Research Journal of Foodservice Management & Educaon, Volume 11, Number 1, Pages 23–33 . ©2017 Published jointly by the Foodservice Systems Management Educaonal Council and the Naonal Associaon of Contribuon College & University Food Services

Ethnic Food in the Journey of International College Students in the United States Khalid Mahmoud Eyoun, PhD1*; David Spencer Marn, PhD2 1Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA 2Associate Professor, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA culture that their restaurant represents. One example of cultural and ABSTRACT ethnic diversity is the success of ethnic food restaurants in the The purpose of this study was to invesgate the importance of ethnic American foodservice market. In 2009, ethnic food sales in the U.S. food to internaonal college students in the U.S. An online survey was surpassed $2.2 billion, and they were expected to increase by 20% by developed through reviewing the relevant literature, conducng focus 2014 (US Ethnic Food Market, 2005). America’s ethnic food market groups, and administering a pilot study. The populaon of this study generates $75 billion in annual sales; almost 65% of this is aributed consisted of internaonal students enrolled in universies across to the restaurant sector of the foodservice industry (US Ethnic Food different regions of the U.S. Four hundred and eleven (411) Market, 2005). quesonnaires were received, 269 of which were usable. This research has discovered that ethnic food is important to internaonal According to Onuorah and Ayo (2003, p. 235), dining habits are students and that the inclusion of ethnic food into on‐campus dining determined by “values, beliefs, and environmental and religious opons is a compeve advantage for universies who provide this circumstances, all of which are products of tradion, culture, and service over those who do not. The study has also found that contacts.” The way people prepare and consume their food expresses university administrators should pay more aenon to providing their cultural values and social system (Murco, 1982). According to ethnic food opons in on‐campus dining services. In addion, the Gochman (1997), culture disnguishes what we eat, how food is study concluded that ethnic food operators need to focus on certain obtained, who prepares it, where, when, and with whom it is ethnic food items that internaonal students consider when they dine consumed. People arrange their food dining habits into structured out. systems according to the cultural system (Counihan, 1999). The ways

Keywords: Internaonal Students, Recruitment, Dining Habits, Ethnic in which people think about food differ depending on cultural Food ethnicity. For example, according to cross‐cultural studies (Chandon, et al., 2000), French naves consider pleasure an important element in choosing food, while Americans generally consider food a source of INTRODUCTION energy; food safety is also a crical factor in selecng food. Ethnicity When internaonal students travel to foreign countries, they undergo is not only an integral characterisc of an individual, but it is also a what is termed acculturaon. This is because internaonal travel process of group idenficaon in which people use ethnic labels [that inherently entails dealing with foreign cultures. The acculturaon involve aspects like opinions, cognion, affect, and knowledge] to process engenders a change within the internaonal travelers, which define themselves and others as well (Rossiter & Chan, 1998; Jamal & occurs as a result of their direct and connuous contact with people Chapman, 2000). The retenon of language and food preferences, as from different cultures (Redfield, Linton, & Herskovits, 1936). well as friendship networks, are among the most accepted Nevertheless, any claim to acculturaon adjustment would be dimensions of ethnic identy (Laroche, et al., 1999). Ethnicity affects incomplete without aenon to food consumpon; this is especially consumer behavior through personal dress style, musical preferences, important considering the centrality of food to one’s wellbeing recreaonal acvies, and the consumpon of food and drink (Locher et al., 2005). Food is a cultural symbol (Verbeke & Lo´pez, (Bocock, 1993, p.80). These factors have a strong impact on 2005). It is a cultural trait that humans learn throughout their primary customers, especially in other countries; the unique elements of development in childhood and a trait that consumers change with ethnic foods disnguish them from the local cuisine (Chandon, et al., great reluctance in older age (Cervellon & Dube´, 2005). All previous 2000; Leclerc, et al., 1994). Saa‐About, Paterson, Neuthouser, and studies concluded that food habits and pracces represent a central Elder (2002) indicated that immigrants prefer to eat their tradional element of culture, and that it is ancipated that travelers