 2011-01-8. [22] “H.R. 2995 [109th]: Weather Modification Research and Technology Transfer Authorization Act of 2005”. Gov- [4] , “Daily Mail”, January 3, 2011. Retrieved 2011-01-8. Track.us. Retrieved 2011-06-04. 0.4. LIST OF PROPOSED GEOENGINEERING SCHEMES 17

[23] 0.3.1 See also • [24] “S. 1807 [110th]: Weather Mitigation Research and De- Weather Modification Operations and Research velopment Policy Authorization Act of 2007”. Gov- Board Track.us. Retrieved 2011-06-04. 0.3.2 References [25] Homer, The Odyssey, book 10. [1] Environmental Warfare and Climate Change Michel [26] Sir James Frazer, The Golden Bough, ch. 5 (abridged edi- Chossudovsky. tion), “The Magical Control of Rain” [2] Transcript of the US Senate Hearing on Weather Modifi- cation of March 20, 1974 [27] Christopher Smout, A History of the Scottish People 1560- [3] House, Tamzy J. et al. “Weather as a Force Multiplier: 1830, pp. 184-192 Owning the Weather in 2025” (PDF). US Air Force. Re- trieved April 17, 2012. [28] Adam of Bremen and Ole Worm are quoted as main- taining this in Grillot de Givry’s Witchcraft, Magic and Alchemy (Frederick Publications, 1954). 0.3.3 External links • [29] Frazer, supra. Non Lethal Warfare Proposal:Weather Modifica- tion, The Sunshine Project • Weather Warfare, Investigation into the historical and current use of weather modification for military 0.3 Weather warfare purposes.

Weather warfare is the use of weather modification techniques such as cloud seeding for military purposes. 0.4 List of proposed geoengineer- The Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any ing schemes Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Tech- niques (Geneva: 18 May 1977, Entered into force: 5 Oc- This is a list of notable geoengineering schemes pro- tober 1978) prohibits “widespread, long-lasting or severe posed in scientific journals. effects as the means of destruction, damage or injury”.[1] However it has been argued that this permits “local, non- permanent changes”. 0.4.1 Solar radiation management, cloud Prior to the Geneva Convention, the United States used modification weather warfare in the Vietnam War. Under the auspices of the Air Weather Service, the United States’ Operation Solar radiation management[1][2][3] Popeye used cloud seeding over the Ho Chi Minh trail, increasing rainfall by an estimated thirty percent during Atmospheric projects 1967 and 1968. It was hoped that the increased rainfall would reduce the rate of infiltration down the trail.[2] General proposals[4] With much less success, the United States also dropped salt on the airbase during the siege of Khe Sanh in an • Reflective aerosols or (atmospheric) dust[5][6][7] attempt to reduce the fog that hindered air operations. • Reflective metal flakes[8] A research paper produced for the United States Air • Reflective engineered nanoparticles[9] Force written in 1996 speculates about the future use of nanotechnology to produce “artificial weather”, clouds of • Stratospheric sulfur aerosols[10][11][12][13] microscopic computer particle all communicating with • Marine cloud brightening[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21] each other to form an intelligent fog that could be used for various purposes. “Artificial weather technologies • Ocean sulfur cycle enhancement[13][22][23][24] do not currently exist. But as they are developed, the • Ocean mixing[25][26] importance of their potential applications rises rapidly.” Weather modification technologies are described in an • Reflective balloons[27][28][29] unclassified academic paper written by airforce officer- • Modified ship /aircraft exhaust composition[30] cadet students as “a force multiplier with tremendous power that could be exploited across the full spectrum of • Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engi- war-fighting environments.” [3] neering 18 CONTENTS

Cloud seeding Main article: Cloud seeding Biological processes

• Ocean iron fertilization[57][58][59][60] • Burning sulfur[31] • Ocean urea fertilisation[61] • Liquid nitrogen[32] • Reforestation[62] • Silver iodide • Peat production[63] • Cirrus cloud seeding using airliners[33] to reduce [33] reﬂectivity. • Ocean mixing[25][26][64][65][66][67]

Terrestrial albedo modiﬁcation Physical processes • Cool roof[34] • Biochar burial[68][69][70] • Reﬂective plastic sheeting covering desert[35][36] and • [71][72][73] glaciers[37] Bio-energy with carbon storage • Building thicker sea ice[38][39] • Burying biomass[74][75]

• Biomass ocean storage[76][77] Land management / Bio-geoengineering • Carbon capture and storage[78][79][80] • Tropical reforestation[40]

• Grassland modiﬁcation[41] Chemical techniques • High-albedo crops.[42][43] • Mineral carbonation / mineral sequestration.[81][82][81][83][84] 0.4.2 Ocean schemes • Carbon negative cement[85][86][87] • Oceanic foams[44] • Oil shale ash[88] • Ocean hydrosols[45] • Carbon air capture[89][89][90][91][92][93] • Bering Sea dam[46][47] • Ocean acid neutralisation[94][95][96][97][98][99][100]

0.4.3 Space projects • Ocean hydrochloric acid removal[101]

• Space sunshade[48] Other greenhouse gas remediation • Mining moon dust[49][50][51] or asteroids.[52] • CFC laser photochemistry[102] • Diﬀraction grating or lens in space, (L1 point)[53][54][55] • Lunar spectrum shifting – to accelerate chlorophyll 0.4.5 Other schemes metabolic clocks[56] • Ocean heat transport[103]

0.4.4 Greenhouse gas remediation • Methane remediation [104][105][106]

Main article: Greenhouse gas remediation See also: Climate change mitigation 0.4.6 See also

• Jeﬀ Goodell's 2010 How to Cool the Planet: Geo- engineering and the Audacious Quest to Fix Earth’s Carbon sequestration Climate (“Can We 'Cool the Planet' through Geo- engineering?") Main article: Carbon sequestration • List of geoengineering topics 0.4. LIST OF PROPOSED GEOENGINEERING SCHEMES 19

0.4.7 References [17] Latham, J. (2002). “Amelioration of global warming by controlled enhancement of the albedo and longevity [1] Hoyle, F., 1957: The Black Cloud, Harper and Brothers, of low-level maritime clouds” (PDF). Atmos. Sci. New York. Lett. 3 (2–4): 52–58. Bibcode:2002AtScL...3...52L. doi:10.1006/asle.2002.0099. [2] Kahle, A. B., and D. Deirmendjian, 1973: The black cloud experiment, Rand Corporation report R-1263- [18] Salter, S, G. Sortino & J. Latham, (2008). Sea- ARPA, Santa Monica CA. going hardware for the cloud albedo method of reversing global warming, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A, [3] Teller, E.; Hyde, T.; Wood, L. (2002). “Active Climate doi:10.1098/rsta.2008.0136 Stabilization: Practical Physics-Based Approaches to Pre- vention of Climate Change” (PDF). Lawrence Livermore [19] Latham, J. 1990 Control of global warming? Nature 347, National Laboratory. Retrieved 21 April 2008. 339–340.

[4] Harshvardhan (June 1978). “Albedo enhancement and [20] Latham, J., Philip .J. Rasch, C.C.Chen, L. Kettles, A. perturbation of radiation balance due to stratospheric Gadian, A. Gettelman, H. Morrison, K. Bower., 2008. aerosols”. Unknown. Bibcode:1978aepr.rept.....H. Global Temperature Stabilization via Controlled Albedo 1978aepr.rept.....H. Enhancement of Low-level Maritime Clouds. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. A, doi:10.1098/rsta.2008.0137 [5] Budyko, M. I., Climate Changes, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, English translation of 1974 Rus- [21] Reference. J. Latham, P.J. Rasch, C.C.Chen, L. Ket- sian volume, 1977, p. 244 tles, A. Gadian, A. Gettelman, H. Morrison, K. Bower, T.W.Choularton., Global Temperature Stabilization via [6] National Academy of Sciences, Policy implications of Controlled Albedo Enhancement of Low-level Maritime greenhouse warming: Mitigation, adaptation and the sci- Clouds. 2008. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. A, 366, ence base. National Academy Press, Washington DC, 3969?3987, doi:10.1098/rsta.2008.0137 1992, pp. 433–464. [22] Atmospheric Environment 41 (2007) 7373–7375 [7] Problems with geo-engineering schemes to combat climate change, G. Bala, CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 96, [23] Oliver W. Wingenter. “Slowing Global Warming by En- NO. 1, 10 January 2009 hancing the Natural Sulfur Cycle”. Climos.com. Re- trieved 8 May 2012. [8] United States Patent 5003186: Stratospheric Welsbach seeding for reduction of global warming [24] Coale, K. H.; Johnson, K. S.; Buesseler, K.; Sofex Group, . (2002). “SOFeX: Southern Ocean Iron Experiments. [9] Keith, David W.: Photophoretic levitation of engi- Overview and Experimental Design”. American Geophys- neered aerosols for geoengineering, PNAS, published 07. ical Union 22: 01. Bibcode:2002AGUFMOS22D..01C. September 2010 [25] “Microsoft Word - 9-5 ETCC.doc” (PDF). Retrieved 8 [10] Crutzen, Paul J. (2006). “Albedo enhancement by strato- May 2012. spheric sulfur injections: A contribution to resolve a pol- [26] http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EGU2008/10885/ icy dilemma?" (PDF). Climatic Change 77 (3–4): 211– EGU2008-A-10885.pdf 219. doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9101-y. [27] “Policy Implications of Greenhouse Warming: Mitiga- [11] “Can a Million Tons of Sulfur Dioxide Combat Climate tion, Adaptation, and the Science Base”. Books.nap.edu. Change?". Wired. 23 June 2008. Retrieved 8 May 2012. [12] Paul Crutzen, “Albedo enhancement by stratospheric [28] Teller et al, 1997 sulfur injections: a contribution to resolve a policy dilemma?" Journal of Climatic Change, vol. 77, no. 3- [29] “IPCC Third Assessment Report – Climate Change 2001 4, August 2006 – Complete online versions | UNEP/GRID-Arendal – Publications – Other”. Grida.no. Retrieved 8 May 2012. [13] “Bates et al. – Sulfur Emissions to the Atmosphere from Natural Sources”. Pmel.noaa.gov. Retrieved 8 May 2012. [30]

[14] Latham, J. (1990). “Control of global warm- [31] Gregory Benford from the November 1997 issue. ing” (PDF). Nature 347 (6291): 339–340. “Climate Controls”. Reason.com. Retrieved 8 May 2012. Bibcode:1990Natur.347..339L. doi:10.1038/347339b0. [32] Wade, Stephen (29 February 2008). “Rain out: China [15] Latham, J.; Salter, S. “Preventing global warming by in- aims to control Olympics weather”. USA Today. Re- creasing cloud albedo” (PDF). Retrieved 20 April 2008. trieved 8 May 2010. (A brief handout, with artist’s renderings.) [33] Mitchell, D. L.; Finnegan, W. (2009). “Modiﬁ- [16] Keith Bower et al., “Assessment of a Proposed Technique cation of cirrus clouds to reduce global warming”. for Global Warming Mitigation via Albedo-Enhancement Environmental Research Letters 4 (4): 045102. of Marine Stratocumulus Clouds”, Atmospheric Re- Bibcode:2009ERL.....4d5102M. doi:10.1088/1748- search, vol. 82, no. 1-2, pp. 328–336 9326/4/4/045102. 20 CONTENTS

[34] Hashem Akbari et al., “Global Cooling: In- [49] Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, vol 60, p 1 creasing World-wide Urban Albedos to Oﬀ- set CO2”, draft paper. Available online at: [50] Roger Angel and S. Pete Worden, “Making Sun-Shades http://www.energy.ca.gov/2008publications/ from Moon Dust”, National Space Society, Ad Astra, vol. CEC-999-2008-020/CEC-999-2008-020.PDF 18, no. 1, Summer 2006. Available online at: http://www. nss.org/adastra/volume18/angel.html [35] Alvia Gaskill, “Desert Area Coverage”, Global Albedo Enhancement Project. Available online at: [51] LiveScience, Space Ring Could Shade Earth and Stop http://www.global-warming-geo-engineering.org/ Global Warming Albedo-Enhancement/Surface-Albedo-Enhancement/ [52] Bewick, R.; Sanchez, J. P.; McInnes, C. R. (2012). Calculation-of-Coverage-Areas-to-Achieve-Desired-Level-of-ForcingOffsets/“Gravitationally bound geoengineering dust shade at Desert-Area-Coverage/ag28.html the inner Lagrange point”. Advances in Space Re- search 50 (10): 1405. Bibcode:2012AdSpR..50.1405B. [36] “Global Albedo Enhancement Project: Surface Albedo doi:10.1016/j.asr.2012.07.008. Enhancement Principle”. Global-warming-geoengineering.org. Retrieved 8 May 2012. [53] See footnote 23 in E. Teller, L. Wood, and R. Hyde (1997) "Global Warming and Ice Ages: Prospects for Physics- [37] M. Olefs and A.Fischer. “Comparative study of techni- Based Modulation of Global Change". cal measures to reduce snow and ice ablation in Alpine glacier ski resorts”. in “Cold Regions Science and Technol- [54] E. Teller, L. Wood, and R. Hyde (1997) "Global Warming ogy, 2007”. Retrieved 6 September 2009. and Ice Ages: Prospects for Physics-Based Modulation of Global Change". [38] Watts, Robert G. (1997). “Cryospheric processes”. Engineering Response to Global Climate Change: Planning [55] See Russell Dovey, “Supervillainy: Astroengineering a Research and Development Agenda (DIGITIZED ON- Global Warming” and Bill Christensen, “Reduce Global LINE BY GOOGLEBOOKS). CRC Press. p. 419. ISBN Warming by Blocking Sunlight”. 9781566702348. Retrieved 2 January 2009. [56] http://www.countercurrents.org/cc-scheff271005.htm [39] “Duct Tape Methods to Save the Earth: Re-Ice the Arc- tic”. Popular Science. Retrieved 4 March 2009. [57] “BG – Abstract – The impact on atmospheric CO2 of iron fertilization induced changes in the ocean’s biolog- [40] “Climate_eﬀects_of_deforestation” (PDF). Retrieved 8 ical pump”. Biogeosciences.net. 4 July 2010. Retrieved May 2012. 8 May 2012.

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[105] Lockley, A. (2012). “Comment on “Review of Methane Mitigation Technologies with Application to Rapid Re- lease of Methane from the Arctic"". Environmen- tal Science & Technology 46 (24): 13552–13553. doi:10.1021/es303074j. This image explaining cloud seeding shows the chemical either silver iodide or dry ice being dumped onto the cloud, which then [106] http://www.atm.helsinki.fi/FAAR/reportseries/rs-109/ becomes a rain shower. The process shown in the upper-right is abstracts/Luxi%20Zhou.pdf what is happening in the cloud and the process of condensation to the introduced chemicals.[1]

0.5 Cloud seeding 0.5.1 Methodology

The most common chemicals used for cloud seeding include silver iodide, potassium iodide and dry ice (solid carbon dioxide). Liquid propane, which expands into a gas, has also been used. This can produce ice crystals at higher temperatures than silver iodide. After promising research, the use of hygroscopic materials, such as table salt, is becoming more popular.[3] Cloud seeding to increase snowfall takes place when temperatures within the clouds are between 19 and −4 °F (−7 and −20 °C).[4] In- troduction of a substance such as silver iodide, which has a crystalline structure similar to that of ice, will induce Cloud seeding can be done by ground generators, plane, or rocket freezing nucleation. In mid-latitude clouds, the usual seeding strategy has Cloud seeding, a form of weather modiﬁcation, is the at- been based on the fact that the equilibrium vapor pres- tempt to change the amount or type of precipitation that sure is lower over ice than over water. The formation of falls from clouds, by dispersing substances into the air that ice particles in super cooled clouds allows those particles serve as cloud condensation or ice nuclei, which alter the to grow at the expense of liquid droplets. If suﬃcient microphysical processes within the cloud. The usual in- growth takes place, the particles become heavy enough to tent is to increase precipitation (rain or snow), but hail fall as precipitation from clouds that otherwise would pro- and fog suppression are also widely practiced in airports. duce no precipitation. This process is known as “static” Cloud seeding also occurs due to ice nucleators in nature, seeding. most of which are bacterial in origin.[2] Seeding of warm-season or tropical cumulonimbus (con- 0.5. CLOUD SEEDING 23

vective) clouds seeks to exploit the latent heat released Clouds were seeded during the 2008 Summer Olympics by freezing. This strategy of “dynamic” seeding assumes in Beijing using rockets, to coax rain showers out of that the additional latent heat adds buoyancy, strengthens clouds before they reached the Olympic city [12] so that updrafts, ensures more low-level convergence, and ulti- there would be no rain during the opening and closing mately causes rapid growth of properly selected clouds. ceremonies,[13] although others dispute their claims of [14] Cloud seeding chemicals may be dispersed by aircraft or success. by dispersion devices located on the ground (generators A 2010 Israel University study claimed that the common or canisters fired from anti-aircraft guns or rockets). For practice of cloud seeding to improve or induce rainfall, release by aircraft, silver iodide flares are ignited and dis- with materials such as silver iodide and frozen carbon persed as an aircraft flies through the inflow of a cloud. dioxide, were not as effective as was hoped.[15] A 2011 When released by devices on the ground, the fine par- study suggested that airplanes may produce ice particles ticles are carried downwind and upward by air currents by freezing cloud droplets that cool as they flow around after release. the tips of propellers, over wings or over jet aircraft, and An electronic mechanism was tested in 2010, when thereby unintentionally seed clouds. This could have potentially serious consequences for particular hail stone infrared laser pulses were directed to the air above Berlin [16] by researchers from the University of Geneva.[5] The ex- formation. perimenters posited that the pulses would encourage atmospheric sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide to form particles that would then act as seeds.[5]

0.5.3 Impact on environment and health 0.5.2 Effectiveness With an NFPA 704 health hazard rating of 2, silver iodide Cloud seeding is no longer considered a fringe science, can cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual and is considered a mainstream tool to improve rain pre- injury to humans and mammals with intense or contin- cipitation and snow. New technology and research have ued but not chronic exposure. However, there have been produced reliable results that make cloud seeding a de- several detailed ecological studies that showed negligible pendable and affordable water-supply practice for many environmental and health impacts.[17][18][19] The toxicity regions.[6] While practiced widely around the world, the of silver and silver compounds (from silver iodide) was effectiveness of cloud seeding is still a matter of aca- shown to be of low order in some studies. These findings demic debate. In 2004 the United States National Re- likely result from the minute amounts of silver generated search Council released a report stating that to date, there by cloud seeding, which are about 1% of industry emis- is still no convincing scientific proof of the efficacy of in- sions into the atmosphere in many parts of the world, or tentional weather modification.[7] individual exposure from tooth fillings.[20] Referring to the 1903, 1915, 1919, 1944, and 1947 and Accumulations in the soil, vegetation, and surface runoff weather modification experiments, the Australian Feder- have not been large enough to measure above natural ation of Meteorology discounted “rain making.” By the background.[21] A 1995 environmental assessment in the 1950s, the CSIRO Division of Radiophysics switched to Sierra Nevada of California[22] and a 2004 indepen- investigating the physics of clouds and had hoped by 1957 dent panel of experts in Australia confirmed these earlier to better understand these processes. By the 1960s, the findings.[23] dreams of weather making had faded only to be re-ignited Cloud seeding over Kosciuszko National Park - a Bio- post-corporatisation of the Snowy Mountains Scheme in sphere Reserve - is problematic in that several rapid cable order to achieve “above target” water. This would pro- the trial. Environmentalists are concerned about the up- vide enhanced energy generation and profits to the pub- take of elemental silver in a highly sensitive environment lic agencies that are the principal owners. Cloud seeding affecting the pygmy possum among other species as well has been shown to be effective in altering cloud structure as recent high level algal blooms in once pristine glacial and size and in converting supercooled liquid water to ice lakes. Research 50 years ago and analysis by the former particles. The amount of precipitation due to seeding is Snowy Mountains Authority led to the cessation of the difficult to quantify. cloud seeding program in the 1950s with non-definitive A key challenge is in discerning how much precipitation results. Formerly, cloud seeding was rejected in Australia would have occurred had clouds not been seeded. Over- on environmental grounds because of concerns about the all, there is general expectation that winter cloud seeding protected species, the pygmy possum.[24] Since silver io- over mountains will produce snow, expressed by profes- dide and not elemental silver is the cloud seeding mate- sional organizations.[8][9][10] There is statistical evidence rial, the claims of negative environmental impact are dis- for seasonal precipitation increases of about 10% with puted by peer-reviewed research as summarized by the winter seeding.[11] international Weather Modification Association.[25] 24 CONTENTS

Schaefer’s method altered a cloud’s heat budget, Von- negut’s altered formative crystal structure – an ingenious property related to a good match in lattice constant between the two types of crystal. (The crystallography of ice later played a role in Kurt Vonnegut’s novel Cat’s Cra- dle.) The first attempt to modify natural clouds in the field through “cloud seeding” began during a flight that began in upstate New York on 13 November 1946. Schaefer was able to cause snow to fall near Mount Greylock in western Massachusetts, after he dumped six pounds of dry ice into the target cloud from a plane after a 60-mile easterly chase from the Schenectady County Airport.[29] Dry ice and silver iodide agents are effective in changing the physical chemistry of supercooled clouds, thus useful Cessna 210 with cloud seeding equipment in augmentation of winter snowfall over mountains and under certain conditions, in lightning and hail suppression. While not a new technique, hygroscopic seeding 0.5.4 History for enhancement of rainfall in warm clouds is enjoying a revival, based on some positive indications from re- Vincent Schaefer (1906–1993) discovered the principle search in South Africa, Mexico, and elsewhere. The hy- of cloud seeding in July 1946 through a series of serendip- groscopic material most commonly used is table salt. It itous events. Following ideas generated between him is postulated that hygroscopic seeding causes the droplet and Nobel laureate Irving Langmuir while climbing Mt. size spectrum in clouds to become more maritime (bigger Washington in New Hampshire, Schaefer, Langmuir’s re- drops) and less continental, stimulating rainfall through search associate, created a way of experimenting with coalescence. From March 1967 until July 1972, the U.S. supercooled clouds using a deep freeze unit of potential military’s Operation Popeye cloud-seeded silver iodide to agents to stimulate ice crystal growth, i.e. table salt, tal- extend the monsoon season over North Vietnam, specifi- cum powder, soils, dust and various chemical agents with cally the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The operation resulted in the minor effect. Then one hot and humid July 14, 1946, targeted areas seeing an extension of the monsoon period [30] he wanted to try a few experiments at General Electric’s an average of 30 to 45 days. The 54th Weather Recon- Schenectady Research Lab. naissance Squadron carried out the operation to “make mud, not war”.[31] He was dismayed to find that the deep freezer was not cold enough to produce a “cloud” using breath air. He decided One private organization that offered, during the 1970s, to move the process along by adding a chunk of dry ice to conduct weather modification (cloud seeding from the just to lower the temperature of his experimental cham- ground using silver iodide flares) was Irving P. Krick and ber. To his astonishment, as soon as he breathed into the Associates of Palm Springs, California. They were con- deep freezer, he noted a bluish haze, followed by an eye- tracted by Oklahoma State University in 1972 to conduct popping display of millions of microscopic ice crystals, such a seeding project to increase warm cloud rainfall in reflecting the strong light rays from the lamp illuminating the Lake Carl Blackwell watershed. That lake was, at that a cross-section of the chamber. He instantly realized that time (1972–73), the primary water supply for Stillwater, he had discovered a way to change supercooled water into Oklahoma and was dangerously low. The project did not ice crystals. The experiment was easily replicated, and he operate for a long enough time to show statistically any explored the temperature gradient to establish the −40 °C change from natural variations. However, at the same limit for liquid water.[26] time, seeding operations have been ongoing in Califor- nia since 1948. Within the month, Schaefer’s colleague, the noted atmospheric scientist Dr. Bernard Vonnegut (brother of novel- An attempt by the United States military to modify ist Kurt Vonnegut) was credited with discovering another hurricanes in the Atlantic basin using cloud seeding in method for “seeding” supercooled cloud water. Vonnegut the 1960s was called Project Stormfury. Only a few hur- accomplished his discovery at the desk, looking up in- ricanes were tested with cloud seeding because of the formation in a basic chemistry text and then tinkering strict rules set by the scientists of the project. It was un- with silver and iodide chemicals to produce silver iodide. clear whether the project was successful; hurricanes ap- Together with Professor Henry Chessin, SUNY Albany, peared to change slightly in structure, but only temporar- a crystallographer, he co-authored a publication in Sci- ily. The fear that cloud seeding could potentially change ence Magazine [27] and received a patent in 1975.[28] Both the course or power of hurricanes and negatively affect methods were adopted for use in cloud seeding during people in the storm’s path stopped the project. 1946 while working for the General Electric Corporation Two federal agencies have supported various weather in the state of New York. 0.5. CLOUD SEEDING 25 modification research projects, which began in the early to form clouds.[36] The project took about ten years of 1960s: The United States Bureau of Reclamation (Recla- experiments and refinement. The first field operations mation; Department of the Interior) and the National began in 1969 above Khao Yai National Park. Since Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA; De- then rain-making has been successfully applied through- partment of Commerce). Reclamation sponsored sev- out Thailand and neighbouring countries.[37] On 12 Oc- eral cloud seeding research projects under the umbrella tober 2005 the European Patent Office granted to King of Project Skywater from 1964 to 1988, and NOAA Bhumibol Adulyadej the patent EP 1 491 088 Weather conducted the Atmospheric Modification Program from modification by royal rainmaking technology. 1979 to 1993. The sponsored projects were carried out in An Austrian study[38] to use silver iodide seeding for hail several states and two countries (Thailand and Morocco), prevention ran during 1981–2000, and the technique is studying both winter and summer cloud seeding. More still actively deployed there.[39] recently, in cooperation with six western states, Recla- mation sponsored a small cooperative research program called the Weather Damage Modification Program,[32] from 2002–2006. 0.5.5 Uses worldwide In the United States, funding for research has declined Asia in the last two decades. However, the Bureau of Recla- mation sponsored a six-state research program from The largest cloud seeding system in the world is that of 2002–2006, called the “Weather Damage Modification the People’s Republic of China, which believes that it in- [33] [34] Program”. A 2003 study by the United States Na- creases the amount of rain over several increasingly arid tional Academy of Sciences urges a national research pro- regions, including its capital city, Beijing, by firing silver gram to clear up remaining questions about weather mod- iodide rockets into the sky where rain is desired. There ification’s efficacy and practice. is even political strife caused by neighboring regions that “In 1978, an estimated 2,740 metric tons (metric ton = accuse each other of “stealing rain” using cloud seeding. 1,000 kg) of silver were released into the US environ- About 24 countries currently practice weather modifica- ment. This led the US Health Services and EPA to con- tion operationally. China used cloud seeding in Beijing duct studies regarding the potential for environmental and just before the 2008 Olympic Games in order to clear human health hazards related to silver. These agencies the air of pollution, but there are disputes regarding the and other state agencies applied the Clean Water Act of Chinese claims. In February 2009, China also blasted io- 1977 and 1987 to establish regulations on this type of dide sticks over Beijing to artificially induce snowfall af- pollution.”[35] ter four months of drought, and blasted iodide sticks over other areas of northern China to increase snowfall. The In Australia, CSIRO conducted major trials between snowfall in Beijing lasted for approximately three days 1947 and the early 1960s: and led to the closure of 12 main roads around Beijing.[40] At the end of October 2009 Beijing claimed it had its ear- • 1947 – 1952: CSIRO scientists dropped dry ice into liest snowfall since 1987 due to cloud seeding.[41] the tops of cumulus clouds. The method worked reliably with clouds that were very cold, producing In Southeast Asia, open burning produces haze that pol- rain that would not have otherwise fallen. lutes the regional environment. Cloud-seeding has been used to improve the air quality by encouraging rainfall. In India, cloud seeding operations were conducted during • 1953 – 1956: CSIRO carried out similar trials the years 1983, 1984–87,1993-94 by Tamil Nadu Govt in South Australia, Queensland and other States. due to severe drought.[42] In the years 2003 and 2004 Experiments used both ground-based and airborne Karnataka government initiated cloud seeding. Cloud silver iodide generators. seeding operations were also conducted in the same year through U.S. based Weather Modification Inc. in the • Late 1950s and early 1960s: Cloud seeding in the state of Maharashtra.[43] In 2008, there are plans for 12 Snowy Mountains, on the Cape York Peninsula in districts of state of Andhra Pradesh.[44] In the United Queensland, in the New England district of New Arab Emirates, cloud seeding is being conducted by South Wales, and in the Warragamba catchment the weather authorities to create artificial rain.[45] The area west of Sydney. project, which began in July 2010 and cost $11 million, has been successful in creating rain storms in the Dubai Only the trial conducted in the Snowy Mountains pro- and Abu Dhabi desert.[46] In Jakarta, due to frequent oc- duced statistically significant rainfall increases over the currence of flood in wet season, cloud seeding also used entire experiment. as an anticipation, according to Agency for the Assess- [47] Thailand started a rain-making project in the late 1950s. ment and Application of Technology. The first principle was to scatter sea salt to catch the hu- On 20 June 2013, Indonesia said it will begin cloud- midity in the air and dry ice to condense the humidity seeding operations following reports from Singapore and 26 CONTENTS

Malaysia that smog caused by forest and bush ﬁres in Sumatra have disrupted daily activities in the neighboring country.[48] On 25 June 2013, hailstones were reported to have fallen over some parts of Singapore.[49] Despite NEA denials, some believe that the hailstones are the result of cloud-seeding in Indonesia.

