Land Use Change and Bordering in the Greater

LAND USE CHANGE AND BORDERING IN THE GREATER MAPUNGUBWE TRANSFRONTIER CONSERVATION AREA Ndidzulafhi Innocent Sinthumule Thesis Presented for the Degree of UniversityDOCTOR OF of PHILOSOPHY Cape Town Department of Environmental and Geographical Science Faculty of Science UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN March 2014 The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University of Cape Town DECLARATION I, Ndidzulafhi Innocent Sinthumule, declare that the work contained in this thesis is my own original work and that it has not been previously submitted for a degree or any other qualification at this University or any other institution. Signed:------------------------------------------------------ Date:--------------------------------------------------------- i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The accomplishment of this thesis was a major undertaking that could not have been duly accomplished without the unselfish contribution of many individuals some of whom are worth mentioning here. I am extremely grateful to my promoter Professor Maano Ramutsindela for supervising this thesis. His guidance and support at all stages of the research work has really been invaluable. His constructive academic criticisms of the earlier drafts of the thesis have been very instrumental in making the thesis attain its present shape. I express my gratitude for the knowledge of transfrontier conservation area that I gained from Johan Verhoef then international coordinator of Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area. He allowed me to attend the Trilateral Technical Committee meeting of delegates from Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe held in Pretoria, which I found useful and relevant to my research work. I wish to acknowledge the Trilateral Technical Committee for granting me permission to conduct my research in the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area. I am thankful to the following individuals who generously shared their knowledge and experiences about Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area with me. In Botswana, I am indebted to the Department of Wildlife and National Parks for granting me the permit to do my research in the country. Mable Bolele, Malatsi Mamani and Emmanuel Kgokilwe from the Department of Wildlife and National Parks granted me interviews without hesitation. Jeoff Norris, Peter Fitt, David Evans, Tanya Mckenzie, Piet Le Roux, Bruce Patty and Jan Willemse are private land owners of Northern Tuli Game Reserve who shared their knowledge of conservation in the area with me. I leant much from Johan Potgieter of Talana farm, Simon Kolobe and Gloria Badubi of Tuli lodge. I owe the members of Lentswe Le Moriti, Motlhabaneng and Mathathane villages a debt of gratitude for sharing their knowledge, feelings and experiences regarding wildlife and conservation with me. It would have been impossible to get access into Lentswe Le Moriti had it not been for Ofentse Moleofe who gladly welcomed me into his house and introduced me to the elders of the church. He also helped with translation in the village. I am grateful to Christopher Sekoba and the late Isaac Mampane for taking me to Motlhabaneng and Mathathane villages and helping me with translation. Isaac Mamphane was killed by elephant on the 20th July 2013 while patrolling in Nothern Tuli Game Reserve - may his ii soul rest in peace. Friendly Staff at Botswana archives in Gaborone allowed me access to valuable documents for which I am thankful. Abel Mabuse played a crucial role in facilitating my stay in Gaborone, Botswana. Andrew of Mashatu game reserve helped me out without hesitation when my car was stuck in the sand on the banks of Motloutse River. In South Africa, South African National Parks granted me permission to conduct my research in the Mapungubwe National Park for which I am very grateful. Craig Beech of Peace Parks Foundation granted me an interview about the creation of Mapungubwe bioregion. I give special thanks to Fhatuwani Mugwabana who is the park Manager of Mapungubwe National Park for graciously spending many hours giving me insights into the situation in South Africa with a big smile. I wish to acknowledge the following private land owners and farm managers in the Mapungubwe area for agreeing to share their knowledge and experience with me through interviews: Pieter Boshoff, Wellem Van Aswegen, Tupson Chauke, Vanus Van Staden, Rouen Gouss, Johan Truter, Piet Esterhyse Junior, Danie Erusmus, Jacques Willemse, Maryna Dillman, Ferdi Vermeulen, Duncan MacWhirter, Jugen Elbertse, Andrew Rae, Elmer Uys, Quintis Richter, Nico Verhoff, Retha van der Walt, George Luis, Chris Limbach, Rox Brummer and Johan Volschenk. Former and current farm workers in private lands in the Mapungubwe area granted me interviews for which I am grateful. I am thankful to