would cuisine to overcome homesickness or to remember and share their struggle to break away from their habituated food choices. This was original culture, a statement further supported by Brown (2009) who confirmed in a more recent ethnographic study of the internaonal added that homesickness is accentuated further for those who live student adjustment process, in which food emerged as a major alone (for example, students), for whom eang seemed to be a research category (Brown, 2009). It was shown that dietary habits source of nostalgia for a life full of companionship and sharing. were of great importance both emoonally and physically; it was also Fieldhouse’s (1995) suggested that the need for self‐actualizaon is an aspect of student life that was least open to change. related to an innovave use of food, where new recipes and food experimentaon becomes a personal trademark represenng one’s Ethnic food refers to the expression of food in terms of atudes, identy. values, behaviors and beliefs of a parcular culture that express The need for obtaining and increasing the consumpon of healthy cultural tradions, heritage, religion, or naonal origin (Mora, 1998). food items is considered as a factor in the increased growth of ethnic Ethnic restaurants not only funcon as eang establishments, but also foods. Recently in Europe, there has been an increase in the concern serve as “cultural ambassadors” that communicate the essence of a of consumers regarding food consumpon, diet, health, and food culture to local customers through its menu (Wood & Munoz, 2007). safety (Verbeke & Viaene, 2000; Miles & Frewer, 2001, 2003). In many ethnic restaurants, the owners have roots in the original Generally, there is an inclinaon to consume a low fat diet as part of a *Corresponding Author: Phone: (334) 332‐8376; E‐mail: kze0007@germail.auburn.edu healthy intake in order to reduce the risk of heart diseases. Previous The Journal of Foodservice Management & Education Page |23

research reveals significant associaons between the quality of diet In line with the above noon, previous research has emphasized the and the availability of healthy food items in stores (Cheadle et al., importance of internaonalizing campuses and the educaonal 1991; Fisher & Strogatz, 1999). Due to the lack of local area food benefits stemming from the presence of internaonal students in the stores, it becomes hard to find many healthy food opons, which U.S. (Jones, 2002; Yang; 2004). From a polical perspecve, educang results in negavely affect dietary habits and contributes to the risk of the future leaders of foreign countries helps spread the polical obesity. The availability of supermarkets has been correlated with values of the U.S. and fosters mutual understanding of the U.S. more fruit and vegetable consumpon, more healthy diets, and lower throughout the world (NAFSA: Associaon of Internaonal Educators, levels of obesity (Morland et al., 2002a, 2006b; Laraia et al., 2004). 2003). Academically, internaonal students have been recognized as an asset to higher educaon (Ward, 2002), with prior research Studies reveal that deteriorated health, including higher levels of suggesng that the presence of internaonal students diversifies a obesity and diabetes, is associated with an increased consumpon of student body with variees of naonalies, cultures, and languages Western‐style food (Burns, 2004; Gordon‐Larsen, Harris, Ward, & (Lewis, 2003). In addion, it contributes to classroom diversity, Popkin, 2003; Himmelgreen, Bretnall, Peng, & Bermudez, 2005; Kedia, encourages cross‐cultural dialogue, and enriches the learning 2004; Saleh, Amanadis, & Samman, 2002). Specifically, research has environment and the experiences of domesc students (Hayward & indicated that sojourners are unlikely to gain weight or be considered Siaya, 2001; Rai, 2002; Ward, 2002). obese upon arrival in a western country, but they eventually converge to nave‐born levels over me (McDonald & Kennedy, 2005). It has Student recruitment and retenon is important for academic been proved that transion to a new culture can lead to substance instuons throughout the world (Yurtseven, 2002). In 2000, Lacina, abuse, a high alcohol intake, altered dietary pracces and an noted that “if we want to aract and retain internaonal students to increased Body Mass Index (Abraı´do‐Lanza, Chao, & Flo´ rez, 2005; our university campuses, we must focus on the students’ needs and Gordon‐Larsen et al., 2003; Lara, Gamboa, Kahramanian, Morales, & successes in the American university experience” (p. 26). Research Bausta, 2005; McDonald & Kennedy, 2005). For example, Asian has shown that most American colleges and universies have students within in the U.S., who had resided there at least three accepted internaonal students into their programs without really months before the start of their studies, reported a decrease in the