North America

In the United States, cloud seeding is used to increase precipitation in areas experiencing drought, to reduce the size of hailstones that form in thunderstorms, and to reduce the amount of fog in and around airports. In the This Cessna 441 is used to conduct cloud-seeding flights on be- summer of 1948, the usually humid city of Alexandria, half of Hydro Tasmania Louisiana, under Mayor Carl B. Close, seeded a cloud with dry ice at the municipal airport during a drought; quickly .85 inches of rainfall occurred.[50] Sky Cleaner, with eight containers of solid carbon dioxide in the cargo area plus external pods containing me- Cloud seeding is occasionally used by major ski resorts teorological cartridges that could be fired into clouds.[55] to induce snowfall. Eleven western states and one Cana- Soviet military pilots seeded clouds over the Belorussian dian province (Alberta) have ongoing weather modifica- SSR after the Chernobyl disaster to remove radioactive tion operational programs . In January 2006, an $8.8 mil- particles from clouds heading toward Moscow.[56] At the lion cloud seeding project began in Wyoming to examine July 2006 G8 Summit, President Putin commented that the effects of cloud seeding on snowfall over Wyoming’s air force jets had been deployed to seed incoming clouds Medicine Bow, Sierra Madre, and Wind River mountain so they rained over Finland. Rain drenched the summit [51] ranges. anyway.[57] In Moscow, the Russian Airforce tried seed- A number of commercial companies offer weather mod- ing clouds with bags of cement on June 17, 2008. One ification services centered on cloud seeding. of the bags did not pulverize and went through the roof of a house.[58] In October 2009, the Mayor of Moscow The U.S. signed an international treaty in 1978 banning promised a “winter without snow” for the city after re- the use of weather modification for hostile purposes.[52] vealing efforts by the Russian Air Force to seed the clouds During the sixties, Irving P. Krick & Associates operated upwind from Moscow throughout the winter.[59] a successful cloud seeding operation in the area around In Germany civic engagement societies organise cloud Calgary, Alberta. This utilized both aircraft and ground- seeding on a region level. A registered society[60] main- based generators that pumped silver iodide into the atmo- tains aircraft for cloud seeding to protect agricultural ar- sphere in an attempt to reduce the threat of hail damage. eas, for example in wine growing areas, in the district Ralph Langeman, Lynn Garrison, and Stan McLeod, all Rosenheim, the district Miesbach, the district Traunstein ex-members of the RCAF’s 403 Squadron, attending the (all located in southern Bavaria, Germany) and the dis- University of Alberta, spent their summers flying hail trict Kufstein (located in Tyrol, Austria). Another soci- suppression. The Alberta Hail Suppression Project is ety for cloud seeding operates in the district of Villingen- continuing with C$3 million a year in funding from in- Schwenningen.[61] surance companies to reduce hail damage in southern Alberta.[53] Australia Europe In Australia, the activities of CSIRO and Hydro Tasma- Cloud seeding began in France during the 1950s with the nia over central and western Tasmania between the 1960s intent of reducing hail damage to crops. The ANELFA and the present day appear to have been successful.[62] project consists of local agencies acting within a non- Seeding over the Hydro-Electricity Commission catch- profit organization.[54] A similar project in Spain is man- ment area on the Central Plateau achieved rainfall in- aged by the Consorcio por la Lucha Antigranizo de creases as high as 30% in autumn. The Tasmanian ex- Aragon.[54] The success of the French program was periments were so successful that the Commission has supported by insurance data; that of the Spanish pro- regularly undertaken seeding ever since in mountainous gram in studies conducted by the Spanish Agricultural parts of the State. [54] Ministry. In 2004, Snowy Hydro Limited began a trial of cloud The Soviet Union created a specifically designed version seeding to assess the feasibility of increasing snow precip- of the Antonov An-30 aerial survey aircraft, the An-30M itation in the Snowy Mountains in Australia.[63] The test 0.5. CLOUD SEEDING 27 period, originally scheduled to end in 2009, was later ex- 0.5.8 References tended to 2014.[63] The New South Wales (NSW) Natural Resources Commission, responsible for supervising the Notes cloud seeding operations, believes that the trial may have difficulty establishing statistically whether cloud seeding [1] Sources for image: Fletcher Boland operations are increasing snowfall. This project was dis- [2] Christner BC, Morris CE, Foreman CM, Cai R, cussed at a summit in Narrabri, NSW on 1 December Sands DC (2008). “Ubiquity of biological ice nu- 2006. The summit met with the intention of outlining a cleators in snowfall”. SCIENCE 319 (5867): 1214. proposal for a 5-year trial, focusing on Northern NSW. doi:10.1126/science.1149757. PMID 18309078.

The various implications of such a widespread trial were [3] Hill, S A.; Ming, Yi (2012). “Nonlinear climate discussed, drawing on the combined knowledge of sev- response to regional brightening of tropical ma- eral worldwide experts, including representatives from rine stratocumulus”. Geophysical Research Letters the Tasmanian Hydro Cloud Seeding Project however 39: L15707. Bibcode:2012GeoRL..3915707H. does not make reference to former cloud seeding experi- doi:10.1029/2012GL052064. ments by the then-Snowy Mountains Authority, which re- [4] Cloud seeding, no longer magical thinking, is poised for jected weather modification. The trial required changes use this winter"], Sacramento Bee, Nov. 11, 2013 to NSW environmental legislation in order to facilitate placement of the cloud seeding apparatus. The modern [5] “Laser creates clouds over Germany”. New Scientist. experiment is not supported for the Australian Alps. 2010-05-02. Retrieved 2010-11-21. In December 2006, the Queensland government of [6] “Cloud seeding, no longer magical thinking, is poised for Australia announced a $7.6 million in funding for “warm use this winter”, Sacramento Bee, Nov. 11, 2013 cloud” seeding research to be conducted jointly by the [7] NRC. “Critical Issues in Weather Modification Research”. Australian Bureau of Meteorology and the United States National Center for Atmospheric Research.[64] Outcomes [8] American Society of Civil Engineers of the study are hoped to ease continuing drought condi- [9] Weather Modification Association tions in the states South East region. [10] World Meteorological Organization

[11] http://www.ametsoc.org/policy/wxmod98.html Africa [12] The rocket that stops the rain

In Mali and Niger, cloud seeding is also used on a national [13] “Beijing to keep skies clear on Games’ opening day”, [65][66] scale. BOCOG, 2007-04-26. Retrieved on 2007-04-27.

[14] claims of success 0.5.6 Conspiracy theories [15] ‘Cloud Seeding’ Not Eﬀective at Producing Rain as Once Thought

Cloud seeding has been the focus of many theories [16] Big Hole Filled in Cloud Research based on the belief that governments manipulate the weather in order to control anything from global warm- [17] Bureau of Reclamation, 1977: Project Skywater, A pro- ing, populations, and military weapons testing, to public gram of Research in Precipitation Management. How- health.[67][68] ever, some research indicates that silver toxicity is bio- accumulative in aquatic environments, causing respiratory distress to some species of fish (Aquatic Toxicology Vol- ume 49, Issues 1-2, May 2000, Pages 111-129). Final 0.5.7 See also Environmental Statement (INT FES 77-39). [18] Harris, Edward R., 1981: Sierra Cooperative Pilot Project • Artificial cloud - Environmental Assessment and Finding of No Signifi- cant Impact. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of • Atmospheric moisture extraction Reclamation, Denver, CO, 208 pp. [19] Howell, Wallace E., 1977: Environmental Impacts of • Bioprecipitation Precipitation Management: Results and Inferences from Project Skywater. Bull. American Meteorological Soci- • Chemtrail conspiracy theory ety, 58, 488–501 [20] Steinhoff, Harold W., and Jack D. Ives, Eds., 1976: Eco- • Project Cumulus logical Impacts of Snowpack Augmentation in the San Juan Mountains, Colorado. Final Report to the Bureau • Project Popeye of Reclamation, 489 pp. 28 CONTENTS

[21] Donald A. Klein , 1978: Environmental Impacts of Artiﬁ- [45] Kazmi, Aftab. (8 May 2008) Cloud seeding experiment cial Ice Nucleating Agents, Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, has thundering success" Gulf News. Retrieved 3 April Inc., Stroudsburg, 256 pp. 2012

[22] Parsons Engineering Science, Inc., 1995: Environmental [46] Sanburn, Josh. (3 January 2011) Scientists create 52 arti- Assessment for the Paciﬁc Gas and Electric Company and ﬁcial rain storms in Abu Dhabi desert" Time News Feed. the U.S. Forest Service, Stanislaus National Forest. Retrieved 3 April 2012

[23] executive summary of the research [47] http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/home/ bppt-to-use-cloud-seeding-to-minimize-flood-risk-in-jakarta/ [24] http://www.colongwilderness.org.au/RedIndex/NSW/ 567564 Jagu99.htm[] [48] Singapore haze hits record highs from Indonesia ﬁres BBC [25] http://www.weathermodification.org/AGI_toxicity.pdf[] 21 June 2013

[26] http://web.archive.org/web/20080306070626/http: [49] “Hail” reported in the Western end of Singapore //www.nmt.edu/about/history/storms/chap3.htm [50] Alexandria Daily Town Talk, June 29, 1948 [27] Vonnegut, B.; Chessin, H. (1971). “Ice Nucleation by Co- precipitated Silver Iodide and Silver Bromide.”. Science [51] National Center for Atmospheric Research (26 January 174 (4012): 945–946. Bibcode:1971Sci...174..945V. 2006). “Wyoming cloud seeding experiment begins this doi:10.1126/science.174.4012.945. PMID 17773193. month”. Eureka Alert. Retrieved 27 November 2009.

[28] “Freezing Nucleant”, Bernard Vonnegut, Henry Chessin, [52] http://www.un-documents.net/enmod.htm and Richard E. Passarelli, Jr., #3,877,642, April 15, 1975 [53] “Alberta’s cloud-seeding pilots see 2nd busiest year in 20 [29] Ted Steinberg, Acts of God: The Unnatural History of Nat- years”. CBC News. 22 August 2014. Retrieved 23 August ural Disaster in America, (Oxford University Press, 2000), 2014. p. 128. [54] “Mitigation of Hail Damages by Cloud Seeding in France [30] http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_348.shtml and Spain” (PDF). 5th European Conference on Severe Storms. Retrieved 2010-11-21. [31] http://www.willthomas.net/Chemtrails/Articles/ Weather_Warfare.htm [55] Gunston, Bill (1995). The Osprey Encyclopedia of Russian Aircraft 1875-1995. Osprey. p. 1. ISBN 1 85532 405 9. [32] http://www.naiwmc.org/NAIWMC/wdmp.html [56] Gray, Richard (22 April 2007). “How we made the Cher- [33] Hunter, Steven M. (12 January 2005) “The Weather Dam- nobyl rain”. Telegraph (London). Retrieved 27 November age Modiﬁcation Program”. Retrieved 27 November 2009. 2009 [57] “Bush’s greeting for his pal Blair”. BBC News. 17 July [34] http://newton.nap.edu/catalog/10829.html 2006. Retrieved 30 April 2010.

[35] ″AGI_toxicity.pdf″, Weather Modification Association [58] Baldwin, Chris; Janet Lawerence (17 June 2008). “Sometimes it rains cement”. Reuters. Retrieved 27 [36] ″The Rainmaking Story″, Bureau of Royal Rainmaking November 2009. and Agricultural Aviation [59] “Moscow Testing Cloud Seeding; Promises Winter With- [37] ″Modern Monarchy″, Royal Thai Embassy Stockholm out Snow”. Meteorology News. 19 October 2009. Re- trieved 26 November 2009. [38] Hagelabwehr in Niederösterreich, Zentralanstalt für Me- teorologie und Geodynamik [60] “Homepage of the Society for cloud seeding Rosenheim (in German)". Retrieved 16 April 2013. [39] www.hagelabwehr.com -KSV- Herzlich Willkommen [61] “Cloud seeding aircraft is ready for service (article in Ger- [40] China Lets it Snow to End Drought. BBC 19 February man)". Retrieved 16 April 2013. 2009. [62] “On the Analysis of a Cloud Seeding Dataset over Tasma- [41] Branigan, Tania. (2 November 2009) "Nature gets a help- nia”. ing hand as snow blankets Beijing" Guardian. Retrieved 26 November 2009 [63] “Cloud seeding”. Government of New South Wales, Aus- tralia. 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-21. [42] “CASWMT”. [64] Griffith, Chris. “Cloud Seeding”. Courier mail. Retrieved [43] Sibal, Shri Kapil (4-8-2005). “Cloud Seeding”. Depart- 27 November 2009. ment of Science and Technology. Retrieved 26 November 2009. Check date values in: |date= (help) [65] West African Monsoon And Rainfall Enhancement Studie - Mali [44] http://deccan.com/City/Citynews.asp#State%20to% 20seed%20clouds%20again[] [66] Cloud seeding: taking off in West Africa 0.5. CLOUD SEEDING 29

[67] Smith, Oliver (2013-09-24). "'Chemtrails’ and other aviation conspiracy theories”. The Telegraph. Retrieved 2013-12-13`. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

[68] Mehlhaf, Nina (2013-04-25). “Chemtrails: Real conspiracy, or wild theory? Each perspective has fervent believ- ers”. KTVZ. Retrieved 2013-12-13.

Bibliography Schaefer, Vincent J. Serendipity in Science: My Twenty Years at Langmuir University 2013 Compiled and Edited by Don Rittner. Square Circle Press, Voorheesville, NY ISBN 978-0-9856926-3-6 Note: Chapter Six (6) “The War Ends as I Discover Cloud Seeding” Schaefer discusses the conversations with Lang- muir while climbing Mount Washington (pg 118-119) and then describes the event “My Discovery of Dry Ice Seeding” on pages 128-129. References by his son, James M Schaefer, Ph.D. 6-24-2013

0.5.9 External links

• Rainmaking in China • Nevada State Cloud Seeding Program

• European patent EP 1 491 088 Weather modiﬁcation by royal rainmaking technology Chapter 1

Environmental Modiﬁcation Convention

1.1 Environmental Modiﬁcation modiﬁcation techniques, US decided to seek agreement Convention with the Soviet Union to explore the possibilities of an international agreement.

The Environmental Modification Convention In July 1974, US and USSR agreed to hold bilateral (ENMOD), formally the Convention on the Pro- discussions on measures to overcome the danger of the hibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of use of environmental modification techniques for mili- Environmental Modification Techniques is an inter- tary purposes and three subsequent rounds of discussions national treaty prohibiting the military or other hostile in 1974 and 1975. In August 1975, US and USSR tabled use of environmental modification techniques having identical draft texts of a convention at the Conference of widespread, long-lasting or severe effects. It opened for the Committee on Disarmament (CCD), Conference on signature on 18 May 1977 in Geneva and entered into Disarmament, where intensive negotiations resulted in a force on 5 October 1978. modified text and understandings regarding four articles of this Convention in 1976. The Convention bans weather warfare, which is the use of weather modification techniques for the purposes of The Convention was approved by Resolution 31/72 of the inducing damage or destruction. The Convention on Bi- General Assembly of the United Nations on 10 December ological Diversity of 2010 would also ban some forms of 1976, by 96 to 8 votes with 30 abstentions. weather modification or geoengineering.[2] Many states do not regard this as a complete ban on the use of herbicides in warfare, such as Agent Orange, but 1.1.3 Environmental Modification Tech- [3] it does require case-by-case consideration. nique

1.1.1 Parties Environmental Modification Technique includes any technique for changing – through the deliberate manip- Main article: List of parties to the Environmental ulation of natural processes – the dynamics, composition Modification Convention or structure of the earth, including its biota, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere, or of outer space. Signatories are 48 and 16 of the signatories have not ratified yet. And State parties are 75 as of 24 September 2012.[4] 1.1.4 Structure of ENMOD

1.1.2 History The Convention contains ten articles and one Annex on the Consultative Committee of Experts. Integral part of The problem of artificial modification of the environment the Convention are also the Understandings relating to for military or other hostile purposes was brought to the articles I, II, III and VIII. These Understandings are not international agenda in the early 1970s. Following the incorporated into the Convention but are part of the nego- US decision of July 1972 to renounce the use of climate tiating record and were included in the report transmitted modification techniques for hostile purposes, the 1973 by the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament to resolution by the US Senate calling for an international the United Nations General Assembly in September 1976 agreement “prohibiting the use of any environmental or Report of the Conference of the Committee on Disar- geophysical modification activity as a weapon of war”, mament, Volume I, General Assembly Official records: and an in-depth review by the Department of Defense of Thirty-first session, Supplement No. 27 (A/31/27), New the military aspects of weather and other environmental York, United Nations, 1976, pp. 91–92.[5]

30 1.2. UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON ENVIRONMENTAL MODIFICATION 31

1.1.5 See also 1.2.1 History

• Arms control agreements According to the historical narrative of the U.S. Depart- ment of State, “although the use of environmental modifi- • Environmental agreements cation techniques for hostile purposes does not play a major role in military planning at the present time,” the U.S. • Climate engineering Government sought that such techniques might be developed in the future and “would pose a threat of serious • Operation Popeye damage unless action was taken to prohibit their use.” Ac- cordingly, in July 1972, the U.S. Government renounced the use of climate modification techniques for hostile pur- 1.1.6 References poses, even if their development were proved to be feasible in the future. The following year, they called for [1] “Convention on the prohibition of military or any other international agreement to avoid the military use of en- hostile use of environmental modification techniques”. United Nations. Retrieved 28 January 2012. vironmental and geophysical modifications and, after ex- ploring the possible uses, reached out to the former Soviet [2] http://www.cbd.int/cop10 Union (USSR). In 1974 and 1975, U.S. President Richard Nixon and Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev [3] “Practice Relating to Rule 76. Herbicides”. International held three sets of discussions on the issue. In 1975, Committee of the Red Cross. 2013. Retrieved 24 August the two nations began negotiating specific terms at the 2013. Conference of the Committee on Disarmament (CCD). Finalized in 1976, the agreed text was sent to the UN [4] http://www.unog.ch General Assembly for consideration during the fall ses- [5] The United Nations Office at Geneva. http://www.unog. sion. On 10 December 1976, the resolution was approved [1] [2] ch with 96 to 8 votes, 30 abstaining.

• 1.2.2 Environmental Modification Tech- nique 1.1.7 External links In the treaty text “Environmental Modification Tech- nique” is defined as follows: • The text of the agreement compiled by the NGO Committee on Education As used in article I, the term “environmen- • Ratifications tal modification techniques” refers to any technique for changing-through the deliberate ma- • A Political Primer on the ENMOD Convention from nipulation of natural processes-the dynamics, the Sunshine Project. composition or structure of the Earth, including its biota, lithosphere, hydrosphere and at- • The United Nations Office at Geneva mosphere, or of outer space. — Article II, Environmental Modification Convention 1.2 United Nations Convention on Environmental Modification 1.2.3 See also

United Nations Convention on Environmental Modi- • Arms control agreements fication is a resolution of the United Nations General As- sembly which adopted the Environmental Modification • Environmental agreements Convention (ENMOD), formally known as the Conven- tion on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hos- • Climate engineering tile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques adopted in 10 December 1976 at the 31st Session of the UN General Assembly. The convention aims to prohibit 1.2.4 References the military or other hostile use of environmental modification techniques having widespread, long-lasting or se- This article incorporates public domain material from vere effects. The convention entered into force on 5 Oc- websites or documents of the United States Department tober 1978. of State. 32 CHAPTER 1. ENVIRONMENTAL MODIFICATION CONVENTION

[1] “Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other As of March 2013 the third review conference had not Hostile Use of Environmental Modiﬁcation Techniques been scheduled as there were under 10 respondents show- (ENMOD)". The United Nations Oﬃce at Geneva ing interest in reconvening.[1][2] (UNOG). Retrieved 2013-11-18.

[2] “Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other 1.3.1 List of parties Hostile Use of Environmental Modiﬁcation Techniques”. Bureau of International Security and Nonproliferation, U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 2013-11-18. 1.3.2 States that have signed but not rati- ﬁed

1.2.5 External links 1.3.3 References

• [1] “Convention on the prohibition of military or any other The text of the resolution hostile use of environmental modification techniques”. United Nations Treaty Series. Retrieved 2015-03-01. • Ratifications [2] “Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other • The United Nations Office at Geneva Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques (ENMOD)". United Nations Office for Disarmament Af- fairs. Retrieved 2015-03-01. 1.3 List of parties to the Environ- [3] “Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques”. mental Modification Conven- United States Department of State. Retrieved 2015-03- tion 01. [4] The U.S. Department of State lists Dominica as giving notice that it would continue to be bound by the treaty on 8 November 1978.

[5] The U.S. Department of State lists Saint Lucia as giving notice that it would continue to be bound by the treaty on 22 February 1979.

[6] The U.S. Department of State lists Saint Vincent and The Grenadines as giving notice that it would continue to be bound by the treaty on 27 October 1979.

Participation in the Environmental Modiﬁcation Convention Parties Only signed Non-signatory

The list of parties to the Environmental Modification Convention encompasses the states who have signed and ratified or acceded to the international agreement prohibiting military use of environmental modification techniques. On May 18, 1977, the Environmental Modification Con- vention (ENMOD) was opened for signature. North Yemen became the first state to deposit the treaty on 20 July 1977. The treaty came into force and closed for signature on October 5, 1978. Since then, states that did not sign the treaty can now only accede to it. The instrument of ratification, accession, or succession is deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations As of 2012, 76 states have ratified or acceded to the treaty, most recently Cameroon on 18 April 2011. A further 16 states have signed but not ratified the treaty. Chapter 2

Existing Facilities

2.1 Arecibo Observatory The Radio Telescope is a spherical reflector, not a parabolic reflector. To aim the device, the receiver is The Arecibo Observatory is a radio telescope in the mu- moved to intercept signals reflected from different direc- nicipality of Arecibo, Puerto Rico. This observatory is tions by the spherical dish surface. A parabolic mirror operated by SRI International, USRA and UMET, under would have varying astigmatism when the receiver is off cooperative agreement with the National Science Foun- the focal point, but the error of a spherical mirror is the dation (NSF).[2][3] This observatory is also called the Na- same in every direction. tional Astronomy and Ionosphere Center, although The receiver is on a 900-ton platform suspended 150 m “NAIC” refers to both the observatory and the staff that (500 ft) above the dish by 18 cables running from three operates it.[4] From its construction in the 1960s until reinforced concrete towers, one 110 m (365 ft) high and 2011, the observatory was managed by Cornell Univer- the other two 80 m (265 ft) high, placing their tops at the sity. same elevation. The platform has a 93-meter-long rotat- The Observatory’s 1,000 ft (305 m) radio telescope ing, bow-shaped track, called the azimuth arm, carrying is the world’s largest single-aperture telescope. It is the receiving antennas and secondary and tertiary reflec- used in three major areas of research: radio astronomy, tors. This allows the Telescope to observe any region of atmospheric science, and radar astronomy. Scientists the sky in a forty-degree cone of visibility about the lo- who want to use the Arecibo Telescope submit propos- cal zenith (between −1 and 38 degrees of declination). als that are evaluated by an independent scientific board. Puerto Rico's location near the Northern Tropic allows Arecibo to view the planets in the Solar System over the The Radio Telescope has made appearances in motion Northern half of their orbit. The round trip light time to picture and television productions, gaining more recog- objects beyond Saturn is longer than the 2.6 hour time nition in 1999 when it began to collect data for the that the telescope can track a celestial position, prevent- SETI@home project. It has been listed on the Amer- ing radar observations of more distant objects. ican National Register of Historic Places beginning in 2008.[1][5] It was the featured listing in the National Park Service's weekly list of October 3, 2008.[6] The Center was named in IEEE Milestone in 2001.[7] It has a visitors center that is open part time.