land claimants of Machete and Sematla who provided valuable comments regarding their land claims in the Mapungubwe area. I wish to acknowledge the Department of Environmental and Land Affairs for granting me an interview. Warwick Mostert, Jamie and Mark Berry of De Beers Consolidated Mines gave me their insights regarding their involvement in the creation of Mapungubwe bioregion. It would have been impossible to get access into the Zimbabwean side of the transfrontier conservation area had it not been for Albert Mbedzi who is the Chief Executive Officer of Beit Bridge Rural District Council, who gladly accepted my proposal to conduct my research in the country. I give special thanks to Beatrice Ponele of Beit Bridge Rural District Council who was more than willing to assist me with data collection during my visits in Zimbabwe. Vanessa and Digby Bristow of Sentinel Ranch as well as Keith Knott and Steve Boshoff of Nottingham Estate gave me their insights about their involvement in Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area. I acknowledge the War veterans in Nottingham and Sentinel Ranch for granting me interviews. I iii am grateful to the community members of Maramani, Machuchuta and River ranch who endured many hours of questioning without expecting anything in return.The community members and their leaders welcomed me in their villages to participate in their lives and observe them and their environment as a witness for which I am thankful. Makina and Sifiso Sibanda of Tuli Circle Safari Area granted me an interview. I acknowledge Farai Dondofema of University of Venda Geographical Information System Centre for helping me with drawing of maps. My family deserves mentioning for the constant encouragement, moral support and allowing me to be away from home for months while collecting data in the three countries. Of particular note are my wife Munyadziwa Ethel Sinthumule, my daughter Phophi Sinthumule and my mother Muravha Tshinakaho. I wish to thank the University of Venda for granting me a sabbatical leave for six months in 2012 which gave me enough time to work on my research without disturbances. I gratefully acknowledge the financial support received from Research and Publication Committee and Research and Development Grant of the University of Venda. I am indebted to my supervisor for giving me financial support from his National Research Foundation grant. This work is based on the research supported in part by the National Research Foundation of South Africa Unique Grant Number 86478 for which I am thankful. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration i Acknowledgements ii Abbreviations xii Abstract xiv CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION: THE MAPUNGUBWE BIOREGION 1 1.0. Introduction 1 1.1. Background to the research 3 1.2. Statement of research problem 9 1.3. Aim and objectives of the study 10 1.4. Research questions 10 1.5. Significance of the study 10 1.6. The study area 12 1.7. Guide to chapters 14 CHAPTER TWO THEORETICAL REFLECTION ON TRANSFRONTIER CONSERVATION AREAS AS A BIOREGIONAL PROJECT 18 2.0. Introduction 18 2.1. Perspectives on the study of transfrontier conservation areas 18 2.2. Understanding bioregionalism and bordering processes 22 2.3. Corridors as conservation tool 29 2.4. The claims of transfrontier conservation areas about communities 34 2.4.1. The place of communities in transfrontier conservation areas 35 2.4.2. Experiences of communities in the creation of transfrontier conservation areas 39 2.5. Conclusion 42 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 43 3.0. Introduction 43 3.1. Research design and methodology 43 v 3.2. Sources of data collection 47 3.3. Sampling design and sample size 49 3.4. Data collection techniques 51 3.4.1. Interviews 51 3.4.2. Observation 57 3.4.3. The use of existing documents 59 3.5. Data analysis 59 3.6. Ethical issues 62 3.7. Limitations of the study 62 3.8. Conclusion 63 CHAPTER FOUR THE CREATION OF MAPUNGUBWE BIOREGION 64 4.0. Introduction 64 4.1. Land ownership and acquisition 64 4.1.1. Botswana portion of the transfrontier conservation area 64 4.1.2. South Africa section of the transfrontier conservation area 67 4.1.3. Zimbabwe part of the transfrontier conservation area 77 4.2. Challenges in the construction of Mapungubwe bioregion 79 4.2.1. Mining operations 79 4.2.2. Commercial agriculture 84 4.2.3. Habitat fragmentation 88 4.2.4. Incompatible land use practices 90 4.2.5. Differences in the utilization of wildlife resources 91 4.3. Management of bioregion and biodiversity conservation 92 4.4. Conclusion 99 CHAPTER FIVE PROPERTY AND NATURAL RESOURCE RIGHTS 101 5.0. Introduction 101 5.1. Land reform 102 5.1.1. Land reform in Botswana 102 5.1.2. Land reform in South Africa 104 vi 5.1.2.1. Land reform programmes in brief 105 5.1.2.2. Land claims in conservation areas 109 5.1.2.3.

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