thinking about what they were doing (Goodwin & Nacht, 1983). In number of meals consumed per day; nearly half of them skipped these instuons, students are self‐selected, and therefore come to breakfast more than other meals. Substanal increases were the instuon by accident or through word of mouth, oen/most of observed in the consumpon of fats, salty and sweet snack items, and the me from either a family member or close friend. dairy products, whereas the consumpon of meat, meat alternaves, and vegetables significantly decreased. They also dined out less oen, There seems to be an agreement among industry professionals, but when they did, they chose American fast food establishments markeng researchers, and sociologists that customer interacons (Pan et al., 1999). through word‐of‐mouth (WOM) can have a major impact on consumer response to a product and that product’s adversing (Herr, Several personal behaviors can influence the health of individuals as a Kardes & Kim, 1991). Because WOM is an inexpensive and reliable whole. In the U.S., the two main behaviors that have been considered way of transming informaon about products and services, WOM especially harmful to the health of Americans are smoking and the plays an important role in diffusing informaon through consumer lack of physical acvity that results in obesity (Preston, Stokes, Mehta, markets and shaping consumer atudes (Mourali et al., 2005). In & Cao, 2014). According to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 18 addion to being an important outcome in any service context, % of deaths in the U.S. in 2000 were aributed to smoking and 15 % posive WOM has been shown to be one of the most important were caused by obesity (Mokdad et al., 2004, 2005). The years that factors in aracng internaonal students to higher educaon (Allen students spend at colleges present a dissimilar set of dietary & Higgins, 1994). In a study by Lois Paon (2000), it was found that priories, and unhealthy eang habits oen get worse during this while many variables such as course offerings, facilies, distance, and me period. When it comes to internaonal students, poor eang fees are important, the major force behind selecon criteria is word‐ habits become even more heightened due to the difficules and of‐mouth communicaon. The core service of a higher educaon challenges that those students encounter during the adaptaon instuon, teaching, is intangible (McDougall & Snetsinger, 1990). process to the new culture. According to Leong and Sedlacek (1986), Intangibility [or the lack of physical evidence for a service] forces a adjustment difficules are more predominant among internaonal consumer to rely on sources of informaon such as word‐of‐mouth students than their U.S. counterparts. As a result, these adjustment recommendaons to arrive at purchase decisions (Webster, 1991). difficules can influence several life aspects of internaonal students such as their psychological and physical health (Wan, Chapman, & In the same vein, students pay for services in the form of educaon, Biggs, 1992). therefore, they claim they should be treated like customers (Kanji & Tambi, 1999). Bejou (2005) argues that since it is cheaper to retain The Instute of Internaonal Educaon’s Open Doors 2014 reports exisng customers than to aract new ones, it is also more efficient that the number of internaonal students aending colleges and for academic instuons to focus on student sasfacon and universies within the U.S. increased by 7.7 percent to 270,128 during retenon, rather than undertaking aggressive markeng campaigns the 2013‐2014 academic year, compared to 250,920 during the 2012‐ designed to aract more students. Benne (2003) expounds upon 2013. Internaonal students contribute over $27 billion to the U.S. this idea by nong how students who withdrawal may damage an economy through their expenditures; these expenditures encompass instuon’s reputaon through negave WOM comments, which can expenses such as tuion, room and board, health insurance, and impact future student recruitment and retenon efforts. Like normal other living expenses, according to the U.S. Department of Commerce customers, students undergo the usual consumpon and post‐ (IIE, 2014). Higher educaon is considered one of the U.S. top service consumpon behavior. Therefore, sasfied students will engage in sector exports, this is because internaonal students provide WOM communicaon, the recommendaon of their university to monetary oulow to the U.S. economy (IIE, 2014). Since the U.S. is a potenal students, returning to complete higher degrees (repeat mulcultural and mulethnic naon, this naonal trend of hosng purchase), cooperang with the university by offering placements for diverse internaonal students will probably increase (Josiam & current students, giving guest lectures, and becoming valued alumni Monteiro, 2004; Sukalakamala & Boyce, 2007).