2.1.1 General information

The main collecting dish is 1,000 ft (305 m) in diameter, constructed inside the depression left by a karst sinkhole.[8] It contains the largest curved focusing dish on Earth, giving Arecibo the largest electromagnetic- The Arecibo Radio Telescope as viewed from the [9] wave-gathering capacity. The dish surface is made of observation deck, October 2013 38,778 perforated aluminum panels, each about 3 by 6 feet (1 by 2 m), supported by a mesh of steel cables. The ground underneath is accessible and supports shade- [10] tolerant vegetation. 2.1.2 Design and architecture The Arecibo Radio Telescope has three radar transmitters, with eﬀective isotropic radiated powers of 20 TW at The origins of the Arecibo Observatory trace to late 2380 MHz, 2.5 TW (pulse peak) at 430 MHz, and 300 1950s eﬀorts to develop anti-ballistic missile (ABM) MW at 47 MHz. defences as part of the newly formed ARPA’s ABM

33 34 CHAPTER 2. EXISTING FACILITIES

different positions in the sky and track those positions for an extended period as the Earth rotates. Ward Low of the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) pointed out this flaw and put Gordon in touch with the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory (AFCRL) in Boston, Massachusetts, where one group headed by Phil Black- smith was working on spherical reflectors and another group was studying the propagation of radio waves in and through the upper atmosphere. Cornell University proposed the project to ARPA in mid-1958 and a contract was signed between the AFCRL and the University in November 1959. Cornell University and Zachary Sears published a request for proposals (RFP) asking for a design to support a feed moving along a spherical surface A detailed view of the beam-steering mechanism and some anten- 435 feet (133 m) above the stationary reflector. The RFP nas. The triangular platform at the top is fixed, and the azimuth suggested a tripod or a tower in the center to support the arm rotates beneath it. To the left is the Gregorian sub-reflector, feed. On the day the project for the design and construc- and to the right is the 96-foot-long (29 m) line feed tuned to 430 tion of the antenna was announced at Cornell University, MHz. Just visible at the upper right is part of the rectangular Gordon had also envisioned a 435 ft (133 m) tower cen- waveguide that brings the 2.5 MW 430 MHz radar transmitter’s tered in the 1,000 ft (300 m) reflector to support the feed. signal up to the focal region. George Doundoulakis, who directed research at General Bronze Corporation in Garden City, New York, along umbrella-effort, Project Defender. Even at this early stage with Zachary Sears, who directed Internal Design at Digi- it was clear that the use of radar decoys would be a seri- tal B & E Corporation, New York, received the RFP from ous problems at the long ranges needed to successfully at- Cornell University for the antenna design and studied tack a warhead, ranges on the order of 1,000 miles (1,600 the idea of suspending the feed with his brother, Helias km).[11][12] Doundoulakis, a civil engineer. George Doundoulakis Among the many Defender projects were several studies identified the problem that a tower or tripod would have based on the concept that a re-entering nuclear warhead presented around the center, (the most important area of would cause unique physical fingerprints while still in the the reflector), and devised a better approach by suspend- upper atmosphere. It was known that hot, high-speed ing the feed. He presented his proposal to Cornell for a objects caused ionization of the atmosphere that created doughnut truss suspended by four cables from four towers radar returns, and it appeared that a warhead’s signature above the reflector, having along its edge a rail track for would be different enough from decoys that a detector the azimuthal feed’s positioning. A second truss, in the could pick out the warhead directly, or alternately, pro- form of an arc, or arch, was to be suspended below, which vide additional information that would allow the opera- would rotate on the rails through 360 degrees. The arc tors to focus a conventional tracking radar on the single also had rails on which the unit supporting the feed would return from the warhead.[11][12] move for the feed’s elevational positioning. A counter- weight would move symmetrically opposite to the feed for Although the concept appeared to offer a solution to the stability and, if a hurricane struck, the entire feed could tracking problem, there was almost no information on be raised and lowered. Helias Doundoulakis designed the either the physics of re-entry or a strong understanding cable suspension system which was finally adopted. Al- of the normal composition of the upper layers of the though the present configuration is substantially the same ionosphere. ARPA began to address both simultaneously; as the original drawings by George and Helias, (though to better understand the radar returns from a warhead a with three towers instead of the original four), the U.S. number of radars were build on Kwajalein Atoll, while an- Patent office granted Helias a patent,[16] for the brothers’ other effort started with the dual-purpose of understand- innovative idea. William J. Casey, who later became the ing the ionosphere’s F-layer while also producing a gen- director of the Central Intelligence Agency under Presi- [11][12] eral purpose scientific radio observatory. dent Ronald Reagan, was also an assignee on the patent. The Arecibo Telescope was built between mid-1960 and Construction began in mid-1960, with the official open- November 1963 and designed by William E. Gordon of ing on November 1, 1963.[17] As the primary dish is Cornell University, who intended to use it to study Earth’s spherical, its focus is along a line rather than at a sin- [13][14][15] ionosphere. Originally, a fixed parabolic reflec- gle point (as would be the case for a parabolic reflector). tor was envisioned, pointing in a fixed direction with a As a result, complicated line feeds were implemented to 150 m (500 ft) tower to hold equipment at the focus. carry out observations. Each line feed covered a nar- This design would have limited its use in other research row frequency band (2–5% of the center frequency of the areas, such as radar astronomy, radio astronomy and at- band); a limited number of line feeds could be used at any mospheric science, which require the ability to point at 2.1. ARECIBO OBSERVATORY 35

one time, limiting the telescope’s flexibility. Since then, the Arecibo Telescope has been upgraded several times. Initially, when the maximum expected operating frequency was about 500 MHz, the surface consisted of half-inch galvanized wire mesh laid directly on the support cables. In 1974, a high-precision surface consisting of 40,000 of individually adjustable aluminum panels replaced the old wire mesh, and the highest usable frequency was raised to approximately 5000 MHz. A Gregorian reflector system was installed in 1997, in- corporating secondary and tertiary reflectors to focus radio waves at a single point. This allowed the installation of a suite of receivers, covering the entire 1–10 GHz range, that could be easily moved to the focal point, giving Arecibo more flexibility. A metal screen was also installed around the perimeter to block the ground’s thermal radiation from reaching the feed antennas. Finally, a more powerful 2400 MHz transmitter was added.

2.1.3 Research and discoveries

Many scientific discoveries have been made using the Arecibo Telescope. On April 7, 1964, shortly after it began operations, Gordon Pettengill's team used it to determine that the rotation rate of Mercury was not 88 days, as previously thought, but only 59 days.[18] In 1968, the discovery of the periodicity of the Crab Pul- sar (33 milliseconds) by Lovelace and others provided the first solid evidence that neutron stars exist.[19] In 1974, Hulse and Taylor discovered the first binary pulsar PSR B1913+16,[20] an accomplishment for which they later received the Nobel Prize in Physics. In 1982, the first millisecond pulsar, PSR B1937+21, was discovered by Donald C. Backer, Shrinivas Kulkarni, Carl Heiles, Michael Davis, and Miller Goss.[21] This object spins 642 times per second, and until the discovery of PSR J1748- 2446ad in 2005, was identified as the fastest-spinning pulsar. In August 1989, the Observatory directly imaged an asteroid for the first time in history: 4769 Castalia.[22] The following year, Polish astronomer Aleksander Wol- szczan made the discovery of pulsar PSR B1257+12, which later led him to discover its three orbiting planets and possible comet.[23][24] These were the first extrasolar planets discovered. In 1994, John Harmon used the Arecibo Radio Telescope to map the distribution of ice in the poles of Mercury.[25] In January 2008, detection of prebiotic molecules methanimine and hydrogen cyanide were reported from the Arecibo Observatory radio spectroscopy measurements of the distant starburst galaxy Arp 220.[26] The Arecibo message with added color to highlight the separate parts. The actual binary transmission carried no color information. 2.1.4 SETI / METI 36 CHAPTER 2. EXISTING FACILITIES

The Arecibo Message in which radio signals aimed at the Moon are reflected back to Earth. The first of these operations was on June Main article: Arecibo message 13–14, 1964, using the call KP4BPZ. A dozen or so two- way contacts were made on 144 and 432 MHz. On July 3 and July 24, 1965, KP4BPZ was again activated on 432 In 1974, the Arecibo message, an attempt to communi- MHz, making approximately 30 contacts on 432 MHz cate with potential extraterrestrial life, was transmitted during the limited time slots available. For these tests, a from the radio telescope toward the globular cluster M13, very wide-band instrumentation recorder captured a large about 25,000 light-years away.[27] The 1,679 bit pattern segment of the receiving bandwidth, enabling later veri- of 1s and 0s defined a 23 by 73 pixel bitmap image that fication of other amateur station callsigns (obviously, not included numbers, stick figures, chemical formulas and a two-way contacts). From April 16–18, 2010, again, the crude image of the Telescope itself.[28] Arecibo Amateur Radio Club KP4AO conducted moonbounce activity using the antenna.[33] On November 10, The RuBisCo Stars 2013, the KP4AO Arecibo Amateur Radio Club conducted a Fifty-Year Commemoration Activation, lasting Main article: RuBisCo Stars 7 hours on 14.250 MHz SSB, without using the main dish antenna. On November 7, 2009, as part of the 35th anniversary of the Drake/Sagan transmission to M13, the RuBisCO gene sequence was transmitted to three “nearby” stars: GJ 2.1.6 Funding concerns 83.1, Teagarden’s star SO 025300.5+165258 and Kappa Ceti (G5B). The project was by artist Joe Davis with sup- Since the early 1970s, the Arecibo Observatory has been port from Paul Gilster, the Arecibo Observatory, Cornell supported by the NSF (National Science Foundation di- University and others. visions of Astronomical Sciences and of Atmospheric Sciences) with incremental support by NASA, for the operation of the planetary radar.[34] Between 2001 and SETI Searches 2006, NASA decreased, then eliminated, its support of the planetary radar,[35] but restored and increased the Main article: SETI funding in FY-2010. A report by the NSF division of Astronomical Sciences, Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI),[29] is a made public on November 3, 2006, recommended sub- program focused on finding extraterrestrial “life” or ad- stantially decreased astronomy funding for the Arecibo vanced technologies that surpass terrestrial acquisitions. Observatory, from $10.5 million in 2007 to $4.0 million SETI aims to answer the eternal question: “Are we alone in 2011.[36][37] If other sources of money could not be ob- in the Universe?" by emitting a series of radio frequen- tained, the observatory would be forced to close. The re- cies, (signaling waves in the electromagnetic spectrum), port also advised that 80 percent of the observation time to penetrate Earth´s atmosphere, sending a signal to space be allocated to the surveys already in progress, reducing and recording data of possible sounds or feedback re- available time for smaller programs. ceived. Academics and researchers responded by organizing to Arecibo is the source of data for the SETI@home and protect and advocate for the Observatory. They es- Astropulse distributed computing projects put forward by tablished the Arecibo Science Advocacy Partnership the Space Sciences Laboratory at the University of Cal- (ASAP), to advance the scientific excellence of Arecibo ifornia, Berkeley and was used for the SETI Institute's Observatory research and to publicize its accomplish- Project Phoenix observations.[30] The Einstein@Home ments in astronomy, aeronomy and planetary radar.[38] distributed computing project has found more than 20 ASAP’s goals included mobilizing the existing broad base pulsars in Arecibo data.[31] of support for Arecibo science within the fields it serves directly, the broad scientific community; provide a forum for the Arecibo research community and enhance com- 2.1.5 Other uses munication within it; promote the potential of Arecibo for groundbreaking science; suggest paths that will max- Terrestrial aeronomy experiments at Arecibo have in- imize it into the foreseeable future, and showcase the cluded the Coqui 2 experiment, supported by NASA. The broad impact and far-reaching implications of the science Arecibo Telescope also has military intelligence uses, currently carried out with this unique instrument.[38] some of which include locating Soviet radar installations [32] Contributions by the government of Puerto Rico may be by detecting their signals bouncing off the Moon. one way to help fill the funding gap, but remain controver- Limited amateur radio operations have occurred, using sial and uncertain. At town hall meetings about the poten- “moon bounce” or Earth–Moon–Earth communication, tial closure, Puerto Rican Senate President Kenneth Mc- 2.1. ARECIBO OBSERVATORY 37

Clintock announced an initial local appropriation of $3.0 to send a letter to their political representatives in support million during fiscal year 2008 to fund a major mainte- of full federal funding of the Observatory.[50] nance project to restore the three pillars that support the The NAIC received $3.1 million from the American Re- antenna platform to their original condition, pending in- [39] covery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. This was used for clusion in the next bond issue. The bond authoriza- basic maintenance and for a second, much smaller, an- tion, with a $3.0 million appropriation, was approved by tenna to be used for very long baseline interferometry, the Senate of Puerto Rico on November 14, 2007, on the new Klystron amplifiers for the planetary radar system first day of a special session called by Aníbal Acevedo and student training.[51] This allotment was an increase Vilá.[40] The Puerto Rico House of Representatives re- of about 30 percent over the FY-2009 budget. However, peated this action on June 30, 2008. Puerto Rico’s gov- the FY-2010 funding request by NSF was cut by $1.2 mil- ernor signed the measure into law in August 2008.[41] lion, (−12.5 percent), over the FY-2009 budget), in light These funds were made available during the second half of their continued plans to reduce funding.[52] of 2009. The 2011 NSF budget was reduced by a further $1.6 In a letter published on September 19, 2007, José Enrique million, −15 percent compared to 2010, with a further Serrano, a member of the U.S. House of Representatives $1.0 million reduction projected by FY-2014.[53] Begin- Appropriations Committee, asked the National Science [42] ning in FY-2010, NASA restored its historical support by Foundation to keep Arecibo in operation. contributing $2.0 million per year for planetary science, Language similar to that of the letter of September 19 was particularly the study of near-Earth objects, at Arecibo. included in the FY-2008 omnibus spending bill. In Oc- NASA implemented this funding through its Near Earth tober 2007, Puerto Rico’s then-Resident Commissioner, Object Observations program.[54] Luis Fortuño, along with Dana Rohrabacher, filed leg- Furthermore, in 2010 the NSF issued a call for new pro- islation to assure the continued operation of the famed [43] posals for the management of NAIC beginning in FY- Observatory. A similar bill was filed in the U.S. Sen- 2012.[4] On May 12, 2011, the agency informed Cornell ate in April 2008 by the Junior Senator from New York, [44] University that, as of October 1, 2011, it would no Hillary Clinton. longer be the operator of the NAIC and the Arecibo Since the Arecibo observatory is owned by the Observatory. At that time, Cornell transferred its oper- Government of the United States, donations by pri- ations to SRI International, along with two other man- vate or corporate donors cannot be made. However, aging partners, Universities Space Research Association as a non-profit (501(c)(3)) “public charities” under US and Universidad Metropolitana de Puerto Rico, with a law, the operators, SRI International and Universidad number of other collaborators.[3][55] Upon the award of Metropolitana, can accept contributions on behalf of the the new cooperative agreement for NAIC management Arecibo Observatory.[45] and operation, NSF also decertified NAIC as a Federally [53] In September 2007, in an open letter to researchers, the Funded Research and Development Center (FFRDC), NSF clarified the status of the budget for NAIC, stat- with the stated goal of providing the NAIC with greater ing the present plan could hit the targeted budgetary freedom to establish broader scientific partnerships and [46] pursue funding opportunities for activities beyond the revision. No mention of private funding was made. [56] However, in the event that its budget target is not reached, scope of those supported by NSF. it must be noted that the NSF is undertaking studies to mothball or demolish the Observatory to return it to its 2.1.7 Ángel Ramos Foundation Visitor natural setting. Center In November 2007, The Planetary Society urged the U.S. Congress to prevent the Arecibo Observatory from clos- Opened in 1997, the Ángel Ramos Foundation Visitor ing because of insufficient funding, since its radar con- Center features interactive exhibits and displays about tributes greatly to the accuracy of predictions of asteroid the operations of the radio telescope, astronomy and impacts on the Earth.[47] The Planetary Society believes atmospheric science. The center is named after the finan- that continued operation of the observatory will reduce cial foundation that honors Ángel Ramos, the owner of the cost of mitigation (that is, deflection of a near-Earth the El Mundo newspaper and the founder of Telemundo. asteroid on collision to Earth), should that be necessary. The Foundation provided half of the funds to build the Also in November of that year The New York Times de- Visitor Center, with the remainder received from private scribed the consequences of the budget cuts at the site.[48] donations and Cornell University. In July 2008, the British newspaper The Daily Telegraph The Ángel Ramos Foundation Visitor Center, in collab- reported that the funding crisis, due to federal budget oration with the Caribbean Astronomical Society, host a cuts, was still very much alive.[49] series of Astronomical Nights throughout the year, which The SETI@home program is using the telescope as a pri- feature diverse discussions regarding exoplanets, and as- mary source for ET research. The program urges people tronomical phenomenons and discoveries (such as Comet ISON). The main purpose of the Center is to increase 38 CHAPTER 2. EXISTING FACILITIES public interest in astronomy, the Arecibo Observatory’s • The Arecibo Observatory was used as a filming research successes and space endeavors. location in the climax of the James Bond movie The Visitor Center is open Wednesday - Sunday, on many GoldenEye (1995), and as a level in the accompa- holidays and during school breaks.The admission fee is nying Nintendo 64 video game GoldenEye 007. $10.00 for adults, and $6.00 for seniors and children un- • der 10.[57] The film Contact (1997), based on the Carl Sagan 1985 novel of the same name, features Arecibo, where the main character uses the facility as part of 2.1.8 List of directors a SETI project. • • 1960–1965, Dr. William E. Gordon (Ph.D., Cornell Fox Mulder went to the Arecibo Observatory in The University) X-Files episode, "Little Green Men.”

• 1965–1966, Dr. John W. Findlay (Ph.D., University • The Observatory is featured in the film Species of Cambridge) (1995), the James Gunn novel The Listeners (1972), the Robert J. Sawyer novel Rollback, the Mary Doria • 1966–1968, Dr. Frank Drake (Ph.D., Harvard Uni- Russell novel The Sparrow and the film The Losers. versity) • A radio telescope based on the observatory is • 1968–1971, Dr. Gordon Pettengill (Ph.D., UC featured in the videogames Just Cause 2 and in Berkeley) Battlefield 4 on the multiplayer map “Rogue Trans- mission”. • 1971–1973, Dr. Tor Hagfors (Ph.D., University of Oslo) • “Arecibo” is the title of the first track of the album • 1973–1982, Dr. Harold D. Craft Jr. (Ph.D., Cornell Twentythree by Carbon Based Lifeforms. University) • Although never specifically named, the first lines • 1982–1987, Dr. Donald B. Campbell (Ph.D., of the Arthur C. Clarke novel 2010: Odyssey Two Cornell University) strongly imply that the opening scene takes place at the Arecibo Observatory. • 1987–1988, Dr. Riccardo Giovanelli (Ph.D., University of Bologna) 2.1.10 See also • 1988–1992, Dr. Michael M. Davis (Ph.D., Leiden University) • National Astronomy and Ionospheric Center • 1992–2003, Dr. Daniel R. Altschuler (Ph.D., (Arecibo Observatory) Brandeis University) • Air Force Research Laboratory • 2003–2006, Dr. Sixto A. González (Ph.D., Utah State University) • Five hundred meter Aperture Spherical Telescope • 2006–2007, Dr. Timothy L. Hankins (Ph.D., • Atacama Large Millimeter Array University of California at San Diego) • List of radio telescopes • 2007–2008, Dr. Robert B. Kerr (Ph.D., University of Michigan) • Sixto A. González, former director of the Arecibo • 2008–2011, Dr. Michael C. Nolan (Ph.D., Observatory (2003–2006) University of Arizona) • William E. Gordon, founder and first director of the • 2011–present, Dr. Robert B. Kerr (Ph.D., Observatory (AIO 1963–1965) University of Michigan) • Tor Hagfors, former director of the Arecibo Ob- servatory (1971–1973) and also of NAIC (October 2.1.9 In popular culture 1982 to September 1992).

• The Arecibo Observatory was featured on Cosmos: • Helias Doundoulakis[58] A Personal Voyage in Part 12 “Encyclopedia Galac- tica.” • UPRM Planetarium 2.1. ARECIBO OBSERVATORY 39

2.1.11 References [17] “Arecibo Observatory”. History.com. Retrieved 2008- 09-02. [1] National Park Service (3 October 2008). “Weekly List Actions”. Retrieved 2008-10-03. [18] Dyce, R. B.; Pettengill, G. H.; Shapiro, I. I. (April 1967). “Radar determination of the rotations of [2] Bhattacharjee, Yudhijit (20 May 2011). “New Consor- Venus and Mercury”. Astron. J. 72 (3): 351–359. tium to Run Arecibo Observatory”. Science. Retrieved Bibcode:1967AJ.....72..351D. doi:10.1086/110231. Re- 2012-01-11. trieved 2014-02-26.

[3] “SRI International to Manage Arecibo Observatory” [19] Richard V.E. Lovelace. “Discovery of the Period of the (Press release). SRI International. 2013-07-10. Re- Crab Nebula Pulsar” (PDF). Cornell University. Archived trieved 2013-07-10. (PDF) from the original on September 12, 2008. Re- trieved 2008-09-02. [4] “NSF request for proposals issued in 2010” (PDF). Re- trieved 2011-09-02. [20] Hulse, R.A., and Taylor, J.H. (1975). Discovery of a pulsar in a binary system. Astrophys. pp. 195, L51–L53. [5] Juan Llanes Santos (March 20, 2007). “National Regis- ter of Historic Places Registration: National Astronomy [21] D. Backer et al. (1982). “A millisecond pulsar”. Nature and Ionosphere Center / Arecibo Observatory” (PDF). 300 (5893): 315–318. Bibcode:1982Natur.300..615B. National Park Service. Retrieved October 21, 2009. (72 doi:10.1038/300615a0. pages, with many historic b&w photos and 18 color photos) [22] “Asteroid 4769 Castalia (1989 PB)". NASA. Archived from the original on September 16, 2008. Retrieved [6] “Weekly List Actions”. National Park Service. Archived 2008-09-02. from the original on December 2, 2009. Retrieved Octo- ber 21, 2009. [23] Wolszczan, A. (1994). Confirmation of Earth Mass Planets Orbiting the Millisecond Pulsar PSR: B1257+12. [7] "Milestones:NAIC/Arecibo Radiotelescope, 1963”. Science. p. 538. IEEE Global History Network. IEEE. Retrieved July 29, 2011. [24] Daniel Fischer (2002). “A comet orbiting a pulsar?". The Cosmic Mirror (244). [8] David Brand (21 January 2003). “Astrophysicist Robert Brown, leader in telescope development, named to [25] Harmon, J.K., M.A. Slade, R.A. Velez, A. Crespo, M.J. head NAIC and its main facility, Arecibo Observatory”. Dryer, and J.M. Johnson (1994). Radar Mapping of Mer- Cornell University. Retrieved 2008-09-02. cury’s Polar Anomalies. Nature. p. 369. [9] Frederic Castel (8 May 2000). “Arecibo: Celestial Eaves- [26] Staff (15 January 2008). “Life’s Ingredients Detected dropper”. Space.com. Retrieved 2008-09-02. In Far Off Galaxy”. ScienceDaily (ScienceDaily LLC). [10] “General Views of the Arecibo Observatory”. Image Archived from the original on April 21, 2008. Retrieved Gallery. Arecibo Observatory. Retrieved 25 August 2008-03-29. [Article] Adapted from materials provided 2013. by Cornell University.

[11] Barry Rosenberg, “DARPA Paves the Way for U.S. Ef- [27] Larry Klaes (30 November 2005). “Making Contact”. forts in Ballistic Missile Defense”, 50 Years of Bridging Ithaca Times. Retrieved 2008-09-02. the Gap, DARPA [28] Geaorge Cassiday. “The Arecibo Message”. The Univer- [12] “Defender Anti-Ballistic Missile”, DARPA Technical Ac- sity of Utah: Department of Physics. Archived from the complishments Volume II: A Historical Review Of Se- original on July 17, 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-27. lected DARPA Projects, April 1991, Section I: PRESS. [29] J. Tarter (2001). The Search For Extraterrestrial Intel- [13] “IEEE History Center: NAIC/Arecibo Radiotelescope, ligence (SETI). Annual Review of Astronomy and As- 1963”. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. trophysics. Vol. 39, pp. 511–548 DOI: 10.1146/an- Retrieved 2008-09-02. nurev.astro.39.1.511

[14] “Pictures of the construction of Arecibo Observatory [30] Peter Backus (14 April 2003). “Project Phoenix: SETI (start to ﬁnish)". National Astronomy and Ionosphere Prepares to Observe at Arecibo”. Space.com. Retrieved Center. Archived from the original on May 5, 2009. Re- 2008-09-02. trieved 2009-05-05. [31] “Einstein@Home new discoveries and detections of [15] “Description of Engineering of Arecibo Observatory”. known pulsars in the BRP4 search”. Einstein@Home. Acevedo, Tony (June 2004). Archived from the original August 27, 2012. Retrieved August 28, 2012. on May 4, 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-05. [32] Steve Blank “Secret history of Silicon Valley” talk [16] US patent 3273156, Helias Doundoulakis, “Radio Tele- scope having a scanning feed supported by a cable sus- [33] “ARRL; Moonbounce for everyone”. Retrieved January pension over a stationary reﬂector”, issued 1966-09-13 10, 2013. 40 CHAPTER 2. EXISTING FACILITIES

[34] Andrew J. Butrica (1996). “NASA SP-4218: To See [48] Chang, K., “A Hazy Future for a 'Jewel' of Space Instru- the Unseen - A History of Planetary Radar Astronomy”. ments.”, New York Times, November 20, 2007 NASA. Archived from the original on 2007-08-23. Re- trieved 2014-08-06. [49] Jacqui Goddard, “Threat to world’s most powerful radio telescope means we may not hear ET”, Daily Telegraph, [35] Robert Roy Britt (20 December 2001). “NASA Trims July 12, 2008 Arecibo Budget, Says Other Organizations Should Sup- port Asteroid Watch”. Space.com. Imaginova. Retrieved [50] “Save Arecibo: Write to Congress”. Retrieved July 19, 2008-07-08. 2008 [51] “12-m Phase Reference Antenna”. Naic.edu. 28 June [36] Roger Blandford; Senior Review Committee, Division 2010. Retrieved 2012-05-11. of Astronomical Sciences, National Science Foundation (22 October 2006). “From the Ground Up: Balancing [52] “FY2010 Budget Request to Congress”. Retrieved May the NSF Astronomy Program” (PDF). National Science 26, 2009 Foundation. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 26, 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-08. [53] “Major multi-user research facilities” p. 35–38. Retrieved 2010 Feb. 10 [37] Rick Weiss (9 September 2007). “Radio Telescope And Its Budget Hang in the Balance”. The Washington Post [54] “NASA Support to Planetary Radar” retrieved 2011 July (Arecibo, Puerto Rico: The Washington Post Company). 7 p. A01. Retrieved 2008-07-08. The cash crunch stems from an NSF “senior review” completed last November. [55] “SRI International to manage Arecibo Observatory”. Its $200 million astronomy division, increasingly commit- Cornell Chronicle. 3 June 2011. Retrieved 2012-01-11. ted to ambitious new projects, but long hobbled by flat [56] “Management and Operation of the NAIC” retrieved 2013 Congressional budgets, was facing a deficit of at least $30 Apr 6 million by 2010. [57] "Ángel Ramos Foundation Visitor’s Center Schedule and [38] “Areciboscience.org”. Areciboscience.org. Retrieved Hours”. Retrieved April 21, 2012. 2012-05-11. [58] “3,273,156 (1966-09-13) Helias Doundoulakis, Radio [39] Liz Arelis Cruz Maisonave. “Buscan frenar cierre de Ra- Telescope having a scanning feed supported by a cable diotelescopio en Arecibo”. El Vocero (in Spanish). Re- suspension over a stationary reflector”. U.S. Patent Of- trieved 2008-09-04. fice. [40] “Senado aprueba emisión de bonos de $450 millones” (in Spanish). Primera Hora. 14 November 2007. Archived 2.1.12 Further reading from the original on 2008-12-08. Retrieved 2008-09-04. • [41] Gerardo E, Alvarado León (10 August 2008). Gober- Friedlander, Blaine P. Jr. (1997-11-14). “Research nador firma emisión de bonos. El Nuevo Día. rockets, including an experiment from Cornell, are scheduled for launch into the ionosphere next year [42] José E. Serrano (19 September 2007). “Serrano from Puerto Rico”. Cornell University. concerned about potential Arecibo closure”. serrano.house.gov. Archived from the original on 30 July • Ruiz, Carmelo (1998-03-03). “Activists protest 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-04. US Navy radar project”. Global Network Against Weapons and Nuclear Power in Space. [43] “Congress gets bill to save Arecibo Observatory”. Cornell University. 3 October 2007. Archived from the original • Amir Alexander (July 3, 2008). “Budget Cuts on August 21, 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-04. Threaten Arecibo Observatory”. The Planetary So- ciety. [44] Jeannette Rivera-lyles (25 April 2008). “Clinton turns attention to observatory in Puerto Rico”. Orlando Sentinel. • Blaine Friedlander (June 10, 2008). “Arecibo joins Archived from the original on September 30, 2008. Re- global network to create 6,000-mile (9,700 km) tele- trieved 2008-09-04. scope”. EurekAlert. [45] “Observatory Donations site”. • Lauren Gold (June 5, 2008). “Clintons (minus [46] “Dear Colleague Letter: Providing Progress Update on Hillary) visit Arecibo; former president urges more Senior Review Recommendations” (Press release). The federal funding for basic sciences”. Cornell univer- National Science Foundation. 20 September 2007. sity. Archived from the original on June 28, 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-09. • Henry Fountain (December 25, 2007). “Arecibo Radio Telescope Is Back in Business After 6-Month [47] Arecibo participated in 90 of the 111 asteroid radar obser- Spruce-Up”. New York Times. vations in 2005–2007. See JPL’s list of all asteroid radar observations. • Entry into the National Register of Historic Places 2.2. EISCAT 41

• Cohen, Marshall H. (2009). “Genesis of the 1000-foot Arecibo Dish”. Journal of Astro- nomical History and Heritage 12: 141–152. Bibcode:2009JAHH...12..141C. • Altschuler, Daniel R.; Salter, Christopher J. (2013). “The Arecibo Observatory: Fifty astronomical years”. Physics Today 66 (11): 43. Bibcode:2013PhT....66k..43A. doi:10.1063/PT.3.2179.