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(Mavondo, Tsarenko & Gabbo, 2004a). As alumni, they provide Instrument Development and Focus Groups financial support, promote the university through WOM, create Due to the lack of literature on ethnic food in general and from the supporve networks accessible to current and future students, and perspecve of internaonal students in the U.S. in parcular, two also provide role models for future student generaons (Mavondo, focus groups with 12 internaonal students were conducted to Tsarenko & Gabbo, 2004b). Zeithaml (1988) highlighted that idenfy pernent variables for the survey. Several steps were taken customers’ percepon of value plays an important role in their to assure students confidenality. Students were referred to by purchase decision‐making; this suggests that behavioral intenons are names of their choosing that were not their original ones, sessions consequences of value percepon. In essence, when customers have were moderated by the researchers and notes were taken manually. high levels of value percepon from their consumer experiences, they At the beginning of the focus group sessions, parcipants were are more likely to express posive behavioral intenons. informed about the purpose of the study, and they were assured about the confidenality of the focus group discussions. All focus For a plethora of reasons, ethnic food is important in the lives of group sessions were tape recorded and transcribed by the internaonal students because it represents a basic part of their researchers. The total me of the focus group sessions was culture, history, faith, and individual identy (Eyoun & O’Neill, 2012). approximately 90 minutes each. Parcipants of the focus groups As a result, fulfilling the dietary needs of internaonal students on represented several regions around the world. The researchers asked campuses and in surrounding communies should be recognized as a quesons, facilitated discussions, and encouraged parcipaon compeve advantage from the perspecve of universies. A clearer between group members. A list of topics was prepared in advance of understanding of the importance and value of sasfying the ethnic the focus group sessions, covering broad ethnic food‐related issues diets of internaonal students will give universies valuable insight such as: the importance of ethnic food to the parcipants, their ethnic into how to beer sasfy their customers. In turn, this, will help these food dining habits, the relaonship between ethnic food and future universies more effecvely to fulfill the needs of exisng behavioral intenons, the relaonship between ethnic food and internaonal students and will make their instuons more aracve parcipants self‐reported personal health, and the availability and the to future internaonal students. Therefore, in current environments quality of ethnic food restaurants and retailers in the areas where universies are compeng to enrich their campuses in an surrounding parcipant residences in the U.S. Analyzing the data abundance of ways, the inclusion of providing proper on‐campus obtained from the focus group discussions took several steps. First, ethnic food services for students could aid in creang a compeve responses to each topic related to ethnic food were grouped. Then, advantage between universies. researchers analyzed responses by looking for key words and themes. This process resulted in idenfying clusters of key words in addion to Lile empirical research exists on the role ethnic food plays in the phrases and themes that revolve around the issues that are journey of internaonal students; food is usually menoned only important. Lastly, significant issues for each related topic were incidentally as one of the aspects that students find distressing in idenfied. The results of the analysis were used to formulate the their acculturaon process (Furukawa, 1997; UKCISA, 2009). There survey instruments and quesons. The findings of the focus groups has been lile research dedicated to the study of internaonal were parcularly important in the development of the variables used student eang habits; studies by Henry and Wheeler (1980), in this study. Zwingmann and Gunn (1983) and Hall (1995) are rare, but old examples. Given the increase in internaonal student numbers in Two pilot tests were employed before sending the final survey recent decades, the changing source markets, and changing receiving version: six internaonal students were recruited through emails sent and origin sociees, there is a clear need for more contemporary by the researchers and briefed about the purpose of the research, research that is pernent to new condions. However, despite the and they were requested to give their feedback. Based on the importance of the internaonal students to American educaonal feedback gathered from the parcipants about relevance and clarity instuons [and to the knowledge of the researchers], no previous issues in the survey quesons, a number of modificaons were made study has addressed the importance of ethnic food to beer to the survey. These changes included rewring quesons, shortening accommodate internaonal students in the U.S. This gap in research the length of the survey by combining several quesons into one underscores the purpose of this study, which is idenfying the category, and, as a result, the compleon me of survey was importance of ethnic food to internaonal students at American condensed. universies. More specifically, the objecves of this study are: 1) To examine the relaonship between ethnic food provision by university The quesonnaire consisted of six secons: a) demographic on‐campus dining opons with internaonal student’s future informaon, b) availability and quality of ethnic food restaurants and behavioral intenons of recommending the university to others and retailers measured on a 5‐point Likert‐type scale (1= Very Bad, 5= self‐reported personal health, 2) To idenfy the reasons which Very Good), c) self‐reported personal health measured on a 5‐point underline the potenal importance aached to ethnic food, 3) To Likert‐type scale (1= Very Bad, 5= Very Good), d) dining habits, e) explore the current percepons about the availability and quality of importance aached to ethnic food measured on a 5‐point Likert‐type ethnic food restaurants and retailers , and, 4) To idenfy ethnic food scale (1= Strongly Disagree, 5= Strongly Agree), and f) future dining habits of internaonal students in the U.S. behavioral intenons measured on a 5‐point Likert‐type scale (1= Strongly Disagree, 5= Strongly Agree). The items used in this secon METHODS were modified from (Zeithaml et al., 1996), and included three items. Sample The target populaon for this study consisted of internaonal Cronbach’s Alpha (1951) is among the most commonly used reliability students enrolled in universies across different regions of the U.S. coefficient (Hogan, Benjamin & Brezinkisi, 2000). Cronbach’s Alpha The sample was intended to represent the general populaon of testes were computed to evaluate the internal reliability. The results internaonal students as much as possible. The following criteria of the Cronbach’s Alpha test indicated that all scales measuring the were used to select parcipants: 1) must be 19 years of age or older, availability and quality of ethnic food restaurants and retailer (α = 2.) currently enrolled in the parcipang university, and 3) listed by 0.807) and the future behavioral intenons (α = 0.901). The their university as “Internaonal Students.” Cbonbachs’ Alphas for both measures were above the recommended 0.70 threshold (Nunnally, 1978).

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Data Collecon and Analyses Table 1. Characteriscs of the Sample (n=269) Several regions across the U.S. were inially idenfied as represenng Characteriscs n % the country; subsequently, a list of public universies in each of these Gender regions was prepared. A list of ten universies from each region was Male 162 60.2 selected randomly. The list was sent to the Office of Internaonal Female 107 39.8 Educaon at Auburn University for their assistance in collecng the Age data. An email was sent from Auburn University’s Office of Age 20 & Under 25 9.3 Internaonal Educaon to the forty potenal parcipang universies 21 – 25 95 35.3 explaining and inving them to parcipate in this study. Ten of them, 26 – 30 85 31.6 including Auburn University, agreed to parcipate. Out of the ten, six 31 – 35 43 16.0 universies eventually parcipated. These universies represent the 36 – 40 12 4.5 states of Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, and Texas. The 41 & Older 9 3.3 data of this study were collected in collaboraon with the Office of Marital Status Internaonal Educaon at Auburn University. Collecng data took Single 197 73.2 several steps. First, the researcher received permission from the Married 66 24.5 Instuonal Review Board (IRB). Secondly, the researcher contacted Divorced 2 0.7 and coordinated with the staff responsible for internaonal Separated 0 0.0 admissions at the researcher’s instuon and at parcipang Widowed 0 0.0 instuons. Thirdly, a cover leer was sent via email by the Office of Other 4 1.5 Internaonal Educaon at Auburn University to parcipang schools Ethnicity that explained the purpose of this study and contained a link to the Asian 88 32.7 survey. Four hundred and eleven (411) quesonnaires were received, Asian‐Indian 50 18.6 269 of which were usable. Returned quesonnaires that had one Black or African American 10 3.7 missing answer were not used. The returned quesonnaires were Caucasian 25 9.3 coded into the Stascal Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 21. Hispanic 6 2.2 Descripve and frequency analyses were used to describe the Lan American 17 6.3 characteriscs of the sample. An independent t‐test was used to test Nave American 0 0.0 the differences between the universies who provide on‐campus Middle Eastern 56 20.8 ethnic food dining services and those who do not and the future Mul‐Ethnic 3 1.1 behavioral intenons and the personal self‐reported personal health. Other 14 5.2 Mean scores and standard deviaon were used to interpret the Highest Educaon Obtained importance aached to ethnic food, examine the current percepons Bachelor 112 41.6 about the availability and quality of ethnic food, and lastly idenfy the Master 96 35.7 ethnic food dining habits. Ph.D. 15 5.6 Post Doctorate 7 2.6 RESULTS Other 39 14.5 Characteriscs of the Sample Degree Currently Pursuing Male respondents accounted for 60.2% of the sample. About 35.3% Bachelor 69 25.7 belonged to the age group of 21 to 25 years of age. Moreover, the Master 81 30.1 majority of the respondents 73.2% idenfied their marital status as Ph.D. 101 37.5 being single. In terms of ethnicity, the majority of the respondents Post Doctorate 10 3.7 were Asian 32.7%. Bachelor Degrees were the highest among Other 8 3.0 respondents 41.6% and approximately 37.5% currently enrolled as Amount of Time in the U.S. Ph.D. students. About 28.3% of the parcipants indicated they have Less than 1 year 76 28.3 been in the U.S. for less than one year (Table 1). 1 to less than 2 years 45 16.7 2 to less than 3 years 40 14.9 Ethnic food provision by university on‐campus dining opons with 3 to less 4 years 44 16.4 internaonal student’s future behavioral intenons and self‐ More than 4 years 64 23.8 reported personal health in the U.S. The majority of the parcipang universies 66.9% do not have on‐ opons, t (267) =1.211, p=.227. Although stascally insignificant, the campus ethnic food opons, and only 33.1% provide such services. An respondents from universies who provide on‐campus ethnic food independent sample t‐test showed a stascally significant difference opons (M=3.26, SD=1.061) indicated higher self‐reported personal in the scores of internaonal students’ future behavioral intenons health than respondents from universies who do not provide similar for universies who provide on‐campus ethnic food opons services (M=3.09, SD=1.091) (Table 2). (M=4.0524, SD=.77508) and those who do not (M=3.7500, SD=.97573). This result suggests that the inclusion of ethnic food into Further analysis of future behavioral intenons on‐campus food