2.1.13 External links

• Arecibo Observatory / Planetary Radar at Arecibo Observatory EISCAT Kiruna Radar (diameter 32m) • Arecibo Science Advocacy Partnership (ESR) is located in Longyearbyen, Norway. The EISCAT • Ángel Ramos Foundation Visitor Center Headquarters are also located in Kiruna. • SETI@home EISCAT is funded and operated by research institutes and research councils of Norway, Sweden, Finland, Japan, • IEEE History Center – IEEE Milestones: China, the United Kingdom, France and Germany. NAIC/Arecibo Radiotelescope The system was also tested for space debris tracking and • Lofar the radars were proven to be capable of statistical observations of LEO debris (altitudes of 500 to 1500 km) down • The Arecibo Observatory Contributions Site to 2 cm in size. Since these measurements are insuﬃ- • Letter to save Arecibo Observatory cient to determine complete orbits, the radar has only limited space surveillance value.[1] Because the space debris tracking change is only a dedicated back-end computer 2.2 EISCAT system, the primary EISCAT observations are not com- promised. As a result of that, the EISCAT radars allow continuous monitoring of the LEO debris in a beam park mode, functioning as a space surveillance system part of the European Space Agency's Space Situational Aware- ness Programme (SSA).[2]

2.2.1 History

In 1973, the EISCAT proposal — which was originally planned for France, Germany and the three Nordic countries — seemed moribund. Then, Welsh physicist Granville Beynon became involved and by 1975, the agreement was signed, with the UK as a member. The The two antennas of the EISCAT Svalbard Radar proposal for UK membership had originally been turned down by the appropriate SRC committee. Beynon, how- EISCAT is an acronym for the European Incoher- ever, persuaded the Board to reverse the decision of the ent Scatter Scientiﬁc Association. It operates three committee and as a result of his eﬀorts, hundreds of European scientists have had the opportunity to use the incoherent scatter radar systems, at 224 MHz, 931 [3] MHz in Northern Scandinavia and one at 500 MHz world’s most advanced ionospheric radar. on Svalbard, used to study the interaction between the In 2008, Doritos embarked upon an “out-of-this-world” Sun and the Earth as revealed by disturbances in the advertising campaign, literally beaming a 30-second ad- ionosphere and magnetosphere. At the Ramfjordmoen vertisement for Doritos brand tortilla chips into a solar facility (near Tromsø, Norway), it also operates an system 42 light years away. This project is in collabora- ionospheric heater facility, similar to HAARP. Addi- tion with EISCAT Space Centre in Svalbard. The “You tional receiver stations are located in Sodankylä, Finland, Make It, We'll Play It” contest chose the winning adver- and Kiruna, Sweden. The EISCAT Svalbard radar tisement that was transmitted on June 12, 2008. The ad 42 CHAPTER 2. EXISTING FACILITIES was beamed towards a distant star, within the Ursa Ma- The Tromsø UHF transmitter, together with the Kiruna jor constellation which is orbited by planets which may and Sodankylä UHF receivers, form a multistatic radar harbor life.[4] system. Additionally, the Kilpisjärvi Atmospheric Imaging Re- 2.2.2 EISCAT facilities ceiver Array (KAIRA), near Kilpisjärvi, Finland can also serve as s VHF receiver in conjunction with the Tromsø transmitter.[7]

2.2.3 EISCAT 3D

EISCAT is planning on building a next generation scatter radar capable of providing 3D monitoring of the atmosphere and ionosphere. The new system is called EIS- CAT_3D. In 2008, the European Strategy Forum on Research Infrastructures selected EISCAT_3D for its “Roadmap 2008 for Large-Scale European Research Infrastructures EISCAT Ramfjordmoen facility (near Tromsø) in winter for the next 20–30 years.” Production on a modular basis will begin in 2015 and some of the arrays will be extremely large with over 30,000 individual antenna elements.[8] The KAIRA system is a pathfinder for the development of EISCAT_3D.[7] The EISCAT_3D will be a multistatic radar composed of five phased-array antenna fields, each field will have around 10,000 crossed dipole antenna elements. All five sites will act as receivers, with a singe core site transmitting at 233 MHz (VHF band). The sites will be spread over Finland, Norway and Sweden. Each site will have a central array, surrounded by a set of smaller arrays, providing a high spatial resolution via aperture synthesis.[9]

EISCAT Sodankylä Radar (diameter 32m) 2.2.4 References EISCAT operates several facilities north of the Scandinavian arctic circle.[5] [1] “Europe’s Eyes on the Skies” (PDF). ESA. Retrieved 2015-05-06.

• At Ramfjordmoen, near Tromsø, Norway the EIS- [2] “ESA - Space Debris - Scanning & observing”. ESA. Re- CAT facility has: a Ionospheric heater; 4x 30m- trieved 2015-05-06. by-40m parabolic cylinder antennas, operating as a VHF-band (224 MHz) monostatic radar; 32 m [3] Williams, Phil (April 1996). “Sir Granville Beynon”. Re- parabolic dish antenna, operating as UHF-band (931 trieved 28 January 2011. MHz) transmitter/receiver.[6] [4] Highfield, Roger (7 March 2008). “UK astronomers to • At Kiruna, EISCAT operates a 32 m UHF-band broadcast adverts to aliens”. The Daily Telegraph. Re- trieved 28 January 2011. parabolic dish antenna receiver working at 931 [6] MHz. [5] “What is EISCAT”. EISCAT. Retrieved 2015-05-23. • At Sodankylä, Finland EISCAT operates a 32 m [6] “The EISCAT facilities”. EISCAT. Retrieved 2015-05- UHF-band parabolic dish antenna receiver working 23. at 931 MHz.[6] [7] “SGO: KAIRA”. SGO. Retrieved 2015-05-24. • At Longyearbyen, on the Norwegian Svalbard archipelago, EISCAT operates the EISCAT Sval- [8] “What is Eiscat 3D?" bard radar (ESR). It consists of a 32 m steerable parabolic dish antennas and a 42 m field aligned an- [9] “EISCAT_3D System configuration”. Retrieved 2015- tenna, operating at 500 MHz.[5][6] 05-27. 2.3. HIGH FREQUENCY ACTIVE AURORAL RESEARCH PROGRAM 43

2.2.5 External links War Syndrome and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, the 1996 crash of TWA Flight 800, and the 2003 destruction of • Publication List the space shuttle Columbia. Commentators and scientists say that proponents of these theories are “uninformed”, • About EISCAT because most theories put forward fall well outside the • EISCAT_3D website abilities of the facility and often outside the scope of natural science.[4][5] • University Courses on Svalbard (UNIS)

Coordinates: 69°35′10.67″N 19°13′28.62″E / 2.3.1 History 69.5862972°N 19.2246167°E The HAARP program began in 1990. A U.S. senator from Alaska, Republican Ted Stevens, helped win 2.3 High Frequency Active Auroral approval for the facility,[6] whose construction began in Research Program 1993. In early May 2013, HAARP was temporarily shut down, awaiting a change between contractors who operated “HAARP” redirects here. For the live CD/DVD package the facility. In July 2013, HAARP program man- by Muse named after the project, see HAARP (album). ager James Keeney said, "Defense Advanced Research Not to be confused with Harp or HARP. Projects Agency (DARPA) is expected on site as a client to finish up some research in fall 2013 and win- The High Frequency Active Auroral Research Pro- ter 2014.”[7][8] The temporary shutdown was described gram (HAARP) is an ionospheric research program as being due to “a contractor regime change.” Ahtna, In- jointly funded by the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Navy, corporated, the Alaska Native corporation serving the re- the University of Alaska, and the Defense Advanced Re- gion of Alaska where the HAARP site is located, was research Projects Agency (DARPA).[1] Designed and built portedly in talks to take over the facility administration by BAE Advanced Technologies (BAEAT), its purpose contract from Marsh Creek, LLC.[9] is to analyze the ionosphere and investigate the potential In May 2014, the Air Force announced that the HAARP for developing ionospheric enhancement technology for program would be shut down later in 2014.[3][10] While radio communications and surveillance.[2] The HAARP experiments ended in the summer of 2014, the complete program operates a major sub-arctic facility, named the shutdown and dismantling of the facility was postponed HAARP Research Station, on an Air Force-owned site until at least May 2015.[11] near Gakona, Alaska. The most prominent instrument at the HAARP Station is the Ionospheric Research Instrument (IRI), a high- 2.3.2 Project overview power radio frequency transmitter facility operating in the high frequency (HF) band. The IRI is used to temporarily excite a limited area of the ionosphere. Other instruments, such as a VHF and a UHF radar, a fluxgate magnetometer, a digisonde (an ionospheric sounding device), and an induction magnetometer, are used to study the physical processes that occur in the excited region. Work on the HAARP Station began in 1993. The current working IRI was completed in 2007, and its prime contractor was BAE Systems Advanced Technologies.[1] As of 2008, HAARP had incurred around $250 million in tax-funded construction and operating costs. It was reported to be temporarily shut down in May 2013, awaiting a change of contractors. In May 2014, it was announced that the HAARP program would be permanently shut down later in the year.[3] HAARP antenna array HAARP was a target of conspiracy theorists, who claimed that it was capable of modifying weather, dis- The HAARP project directs a 3.6 MW signal, in the 2.8– abling satellites and exerting mind control over people, 10 MHz region of the HF (high-frequency) band, into and that it was being used as a weapon against terror- the ionosphere. The signal may be pulsed or continuous. ists. Such theorists blamed the program for causing earth- Then, effects of the transmission and any recovery pe- quakes, droughts, storms and floods, diseases such as Gulf riod can be examined using associated instrumentation, 44 CHAPTER 2. EXISTING FACILITIES including VHF and UHF radars, HF receivers, and op- 2.3.3 Research tical cameras. According to the HAARP team, this will advance the study of basic natural processes that occur in HAARP’s main goal is basic science research of the up- the ionosphere under the natural but much stronger influ- permost portion of the atmosphere, termed the iono- ence of solar interaction, and how the natural ionosphere sphere. Essentially a transition between the atmosphere affects radio signals. and the magnetosphere, the ionosphere is where the atmosphere is thin enough that the sun’s X-rays and UV rays This will enable scientists to develop methods to mitigate can reach it, but thick enough that there are still enough these effects to improve the reliability or performance of molecules present to absorb those rays. Consequently, the communication and navigation systems which would have ionosphere consists of a rapid increase in density of free a wide range of both civilian and military uses, such as an electrons, beginning at ~70 km, reaching a peak at ~300 increased accuracy of GPS navigation and advances in km, and then falling off again as the atmosphere disap- underwater and underground research and applications. pears entirely by ~1,000 km. Various aspects of HAARP This may lead to improved methods for submarine com- can study all of the main layers of the ionosphere. munication or an ability to remotely sense and map the mineral content of the terrestrial subsurface, and perhaps The profile of the ionosphere is highly variable, chang- underground complexes, of regions or countries, among ing constantly on timescales of minutes, hours, days, sea- other things. The current facility lacks range to be used sons, and years. This profile becomes even more com- in regions like the Middle East, according to one of the plex near Earth’s magnetic poles, where the nearly verti- researchers involved, but the technology could be put on cal alignment and intensity of earth’s magnetic field can a mobile platform.[12] cause physical effects like aurorae. The project is funded by the Office of Naval Research The ionosphere is traditionally very difficult to measure. and jointly managed by the ONR and Air Force Research Balloons cannot reach it because the air is too thin, but Laboratory, with the principal involvement of the Uni- satellites cannot orbit there because the air is still too versity of Alaska. Many other universities and educa- thick. Hence, most experiments on the ionosphere give tional institutions of the United States have been involved only small pieces of information. HAARP approaches in the development of the project and its instruments, the study of the ionosphere by following in the footsteps namely the University of Alaska Fairbanks, Stanford of an ionospheric heater called EISCAT near Tromsø, University, Penn State University (ARL), Boston Col- Norway. There, scientists pioneered exploration of the lege, UCLA, Clemson University, Dartmouth College, ionosphere by perturbing it with radio waves in the 2– Cornell University, Johns Hopkins University, University 10 MHz range, and studying how the ionosphere re- of Maryland, College Park, University of Massachusetts acts. HAARP performs the same functions but with more Amherst, MIT, Polytechnic Institute of New York Uni- power and a more flexible and agile HF beam. versity, and the University of Tulsa. The project’s spec- Some of the main scientific findings from HAARP in- ifications were developed by the universities, which are clude continuing to play a major role in the design of future research efforts. 1. Generating very low frequency radio waves by mod- According to HAARP’s management, the project strives ulated heating of the auroral electrojet, useful be- for openness, and all activities are logged and publicly cause generating VLF waves ordinarily requires gi- available. Scientists without security clearances, even gantic antennas foreign nationals, are routinely allowed on site. The HAARP facility regularly (once a year on most years ac- 2. Generating weak luminous glow (measurable, but cording to the HAARP home page) hosts open houses, below that visible with a naked eye) from absorbing during which time any civilian may tour the entire facility. HAARP’s signal In addition, scientific results obtained with HAARP are routinely published in major research journals (such as 3. Generating extremely low frequency waves in the 0.1 Geophysical Research Letters, or Journal of Geophysical Hz range. These are next to impossible to produce Research), written both by university scientists (Ameri- any other way, because the length of a transmit an- can and foreign) and by U.S. Department of Defense re- tenna is dictated by the wavelength of the signal it search lab scientists. Each summer, the HAARP holds must emit. a summer school for visiting students, including foreign 4. Generating whistler-mode VLF signals that enter the nationals, giving them an opportunity to do research with magnetosphere and propagate to the other hemi- one of the world’s foremost research instruments. sphere, interacting with Van Allen radiation belt particles along the way

5. VLF remote sensing of the heated ionosphere

Research at the HAARP includes 2.3. HIGH FREQUENCY ACTIVE AURORAL RESEARCH PROGRAM 45

1. Plasma line observations During active ionospheric research, the signal generated by the transmitter system is delivered to the antenna ar- 2. Stimulated electron emission observations ray and transmitted in an upward direction. At an alti- 3. Gyro frequency heating research tude between 70 to 350 km (43 to 217 mi) (depending on operating frequency), the signal is partially absorbed 4. Spread F observations (blurring of ionospheric in a small volume several tens of kilometers in diameter echoes of radio waves due to irregularities in elec- and a few meters thick over the IRI. The intensity of the tron density in the F layer) HF signal in the ionosphere is less than 3 µW/cm², tens of thousands of times less than the Sun’s natural electromag- 5. High velocity trace runs netic radiation reaching the earth and hundreds of times less than even the normal random variations in intensity 6. Airglow observations of the Sun’s natural ultraviolet (UV) energy which cre- 7. Heating induced scintillation observations ates the ionosphere. The small effects that are produced, however, can be observed with the sensitive scientific in- 8. VLF and ELF generation observations[13] struments installed at the HAARP Station, and these observations can provide information about the dynamics of 9. Radio observations of meteors plasmas and insight into the processes of solar-terrestrial [19] 10. Polar mesospheric summer echoes (PMSE) have interactions. been studied, probing the mesosphere using the IRI Each antenna element consists of a crossed dipole as a powerful radar, and with a 28 MHz radar, and that can be polarized for linear, ordinary mode (O- two VHF radars at 49 MHz and 139 MHz. The pres- mode), or extraordinary mode (X-mode) transmission ence of multiple radars spanning both HF and VHF and reception.[20][21] Each part of the two section crossed bands allows scientists to make comparative mea- dipoles are individually fed from a specially designed, surements that may someday lead to an understand- custom built transmitter, that operates at very low distor- ing of the processes that form these elusive phenom- tion levels. The Effective Radiated Power (ERP) of the ena. IRI is limited by more than a factor of 10 at its lower operating frequencies. Much of this is due to higher antenna 11. Research into extraterrestrial HF radar echos: the losses and a less efficient antenna pattern. Lunar Echo experiment (2008).[14][15] The IRI can transmit between 2.7 and 10 MHz, a fre- 12. Testing of Spread Spectrum Transmitters (2009) quency range that lies above the AM radio broadcast band and well below Citizens’ Band frequency allocations. The 13. Meteor shower impacts on the ionosphere HAARP Station is licensed to transmit only in certain 14. Response and recovery of the ionosphere from solar segments of this frequency range, however. When the flares and geomagnetic storms IRI is transmitting, the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is 100 kHz or less. The IRI can transmit in continuous 15. The effect of ionospheric disturbances on GPS satel- waves (CW) or in pulses as short as 10 microseconds (µs). lite signal quality CW transmission is generally used for ionospheric modification, while transmission in short pulses frequently re- 16. Producing high density plasma clouds in Earth’s up- [16] peated is used as a radar system. Researchers can run per atmosphere experiments that use both modes of transmission, first modifying the ionosphere for a predetermined amount of Research done at the HAARP facility has allowed time, then measuring the decay of modification effects the US military to perfect communications with its with pulsed transmissions. fleet of submarines by sending radio signals over long There are other geophysical instruments for research at distances.[17][18] the Station. Some of them are:

2.3.4 Instrumentation and operation • A fluxgate magnetometer built by the University of Alaska Fairbanks Geophysical Institute, available to The main instrument at HAARP Station is the chart variations in the Earth’s magnetic field. Rapid Ionospheric Research Instrument (IRI). This is a high and sharp changes of it may indicate a geomagnetic power, high-frequency phased array radio transmitter storm. with a set of 180 antennas, disposed in an array of • A digisonde that provides ionospheric profiles, al- 12x15 units that occupy a rectangle of about 33 acres lowing scientists to choose appropriate frequencies (13 hectares). The IRI is used to temporarily energize for IRI operation. The HAARP makes current and a small portion of the ionosphere. The study of these historic digisonde information available online. disturbed volumes yields important information for understanding natural ionospheric processes. • An induction magnetometer, provided by the 46 CHAPTER 2. EXISTING FACILITIES

University of Tokyo, that measures the changing ge- 2.3.6 Related facilities omagnetic field in the Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) range of 0–5 Hz. In America, there are two related ionospheric heating facilities: the HIPAS, near Fairbanks, Alaska, which was The Station is powered by a set of five (5) 2500 kilowatt dismantled in 2009, and (currently offline for reconstruc- [25] generators being driven by EMD 20-645-E4 diesel loco- tion) one at the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico. motive engines. The European Incoherent Scatter Scientific Association (EISCAT) operates an ionospheric heating facility, capable of transmitting over 1 GW effective radiated power [26] 2.3.5 Site (ERP), near Tromsø, Norway. Russia has the Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility, in Vasilsursk near Nizhniy The project site (62°23′30″N 145°09′03″W / Novgorod, capable of transmitting 190 MW ERP. 62.39167°N 145.15083°W) is north of Gakona, Alaska just west of Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park. An environmental impact statement led to permission 2.3.7 Conspiracy theories for an array of up to 180 antennas to be erected.[22] The HAARP has been constructed at the previous site See also: List of conspiracy theories: Development of of an over-the-horizon radar (OTH) installation. A weapons technology large structure, built to house the OTH now houses the HAARP control room, kitchen, and offices. Several HAARP is the subject of numerous conspiracy theo- other small structures house various instruments. The ries. Various individuals have speculated about hidden HAARP site has been constructed in three distinct motives and capabilities of the project. For example, [23] phases: Rosalie Bertell warned in 1996 about the deployment of HAARP as a military weapon.[27] Michel Chossu- 1. The Developmental Prototype (DP) had 18 an- dovsky stated in a book published by the Committee tenna elements, organized in three columns by six on Monetary and Economic Reform that “recent scien- rows. It was fed with a total of 360 kilowatts (kW) tific evidence suggests that HAARP is fully operational combined transmitter output power. The DP trans- and has the ability of triggering floods, droughts, hur- mitted just enough power for the most basic of iono- ricanes and earthquakes.”[28] Over time, HAARP has spheric testing. been blamed for triggering catastrophes such as floods, droughts, hurricanes, thunderstorms, earthquakes in Iran, 2. The Filled Developmental Prototype (FDP) had Pakistan, Haiti, Turkey, Greece and the Philippines, ma- 48 antenna units arrayed in six columns by eight jor power outages, the downing of TWA Flight 800, Gulf rows, with 960 kW of transmitter power. It was War syndrome, and chronic fatigue syndrome.[5][29][30] fairly comparable to other ionospheric heating fa- Allegations include the following: cilities. This was used for a number of successful scientific experiments and ionospheric exploration campaigns over the years. • A Russian military journal wrote that ionospheric testing would “trigger a cascade of electrons that 3. The Final IRI (FIRI) is the final build of the IRI. could flip earth’s magnetic poles”.[31] It has 180 antenna units, organized in 15 columns by 12 rows, yielding a theoretical maximum gain of • The European Parliament and the Alaska state legis- 31 dB. A total of 3.6 MW of transmitter power will lature held hearings about HAARP, the former cit- feed it, but the power is focused in the upward di- ing “environmental concerns”.[32] rection by the geometry of the large phased array of antennas which allow the antennas to work together • Nick Begich Jr., the son of former U.S. Representa- in controlling the direction. As of March 2007, all tive Nick Begich and brother of U.S. Senator Mark the antennas were in place, the final phase was com- Begich, author of Angels Don't Play This HAARP, pleted and the antenna array was undergoing testing has claimed that HAARP could trigger earthquakes aimed at fine-tuning its performance to comply with and turn the upper atmosphere into a giant lens so safety requirements required by regulatory agencies. that “the sky would literally appear to burn”, and The facility officially began full operations in its fi- maintains a website that claims HAARP is a mind nal 3.6 MW transmitter power completed status in control device.[31][33] the summer of 2007, yielding an effective radiated power (ERP) of 5.1 Gigawatts or 97.1 dBW at max- • Former Governor of Minnesota and noted con- imum output. However, the site typically operates at spiracy theorist Jesse Ventura questioned whether a fraction of that value due to the lower antenna gain the government is using the site to manipulate the exhibited at standard operational frequencies.[24] weather or to bombard people with mind-controlling 2.3. HIGH FREQUENCY ACTIVE AURORAL RESEARCH PROGRAM 47

radio waves. An Air Force spokeswoman said Ven- [2] “Purpose and Objectives of the HAARP Program”. tura made an official request to visit the research sta- HAARP. Retrieved 27 September 2009. tion but was rejected-"he and his crew showed up at [34] [3] Dermot Cole (2014-05-14). “Air Force prepares to dis- HAARP anyway and were denied access”. mantle HAARP ahead of summer shutdown”. Anchorage Daily News. • Physicist Bernard Eastlund claimed that HAARP includes technology based on his own patents that [4] Streep, Abe. “The Military’s Mystery Machine: The has the capability to modify weather and neutralize High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program, or satellites.[4] HAARP, has been called a missile-defense tool and a mind-control device. The truth is a bit less ominous”. • It has been proposed as a cause of low frequency 06.18.2008. Popular Science. Retrieved 12 December background hums said to be heard in various 2012. [35] locales. [5] Naiditch, David (Spring 2003). “Is baked Alaska half- baked?". Skeptic Magazine. Retrieved 25 January 2010. Stanford University professor Umran Inan told Popular [6] Weinberger, Sharon (16 May 2014). “US ionospheric re- Science that weather-control conspiracy theories were search facility to close”. Nature. Nature. Retrieved 18 “completely uninformed,” explaining that “there’s abso- August 2014. lutely nothing we can do to disturb the Earth’s [weather] systems. Even though the power HAARP radiates is very [7] “HAARP Facility Shuts Down”. ARRL. Retrieved 16 large, it’s minuscule compared with the power of a light- July 2013. ning flash—and there are 50 to 100 lightning flashes every [8] Byrd, Deborah. “Crazy weather? You can’t blame second. HAARP’s intensity is very small.”[4] HAARP anymore”. EarthSky, 16 July 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2013. Computer scientist David Naiditch characterizes HAARP as “a magnet for conspiracy theorists”, say- [9] Anderson, Ben (18 July 2013). “Alaska’s controversial ing that HAARP attracts their attention because “its HAARP facility closed – will it come back online?". purpose seems deeply mysterious to the scientifically Alaska Dispatch. Retrieved 18 July 2013. [5] uninformed”. Journalist Sharon Weinberger called [10] Brumfiel, Geoff (10 June 2014). “Bye-Bye To The Home HAARP “the Moby Dick of conspiracy theories” Of A Favorite Internet Conspiracy Theory”. NPR. Re- and said the popularity of conspiracy theories often trieved 2014-06-11. overshadows the benefits HAARP may provide to the scientific community.[36][37] Austin Baird writing in the [11] Cole, Dermot (2 July 2014). “HAARP closure postponed until 2015”. Alaska Dispatch News. Retrieved 2015-06- Alaska Dispatch said, “What makes HAARP susceptible 03. to conspiracy criticism is simple. The facility doesn't open its doors in the same way as other federally-funded [12] Pentagon Scientists Target Iran’s Nuclear Mole Men research facilities around the country, and it doesn't go [13] http://www-star.stanford.edu/~{}vlf/publications/ to great efforts to explain the importance of its research 2008-03.pdf to the public.”[29] [14] Reeve, W.D. (2008). “The Lunar Echo Experiment (Part 1)". Radio User 3 (8): 56–58. ISSN 1748-8117. 2.3.8 See also [15] Reeve, W.D. (2008). “The Lunar Echo Experiment (Part 2)". Radio User 3 (9): 56–57. ISSN 1748-8117. • Ionospheric reflection [16] “NRL Scientists Produce Densest Artificial Ionospheric • EISCAT Plasma Clouds Using HAARP” (Press release). U.S. Naval Research Lab. 2013-02-25. Retrieved 5 April • HIPAS 2013. Using the 3.6-megawatt high-frequency (HF) HAARP transmitter, the plasma clouds, or balls of • Poker Flat Research Range plasma, are being studied for use as artificial mirrors at altitudes 50 kilometers below the natural ionosphere and • SuperDARN are to be used for reflection of HF radar and communications signals. Past attempts to produce electron density en- • Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility hancements have yielded densities of 4×10⁵ electrons per cubic centimeter (cm³) using HF radio transmissions near • Weather Modification the second, third, and fourth harmonics of the electron cyclotron frequency. This frequency near 1.44 MHz is the rate that electrons gyrate around the Earth’s magnetic 2.3.9 References field. The NRL group succeeded in producing artificial plasma clouds with densities exceeding 9×10⁵ electrons [1] “HAARP Fact Sheet”. HAARP. 15 June 2007. Retrieved cm³ using HAARP transmission at the sixth harmonic of 27 September 2009. the electron cyclotron frequency. 48 CHAPTER 2. EXISTING FACILITIES

[17] Bailey, Patrick; Worthington, Nancy (27 July 1997). [34] Baenen, Jeﬀ. “Ventura seeks out conspiracy theories at “History and applications of HAARP technologies: the Alaska station”. Juneau Empire. Retrieved 17 October High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program”. 2011. IEEE. Retrieved 19 September 2013. [35] Josh Clark and Charles W. “Chuck” Bryant (December 9, [18] Barr, R.; Llanwyn Jones, D.; Rodger, C.J. (2000). “ELF 2014). “How The Hum Works”. Stuﬀ You Should Know and VLF radio waves”. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar- (Podcast). Blucora. Retrieved 2014-12-10. Terrestrial Physics. 62accessdate=19 September 2013. [36] Weinberger, Sharon (23 April 2008). “Atmospheric Elsevier. physics: Heating up the heavens”. Nature. Retrieved 21 [19] “Technical Information”. HAARP. 12 April 2007. Re- January 2010. trieved 27 September 2009. [37] Weinberger, Sharon (25 April 2008). “The Strange Life and Times of HAARP”. Wired Magazine. Retrieved 21 [20] “The HAARP Antenna Array”. HAARP. Archived from January 2010. the original on 15 April 2007. Retrieved 27 September 2009.