opons is associated with the future behavioral To further understand the role of each item of the future behavioral intenons of internaonal students, t (267) =2.552, p=.011. The same intenons, addional analysis was conducted. The mean score and test was also used to invesgate the extent to which the inclusion of standard deviaon of each item was calculated. According to the ethnic food into university on‐campus food opons is associated with results, all items achieved high mean scores, which indicate that the the self‐reported personal health of internaonal students. This result future behavioral intenons of internaonal students may be indicated that there is no stascally significant difference between associated with the inclusion of ethnic food into university on‐campus the responses obtained from both types of universies with regard to food opons (Table 3). personal health the inclusion of ethnic food into on‐campus food

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Table 2. T‐Test Analysis of the Inclusion of Ethnic Food in On‐Campus, Future Behavioral Intenons (FBI), and Self‐Reported Personal Health (n=269) N Mean SD t‐Value df Sig. Ethnic food availability in university on‐campus food court and FBI Yes 89 4.0524 .77508 2.552 267 .011 No 180 3.7500 .97573 Ethnic food availability in university on‐campus food court and self‐reported personal health Yes 89 3.26 1.067 1.211 267 .227 No 180 3.09 1.090

The importance aached to ethnic food by internaonal students food ingredients for personal ethnic food cooking, 47.6% of the Excluding faith, all other items have an average score of 3.40 and respondents indicated that the quality of ethnic food ingredients is above, indicang that these items are important. The five most fair, 31.2% indicated it is good and only 5.2% perceived the quality as prominent and important ethnic food items were: the relaonship very good. Of the respondents, 15.6% of the parcipants reported between ethnic food and culture 3.99, the role that ethnic food plays that the quality is bad and only 1.5% indicated that the quality is very in evoking memories of home 3.75, the relaonship between ethnic bad (Table 5). food and naonal identy 3.54, the availability of ethnic food acts as a remedy for homesickness and ethnic food provides a real sense of Availability of ethnic food restaurants and retailers in the areas belonging were equal with mean scores of 3.51, and ethnic food is surrounding university campuses related to diet 3.40. The least important aribute was ethnic food as In terms of the availability of ethnic food restaurants and retailers in related to faith 2.32 (Table 4). the areas surrounding university campuses. Respondents revealed a high average of the availability with mean scores of 1.40 for Availability and quality of ethnic food restaurants and retailers restaurants and 1.61 for retailers, respecvely. A total of 59.9% of the In regards to the respondent’s percepons of the availability and respondents reported that ethnic food restaurants were available in quality of ethnic food restaurants and ethnic food retailers that sell the area surrounding university campuses, whereas 40.1% menoned ethnic food ingredients, respondents revealed a moderate average of that such restaurants were not available. In terms of the availability of the availability with mean scores of 3.12 for restaurants and 3.04 for ethnic food retailers, 61.3% of the parcipants indicated that ethnic retailers. In relaon to the availability of ethnic food restaurants, food retailers were available in the areas surrounding university 47.2% of the parcipants menoned that the availability of ethnic campuses, whereas 38.7% indicated that ethnic food retailers were restaurants is fair, and 24.9% of which indicated that the availability is not available (Table 6). good. 18.6% of the sample stated that the availability of ethnic food restaurants is bad, around 5.9% menoned that the availability is very Ethnic food dining habits good, and only 3.3% indicated that the availability is very bad. In The majority of respondents reported that they prefer to cook at terms of the availability of ethnic food retailers, 48.0% of the home 82.9%, and only 17.1% prefer to eat out. In terms of dining respondents indicated that the availability of ethnic retailers is fair, companions, 68.8% of the sample prefers to eat out with friends, while 20.1% reported bad levels of availability, and 4.1% indicated 17.5% with spouse, 10.4% alone, 0.4% for business, and 3.0% chose that the availability is very bad. About 23.8% of the respondents other. With respect to how oen parcipants typically eat out, the perceived the availability of ethnic food retailers as good and 4.1 only majority of the respondents 39.4% stated that they eat out once a menoned it is very good. week followed by those who eat out 2 – 3 mes a week 23.4%. 15% of With regard to the respondents’ percepons of the quality of ethnic the sample eat out once a month, whereas those who eat out rarely food restaurants and ethnic food retailers, parcipants revealed an average percepon of the quality of ethnic food restaurants, with mean scores of 3.18 and 3.21, respecvely. With regards to the Table 4. Importance Aached to Ethnic Food (n=269) quality of ethnic food restaurants, 50.9% of the respondents indicated Standard that the quality is fair, 26.4% indicated it is good and 5.2% stated that Rank Scale Items Mean* Deviaon the quality is very good. Among the respondents, 16.4% menoned Ethnic food is related to my that the quality is bad, and 1.1% indicated that the quality is very bad. 1 culture 3.99 1.022 With respect to the quality of ethnic food retailers who sell ethnic Ethnic food helps in evoking 2 memories of home 3.75 1.068 Ethnic food is related to my Table 3. Analysis of Future Behavioral Intenons (n=269) 3 naonal identy 3.54 1.229 Standard Ethnic food provides a real Scale Items Mean* Deviaon 4 sense of my belonging 3.51 1.071 I would recommend my university to The availability of ethnic other internaonal students 3.83 .990 food is a remedy for I would say posive things about my 5 homesickness 3.51 1.177 university to other internaonal Ethnic food is related to my students 3.93 .960 6 diet 3.40 1.192 I would be happy to connue my Ethnic food is related to my educaon at my current university 3.79 1.080 7 faith 2.32 1.226 *Measured on a 5‐point scale, where (1) Strongly Disagree to (5) Strongly *Measured on a 5‐point scale, where (1) Strongly Disagree to (5) Strongly Agree Agree The Journal of Foodservice Management & Education Page |27

Table 5. Availability and Quality of Ethnic Food Restaurants and Inclusion of ethnic food into university on‐campus food opons and Retailers (n=269) the academic experience n % A total of 36.4% of the parcipants agreed with the statement that Availability of Ethnic Food says universies should pay much more aenon to include ethnic Restaurants (3.12 ± .892) food into their normal dining services, and 32.7% strongly agreed. Very Bad 9 3.3 Only 3.7% of the respondents strongly disagreed and 7.1% disagreed. Bad 50 18.6 Parcipants who neither disagreed nor agreed consisted of 20.1%. In Fair 127 47.2 regard to whether the inclusion of ethnic food opons into on‐ campus dining services would have a posive impact on parcipant’s Good 67 24.9 educaonal experience, 37.2% of the respondents agreed and 26.8% Very Good 16 5.9 strongly agreed. Almost 4.5% strongly disagreed and 8.2% disagreed Availability of Ethnic Food (Table 8). Retailers (3.04 ± .876)

Very Bad 11 4.1 DISCUSSION Bad 54 20.1 It would appear that there is a possibility that Universies who offer Fair 129 48.0 ethnic food services into on‐campus opons are experiencing an Good 64 23.8 enhanced benefit, compared to universies who do not. In fact, Very Good 11 4.1 spreading posive statements about the university was found to be Quality of Ethnic Food Restaurants the most important item related to internaonal students’ future (3.18 ± .806) Very Bad 3 1.1 Table 7. Ethnic Food Dining Habits (n=269) Bad 44 16.4 Scale Items n % Fair 137 50.9 Dining Habits Good 71 26.4 Eat Out 46 17.1 Very Good 14 5.2 Cook at Home 223 82.9 Quality of Ethnic Food Retailers (3.21 Dining Accompany ± .807) Alone 28 10.4 Very Bad 4 1.5 With Spouse 47 17.5 Bad 42 15.6 With Friends 185 68.8 Fair 128 47.6 For Business 1 0.4 Other 8 3.0 Good 84 31.2 Frequency of Eang Out Very Good 11 4.1 Rarely 27 10 Daily 27 10 or daily consist of 10% for both, and only 1.5% chose other. Once a Week 106 39.4 Respondents were also asked to indicate how many miles on average 2 ‐ 3 Times a Week 63 23.4 in a month they travel to dine at ethnic food restaurants. A total of Once a Month 42 15.6 34.6% of the parcipants menoned they travel for 5 miles or less Other 4 1.5 and 22.3% indicated that they travel for 25 miles or more. Almost Miles in a Month Traveled to 17.8% travel between 6 – 10 miles, 9.3% travel between 1 – 15 miles, Dine at Ethnic Food Restaurants 7.8% travel between 16 – 20 miles, and 8.2% travel between 21 – 25 5 miles or Less 93 34.6 miles. Parcipants were asked to report how many miles in a month 6 ‐ 10 miles 48 17.8 they travel to purchase ethnic ingredients. 