[21] “Details of the HAARP Antenna Design”. HAARP. 2.3.10 Further reading Archived from the original on 13 May 2007. Retrieved 27 September 2009. • Y. Zaitsev (11 May 2007). “From radio telescopes to electromagnetic weapons.”. Ria Novosti. Re- [22] “The HAARP IRI As Described in the EIS”. 17 May trieved 27 September 2009. 2007. Retrieved 27 September 2009. • “Evidence for Precipitation of Energetic Particles [23] “Phases of Completion of the IRI”. HAARP. Archived by Ionospheric “Heating” Transmissions”. National from the original on 1 May 2007. Geophysical Data Center. 7 December 2004. Re- trieved 27 September 2009. [24] “HAARP IRI Performance Calculator”. 10 May 2010. Retrieved 10 May 2010. • J. E. Smith (6 May 2006). “HAARP Completed!". Indybay. Retrieved 27 September 2009. [25] Link text • U. S. Inan and T. F. Bell. “Polar Aeronomy and [26] B. Isham, C. La Hoz, M. T. Rietveld, F. T. Djuth, T. Hag- Radio Science (PARS):ULF/ELF/VLF Project”. fors, and T. Grydeland (October 2000). “High Latitude HF-Induced Plasma Turbulence”. The First S-RAMP Con- STAR Laboratory, Stanford University. Retrieved ference. Archived from the original on 2012-11-06. Re- 27 September 2009. trieved 27 September 2009. • U. S. Inan, M. Golkowski, D. L. Carpen- [27] Rosalie Bertell, Background on the HAARP Project. ter, N. Reddell, R. C. Moore, T. F. Bell, E. Global Policy Forum, 5 November 1996 Paschal, P. Kossey, E. Kennedy, and S. Z. Meth (2004). “Multi-hop whistler-mode ELF/VLF sig- [28] Michel Chossudovsky, Climate Manipulation as a War nals and triggered emissions excited by the HAARP Weapon, p181-182. In William Krehm ,Meltdown : HF heater”. Geophysical Research Letters 31 Money, Debt and Wealth of Nations : how Zero Inﬂation (24): L24805. Bibcode:2004GeoRL..3124805I. Policy is Leading the World’s Monetary and Economic Sys- doi:10.1029/2004GL021647. tems to Collapse : an Anthology from the First Decade of Economic Reform. COMER Publications, 1 January 1999 • E. J. Kennedy, P. Rodriguez, and C. A. Selcher. “The High Frequency Active Auroral Research Pro- [29] Baird, Austin (20 September 2011). “HAARP conspiracies: Guide to most far-out theories behind government gram”. Retrieved 27 September 2009. research in Alaska”. Alaska Dispatch. Retrieved 8 De- • H. L. Rowland (28 April 1999). “Simulations of cember 2012. ELF radiation generated by heating the high-latitude [30] Flock, Elizabeth (29 October 2012). “Conspiracy Theo- D- region”. Naval Research Laboratory, Plasma rists Say Obama Engineered Hurricane Sandy”. US News Physics Division, Beam Physics Branch. Retrieved & World Report. Retrieved 8 December 2012. 27 September 2009.

[31] Shachtman, Noah (20 July 2009). “Strange New Air • Donald Koehler N7MGT, “Secret Death Ray: Or is Force Facility Energizes Ionosphere, Fans Conspiracy HAARP a useful science tool?" (PDF), 73 Maga- Flames”. Wired Magazine. Retrieved 17 April 2011. zine (73 Magazine) (December 1999): 14–17, 37, retrieved 21 December 2011 A ﬁrst person account [32] “EU clashes with US over atmosphere tests”. from an amateur radio operator who got a full tour physicsworld.com. IOP Publishing, 27 February of the HAARP site. 1998. Retrieved 17 April 2011.

[33] “About us - Dr. Nick Begich”. Retrieved 2 June 2011. Patents 2.4. IONOSPHERIC HEATER 49

• C. W. Hansell (1945). “Communication system by electromagnetic emissions from the turbulence and op- pulses through the Earth”, U.S. Patent 2,389,432. tical emissions. The optical emissions result from the excitation of atmospheric atoms and molecules by elec- • R. L. Tanner (1965). “Extremely low-frequency an- trons that have been accelerated in the plasma turbulence. tenna”, U.S. Patent 3,215,937. As this process is the same as for the aurora, the optical • G. F. Leydorf (1966). “Antenna near field coupling emission excited by HF waves have sometimes been re- system”, U.S. Patent 3,278,937. ferred to as artificial aurora, although sensitive cameras are needed to detect these emissions, which is not the case • B. J. Eastlund (1987). “Method and apparatus for the real aurora. for altering a region in the Earth’s atmosphere, Ionospheric HF pump facilities need to be sufficiently ionosphere, and/or magnetosphere”, U.S. Patent powerful to provide the possibility for plasma turbulence 4,686,605. studies, although any radio wave that propagates in the • B. J. Eastlund (1991). “Method for producing a shell ionosphere affects it by heating the electrons. That ra- of relativistic particles at an altitude above the earths dio waves affect the ionosphere was discovered already surface”, U.S. Patent 5,038,664. in the 1930s with the Luxemburg effect. Although the research facilities need to have powerful transmitters, the power flux in the ionosphere for the most powerful facility 2.3.11 External links (HAARP) is below 0.03 W/m2.[2] This gives an energy density in the ionosphere that is less than 1/100 of the • Official website thermal energy density of the ionospheric plasma itself.[1] The power flux may also be compared with the solar flux • HAARP at EastlundScience.com – website of at the Earth’s surface of about 1.5 kW/m2. During aurora Bernard Eastlund's Scientific Enterprises Corpora- generally no ionospheric effects can be observed with the tion. HF pump facilities as the radio wave power is strongly absorbed by the naturally heated ionosphere. • HAARP executive summary

• GoogleMaps satellite image of HAARP 2.4.1 Current HF pump facilities • HAARP – Ангелы и плазмоиды (in Russian) • EISCAT-Heating operated by the European Inco- Coordinates: 62°23′30″N 145°09′00″W / 62.39167°N herent Scatter Scientiﬁc Association (EISCAT) at 145.15000°W Ramfjordmoen near Tromsø in Norway, capable of transmitting 1.2 MW or over 1 GW eﬀective radiated power (ERP).

2.4 Ionospheric heater • SPEAR (Space Plasma Exploration by Active Radar) is an installation operated by UNIS (the An ionospheric heater, or an ionospheric HF pump fa- University Centre in Svalbard) adjacent to the EIS- cility, is a powerful radio wave transmitter with an ar- CAT facilities at Longyearbyen in Svalbard, capable ray of antennas which is used for research of plasma tur- of transmitting 192 kW or 28 MW ERP. bulence, the ionosphere and upper atmosphere.[1] These • Sura ionospheric heating facility in Vasilsursk near transmitters operate in the high frequency (HF) range (3- Nizhniy Novgorod in Russia, capable of transmitting 30 MHz) at which radio waves are reflected from the 750 kW or 190 MW ERP. ionosphere back to the ground. With such facilities a range of plasma turbulence phenomena can be excited in • High frequency Active Auroral Research Program a semi-controlled fashion from the ground, during condi- (HAARP) north of Gakona, Alaska, capable of tions when the ionosphere is naturally quiet and not per- transmitting 3.6 MW or 4 GW ERP. turbed by for example aurora. This stimulus-response type of research complements passive observations of • HIgh Power Auroral Stimulation Observatory naturally excited phenomena to learn about the iono- HIPAS Observatory northeast of Fairbanks, sphere and upper atmosphere. Alaska, capable of transmitting 1.2 MW or 70 MW ERP. The plasma turbulence phenomena that are studied include different types on nonlinear wave interactions, in which different waves in the plasma couple and inter- 2.4.2 References act with the transmitted radio wave, formation and self organization of filamentary plasma structures, as well as [1] Powerful electromagnetic waves for active environmental electron acceleration. The turbulence is diagnosed by for research in geospace, by T. B. Leyser and A. Y. Wong example incoherent scatter radar, by detecting the weak (Reviews of Geophysics, Vol. 47, RG1001, 2009). 50 CHAPTER 2. EXISTING FACILITIES

[2] http://www.haarp.alaska.edu/haarp/factSheet.html 2.5.2 External links

• http://sura.nirfi.sci-nnov.ru/Photogalery/ 2.5 Sura Ionospheric Heating Fa- Photogalery.html pictures of the facility cility • http://www.copernicus.org/EGU/annales/15/ag15/ 935.pdf (see page 2)

• http://sura.nirfi.sci-nnov.ru/indexe.html further information in Russian

• http://english.pravda.ru/science/19/94/379/16227_ hurricanes.html

• http://esapub.esrin.esa.it/pff/pffv5n4/kloov5n4. htm View of antenna array at Sura site.

The Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility, located near Coordinates: 56°08′N 46°06′E / 56.13°N 46.10°E the small town of Vasilsursk about 100 km eastward from Nizhniy Novgorod in Russia, is a laboratory for ionosphere research “sura nirfi.sci”. Retrieved February 13, 2015.. Sura is capable of radiating about 190 MW, effective radiated power (ERP) on short waves . This facility is operated by the radiophysical research institute NIRFI in Nizhny Novgorod . The Sura facility was commissioned in 1981 . Using this facility, Russian researchers studied the behaviour of the ionosphere and the effect of generation of low-frequency emission on modulation of ionosphere current. In the beginning, the Soviet Defense Department mostly footed the bill. The Ameri- can HAARP ionospheric heater is similar to the Sura facility. HAARP transmits much lower energy signals in comparison to Sura. The HAARP project began in 1993.

Transmitter room at Sura facility.

2.5.1 Technical information

The frequency range of the heating facility is from 4.5 to 9.3 MHz. The facility consists of three 250 kW broadcasting transmitters and a 144 crossed dipole antenna- array with dimensions of 300 m x 300 m. At the middle of the operating frequency range (4.5 – 9.3 MHz) a maximum zenith gain of about 260 (~24 dB) is reached, the ERP of the facility is 190 MW (~83 dbW). Chapter 3

Conspiracy Theories

3.1 List of conspiracy theories

There are many unproven conspiracy theories of varying degrees of popularity, frequently related to but not limited to clandestine government plans, elaborate murder plots, suppression of secret technology and knowledge, and other supposed schemes behind certain political, cul- tural, and historical events. Some theories have dealt with censorship and excoriation from the law such as the Holocaust denial. Conspiracy theories usually go against a consensus or cannot be proven using the historical method and are typically not considered similar to veriﬁed conspiracies such as Germany’s pretense for invading Poland in World War II.

3.1.1 Ethnicity, race and religion

Antisemitic conspiracy theories

Antisemitism has, from the Middle Ages, frequently taken on characteristics of conspiracy theory. Antisemitic canards continue to circulate. In medieval Europe it was widely believed that Jews poisoned wells, had killed Jesus, and consumed the blood of Christians in their rituals (despite the fact that human and animal blood are not kosher). In the second half of the 19th century conspiracists claimed that Jews and/or Freemasons were plotting to es- First edition of the The Protocols of the Elders of Zion tablish control over the world. The best-known text alleging the existence of this Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory is The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. A more modern of Israel. For this reason, Holocaust denial is considered [8] [9] manifestation of such ideas is the theory of a Zionist Oc- to be an antisemitic conspiracy theory. cupation Government. Various conspiracy theories have been advanced regard- Armenian conspiracy ing Jews and banking,[1] including the theory that world banking is dominated by the Rothschild family,[2] that See also: Anti-Armenianism and Denial of the Armenian Jews control Wall Street,[2] and that Jews control the U.S. Genocide Federal Reserve System.[3] A related theory is that Jews [4][5][6] control Hollywood or the news media. Samuel A. Weems (1936–2003), an American writer and Most Holocaust denial claims imply, or openly state, that a disbarred lawyer from Arkansas, was allegedly paid by the Holocaust is a hoax arising out of a deliberate Jewish the Turkish lobby in the United States, which is in turn conspiracy to advance the interest of Jews at the expense sponsored by the Turkish government.[10] In his book, Ar- of other peoples,[7] and to justify the creation of the State menia: The Secrets of a Christian Terrorist State (2002),

51 52 CHAPTER 3. CONSPIRACY THEORIES he argued in favor of the idea that the Armenian Geno- Eurabia cide was a gigantic fraud designed to fleece Christian nations out of billions of dollars. He also claimed that Main article: Eurabia the Armenian Church was a state-owned entity that or- ganizes and funds terrorist (including ASALA) attacks and that Armenians had infiltrated the United States.[11] British writer Bat Ye'or, author of Eurabia: The Euro– That book states that Armenian Diaspora communities Arab Axis, later followed by Italian journalist Oriana Fal- in the United States and throughout the world are actu- laci, proposed a conspiracy they said was hatched be- ally colonies/political bases intended to gain money and tween a cadre of French elites within the European Eco- support for the Armenian Republic. The book also states nomic Community and the Arab League in the mid- that Armenia is founded on land stolen from Muslims and 1970s to form a strategic alliance against the United that Armenians have perpetrated enormous massacres States and Israel, and to turn Europe into an appendage [17] against Turks and Azeris, both recently (in the Nagorno- of the Islamic world. Karabakh war) and in the past. He has been quoted as saying “The religion of the Armenians is fake” and that his research shows “that there is clearly an Arme- nian Master Plan that generates Armenian hate around Baha'i the world.” Prior to his death in 2003, he was preparing to write a second book claiming the international Armenian Main article: Political accusations against the Baha'i Faith community collaborated with and supported Nazi Ger- many. Iran's Baha'i minority has been the target of persecu- Davud Imanov, an Azerbaijani filmmaker, expanded on tion since its inception and has been the subject of var- this theory in a series of films called the Echo of Sumgait ious conspiracy theories entailing involvement with for- where he accused Armenians, Russians and Americans eign or hostile powers. Iranian government officials and of plotting together against Azerbaijan and claiming that others have claimed that Bahá'ís have had ties to for- Karabakh movement was a plot by the CIA to destroy the eign powers, and were agents of Russian imperialism, Soviet Union.[12] British colonialism, American expansionism, Zionism, as According to The Irish Times, “everywhere from taxi cabs well as being responsible for the policies of the previous to cabinet offices, conspiracy theories thrive in Azer- Shah of Iran.[18] In Iran, a short book entitled Khatirat- baijan [and] most involve Armenia.”[13] On February e Kenyaz-e Dolgoruki (The Memoirs of Count Dolgo- 28, 2012 during his speech at a conference on socioe- ruki) details a popular conspiracy theory that the Baha'i conomic development program, Azerbaijani President goal is to destroy Islam. Attributed to the mid-19th cen- Ilham Aliyev stated “our main enemies are Armenians of tury, it was, in fact, written in the 1930s or 1940s and the world and the hypocritical and corrupt politicians unis filled with historical errors, notably mistakes about the der their control. The politicians who don’t wish to see the real Count Dolgorukov, a Russian diplomat. These ac- truth and are engaged in denigrating Azerbaijan in dif- cusations against the Bahá'í have been disputed, and de- ferent parts of the world. Members of some parliaments, scribed as misconceptions,[19] with no basis in historical certain political figures, etc. who live on the money of the fact.[20][21] Armenian lobby”.[14]

Resignation of Pope Benedict XVI

“Babylon” and racist oppression On 12 February 2013, Pope Benedict XVI announced his resignation in a speech in Latin before the cardinals, cit- ing a “lack of strength of mind and body” due to his ad- Some Rastafari maintain that a white racist patriarchy vanced age.[22] His resignation became effective on 28 (“Babylon”) controls the world in order to oppress the February 2013. Two Italian publications, the major Ital- African race.[15] They believe that Emperor Haile Se- ian newspaper La Repubblica and Panorama, an Italian lassie of Ethiopia did not die when it was reported in magazine weekly, have proposed the conspiracy theory 1975, and that the racist, white media (“Babylon”) propa- that Pope Benedict XVI resigned because he himself was gated that rumour in order to squash the Rastafari move- part of the Roman Catholic sex abuse scandals, that he ment and its message of overthrowing Babylon.[16] Other was being blackmailed by those with proof of his com- Rastafari, however, believe in peace and unity, and inter- plicity, and that he resigned to avoid a scandal.[23][24] He pret Babylon as a metaphor for the established “system” is the first pope to resign since Pope Gregory XII in 1415, that oppresses (or “downpresses”, in Rasta terminology) and the first to do so on his own initiative since Pope Ce- groups such as Africans and the world’s poor. lestine V in 1294.[25] 3.1. LIST OF CONSPIRACY THEORIES 53

3.1.2 New World Order exert absolute dominance over the Earth and eliminate all sources of dissent. Main article: New World Order (conspiracy) The concept of this shadow government predates 1990; it is accused of being the same group of people who, among other things, created the Federal Reserve Act (1913), supported the Bolshevik Revolution (1917), and supported the rise of the Nazi Party in Germany, all for their own agenda. The World Bank and national central banks are said to be the tools of the New World Order; war generates massive profits for central banks because government spending (hence borrowing at interest from the central banks) increases dramatically in times of war and distress.[28] Many conspiracy theorists believe that Denver International Airport is the western U.S. headquarters of the New World Order, and a massive underground base and city is believed to exist underneath the airport. Reasons for this include the airport’s unusu- ally large size (larger than some major cities), distance from the Denver, Colorado city center, the set of environ- mentally themed murals by artist Leo Tanguma depict- ing burning cities, gas-mask wearing soldiers and girls in coffins, and the capstone of the Great Hall which includes Masonic symbols and strange writing.[29] It is claimed The reverse side of the Great Seal of the United States (1776). that secret fleets of black helicopters are ready to take The Latin phrase "novus ordo seclorum", appearing on the re- control when the New World Order is set up. verse side of the Great Seal since 1782 and on the back of the U.S. one-dollar bill since 1935, translates to “New Order of the Ages”[26] and alludes to the beginning of an era where the United States of America is an independent nation-state; conspiracy the- Federal Reserve System orists claim this is an allusion to the “New World Order”. The New World Order is said to control the wealth of na- This conspiracy theory states that a group of interna- tions through central banks, via the issuance of currency. tional elites controls and manipulates governments, in- The Federal Reserve System is the central bank of the dustry, and media organizations worldwide. The primary United States, though not a part of the government (with a tool they use to dominate nations is the system of central significant share of private control and interests[30]), cre- banking. They are said to have funded and in some cases ated in 1913. There is a theory that the Federal Reserve caused most of the major wars of the last 200 years, System is designed to transfer wealth from the poor and to carry out false flag attacks to manipulate populations middle classes of the United States to the international into supporting them, and to have a grip on the world bankers of the New World Order.[31] economy, deliberately causing inflation and depressions at will. Operatives working for the New World Order are said to be placed in high positions in government 3.1.3 False flag operations and industry. The people behind the New World Or- der are thought to be international bankers, in particu- False flag operations are covert operations conducted by lar the owners of the private banks in the Federal Re- governments, corporations, or other organizations, which serve System and other central banks, and members of are designed to appear as if they are being carried out the Council on Foreign Relations, Trilateral Commis- by other entities. Some allegations of false flag opera- sion and Bilderberg Group.[27] The New World Order tions are verified or at least credible and some are still is also said to control supranational and global organiza- subjects of historical dispute. The 1933 arson attack tions such as the European Union, United Nations, World of the German parliament building is such an example Bank, International Monetary Fund and the proposed where in 2001 four German historians argued that the North American Union. The term gained popularity fol- fire had been a Nazi false-flag operation blamed on a lowing its use in the early 1990s by President George H. communist. Other leading academics disagree and Der W. Bush when he referred to his “dream of a New World Spiegel published a 10-page rebuttal of the four historians’ Order" in his speech to the United States Congress on conclusions.[32] “Along with Communist propagandists, September 11, 1990. Claimed motivations behind the serious scholars have been ranged on the side of the pro- New World Order conspiracy vary but a commonly sug- ponents of the Nazi conspiracy theory”.[33] More contro- gested end goal for the conspiracy is the creation of a one- versially, former GRU officer Aleksey Galkin,[34] former world government through which the conspirators would FSB officer Alexander Litvinenko[35] and other defec- 54 CHAPTER 3. CONSPIRACY THEORIES

bombing. Lewis wrote: “Perhaps in the future we will see that these events are not just random acts of evil, but thoroughly planned by those who need an excuse for full-spectrum control.”[40]

• Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories

• 2015 Charlie Hebdo shooting[41]

3.1.4 Wars

The motivations for nations starting, entering, or ending wars are often brought into question by conspiracy theorists. Munitions suppliers are often blamed[42] for devising, coordinating and precipitating the events that lead nations into war, either in part or in toto. According to this view, there is always a party within a nation that benefits from war, on whatever pretext: the suppliers of weapons and other military material. President Dwight Eisenhower referred to this source of potential conflict of interest as the military-industrial complex. President Abraham Lincoln is known to have made a similar observation near the close of the American Civil War. In 1865, I. Windslow Ayer alludes to the 1864 'Camp Dou- glas Conspiracy' to break out prisoners, describing it as The collapse of the two World Trade Center towers and the nearby WTC7 (in this photo, the brown building to the left of a conspiracy of Copperheads and of the Sons of Liberty the towers) is a major focus of 9/11 conspiracy theories. in his historical work, The Great North-Western Conspir- acy in All Its Startling Details.[43] Ayer alleges that, at an August meeting of the Sons of Liberty, Judge Mor- tors from the Russian government and security services ris said: “Thousands of our best men were prisoners in have asserted that the 1999 Russian apartment bombings, Camp Douglas, and if once at liberty would ‘send abo- which precipitated the Second Chechen War, were false litionists to hell in a hand basket.’"[44] This is the oldest flag operations perpetrated by the FSB, the successor or- recorded use of the phrase according to the Oxford En- ganization to the KGB. glish Dictionary. Other accusations of false flag operations conspiracy the- Related is the allegation that certain wars which are ories include: claimed by politicians to be in the national interest, or for humanitarian purposes, are in fact motivated by the • Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge conspiracy theory conquest and control of natural resources for commercial interest. In the Spanish–American War, the explosion of • Pan Am Flight 103 conspiracy theories. the USS Maine prompted the United States annexation • Oklahoma City bombing conspiracy theories of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam. Opponents of the war, such as Mark Twain and Andrew Carnegie, • Russian apartment bombings conspiracy theories claimed that it was being fought for imperialist motives. • Many 9/11 conspiracy theories, which allege that in- A war planned for economic gain can be seen as a fluential members of United States government con- conspiracy in the conventional sense of a secret plot— ducted the 9/11 attacks or knew beforehand the at- particularly when the public is presented with false pre- tacks would happen but deliberately did nothing to texts for war. It has also been suggested that war is a per- prevent them in order to drastically alarm and sway fect way of distracting citizens, as an electoral tactic, from public opinion to favor war. 9/11 conspiracy the- difficulties facing the current government. This premise ories also suggest other conspirators were involved, is the basis of the films Wag the Dog, Canadian Bacon, including the State of Israel.[36] and the George Orwell novel 1984. • 2004 Madrid train bombings.[37] Some have claimed that this was the motivation behind the Falklands War. At that time the National Reorga- • Boston Marathon Bombing conspiracy theo- nization Process, the right-wing dictatorship that ruled ries[38][39] Conspiracy theorists such as talk show Argentina between 1976 and 1983, was facing increas- host Clyde Lewis have speculated about the Boston ing discontent among the population over its Dirty War 3.1. LIST OF CONSPIRACY THEORIES 55 and this may have contributed to the decision to invade United States House of Representatives Select Commit- the Falkland Islands. tee on Assassinations (HSCA) was established in 1976 In many cases, critics have accused the U.S. of engaging to investigate the assassinations of John F. Kennedy and in realpolitik in the cynical sense of political action with- Martin Luther King, Jr. The Committee investigated un- out regard for principle or morals. In recent times, wars til 1978 and issued its final report, and concluded that in the Middle East such as the Gulf War and the invasion Kennedy was very likely assassinated as a result of a con- of Iraq have been described as wars for oil, as well as spiracy. power, money and land. The assassinations of Robert F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X are also the subject of conspiracy theories. In many cases, it is asserted that a 3.1.5 Assassinations and other deaths "Manchurian candidate" may have been used. The question of “Who benefits?" ("Cui bono?") is also often asked, See also: List of assassinated people with conspiracy theorists asserting that insiders often Conspiracy theories sometimes emerge following assas- have far more powerful motives than those to whom the assassination is attributed by mainstream society. The assassinations of historical figures, such as Eric V of Den- mark and Tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich of Russia remain subject to conspiracy theories. More recent examples include those of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Carrero Blanco, Benigno Aquino, Jr., Olof Palme[48] and Yitzhak Ra- bin.[49] Some deaths that are officially recorded as having resulted from accidents, suicides, or natural causes are also the subject of some conspiracy theories. Examples include Patton in 1945,[50] the car crash that killed Diana, Princess of Wales and Dodi Fayed in 1997,[51] the death of John F. Kennedy Jr. in a plane crash in 1999,[52] and Conspiracy theories exist around the assassination of John F. the death of Senator Paul Wellstone in a plane crash in Kennedy in 1963 2002. Often, unusual circumstances in a suicide or accident are cited as evidence of a conspiracy such as the sinations of prominent people. The best known of these case of Gary Webb who suffered 2 gunshots to the head. is the assassination of John F. Kennedy (1963), which has Sometimes, deaths initially considered to be accidents caused a number of conspiracy theories to develop. Cen- gain such strong conspiracy theories due to new evidence tral to this theory is the claim that the injuries received that murder investigations are opened and arrests made, by Kennedy and Governor John Connally could not have as in the case of journalist Cats Falck. been caused by a lone gunman behind the motorcade and to the right. This theory was popularized by the Oliver Other examples of deaths that are not considered to be Stone movie, JFK, which centered on Jim Garrison's con- murders that later receive conspiracy theories include: the duct of the only criminal prosecution (ultimately an un- suicide of Deputy White House Counsel Vincent Fos- successful one) related directly to Kennedy’s assassina- ter; the plane crash that killed United States Secretary [53] tion. Three polls conducted in 2003 suggest that there of Commerce Ron Brown; the death of Dag Ham- [54] is widespread disbelief (between 68% and 83% of re- marskjöld; the Mayerling Incident; and the deaths of spondents) among the U.S. public about the original 1964 U.S. Presidents Zachary Taylor and Lyndon B. John- Warren Commission story of a lone gunman. An ABC son, Władysław Sikorski, James Forrestal, British polit- [55] News random telephone poll found that just 32% (plus ical leader Hugh Gaitskell, Australian prime minister or minus 3%) of Americans believe that Lee Harvey Os- Harold Holt, James P. Brady, New Zealand prime min- wald acted alone in the assassination of John F. Kennedy, ister Norman Kirk, French prime minister Pierre Béré- while 68% do not believe Oswald acted alone.[45] The govoy, Jimmy Hoffa and British weapons expert David [56] “Discovery Channel” poll (sampling method not given) Kelly. In the case of Salvador Allende, the former reveals that only 21% believe Oswald acted alone, while President of Chile, conspiracy theories regarding his sui- 79% do not believe Oswald acted alone,[46] (self-selected cide were so prominent in the public arena official inves- responses) details that only 17% of respondents believe tigations were opened into the matter. There are also the- that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in the assassination ories about untimely deaths of celebrities, the number one of John F. Kennedy, while 83% do not believe Oswald example arguably being the death of Marilyn Monroe, but acted alone.[47] Since the Warren Commission report, the also those of Sam Cooke, Salvador Sanchez, Brian Jones, [57] official U.S. governmental narrative from the 1976-78 Tupac Shakur, The Notorious B.I.G., Jimi Hendrix, House Select Commission on Assassinations is that JFK Kurt Cobain, Jeff Buckley, Janis Joplin, Jim Morrison, [58] was murdered by multiple gunmen in a conspiracy. The Bruce Lee, Elvis Presley, Bob Marley, John Lennon, 56 CHAPTER 3. CONSPIRACY THEORIES

Alexis Arguello, Whitney Houston, and Michael Jackson. assassination and the October surprise killing lesser co- [59] There are also theories that some assassination attempts conspirators on their way). The Clinton Body Count is a list of about 50–60 associates of Clinton who have have been carried out by secret conspiracies, in some [60] cases failures but in other cases entirely staged events. died “under mysterious circumstance”. The individu- The motive for staging an unsuccessful assassination at- als named originated from a list of 34 suicides, accidental deaths, and unsolved murders[61] prepared in 1993 by tempt can be to augment the popularity of the person in- [62] volved; public opinion polls tend to be boosted by un- the pro-gun lobby group American Justice Federation successful attempts on the life of a prominent politician. which was led by Linda Thompson. The list was posted to the group’s Bulletin board system.[60] A later investiga- There have been numerous unsuccessful attempts to as- sassinate U.S. Presidents. Some of them, such as the at- tion revealed that many deaths had detailed records, and that assassination was unlikely. It also argues a politi- tempted assassinations of Gerald Ford, Ronald Reagan, and George H. W. Bush have aroused suspicion from con- cal leader can have a loosely defined circle of associates, some who are at greater risk for death either in the mili- spiracy theorists that the events might have been staged. [63] Former Presidents of Taiwan and Ukraine are cited in tary or a high-stress job that can lead to suicide. similar conspiracy theories as well. In other cases the perpetrators of murders and assassina- Barack Obama conspiracy theories tions are not found and conspiracy theories even become part of official police investigations, as in the case of the Main articles: Barack Obama citizenship conspiracy Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme. In cases like this, theories and Barack Obama religion conspiracy theories further public conspiracy theories can exist about why the cases are not closed. In the case of another prominent A closely related cluster of conspiracy theories are asso- Swede, Bernt Carlsson, who died in the Lockerbie bomb- ciated with Barack Obama. The essence of all such the- ing, theories exist that contend that the larger crime was ories is an allegation that his claim to the Presidency is committed to hide a more targeted assassination, which illegitimate due to the circumstances of his birth. It is al- therefore has also not been solved. In the case of Aldo leged that either his birth certificate was faked or that he Moro, an assassinated Italian Prime Minister, a conspir- holds dual citizenship and this disqualifies him as Presi- acy to encourage his kidnappers to kill him has been ad- dent. The conspiracy theories have been tenacious despite mitted to and is largely accepted as fact, yet theories exist the early release of Obama’s Hawaiian birth certificate by as to the nature of the secrets he was killed to protect. In his election campaign and the April 2011 release of a cer- more extreme cases it has been alleged that some people tified copy of Obama’s original Certificate of Live Birth have been assassinated without acknowledgement of their (so-called “long form birth certificate”). Related rumors deaths, assuming that they were replaced by a double or involve questioning the President’s Social Security Num- alternatively that their deaths never occurred when it has ber, the President’s religion, and suggesting that he is or been claimed that they did. was at one time a Muslim. In India there are several conspiracy theories circulating A false rumor started circulating on the Internet around about the 1945 death of pro-Axis Indian nationalist leader the time of the 2008 presidential election that Barack Subhas Chandra Bose. These allege one of two possibil- and Michelle Obama had inactivated their law licenses ities: either he did not die in an accident, as officially to avoid ethics charges, but no such charges were ever claimed, but was assassinated; or he did not die at that made; apparently, it is typical to do so when not intending time, but was still alive and hidden somewhere. to practice law because active status requires continuing education and payment of fees.[64][65] 3.1.6 US Presidency 3.1.7 Apocalyptic prophecies Some conspiracy theories have been directed at American Presidents. Apocalyptic prophecies, particularly Christian apocalyptic and eschatalogical claims about the end times, the Last Judgment, and the end of the world have Clinton Body Count inspired a range of conspiracy theories. Many of these deal with the Antichrist (Arabic: / The Clinton Body Count, as it is popularly known, is a Masih ad-Dajjal). The Antichrist, also known as The conspiracy theory that Bill Clinton, while he was presi- Beast 666, is supposed to be a leader who will create a dent and before, was quietly assassinating his associates world empire and oppress Christians (and in some con- (often anyone who got in the way of his career, such spiracies, Jews as well). Countless historical figures have as Vince Foster). It was started as a retaliation to the been called “Antichrist” in their times, from the Roman Bush Body Count (which ostensibly had various mem- emperor Nero to Adolf Hitler to Ronald Reagan to Javier bers of the Bush family responsible for events like JFK Solana to Barack Obama to Prince William. At times, 3.1. LIST OF CONSPIRACY THEORIES 57

apocalyptic speculation has mixed with anti-Catholicism, Catholicism as a veiled continuation of Babylonian believing that the reigning Pope is the Antichrist or the paganism False Prophet. Another interpretation sees the Antichrist as a world leader involved with the United Nations, who The Two Babylons was an anti-Catholic religious will create a one world government (New World Order) pamphlet produced initially by the Scottish theologian and establish a single monetary system. The latter is and Presbyterian Alexander Hislop in 1853. It was later identified with the Mark of the Beast, which the Bible published as a book in 1919. Its central theme is the alle- states that people in the end times will need in order to gation that the Catholic Church is a veiled continuation of conduct trade.[66] Some Christian groups have claimed the ancient pagan religion of Babylon, the veiled pagan- UPC bar codes include the number 666.[67] ism being the product of a millennia old conspiracy.[68][69] Two nations often involved in apocalyptic conspiracy the- It has been recognized by scholars as discredited and has ories are Israel and Iraq. The former is the location of been called a “tribute to historical inaccuracy and know- both the Temple Mount and Armageddon (Megiddo), nothing religious bigotry” with “shoddy scholarship, bla- [70][71] places seen as important in prophecy. The latter is the an- tant dishonesty” and a “nonsensical thesis”. cient location of Babylon, which also figures in the Book Although scholarship has shown the picture presented of Revelation. During the Gulf War, some suggested by Hislop to be absurd and based on an exceedingly that Saddam Hussein had ordered the excavation and re- poor understanding of historical Babylon and its religion, population of the city of Babylon, thus casting Saddam as his book remains popular among some fundamentalist an Antichrist figure. Other interpretations have held that Christians.[68] The book’s thesis has also featured promi- "Babylon" in the Book of Revelation refers to another nently in the conspiracy theories of groups such as The mighty nation, such as the Roman Empire, the Vatican Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord[72] and (Rome) and the Catholic Church, or more recently the other conspiracy theorists.[73] Soviet Union or the United States of America.[66] Although extensively footnoted, giving the impression of reliability, commentators (in particular Ralph Woodrow) have stated that there are numerous misconceptions, fab- rications and grave factual errors in the document, and that this book follows the line of thought of works like: Martin Luther – On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1520), Titus Oates – An Exact Discovery of the Bible conspiracy theory Mystery of Iniquity as it is now in Practice amongst the Jesuits (1679), Conyers Middleton – Letter from Rome (1729).[74] Bible conspiracy theories posit that much of what is known about the Bible, in particular the New Testament, is a deception. These theories variously claim that Jesus 3.1.8 Technology and weapons had a wife, Mary Magdalene, and children, that a group such as the Priory of Sion has secret information about the See also: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience bloodline of Jesus, that Jesus did not die on the cross and that the carbon dating of the Shroud of Turin was part of a conspiracy by the Vatican to suppress this knowledge, that there was a secret movement to censor books that Suppression of technologies belonged in the Bible, or the Christ myth theory, proposed for example in Zeitgeist, the Movie as a means of • Vril Society Conspiracy which suggests that a secret social control by the Roman Empire. A fictionalized con- form of energy, called "Vril", is used and controlled trivance of this is portrayed in the novel The Da Vinci by a secret subterranean society of matriarchal Code. socialist utopian superior beings. Contrary to this theory is the belief that those who put forth such information against the Bible are themselves • A typical suppressed invention story is that of the in- part of a grand conspiracy to suppress Biblical prophetic credibly efficient automobile carburetor, whose in- knowledge to keep people ignorant about Christ’s sup- ventor was supposedly killed or hounded into ob- posed imminent return to earth. Associated with this scurity by petroleum companies desirous to protect belief is the conspiracy of the Antichrist, who is to lead their business from an engine that would make their the New World Order against Christ. This same theory product obsolete. also proposes that current events, such as global changes resulting from global warming, are fulfillment of Bible • The documentary Who Killed the Electric Car? al- prophecies and signs of the Tribulation and the end of leged that electric car technology has been largely days. suppressed by big oil and gas firms. 58 CHAPTER 3. CONSPIRACY THEORIES

• Inventor Nikola Tesla has been the object of several perpetrated by government agencies, special conspiracy theories, with claims relating to revolu- interest groups, fraudulent inventors and/or a tionary energy generation and distribution technolo- non-demanding public.[81] The special inter- gies, with some variants of the theory alleging a con- est groups are usually claimed to be associated nection to HAARP, an American military-funded with the fossil fuel or nuclear industry,[82][83] research program. whose industry would be threatened.[84][85]

• The Phoebus cartel set up in 1924 has been ac- The suppression claims are: cused of preventing technological advances that would have produced longer-lasting light bulbs.[75] • The scientific community has controlled The document Light Bulb Conspiracy[76] claimed and suppressed research into alternative that the Phoebus cartel deliberately limited the ex- avenues of energy generation via the in- pected lifetime of a light bulb to 1000 hours. How- stitutions of peer review[86] and academic ever, 1000 hours was a reasonable optimum life pressure.[87] expectancy for most bulbs.[77] A longer lifetime • Devices exist which are capable of ex- can be obtained only at the expense of efficiency: tracting significant and usable power more electricity is wasted as heat and less light is from preexisting unconventional energy obtained.[77] reservoirs, such as the quantum vacuum • In alternating current power, the voltage and cur- zero point energy, for little or no cost, but [88][89][90][91] rent can be manipulated to be 'wattless’ (recording are being suppressed. no consumption). While early utility supply meters • More efficient versions of renewable may have been fooled by phase-changing devices, energy technologies (such as solar this ruse was discovered and remedied in the mid- cells[92] and biofuels) and energy- 20th century. The devices still appear from time consuming technologies (such as electric to time, but suppliers or users may risk prosecution vehicles[93]) are being suppressed. by regulation agencies.[78] Merely seeking the use of any tariff evasion mechanism, even if technically in- Some examples of individuals that allegedly effectual, is known as a crime of 'attempted theft' in fell victim to suppression, harassment or death, most jurisdictions. are: Thomas Henry Moray,[94][95] Stanley Meyer’s water fuel cell[96][97][98][99] and Eugene Some free energy devices imply it is possi- Mallove.[100][101] ble to harness perpetual motion which conflicts with the universally accepted physical laws of conservation of energy which allow energy to Development of weapons technology change form, but not to be either created or • destroyed. Others claim to access novel or oc- Philadelphia Experiment, a supposed attempt to culted power sources such as the actual source turn a U.S. Navy warship invisible, which allegedly hypothesis by Nikola Tesla based on natu- caused severe harm to on-board crew members. Ac- rally occurring potential differences caused by cording to Jacques F. Vallée, the experiment was photon interaction with Earth’s atmosphere at based on the effort to make the USS Eldridge invisible to torpedoes, through degaussing technology different altitudes. His Wardenclyffe Tower [102] demonstrated that a structure of sufficient di- and other methods. mensions, or alternatively a machine to electri- • Montauk Project, a continuation of the Philadel- cally vibrate the Earth enough to harness useful phia Experiment, to put government-trained psy- power would be extraordinarily uneconomic. chics (Duncan Cameron) into a program with the Photons are however a genuine power source intent of mind control, time travel, and even mental and are exploited by photovoltaics. manifestation. • Similarly, cold fusion while not fundamentally High Frequency Active Auroral Research Pro- proven impossible, is not accepted as estab- gram theory claims that HAARP could be used lished or even regarded as potentially viable by as directed-energy weapon, weather control, earthquake induction device and/or for mind the scientific community at large. Skeptics usu- [103] ally regard all claims of and research into free control. [79] energy technology as pseudo-scientific. • Tsunami bomb. It has been alleged that the 2004 In- dian Ocean Tsunami was intentionally caused by a The alleged suppression (or weakening) is nuclear weapon detonated in a strategic position un- claimed to be going on for a long time[80] and der the ocean;[104] research into such technology was 3.1. LIST OF CONSPIRACY THEORIES 59

conducted by the military as far back as World War The 2013 global surveillance disclosures, particularly by II.[105] Likewise, similar studies were conducted Edward Snowden, revealed the extent of government in the early 1970s.[106] The U.S. Defense Depart- surveillance projects that until then had been viewed by ment had even expressed concern about earthquake- mainstream media as merely conspiracy theories. Today inducing technology in warfare well before the 2004 it is known that clandestine mass surveillance/computer disaster. In 1997 Defense Secretary William S. Co- surveillance systems track a significant percent of the hen stated: “Others are engaging even in an eco-type world’s telephony and internet traffic. Moreover, partici- of terrorism whereby they can alter the climate, set pation in the clandestine activity is enormous. For exam- off earthquakes, volcanoes remotely through the use ple, according to The Guardian report on the Snowden of electromagnetic waves.” However, this was in the leaks, 850,000 people have access to the Internet com- context of discussing concerns raised by a futurist munications tracked by the Tempora system operated by writer, and providing examples of false threats that the British Government Communications Headquarters might distract the intelligence community; Cohen (GCHQ).[113] Prism and XKeyscore are related systems also indicated other countries might just claim such that are operated by the United States National Security capabilities as a “false scare of a threat.”[107] Agency (NSA) to track enormous volumes of communications. • Chemtrail theory. Cloud-like trails behind aircraft, having the general appearance of contrails, but alleged to be chemical spraying. 3.1.9 Media • Boeing Honeywell Uninterruptible Autopilot. The DTV transition theory that most commercial airliners have been 'se- cretly' fitted with technology that enables agencies Some theorists claim that forced transition to digital tele- such as the CIA to remotely take control of the air- vision broadcasting is a practical realization of the “Big craft, without any input from the flight crew. This Brother” concept. They claim that miniature cameras and theory is used as explanation in relation to inci- microphones are built into set-top boxes and newer TV dents of hijacking such as the 9/11 attacks on the sets to spy on people. Another claim describes the use World Trade Center, or unexplained aircraft disap- of mind control technology that would be hidden in the pearances such as Malaysia Airlines MH370. digital signal and used to subvert the mind and feelings of the people and for subliminal advertising.[114] Weapons testing

• Peter Vogel’s book The Last Wave from Port Predictive programming Chicago argues that the Port Chicago disaster was This theory posits that media outlets produce media (gen- an accidental detonation or intentional test of a nu- erally fictional media such as popular films, television clear weapon on ships manned by (mostly African shows, novels, etc.) that include images of events such American) U.S. sailors.[108] as terrorist attacks, epidemics, or other natural or man- • According to some theories the crashes of Arrow made disasters with the intent of programming the gen- 1285[109] and TWA800[110] were caused by a secret eral population to accept such events as plausible, so that electromagnetic directed-energy weapon. when the government undertakes such operations in the future, the public will be predisposed to believe the op- • It has been reported that some in the Muslim world erations are actually terrorist actions and not government believe that the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and actions. (See False flag operations above.) tsunami was caused by an Indian nuclear test that Israeli and American experts participated in.[111] HAARP • The Venezuelan state-run TV station ViVe has claimed that the 2010 Haiti earthquake was caused Main article: High Frequency Active Auroral Research by US government testing an “earthquake weapon”, Program § Conspiracy theories and a government cover-up took place.[112] HAARP (High Frequency Active Auroral Research Pro- Surveillance, espionage and intelligence agencies gram) is an ionospheric research program funded by the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Navy, the University of Alaska, Throughout history, governments have used intelligence and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency agencies to promote national policies in secretive ways. (DARPA). Many conspiracy theories surround HAARP. Consequently, conspiracy theories related to intelligence Some theorists believe that it is being used as a weather- agencies abound, including theories on incidents of sab- controlling device that can trigger catastrophic events, otage, propaganda, and assassination. such as floods, hurricanes, etc. Others believe that the 60 CHAPTER 3. CONSPIRACY THEORIES

government uses HAARP to send mind-controlling radio deceptively denied treatment to black patients infected waves to humans. with a sexually transmitted disease. It has been claimed that the CIA deliberately adminis- 3.1.10 Medicine tered HIV to African Americans and homosexuals in the 1970s, via tainted hepatitis vaccinations.[117] Groups such The subject of suppressed-invention conspiracy also as the New Black Panther Party and Louis Farrakhan's touches on the medical realm: proponents of more un- Nation of Islam assert that this was part of a plan to de- likely forms of alternative medicine are known to allege stroy the black race. Others claim that it was adminis- conspiracy by mainstream doctors to suppress their cures. tered in Africa as a way of crippling the development of Such conspiracies are often said to include government the continent. regulators, to the extent that a legal decision may be rel- There have been suggestions that either HIV or a steril- evant. Some medical conspiracy theorists argue that the izing agent has been added to polio vaccines being dis- medical community could actually cure supposedly “in- tributed by the World Health Organization in Nigeria. curable” diseases such as cancer (like the noted Luigi di Since these claims have been in existence, there has been Bella's medicines) and AIDS if it really wanted to, but in- a marked increase in the number of polio cases in the stead prefers to suppress the cures as a way of maintain- country, because Muslim clerics have urged parents not ing the multi-trillion dollar “cancer industry”. The costs to have their children vaccinated.[118] for long-term treatment are generally higher than for a one-time cure. Other medical conspiracies charge that pharmaceutical companies are in league with some med- Water fluoridation ical practitioners to “invent” new diseases, such as ADD, ADHD, HSV, HPV and even HIV. Water fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay.[119] Al- though almost all major health and dental organizations Drug legalization support water fluoridation, or have found no association with adverse effects, efforts to introduce water flu- Some activists and spokespersons for legalization of drugs oridation meet considerable opposition whenever it is (especially marijuana) have long espoused a theory that proposed.[120] Since fluoridation’s inception in the 1950s, government and private industry conspired during the opponents have drawn on distrust of paid-for experts and first half of the 20th century to outlaw hemp, allegedly so unease about double-blind study findings.[121] Conspiracy that it would no longer provide inexpensive competition theories involving fluoridation are common, and include to pulp paper and synthetic materials.[115] William Ran- the following claims that:[120] dolph Hearst is often pointed to as one of the businessmen responsible due to his involvement in the printing indus- • Fluoridation is part of a Communitarian, Fascist or try and his eminence in the public eye.[115] An extensive New World Order or Bank for International Set- study on the subject has been done by Jack Herer in his tlements plot to pacify people so that they more book The Emperor Wears No Clothes. easily trust authority and central banker pervasive propaganda. This notion is mentioned in Stanley In his 1996 journalistic series and 1998 book, both ti- [120] tled Dark Alliance, Gary Webb asserted that the CIA had Kubrick's Dr. Strangelove. allowed Nicaraguan drug traffickers to smuggle cocaine • Fluoridation was designed by the military–industrial into the USA and had allowed the subsequent crack epi- complex to protect the U.S. atomic weapons pro- demic in Los Angeles to help garner funds for the Contras gram from litigation.[122][123] efforts.[116] • Fluoridation was pioneered by a German chemical company to make people submissive to those in Creation of diseases power.[123] • There are claims that AIDS is a human-made disease Fluoridation was used in Russian prison camps and [120] (i.e., created by scientists in a laboratory). Some of these produces schizophrenia. theories allege that HIV was created by a conspiratorial • Fluoridation is backed by the aluminium or phos- group or by a secretive agency such as the CIA. It is phate industries as a means of disposing of some of thought to have been created as a tool of genocide and/or their industrial waste.[123][124] population control. Other theories suggest that the virus was created as an experiment in biological and/or psycho- • Fluoridation is a smokescreen to cover failure to pro- logical warfare, and then escaped into the population at vide dental care to the poor.[120] large by accident. Some who believe that HIV was a government creation see a precedent for it in the Tuskegee Fluoridation researchers are accused to be in the pay of syphilis study, in which government-funded researchers corporate or political interests as part of the plot.[120] 3.1. LIST OF CONSPIRACY THEORIES 61

Speciﬁc anti-ﬂuoridation arguments change to match the spirit of the time.[125]

RFID chips

Privacy concerns have surfaced regarding the use of RFID chips, which many states require to be implanted into pets as a means of tracking, will ultimately be used to track, spy on, or otherwise harass ordinary citizens; these devices’ small size enable them to be discreetly installed into a variety of items someone may carry on their person.[126]

Traditional, natural and alternative medicines

Many proponents of traditional, natural and alternative medicines claim that pharmaceutical companies and various governments and government agencies conspire to maintain profits by ensuring that the general public uses Adam Weishaupt founded the Illuminati, who some conspiracy only modern medicines. For example, many countries theorists believe control the world have laws that prevent unproven medicinal claims from being printed on packaging, advertisements, etc., for • [131] medicines. Any substance for which medicinal claims are Le Cercle made are deemed "drugs". (See Federal Food, Drug, and • Opus Dei – See Controversies about Opus Dei and Cosmetic Act.) Proponents of traditional, natural and al- Opus Dei and politics ternative medicines often claim that since herbs, etc., are of natural origin, they are not drugs and that such laws • Skull and Bones—This Yale University fraternity is fallaciously define them as drugs in order to control and often thought of as being a secret society producing ultimately limit or prevent their distribution thus ensuring many financial and political leaders who have control profits for the pharmaceutical industry. or seek to gain control.[132]

A variation on this conspiracy is claimed by Kevin • Trilateral Commission[133] Trudeau, author of Natural Cures “They” Don't Want You to Know About. He claims that in the USA, “they” (phar- • BP – particularly regarding the Gulf of Mexico oil maceutical companies, the FDA and FTC) conspire to spill[134][135] withhold natural cures because “they” can make more proﬁt selling long-term treatments, that do not cure, in • The Maﬁa perpetuity. • The Church of Scientology International

3.1.11 Real groups said to be involved in conspiracies 3.1.12 Paranormal activity Extraterrestrials The past or present existence of these groups is not disputed, and a variety of theories regarding hidden plots Main article: UFO conspiracy theory and/or agendas actively guarded from the general public have been proposed. There is dispute as to whether any of these theories are true. A sector of conspiracy theory with a particularly detailed mythology is the extraterrestrial phenomenon, which has • Bilderberg Group[127] become the basis for numerous pieces of popular enter- tainment, the Area 51/Grey Aliens conspiracy, and alle- • Bohemian Grove[128] gations surrounding the Dulce Base. It is alleged that the United States government conspires with extraterrestri- • [129] Freemasonry (see Masonic conspiracy theories) als involved in the abduction and manipulation of citi- • The Illuminati—Thought of as a secret group at- zens. A variant tells that particular technologies, notably tempting to control the world.[130] the transistor—were given to American industry in exchange for alien dominance. The enforcers of the clan- • Zionists destine association of human leaders and aliens are the 62 CHAPTER 3. CONSPIRACY THEORIES

Men in Black, who silence those who speak out on UFO ment scientists and the British military experiment- sightings. This conspiracy theory has been the basis of ing with artificial rainmaking or cloud seeding as numerous books, as well as the popular television show part of research programme known as Project Cu- The X-Files and the Men in Black film series. The X- mulus. The floods caused the deaths of 35 people Files based the plots of many of its episodes around ur- and extensive damage to buildings and the natural ban legends and conspiracy theories, and had a framing landscape. Declassified official documents uncov- plot which postulated a set of interlocking conspiracies ered by the BBC appeared to lend some credence to controlling all recent human history. the theory and the incident was the subject of a BBC documentary.[137] There are claims about secret experiments known as the Montauk Project conducted at Camp Hero, Montauk, • Several theories are advanced regarding the cause New York. Allegedly, the project was developing a pow- and aftermath of Hurricane Katrina.[138] erful psychological war weapon. The project is often connected to other alleged government projects such as the • Conspiracy theories related to the causes of the dev- Philadelphia Experiment and Project Rainbow, both of astating 2010 Pakistan floods abound, with even which involved the use of unified field theory to cloak mainstream newspapers repeating allegations that vessels. Experiments involving teleportation, time travel, India and/or the U.S. are responsible.[139][140] contact with extraterrestrials, and mind control are frequently alleged to have been conducted in the camp. Preston B. Nichols has written five books on the subject, Advertising including Montauk Project: Experiments in time. • There is a theory that the “computer vs. human” chess game between Russian grandmaster Garry Evil aliens Kasparov and IBM’s Deep Blue computer had involved cheating by IBM, to ensure they would See also: Alien invasion achieve a victory that would be widely publicized. This theory is argued by the documentary Game A somewhat different version of this theory maintains Over: Kasparov and the Machine. that humanity is actually under the control of shape- shifting alien reptiles, who require periodic ingestion of • A theory claims that The Coca-Cola Company in- human blood to maintain their human appearance. David tentionally changed to an inferior formula with New Icke has been a devoted proponent of this theory.[136] Ac- Coke with the intent of driving up demand for their cording to Icke, the Bush family and the British Royal classic product, later reintroducing it for their finan- Family are actually such creatures, and Diana, Princess cial gain. Alternatively, people believe the switch of Wales was aware of this, presumably relating to her was made to allow Coca-Cola to reintroduce “clas- death. Margaret Thatcher is also believed to have been an sic” Coke with a new formulation using less expen- important figure in the reptilian secret army.[136] David sive corn syrup.[141] Donald Keough, president of Icke’s theory, which encompasses many other conspir- Coca-Cola, replied to this charge: “The truth is, acy theories, is that humanity is actually under the rep- we're not that dumb, and we're not that smart.” [142] tilians; with evidence ranging from Sumerian tablets describing the "Anunnaki" (which he translates as “those • A number of people believe that Coca-Cola inten- who from heaven to earth came”), to the serpent in the tionally changed Santa Claus’ colours who today is Biblical Garden of Eden, to child abuse and water fluo- often depicted in a red suit to benefit Coca-Cola, as ridation. Another well-known alien conspiracy is known in their red cans and labeling is red.[143] as Project Blue beam, supposedly a NASA and government psychological operation involving a fake alien invasion, along with light and laser shows in the sky, and Space false reports of UFO landings, to fake the second coming of Christ, as depicted in the Bible’s Rapture, in order to Main article: Moon landing conspiracy theories bring about a global New Age religion with the Antichrist as the head. • Conspiracy theorists claim that the Apollo moon landings were “staged” in a Hollywood movie or 3.1.13 Miscellaneous other studio either because they never happened or to conceal some aspect of the truth of the circum- Nature stances of the actual landing. (This led to the fal- sified Martian landing plot of Peter Hyams's film • Rumours persist that the 1952 Lynmouth Flood Capricorn One and is also part of the plot of the 2011 in Devon, England was caused by British govern- film Transformers: Dark of the Moon.) 3.1. LIST OF CONSPIRACY THEORIES 63

warming has been invented or distorted for ideolog- ical and/or ﬁnancial reasons.

Genetically modiﬁed crops

• The genetically modified crop conspiracy theory as- serts that the global community of agricultural and biological scientists has conspired to fabricate the overwhelming amount of scientific evidence supporting the safety and benefit of genetically modified food crops, while also suppressing evidence suggesting the dangers of these crops. Supporters of this conspiracy theory typically argue for organic supe- riority and against the use of genetically modified food crop. Supporters of this conspiracy theory often associate the private company Monsanto with this conspiracy theory.[148][149]

History

• Some New Chronology theories, such as the phantom time hypothesis of Heribert Illig and the Conspiracy theorists claim the Apollo moon landings were staged Fomenko-Nosovsky chronology, claim that the con- in a film studio, similar to the training mockup in this photograph. ventional dating of historical events is incorrect, and that the historical timeline has been purposely dis- • Another theory claims that the Apollo astronauts torted by powerful interests. found a human skeleton and footprints on the Moon. (This was circulated despite the fact that there is no way for anything to decompose on the moon, be- Sports cause its lack of atmosphere would prevent this.) The theory received more widespread attention • The “Frozen Envelope Theory” suggests that the when the satirical Weekly World News twice pub- NBA rigged its 1985 Draft Lottery so Georgetown lished stories about a human skeleton on the moon, University standout Patrick Ewing would land with first on Nov 28, 1989,[144] and then again on Jul 15, the New York Knicks, who had the first pick in 1997.[145] This same story had been told before in a that year’s draft. Conspiracy theorists argue that the 1977 novel, Inherit the Stars, by James P. Hogan. Knicks’ envelope was placed in the freezer so that when NBA commissioner David Stern reached into • Soviet space program conspiracy accusations sup- a bowl containing the envelopes of all the teams par- pose that some failed human spaceflights in the ticipating in the draft lottery, he would be able to USSR occurred but were concealed by the govern- identify that particular envelope by its being colder ment. than the others.[150]

• Project Solar Warden is an alleged DoD (Dept. of • Similar to the “Frozen Envelope Theory” is the Defense) program of manned space ﬂeets operat- football “Hot Balls Theory” which suggests that cer- ing outside the boundaries of Earth orbit, suppos- tain balls used in draws for FIFA competitions have edly under UN authority.[146] At least one organiza- been raised in temperature in order to achieve a cer- tion, FreeGary.org, has been lobbying for the release tain speciﬁc outcome for the draw (e.g. to draw from prison of the individual who “uncovered” the rivals together in order to generate more interest clandestine project, Gary McKinnon.[147] and revenue, or to give a certain team an “easier” draw).[151]

Global warming • Boxing is a sport that has been particularly linked with conspiracy theories, such as the theory that the • Global warming conspiracy theorists typically al- second Ali-Liston fight was fixed,[152] and that the lege that, through worldwide acts of professional first Bradley-Pacquiao encounter was fixed by pro- and criminal misconduct, the science behind global moter Bob Arum.[153] 64 CHAPTER 3. CONSPIRACY THEORIES

Electronic banking conspiracy The Plan

• The Theory of Electronic Conspiracy is said to be Main article: The Plan (Washington, D.C.) a variant of modern New World Order conspiracy theories. The theory consists of the belief that a In U.S. cities that are controlled by African-American secret group has attempted for centuries to reach majorities, a persistent conspiracy theory holds that world domination, even if the result by design would Caucasians are plotting to regain control and take over be world destruction. According to this theory, the those cities. worldwide dominion has been planned from antiquity and follows the following phases:[154] 3.1.14 See also 1. The substitution of precious metal-based coin • Israel-related animal conspiracy theories currency by paper currency. This process began in the Renaissance, with the beginning of the use of • General Motors streetcar conspiracy tickets which allowed for people to have a tangible good (such as silver or gold pieces) by paper—a • Korean Air Lines Flight 007 alternate theories more virtual, but comfortable, medium which the state was committed to provide the equivalent amount of precious metal if such was required. 3.1.15 Notes and references [1] “ADL Report “Blaming the Jews: The Financial Crisis 2. The appearance of virtual money, with credit cards: and Anti-Semitism"". money approaches wholly virtual status. Money is no longer a tangible paper- or metal-based object [2] Levy, Richard (2005). Antisemitism: a historical encyclo- but rather a series of numbers recorded in magnetic pedia of prejudice. p. 55. ISBN 1-85109-439-3. stripes. [3] “ADL report “Jewish “Control” of the Federal Reserve: A Classic Anti-Semitic Myth"". 3. The proliferation of Internet and Electronic commerce: credit cards are no longer required in order to [4] Baker, Lee D. (2010). Anthropology and the Racial Pol- purchase or sell goods and services from an Internet- itics of Culture. Duke University Press. p. 158. ISBN connected computer. 978-0822346982. [5] Waltman, Michael; John Haas (2010). The Communica- 4. The concentration of the worldwide bank into few tion of Hate. Peter Lang. p. 52. ISBN 978-1433104473. hands, by means of continuous international banking fusions. [6] “Who runs Hollywood? C'mon”. LA Times.

[7] A hoax designed to advance the interests of Jews: 5. The worldwide implementation of an electronic identity card. • “The title of App’s major work on the Holocaust, The Six Million Swindle, is informative because it 6. The great worldwide blackout: A tremendous dis- implies on its very own the existence of a conspiracy aster will take place when, after a great electrical of Jews to perpetrate a hoax against non-Jews for blackout on a planetary scale, the data of all elec- monetary gain.” Mathis, Andrew E. Holocaust De- tronic accounts erase simultaneously. After this nial, a Definition, The Holocaust History Project, event, chaos and poverty will immediately ensue July 2, 2004. Retrieved May 16, 2007. throughout the planet; and civilization will revert • “Jews are thus depicted as manipulative and power- to its primitive forms of slavery to survive. This is ful conspirators who have fabricated myths of their the last aim of the “secret organization” which has own suffering for their own ends. According to the spent centuries guiding this process. The worldwide Holocaust deniers, by forging evidence and mount- blackout will be preceded by partial blackouts that ing a massive propaganda effort, the Jews have established their lies as ‘truth’ and reaped enormous would only be tests and “signals” to communicate rewards from doing so: for example, in making fi- that different phases of the process are being ful- nancial claims on Germany and acquiring interna- filled. An example of these partial blackouts would tional support for Israel.” The nature of Holocaust be those that have been produced almost simulta- denial: What is Holocaust denial?, JPR report #3, neously in different parts around the world; and, at 2000. Retrieved May 16, 2007. the beginning of the 21st century, shortly after the • “Why, we might ask the deniers, if the Holocaust September 11, 2001, attacks: the blackouts in the did not happen would any group concoct such a hor- United States, Canada, Australia, and the United rific story? Because, some deniers claim, there was Kingdom. This theory is used as the central plot of a conspiracy by Zionists to exaggerate the plight of the 2013 TV series Revolution. Jews during the war in order to finance the state of 3.1. LIST OF CONSPIRACY THEORIES 65

Israel through war reparations.” Michael Shermer Jews feel guilty, of course.” Lawrence N. Powell, & Alex Grobman. Denying History: : who Says the Troubled Memory: Anne Levy, the Holocaust, and Holocaust Never Happened and why Do They Say David Duke’s Louisiana, University of North Car- It?, University of California Press, 2000, ISBN 0- olina Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8078-5374-7, p. 445. 520-23469-3, p. 106. [8] Antisemitic: • “Since its inception... the Institute for Historical Review (IHR), a California-based Holocaust de- • “Contemporary examples of antisemitism in pub- nial organization founded by Willis Carto of Lib- lic life, the media, schools, the workplace, and in erty Lobby, has promoted the antisemitic conspir- the religious sphere could, taking into account the acy theory that Jews fabricated tales of their own overall context, include ... denying the fact, scope, genocide to manipulate the sympathies of the non- mechanisms (e.g. gas chambers) or intentionality Jewish world.” Antisemitism and Racism Coun- of the genocide of the Jewish people at the hands of try Reports: United States, Stephen Roth Institute, National Socialist Germany and its supporters and 2000. Retrieved May 17, 2007. accomplices during World War II (the Holocaust).” Working Definition of Antisemitism PDF (33.8 KB), • “The central assertion for the deniers is that Jews Fundamental Rights Agency are not victims but victimizers. They 'stole' billions • in reparations, destroyed Germany’s good name by “It would elevate their antisemitic ideology — spreading the 'myth' of the Holocaust, and won in- which is what Holocaust denial is — to the level ternational sympathy because of what they claimed of responsible historiography — which it is not.” had been done to them. In the paramount miscar- Deborah Lipstadt, Denying the Holocaust, ISBN 0- riage of injustice, they used the world’s sympathy 14-024157-4, p. 11. to 'displace' another people so that the state of Is- • “The denial of the Holocaust is among the most in- rael could be established. This contention relating sidious forms of anti-Semitism...” Roth, Stephen J. to the establishment of Israel is a linchpin of their “Denial of the Holocaust as an Issue of Law” in argument.” Deborah Lipstadt. Denying the Holo- the Israel Yearbook on Human Rights, Volume 23, caust – The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1993, ISBN 0-7923- Penguin, 1993, ISBN 0-452-27274-2, p. 27. 2581-8, p. 215. • “They [Holocaust deniers] picture a vast shadowy • “Contemporary Holocaust deniers are not revision- conspiracy that controls and manipulates the insti- ists — not even neo-revisionists. They are Deniers. tutions of education, culture, the media and govern- Their motivations stem from their neo-nazi political ment in order to disseminate a pernicious mythol- goals and their rampant antisemitism.” Austin, Ben ogy. The purpose of this Holocaust mythology, they S. “Deniers in Revisionists Clothing”, The Holo- assert, is the inculcation of a sense of guilt in the caust\Shoah Page, Middle Tennessee State Univer- white, Western Christian world. Those who can sity. Retrieved March 29, 2007. make others feel guilty have power over them and • “Holocaust denial can be a particularly insidious can make them do their bidding. This power is form of antisemitism precisely because it often tries used to advance an international Jewish agenda cen- to disguise itself as something quite different: as tered in the Zionist enterprise of the State of Israel.” genuine scholarly debate (in the pages, for exam- Introduction: Denial as Anti-Semitism, “Holocaust ple, of the innocuous-sounding Journal for Histori- Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing and Combat- cal Review).” The nature of Holocaust denial: What ing Anti-Semitic Propaganda”, Anti-Defamation is Holocaust denial?, JPR report #3, 2000. Re- League, 2001. Retrieved June 12, 2007. trieved May 16, 2007. • “Deniers argue that the manufactured guilt and • “This books treats several of the myths that have shame over a mythological Holocaust led to West- made antisemitism so lethal... In addition to these ern, specifically United States, support for the es- historic myths, we also treat the new, maliciously tablishment and sustenance of the Israeli state — a manufactured myth of Holocaust denial, another sustenance that costs the American taxpayer over groundless belief that is used to stir up Jew-hatred.” three billion dollars per year. They assert that Schweitzer, Frederick M. & Perry, Marvin. Anti- American taxpayers have been and continue to be Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the swindled...” Introduction: Denial as Anti-Semitism, present, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, ISBN 0-312- “Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing 16561-7, p. 3. and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda”, Anti- • “One predictable strand of Arab Islamic anti- Defamation League, 2001. Retrieved June 12, semitism is Holocaust denial...” Schweitzer, Fred- 2007. erick M. & Perry, Marvin. Anti-Semitism: myth and • “The stress on Holocaust revisionism underscored hate from antiquity to the present, Palgrave Macmil- the new anti-Semitic agenda gaining ground within lan, 2002, ISBN 0-312-16561-7, p. 10. the Klan movement. Holocaust denial refurbished • “Anti-Semitism, in the form of Holocaust denial, conspiratorial anti-Semitism. Who else but the had been experienced by just one teacher when Jews had the media power to hoodwink unsuspect- working in a Catholic school with large numbers of ing masses with one of the greatest hoaxes in his- Polish and Croatian students.” Geoffrey Short, Ca- tory? And for what motive? To promote the claims role Ann Reed. Issues in Holocaust Education, Ash- of the illegitimate state of Israel by making non- gate Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-7546-4211-9, p. 71. 66 CHAPTER 3. CONSPIRACY THEORIES

• “Indeed, the task of organized antisemitism in the • “Since its inception... the Institute for Historical last decade of the century has been the estab- Review (IHR), a California-based Holocaust de- lishment of Holocaust Revisionism – the denial nial organization founded by Willis Carto of Lib- that the Holocaust occurred.” Stephen Trombley, erty Lobby, has promoted the antisemitic conspir- “antisemitism”, The Norton Dictionary of Modern acy theory that Jews fabricated tales of their own Thought, W. W. Norton & Company, 1999, ISBN genocide to manipulate the sympathies of the non- 0-393-04696-6, p. 40. Jewish world.” Antisemitism and Racism Coun- • “After the Yom Kippur War an apparent reappear- try Reports: United States, Stephen Roth Institute, ance of antisemitism in France troubled the tran- 2000. Retrieved May 17, 2007. quility of the community; there were several no- • “The primary motivation for most deniers is anti- torious terrorist attacks on synagogues, Holocaust Semitism, and for them the Holocaust is an infuri- revisionism appeared, and a new antisemitic politi- atingly inconvenient fact of history. After all, the cal right tried to achieve respectability.” Howard K. Holocaust has generally been recognized as one of Wettstein, Diasporas and Exiles: Varieties of Jewish the most terrible crimes that ever took place, and Identity, University of California Press, 2002, ISBN surely the very emblem of evil in the modern age. 0-520-22864-2, p. 169. If that crime was a direct result of anti-Semitism • “Holocaust denial is a convenient polemical taken to its logical end, then anti-Semitism itself, substitute for anti-semitism.” Igounet, Valérie. even when expressed in private conversation, is in- “Holocaust denial is part of a strategy”, Le Monde evitably discredited among most people. What bet- diplomatique, May, 1998. ter way to rehabilitate anti-Semitism, make anti- Semitic arguments seem once again respectable in • “Holocaust denial is a contemporary form of the civilized discourse and even make it acceptable for classic anti-Semitic doctrine of the evil, manip- governments to pursue anti-Semitic policies than by ulative and threatening world Jewish conspiracy.” convincing the world that the great crime for which Introduction: Denial as Anti-Semitism, “Holocaust anti-Semitism was blamed simply never happened Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing and Combat- – indeed, that it was nothing more than a frame- ing Anti-Semitic Propaganda”, Anti-Defamation up invented by the Jews, and propagated by them League, 2001. Retrieved June 12, 2007. through their control of the media? What better • “In a number of countries, in Europe as well as in way, in short, to make the world safe again for anti- the United States, the negation or gross minimiza- Semitism than by denying the Holocaust?" Reich, tion of the Nazi genocide of Jews has been the sub- Walter. “Erasing the Holocaust”, The New York ject of books, essay and articles. Should their au- Times, July 11, 1993. thors be protected by freedom of speech? The Eu- • “There is now a creeping, nasty wave of anti- ropean answer has been in the negative: such writ- Semitism ... insinuating itself into our political ings are not only a perverse form of anti-semitism thought and rhetoric ... The history of the Arab but also an aggression against the dead, their fam- world ... is disfigured ... by a whole series of out- ilies, the survivors and society at large.” Roger Er- moded and discredited ideas, of which the notion rera, “Freedom of speech in Europe”, in Georg that the Jews never suffered and that the Holocaust Nolte, European and US Constitutionalism, Cam- is an obfuscatory confection created by the elders of bridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-521-85401- Zion is one that is acquiring too much, far too much, 6, pp. 39–40. currency.” Edward Said, “A Desolation, and They • “Particularly popular in Syria is Holocaust denial, Called it Peace” in Those who forget the past, Ron another staple of Arab anti-Semitism that is some- Rosenbaum (ed), Random House 2004, p. 518. times coupled with overt sympathy for Nazi Ger- many.” Efraim Karsh, Rethinking the Middle East, [9] Conspiracy theory: Routledge, 2003, ISBN 0-7146-5418-3, p. 104. • “While appearing on the surface as a rather arcane • “Holocaust denial is a new form of anti-Semitism, pseudo-scholarly challenge to the well-established but one that hinges on age-old motifs.” Dinah Shel- record of Nazi genocide during the Second World ton, Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against War, Holocaust denial serves as a powerful con- Humanity, Macmillan Reference, 2005, p. 45. spiracy theory uniting otherwise disparate fringe • “The stress on Holocaust revisionism underscored groups...” Introduction: Denial as Anti-Semitism, the new anti-Semitic agenda gaining ground within “Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing the Klan movement. Holocaust denial refurbished and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda”, Anti- conspiratorial anti-Semitism. Who else but the Defamation League, 2001. Retrieved June 12, Jews had the media power to hoodwink unsuspect- 2007. ing masses with one of the greatest hoaxes in his- • “Before discussing how Holocaust denial consti- tory? And for what motive? To promote the claims tutes a conspiracy theory, and how the theory is dis- of the illegitimate state of Israel by making non- tinctly American, it is important to understand what Jews feel guilty, of course.” Lawrence N. Powell, is meant by the term 'Holocaust denial.'" Mathis, Troubled Memory: Anne Levy, the Holocaust, and Andrew E. Holocaust Denial, a Definition, The David Duke’s Louisiana, University of North Car- Holocaust History Project, July 2, 2004. Retrieved olina Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8078-5374-7, p. 445. December 18, 2006. 3.1. LIST OF CONSPIRACY THEORIES 67

• “Since its inception... the Institute for Historical [24] “Did a Secret Vatican Report on Gay Sex and Blackmail Review (IHR), a California-based Holocaust de- Bring Down the Pope?". Yahoo News. 22 February 2013. nial organization founded by Willis Carto of Lib- Retrieved 6 October 2014. erty Lobby, has promoted the antisemitic conspiracy theory that Jews fabricated tales of their own [25] “Pope Benedict XVI in shock resignation”. BBC News genocide to manipulate the sympathies of the non- (BBC). 11 February 2013. Retrieved 11 February 2013. Jewish world.” Antisemitism and Racism Coun- [26] Lewis and Short, A Latin Dictionary try Reports: United States, Stephen Roth Institute, 2000. Retrieved May 17, 2007. [27] The Criminalization of the State Michel Chossudovsky 3 February 2004 [10] “Arkansas Legal Ethics”. Law.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2010-08-03. [28] “The Money Masters: How International Bankers Gained Control Of America”. Video.google.com. Retrieved [11] Weems, Samuel A. 2002. Armenia: secrets of a Christian 2010-08-03. terrorist state. The Armenian Great deception series, v. 1. Dallas: St. John Press. [29] Jared Jacang Maher (2007-08-30). “DIA Conspiracies Take Off”. Denver Westword. [12] Waal, Thomas (2013). Black garden Armenia and Azer- baijan through peace and war. New York London: New [30] “FRB: Speech-Kohn, The Evolving Role of the Federal York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-6032-5. Reserve Banks”. Federalreserve.gov. November 3, 2006. Retrieved August 29, 2011. [13] McLaughlin, Daniel (12 May 2012). “Baku pins hopes on Eurovision to boost image”. The Irish Times. Retrieved [31] “Secrets of the Federal Reserve”. Apfn.org. Retrieved 21 June 2012. Everywhere from taxi cabs to cabinet of- 2010-08-03. fices, conspiracy theories thrive in Azerbaijan. Most involve Armenia, with which Azerbaijan is still technically [32] The Telegraph (UK), 15 Apr. 2001, at war after a 1988–94 conflict, and which is boycotting “Historians Find 'Proof' that Nazis Burnt Eurovision after Aliyev said “our main enemies are Arme- Reichstag,” http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ nians of the world and the hypocritical and corrupt politi- news/worldnews/europe/germany/1310995/ cians under their control”. Historians-find-proof-that-Nazis-burnt-Reichstag.html

[14] “Closing Speech by Ilham Aliyev at the conference on the [33] Davidson, Eugene (2004) The Unmaking of Adolf Hitler results of the third year into the “State Program on the University of Missouri Press pg 457 socioeconomic development of districts for 2009–2013"". [34] “Terror-99”. Eng.terror99.ru. Retrieved 2010-08-03. Retrieved 6 October 2014. [35] “State Secret Disclosed in the Book About Terrorist At- [15] Rastafari, Jah (2005-10-07). “Questions about Rastafari”. tacks”. PRIMA News Agency. 30 January 2004. Re- Rastafaritimes.com. Retrieved 2010-08-03. trieved 27 January 2015.

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[18] Ghanea, Nazila (2003). Human Rights, the UN and the [38] “8 Boston Marathon Bombing Conspiracy Theories That Bahá'ís in Iran. Martinus Nijhoﬀ. p. 294. ISBN 90-411- Won't Go Away 04/26/2013”. 1953-1 [39] “Snopes Boston Marathon Bombing Rumors (with [19] Cooper, Roger (1993). Death Plus 10 years. Harper- Sources) 4-20-13”. Collins. p. 200. ISBN 0-00-255045-8 [40] http://www.groundzeromedia.org/boston-strung-up/ [20] Simpson, John; Shubart, Tira (1995). Lifting the Veil. Hodder & Stoughton Ltd. p. 223. ISBN 0-340-62814- [41] Ron Paul defends insane Charlie Hebdo conspiracy the- 6 ory: I’m just trying “to get the truth out”! - Salon.com

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[133] Adams, Cecil (November 6, 1987). “Is the Trilateral [154] Estulin, Daniel. «Hacia una sociedad sin dinero en Commission the secret organization that runs the world?". efectivo», La verdadera historia del Club Bilderberg, The Straight Dope. Barcelona, Planeta, 2005, ISBN 84-8453-157-0, pages: 175–233 (Spanish). [134] Phillips, David (July 1, 2010). “Conspiracy Theories Be- hind BP Oil Spill in Gulf – From Dick Cheney To UFOs”. CBS News. 3.1.16 Further reading

[135] Francis, Diane (Jul 15, 2010). “BP conspiracy theory de- • Tudge McConnachie, Robin James (2008) [2005, bunked”. Financial Post. 2008]. The Rough Guide to Conspiracy Theories. [136] “David Icke Interview: Aliens among us”. Metatech.org. Rough Guide. ISBN 1-85828-281-0. Retrieved 2010-08-03. • Hodapp, Christopher; Alice Von Kannon (2008). [137] John Vidal, “RAF rainmakers caused 1952 ﬂood”, The Conspiracy Theories & Secret Societies For Dummies. Guardian, 30 August 2001 Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN 0-470-18408-6. 3.1. LIST OF CONSPIRACY THEORIES 71

• Gray, John (2000) [1998]. False Dawn: The Delu- sions of Global Capitalism. New Press. ISBN 1- 56584-592-7.

• Still, William T. (1990). New World Order: The Ancient Plan of Secret Societies. Huntington House Publishers. ISBN 0-910311-64-1. • Abraham, Larry (1988) [1971]. Call it Conspiracy. Double a Publications. ISBN 0-9615550-1-7. • Robertson, Pat (1992). The New World Order.W Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8499-3394-3. • Wardner, James (1994) [1993]. The Planned De- struction of America. Longwood Communications. ISBN 0-9632190-5-7. • Marrs, Jim (2001) [2001]. Rule by Secrecy: The Hidden History That Connects the Trilateral Com- mission, the Freemasons, and the Great Pyramids. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-093184-1. Chapter 4

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72 4.1. TEXT 73

• Weather warfare Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_warfare?oldid=622118176 Contributors: William M. 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S., DavidLeighEllis, AndresBarber, Sore- Sight, User 111111110101, User 1010101010110, Impsswoon, Sedrubal, Neil Hampshire, CaptainWilliamStook, Bobgillagin, Markheny, Alohakukai, Orduin, Nishan shakya bungamati, KasparBot and Anonymous: 589 • Ionospheric heater Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionospheric_heater?oldid=617175791 Contributors: The Anome, David spector, Heron, Bearcat, Andycjp, Gareth E Kegg, Malcolma, Black-Velvet, SmackBot, Brinerustle, DinosaursLoveExistence, Pavithran, Acrote- rion, Dekimasu, Tourbillon, SteinAlive, Kairologic, Arugia, John Nevard, JediSaint, Addbot, Yobot, Sohalt, ChrisGualtieri, Bluefish1111, GravRidr, ThomasLeyser and Anonymous: 14 • Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sura_Ionospheric_Heating_Facility?oldid=646970753 Contrib- utors: Gentgeen, D6, KNewman, Gene Nygaard, Eyreland, NatusRoma, The wub, Redecke~enwiki, JohnElder, Bgwhite, Dell Adams, 4.1. TEXT 75

Vmenkov, Roboto de Ajvol, Gaius Cornelius, Bluebot, DinosaursLoveExistence, CmdrObot, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, Gabriel Kielland, Hugo999, VolkovBot, Tourbillon, Ernstblumberg, Addbot, AnomieBOT, ArthurBot, Sam wines, EmausBot, Пархоменко Александр and Anonymous: 12

• List of conspiracy theories Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conspiracy_theories?oldid=666374151 Contributors: Mav, Szopen, Shii, DavidLevinson, Sfdan, AntonioMartin, Ubiquity, Lir, Dcljr, Penmachine, Minesweeper, CesarB, Darkwind, IMSoP, Reddi, ,Topbanana, Lord Emsworth, Dpbsmith, Wetman, Pakaran, Johnleemk ,דוד ,Andrewman327, Rednblu, Tpbradbury, SEWilco, Populus Anjouli, Phil Boswell, 2toise, Dale Arnett, MrJones, ChrisO~enwiki, Chrism, RedWolf, Moondyne, Altenmann, Sparky, Naddy, Low- ellian, Mirv, Wjhonson, Rfc1394, Nilmerg, Rursus, Humus sapiens, Catbar, Jsonitsac, Mattflaschen, Lysy, Philwelch, Tom harrison, Mark Richards, 0x6D667061, Hokanomono, Varlaam, Broux, DJSupreme23, FrYGuY, Matt Crypto, 47b, Golbez, Sesel, Christopherlin, Mack- eriv, Sohailstyle, Mustafaa, Beland, Piotrus, Cberlet, Sebbe, One Salient Oversight, Tothebarricades.tk, Heirpixel, Elroch, Icairns, Adrian Sampson, Esperant, Gazpacho, Eep², Mike Rosoft, Jayjg, Amxitsa, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, EliasAlucard, Glyniss, Mammique, Dbachmann, Zain engineer, WegianWarrior, Jackqu7, ESkog, Kbh3rd, CanisRufus, FirstPrinciples, Szyslak, Mjk2357, Just zis Guy, you know?, Lunaverse, Causa sui, Bobo192, Deathawk, Smalljim, John Vandenberg, Cmdrjameson, Zupi, Dee Earley, Aquil- lion, Rje, Sukiari, Wayfarer, Grutness, Alansohn, Arthena, Wiki-uk, John Quiggin, Ferrierd, Echuck215, Differentgravy, Hu, Hohum, Wtmitchell, Tony Sidaway, Outlanderssc, Pauli133, Dismas, Stemonitis, Woohookitty, Kelisi, Dmol, GregorB, Mysticfiend, ZakkFlash, Matthew Platts, SqueakBox, BD2412, Something, Kane5187, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, TJive, Carbonite, Soakologist, Vegaswikian, Bubba73, Matt Deres, Yuber, Yamamoto Ichiro, SchuminWeb, Ground Zero, Mindme, Isotope23, Elmer Clark, GagHalfrunt, Lmatt, Cmadler, Deathsushi, Jersey Devil, GangofOne, Agamemnon2, Gwernol, Kencaesi, Enviroknot, RussBot, Kevs, Epolk, Raquel Baranow, Gaius Cor- nelius, Rsrikanth05, Pseudomonas, Steelej10, NawlinWiki, ONEder Boy, Ragesoss, Retired username, THB, Raven4x4x, Moe Epsilon, Rwalker, Paaskynen, Nescio, Haemo, Wknight94, Caroline Sanford, Pegship, J. Nguyen, Pawyilee, DieWeisseRose, Scheinwerfermann, Schavira, Closedmouth, Arthur Rubin, Eduard Gherkin, Chanheigeorge, CWenger, Taoistlumberjak, Geoffrey.landis, Wikipeditor, CK- elly, Kansaikiwi, Allens, Katieh5584, NeilN, Lawyer2b, Serendipodous, BuffaloBob, Luk, Hal peridol, Politik426, SmackBot, Avengerx, Ashill, Incnis Mrsi, KnowledgeOfSelf, McGeddon, InvictaHOG, Clpo13, Jab843, Kintetsubuffalo, Edgar181, Massacabre, Evanreyes, Rune X2, Ogdred, Gilliam, Portillo, Hmains, Pudding7, Rmosler2100, Afa86, Kurykh, TimBentley, Calliopejen~enwiki, Jprg1966, Mel- burnian, Patriarch, Colonies Chris, MercZ, Darth Panda, Sct72, Joerite, Nick Levine, Brimba, Spearmind, Bisected8, Neverborn, Blue- boar, OranL, Mtmelendez, RolandR, Gandalf57, Tomtom9041, Smokefoot, BullRangifer, DMacks, Aglyad, Kendrick7, Will Beback, Synthe, JzG, Quadratus, Lakinekaki, Felipeh, Al1encas1no, Minna Sora no Shita, Joffeloff, NYCJosh, Thomasmuirhead, Kransky, Ma- jorclanger, Enelson, Porrima (usurped), Ben Moore, 041744, The Man in Question, Henrywizard, Hvn0413, ILorbb, Dicklyon, Carp- kazu, EdC~enwiki, Norm mit, Dan Gluck, Iridescent, Judgesurreal777, Joseph Solis in Australia, Zanotam, Lucy-marie, Civil Engineer III, Tawkerbot2, RookZERO, George100, Spindled, Zaphody3k, BruceGrubb, Randroide, JForget, Adam Keller, DangerousPanda, Cm- drObot, TheHerbalGerbil, Estéban, BeenAroundAWhile, W guice, Denizz, DeLarge, Caesar Rodney, Shaizakopf, THF, Biggie077, Loca- tion, Penbat, Tex, Markusle, ProfessorPaul, Yaris678, Cydebot, Korky Day, Ntsimp, Peripitus, Vanished user 2340rujowierfj08234irjwfw4, Crossmr, Achangeisasgoodasa, UncleBubba, Gogo Dodo, Jkokavec, Khatru2, Tec15, Sangwyn, Jayen466, Give Peace A Chance, Diflu- oroethene, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Chachilongbow, JustFacts, Ward3001, Sroulik, Woland37, Tewapack, Mamalujo, PKT, Epbr123, AmazingRacist, Rolyatleahcim, Keraunos, Steve Dufour, Capn ed, Itsmejudith, DanTD, JustAGal, Larean01, Nick Number, Tochari- anne, Calathan, Noclevername, Dbrodbeck, Valyer, SummerPhD, Carolmooredc, Modernist, LibLord, Tillman, Mmyotis, Kent Witham, P.D., Ghmyrtle, Ingolfson, Ramona15, NapoliRoma, Wizlop, Epeefleche, Sophie means wisdom, Hut 8.5, Ryan4314, Steveprutz, Acro- terion, The Myotis, Magioladitis, Bakilas, Marjoriedawes, Clearstream, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, Yakushima, MEHColeman, JLMadrigal, Indon, 073157473, Dimts, Bwildasi, Skrooball, Ludvikus, Edward321, Wowest, Stephenchou0722, BenWoodruff, Paracel63, Anaxial, Sm8900, R'n'B, KTo288, The Anonymous One, Tgeairn, Artaxiad, RockMFR, Filll, Trusilver, Tikiwont, Tommahawk, KrytenKoro, A Nobody, OttoMäkelä, TomCat4680, SM0K3Y, BlueGuy213, Grosscha, P4k, Framhein, Noahcs, Floaterfluss, HiLo48, Youngjim, Plas- ticup, Belovedfreak, DadaNeem, Kraftlos, Dragonfae9, Colin 8, Ttdude07, The Spanish Inquisitor, S, Fernando Estel, Lex3000, Laguna117, Malik Shabazz, 28bytes, VolkovBot, Rendman, TreasuryTag, Cemacmillan, TheMindsEye, Fences and windows, Dukeover, PJHaseldine, WOSlinker, Paulcicero, Philip Trueman, Stealthbreed, DoorsAjar, Form media, Plezplez, Vipinhari, Ridernyc, JayC, Andreas Kaganov, Steven J. Anderson, Mzmadmike, Omelet~enwiki, Zondi, Jcmartini, Bentley4, SirenDrake, Wikiisawesome, Kehan Wann, Olias75, Eubu- lides, Applehead77, Mcattell, Soulja nyn3, Plutonium27, Y, Dgontar1977, Falcon8765, Ergonaut2001, MCTales, Gspinoza, Alcmaeonid, El filoloco, Psychopsilocybin, Blood sliver, Kobalt64, Planet-man828, MatthewTStone, SieBot, StAnselm, Slatersteven, Mick Ezekiel, Hyperreality, Malcolmxl5, Mbz1, Dawn Bard, King of Corsairs, Crash Underride, Bentogoa, RucasHost, Flyer22, Rgk83, Mimihitam, Cjdaniel, Phil Bridger, Smocking, Maha Odeh, Polbot, Gordonofcartoon, Svick, Rjfost, Bert Schlossberg, Shooter16101, Capitalismojo, Aidiamo, Bowei Huang 2, Wahrmund, Corleonebrother, Telaviv1, Sharrowing, SallyForth123, Ratemonth, Martarius, ClueBot, Rump- ing, Binksternet, The Thing That Should Not Be, EoGuy, Shniken1, ImperfectlyInformed, Ewawer, Pi zero, Marjaliisa, Showtime2009, Gonei72, Blue bear sd, AirdishStraus, Cstrohm, Krzyzowiec, Blanchardb, Agge1000, Statchecker, Piledhigheranddeeper, MÂ^L, Triv- ialist, Jeremiestrother, Counteraction, Adolphie, Excirial, Socrates2008, Jusdafax, Narcie, Goon Noot, Leonard^Bloom, Rhododen- drites, Wikitank, NuclearWarfare, Arjayay, Tuchomator, Theconspiracy, SchreiberBike, Kkarma, Rui Gabriel Correia, Bat13boy, Bald Zebra, Tired time, Thingg, Nibi, TheWizardOfAhz, Mattmckinney, Adamfinmo, Egmontaz, Apparition11, Crazyarmo1, Rosywounds, DumZiBoT, LordJesseD, Zombie Hunter Smurf, XLinkBot, Amalama, Mr Ralph, Serpentnight, Blazincdawg, ErkinBatu, Aunt En- tropy, Wikichtomi, Captain Fantasy, Mnicho17, Addbot, Validuz, V-squared, Grayfell, Drumnstas, Willking1979, Cryellow, Jojhutton, TheGreatArchitectOfTheUniverse, SuperSmashBros.Brawl777, Atethnekos, Haruth, Randolph j polasek, M.nelson, Morriswa, Wameroc- ity, PatrickFlaherty, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, Vishnava, CanadianLinuxUser, MightySaiyan, Trepanatus, DFS454, Glane23, 5 albert square, Fireaxe888, Cipinc3, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, CountryBot, Bluebellrock, Yobot, WikiDan61, DeluxNate, The Earwig, Zomgscrt, DarthKieduss, Maltelauridsbrigge, Grand Jordan, Againme, Magog the Ogre, AnomieBOT, Go slowly, Senor Freebie, Jim1138, Shon- een, Ipatrol, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Fleaman5000, TettyNullus, Kasaalan, ArthurBot, Quebec99, LilHelpa, Apjohns54, Alexlange, SenatorSteve, MrsHudson, Clawsx1, Srich32977, Dradeb1, Alumnum, ThyCantabrigde, Paulbuchholz22, Shattered Gnome, Carrite, GarretSlarrity, Rickproser, Brutaldeluxe, Zoeyjo, Sophus Bie, A Quest For Knowledge, Richard BB, Shadowjams, Mjasfca, VasOl- ing, Cardinalfan2009, Erik9bot, FrescoBot, Baseballnum5, Fortdj33, Blackguard SF, LucienBOT, Duchess of Bathwick, Truthmaker111, JMS Old Al, ChewyCows, Parl2001, Shee-un, HamburgerRadio, Citation bot 1, Rumuwi, Kitty555, DrilBot, Tturltob1, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Kickjunkie, Matthieu.berthome, Beganlocal, Necrobius, Jschnur, CaptainEagle, Cheesenik!, Chris1294, EagleScout87, Robo Cop, Guizel, Full-date unlinking bot, Kalifornia32, Keys767, Binoj D, Lotje, Overjive, Vrenator, Reaper Eternal, Aiken drum, Stack- OfPostItNotes, Connelly90, Kajervi, Skarvendus, IRISZOOM, Tbhotch, Cml610, Mean as custard, Regancy42, Yaush, Steven Dudick, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Sophie, Ka2uya2ep, Jdkag, Dewritech, LHCo, RenamedUser01302013, Solarra, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, Xacobi, Wikipelli, JanvonBismarck, John Shandy`, Thecheesykid, The teen reader, ZéroBot, Uberbeastmodez, Shuipzv3, Thargor Or- -HarryFromMA, Tolly4bolly, Auto ,اپسیلون ,lando, Dpenn89, DallasGoldBug, Wyvern Rex., Bamyers99, H3llBot, Vanarkadie001i Geek, Moose78, JoeSperrazza, Coasterlover1994, Donner60, Cymbelmineer, Sol Goldstone, Round the Horne, Orange Suede Sofa, Mys- 76 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

tichumwipe, Fren1234, Geoffanthony123, Limxzero, GrayFullbuster, Lionheart71, Jill Orly, Aia Miller, TheTimesAreAChanging, Clue- Bot NG, UrbsDei21, Mansmokingacigar, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Nateho, MelbourneStar, Personspeoples, Colapeninsula, Megaherbivore, Jamo58, Billd75, O.Koslowski, Widr, Kelgog1, Helpful Pixie Bot, Simpsonguy1987, Sirwilliam9293, Titodutta, Calabe1992, Doremus Jessup, Jeraphine Gryphon, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Roberticus, Walrus068, Sterling.M.Archer, Teach267, George Ponderevo, Ph- nomPencil, Xenari, Anirbansen045, Mark Arsten, Yerevantsi, ManchesterRenamedPersonchester, Hhuggins1904, The Almightey Drill, Harizotoh9, Sparthorse, Snow Blizzard, MrBill3, LoneWolf1992, Insidiae, SpidErxD, Wannabemodel, Anbu121, BattyBot, Kdudewhatup, Eduardofeld, Sfarney, Vanished user lt94ma34le12, Ddcm8991, Mrt3366, DanielMurdoch, Padenton, Sum1dum, Jethro B, Chus33, His- torysPride, Deathlasersonline, Ian.ruotsala, Ultra Venia, Tricklecheddar, Khimaris, Mogism, Tinez86, Liar6, Gemma2k, Pennysteps99, Boby6262, ComfyKem, Paulkmciver, KingJism, Nathank2, BruceJohnJennerLawso, Epicgenius, Aeguy22, Tom Condran, Ozboy80, Riggy C, Tengwah, Dbbbllloooccckk, Eyesnore, Spammmer, Jsipprell, Jakec, Soffredo, FrankRadioSpecial, TenaciousFox, Kim Chong Chill, Xtremecookiez, Steeletrap, Monochrome Monitor, Theyarehere24601, Kingofaces43, LahmacunKebab, Eric Corbett, Megapod, 14recine, Localemediamonitor, Gingeroscar, Catspiracy, B1blazin, Legowolf, Ter M. Ahn, Killer29, Crossswords, Dr.bernard.holder, Monkbot, Tigercompanion25, Happy Attack Dog, Wafercoal1, Bit ohms, Qwewewe, Amortias, Dyldyl1, Σούπερμαν, Khushal gour 1996, Yoon Aris, Right The Wrongs, Anonymous24151, Kashish Arora, CamiBruce, Shane thxmas, Rudy Janke, Jerodlycett, Jakakowic2, Mr Pota- tolord985236, Documentedtruth, Nikkiausterlitz and Anonymous: 1236

4.2 Images

• File:1905_2fnl_Velikoe_v_malom_i_antikhrist.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/1905_ 2fnl_Velikoe_v_malom_i_antikhrist.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: New York Public Library, NYPL-URL: http://catalog.nypl.org/record=b12357231 Original artist: Sergei Nilus (1862-1929) • File:2007_Arctic_Sea_Ice.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/2007_Arctic_Sea_Ice.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA, http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17800 Original artist: NASA image created by Jesse Allen, using AMSR-E data courtesy of the National Snow and Ice Data (NSIDC), and sea ice extent contours courtesy of Terry Haran and Matt Savoie, NSIDC, based on Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) data. • File:65_Myr_Climate_Change.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/65_Myr_Climate_Change.png Li- cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Adam_Weishaupt01.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Adam_Weishaupt01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies. jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Frank Vincentz • File:Ambox_current_red.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg License: CC0 Contributors: self-made, inspired by Gnome globe current event.svg, using Information icon3.svg and Earth clip art.svg Original artist: Vipersnake151, penubag, Tkgd2007 (clock) • File:Apollo_11_Crew_During_Training_Exercise_-_GPN-2002-000032.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/e/ea/Apollo_11_Crew_During_Training_Exercise_-_GPN-2002-000032.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Great Images in NASA Description Original artist: NASA • File:Arecibo_Observatory_Aerial.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Arecibo_Observatory_Aerial. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: own work Original artist: Alessandro Cai (OliverZena) • File:Arecibo_Observatory_Aerial_View.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Arecibo_Observatory_ Aerial_View.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Giro720 using CommonsHelper. Original artist: H. Schweiker/WIYN and NOAO/AURA/NSF.

(Original uploader was Quazgaa at en.wikipedia. • File:Arecibo_message.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Arecibo_message.svg License: CC-BY-SA- 3.0 Contributors: Own drawing, 2005 Original artist: Arne Nordmann (norro) • File:Cessna_210_Hagelflieger_Detail.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Cessna_210_Hagelflieger_ Detail.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Christian Jansky (User:Tschaensky) • File:Cloud_Seeding.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Cloud_Seeding.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: DooFi • File:Cloudseedingimagerevised.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/eb/Cloudseedingimagerevised.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Smcnab386 (talk)(Uploads) • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/ Cyclone_Catarina_from_the_ISS_on_March_26_2004.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: NASA Original artist: Astronaut photograph ISS008-E-19646 was taken March 7, 2004, with a Kodak DCS760 digital camera equipped with an 50-mm lens, and is provided by the Earth Observations Laboratory, Johnson Space Center. • File:Dszpics1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Dszpics1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http: //www.nssl.noaa.gov/headlines/dszpics.html Original artist: Daphne Zaras. Original uploader was Runningonbrains at en.wikipedia 4.2. IMAGES 77

• File:EISCAT_Sodankylä_radar.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/EISCAT_Sodankyl%C3%A4_ radar.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Antti Leppänen • File:EISCAT_Svalbard_Radar.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/EISCAT_Svalbard_Radar.jpg Li- cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Togr • File:EISCAT_dish_Kiruna.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/EISCAT_dish_Kiruna.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tpheiska • File:ENMOD_Convention_parties.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/ENMOD_Convention_parties. svg License: Public domain Contributors: File:International Court of Justice parties.svg Original artist: Canuckguy, Danlaycock • File:Edit-clear.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist: The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).” • File:Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg License: CC0 Contributors: http://openclipart.org/detail/24112/flag-of-afghanistan-by-anonymous-24112 Original artist: • User:Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Algeria.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: SVG implementation of the 63-145 Algerian law "on Characteristics of the Algerian national emblem" ("Caractéristiques du Drapeau Algérien", in English). Original artist: This graphic was originaly drawn by User:SKopp. • File:Flag_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Flag_of_Antigua_and_ Barbuda.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Argentina.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on: http://manuelbelgrano.gov.ar/bandera/creacion-de-la-bandera-nacional/ Original artist: (Vector graphics by Dbenbenn) • File:Flag_of_Armenia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Flag_of_Armenia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Australia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Austria.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.bmlv.gv.at/abzeichen/dekorationen.shtml Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Flag_of_Bangladesh.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.dcaa.com.bd/Modules/CountryProfile/BangladeshFlag.aspx Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Belarus.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Flag_of_Belarus.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.tnpa.by/ViewFileText.php?UrlRid=52178&UrlOnd=%D1%D2%C1%20911-2008 Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Belgium_(civil).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Benin.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Flag_of_Benin.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe • File:Flag_of_Bolivia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Flag_of_Bolivia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The flag of Bulgaria. The colors are specified at http://www.government.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0034&n= 000005&g= as: Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Byelorussian_SSR.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Flag_of_Byelorussian_SSR.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Zscout370, reworked by Pianist • File:Flag_of_Cameroon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Flag_of_Cameroon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- • File:Flag_of_Canada.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Orig- inal artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Cape_Verde.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Flag_of_Cape_Verde.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Chile.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe • File:Flag_of_Cuba.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Flag_of_Cuba.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Drawn by User:Madden Original artist: see below • File:Flag_of_Cyprus.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Flag_of_Cyprus.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Vzb83 • File:Flag_of_Czechoslovakia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Flag_of_Czechoslovakia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: own code according Image:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- 78 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Flag_of_Denmark.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Madden • File:Flag_of_Dominica.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Flag_of_Dominica.svg License: CC0 Con- tributors: Own work: Flag of Dominica originally from the Open Clip Art website. Redrawn by User:Vzb83 except for the parrot. Colours are adapted from FOTW Flags Of The World website because of the currentness (refreshed 2001). The colour sceme is found at the government website of the Commonwealth of Dominica and THE WORLD FACTBOOK of the CIA. Original artist: User:Nightstallion • File:Flag_of_East_Germany.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Flag_of_East_Germany.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work • Gesetz zur Änderung des Gesetzes über das Staatswappen und die Staatsflagge der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. Vom 1. Oktober 1959 • Verordnung über Flaggen, Fahnen und Dienstwimpel der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. — Flaggenverordnung — Vom 3. Januar 1973 • Verordnung über Flaggen, Fahnen und Dienstwimpel der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. — Flaggenverordnung — Vom 12. Juli 1979 Original artist: • diese Datei: Jwnabd • File:Flag_of_Egypt.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg License: CC0 Contributors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: Open Clip Art • File:Flag_of_Estonia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.riigikantselei.ee/?id=73847 Original artist: Originally drawn by User:SKopp. Blue colour changed by User:PeepP to match the image at [1]. • File:Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Flag_of_Ethiopia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ethiopar.net/type/Amharic/hopre/bills/1998/654.ae..pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Finland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/1978/19780380 Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Germany.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Ghana.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Flag_of_Ghana.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Greece.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg License: Public domain Contributors: own code Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk) • File:Flag_of_Guatemala.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Flag_of_Guatemala.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:K21edgo • File:Flag_of_Honduras.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Flag_of_Honduras.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Hungary.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Flags of the World – Hungary Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Iceland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Islandic National Flag Original artist: Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, Zscout370 and others • File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Iran.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: URL http://www.isiri.org/portal/files/std/1.htm and an English translation / interpretation at URL http://flagspot.net/flags/ir'.html Original artist: Various • File:Flag_of_Iraq.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_Iraq.svg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: • This image is based on the CIA Factbook, and the website of Office of the President of Iraq, vectorized by User:Militaryace Original artist: Unknown, published by Iraqi governemt, vectorized by User:Militaryace based on the work of User:Hoshie • File:Flag_of_Ireland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Italy.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: own code, construction sheet Original artist: -xfi- • File:Flag_of_Kuwait.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SKopp • File:Flag_of_Laos.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Flag_of_Laos.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: ? 4.2. IMAGES 79

• File:Flag_of_Lebanon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Traced based on the CIA World Factbook with some modification done to the colours based on information at Vexilla mundi. • File:Flag_of_Liberia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Flag_of_Liberia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Version 1: SKopp Original artist: Government of Liberia • File:Flag_of_Lithuania.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: SuffKopp • File:Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Own work http://www.legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1972/0051/a051.pdf#page=2, colors from http://www. legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1993/0731609/0731609.pdf Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_Malawi.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Flag_of_Malawi.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Mauritius.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/Flag_of_Mauritius.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Mongolia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Flag_of_Mongolia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Current version is SVG implementation of the Mongolian flag as described by Mongolian National Standard MNS 6262:2011 (Mongolian State Flag. General requirements [1] Original artist: User:Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Morocco.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg License: Public domain Contributors: adala.justice.gov.ma (Ar) Original artist: Denelson83, Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.mch.govt.nz/files/NZ%20Flag%20-%20proportions.JPG Original artist: Zscout370, Hugh Jass and many others • File:Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work based on: Law About Characteristics And Use Of Patriotic Symbols of Nicaragua Original artist: C records (talk · contribs) • File:Flag_of_Niger.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Flag_of_Niger.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: The “burnt orange” color in the top band and circle is Pantone(166), i.e. RGB(224,82,6) = #E05206 on sRGB CRT screen, or CMYK(0,65%,100%,0) for process coated print, BUT NOT light orange #FF7000 which is somewhere between Pantone(130C) and Pan- tone(151), and is even lighter than X11 orange! See http://www.seoconsultants.com/css/colors/conversion/100/ The central white band is plain D65 reference white = RGB(255,255,255) = #FFFFFF. Original artist: Made by: Philippe Verdy User:verdy_p, see also fr:Utilisateur:verdy_p. • File:Flag_of_Niue.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Flag_of_Niue.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work Original artist: This vector image was created with Inkscape by SKopp, and then manually edited. • File:Flag_of_North_Korea.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Template: Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_North_Yemen.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Flag_of_North_Yemen.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Norway.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dbenbenn • File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from flagspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_Panama.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea. svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, FOTW Original artist: User:Nightstallion • File:Flag_of_Poland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Portugal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://jorgesampaio.arquivo.presidencia.pt/pt/republica/simbolos/bandeiras/index.html#imgs Original artist: Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro (1910; generic design); Vítor Luís Rodrigues; António Martins-Tuválkin (2004; this specific vector set: see sources) • File:Flag_of_Puerto_Rico.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Flag_of_Puerto_Rico.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Romania.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: AdiJapan • File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi- nal artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Saint_Lucia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Saint_Lucia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, Government of Saint Lucia Original artist: SKopp 80 CHAPTER 4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Credits: • File:Flag_of_Syria.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Flag_of_Syria.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: see below Original artist: see below • File:Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Tunisia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.w3.org/ Original artist: entraîneur: BEN KHALIFA WISSAM • File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Turkish Flag Law (Türk Bayrağı Kanunu), Law nr. 2893 of 22 September 1983. Text (in Turkish) at the website of the Turkish Historical Society (Türk Tarih Kurumu) Original artist: David Benbennick (original author) • File:Flag_of_Uganda.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Flag_of_Uganda.svg License: CC0 Contribu- tors: From the Open ClipArt Library website. Original artist: tobias • File:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ДСТУ 4512:2006 - Державний прапор України. Загальні технічні умови SVG: 2010 Original artist: України • File:Flag_of_Ukrainian_SSR.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Flag_of_Ukrainian_SSR.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Uruguay.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg License: Public domain Contributors: design of the sun copied from URL [1], which was copied by Francisco Gregoric, 5 Jul 2004 from URL [2] Original artist: User:Reisio (original author) • File:Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Flag_of_Uzbekistan.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Oʻzbekiston Respublikasining Davlat bayrogʻi. The officially defined colours are Pantone 313C for blue and 361C for green (source: [1], [2]). Drawn by User:Zscout370. • File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/law/vi/1951_to_1960/1955/195511/195511300001 http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/ Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lưu Ly vẽ lại theo nguồn trên • File:Flag_of_Yemen.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Flag_of_Yemen.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open Clip Art website Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Zaire.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Flag_of_Zaire.svg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Own work based on official flags Original artist: User:Moyogo • File:Flag_of_the_Cook_Islands.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_the_Cook_Islands.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic. svg License: Public domain Contributors: • -xfi-'s file • -xfi-'s code 4.2. IMAGES 81

• Zirland’s codes of colors Original artist: (of code): SVG version by cs:-xﬁ-. • File:Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Flag_of_ the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nightstallion • File:Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_the_People’{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_ People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/ design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370 • File:Flag_of_the_Solomon_Islands.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Flag_of_the_Solomon_Islands. svg License: Public domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp Original artist: User:SKopp • File:Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: http://pravo.levonevsky.org/ Original artist: СССР • File:Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg Li- cense: PD Contributors: ? 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