30.5% of the parcipants 11 ‐ 15 miles 25 9.3 travel for 5 miles or less and 23.4% travel for 25 miles or more. About 16 ‐ 20 miles 21 7.8 13.8% travel between 6 – 10 miles, 10.4% travel between 11 – 15 21 ‐ 25 miles 22 8.2 miles, 10.8% travel between 16 – 20 miles, and 11.2% of respondents More than 25 miles 60 22.3 travel between 21 – 25 miles. Parcipants were asked to report how Miles in a Month Traveled to much money they spend a month on ethnic food; the majority of the Purchase Ethnic Food sample 34.2% spend $51.00 ‐ $100.00 a month, while 30.9% spend Ingredients $50.00 or less. A total of 12.3% of the respondents reported that they 5 miles or less 82 30.5 spend almost $101.00 ‐ $150.00; 7.8% spend $151.00 ‐ $200.00; 5.6% 6 ‐ 10 miles 37 13.8 spend $201.00 ‐ $300.00; 5.9% spend $251.11 ‐ $300.00; and only 11 ‐ 15 miles 26 10.4 3.3% spend more than $300.00 a month (Table 7). 16 ‐ 20 miles 29 10.8 21 ‐ 25 miles 30 11.2 Table 6. Availability of Ethnic Food Restaurants and Retailers in the More than 25 miles 63 23.4 Areas Surrounding University Campuses (n=269) Amount Spent on Ethnic Food in a Month n % $50.00 or less 83 30.9 Ethnic Food Restaurants (1.40 ± 0.491) $51.00 ‐ $100.00 92 34.2 Yes 161 49.9 $101.00 ‐ $150.00 33 12.3 No 108 40.1 $151.00 ‐ $200.00 21 7.8 Ethnic Food Retailers (1.61 ± 0.488) $201.00 ‐ $250.00 15 5.6 Yes 104 38.7 $251.00 ‐ $300.00 16 5.9 No 165 61.3 More than $300.00 9 3.3 The Journal of Foodservice Management & Education Page |28

behavioral intenons, in addion to the willingness to recommend defines who we are, creang disncons between us and others. the university to others. These findings are consistent with the focus Therefore, students considered their home country food as a way to group results presented earlier in this study. The results are also maintain, disnguish and validate their naonal identy. In terms of consistent with the literature of the Word‐of‐Mouth and future health and diet, there was consensus among the focus group behavioral intenons. Posive Word‐of‐Mouth (PWOM) has been parcipants that eang ethnic food was one of the ways to preserve recognized as being among the most important factors in aracng their physical health and to avoid weight gain. In fact, many internaonal students to higher educaon (Allen & Higgins, 1994). parcipants indicated that their home country food can be used as a This is because ethnic food is an essenal part of culture, naonal medicine in some situaons. Some students stated that they were identy, evoking memories of home, and remedy for home geng worried about their health because of the high levels of fat sicknesses. There was no stascally significant difference between and cholesterol in the western food items. Ethnic food was found to responses obtained from universies who provide on‐campus ethnic be a remedy of homesickness for the majority of parcipants. They food opons and universies who do not provide similar services and said that ethnic food is associated with home, and it has the ability to the self‐reported personal health. This finding is consistent with the reduce feelings of sadness for home. The consumpon of home food finding of (Camillo, Kim, Moreo & Ryan, 2010), who addressed the helps requite for some unavoidable stressors, which means offering most popular aributes of Italian cuisine in the U.S., discovering that them a chance to remember the past happy moments and forget the health benefits were among the least popular aributes. However, sad present ones. Some parcipants indicated that ethnic food is this result could potenally be explained with the assumpon that important to them because it is part of their faith; they indicated that health is a personal issue. For some students, it might be an they were not allowed to eat all types of food because there are important aspect of their personality and they may know how to keep regulaons that control their consumpon. These empirical findings themselves fit, regardless of whether ethnic food is available to them lend support to the proposions presented in previous studies (Saa‐ on‐campus or not. In other words, students who pay special aenon About, Paterson, Neuthouser, & Elder, 2002; Brown, 2009; to their fitness may place less emphasis on the inclusion of ethnic Fieldhouse, 1995). food into on‐campus dining opons when reporng about their health. Another possible explanaon for this finding is that seeking Furthermore, the result provides confirmaon to Verbeke and Lo´pez healthy food items does not have to be associated with consuming (2005) who indicated that exoc flavor commonly evokes memories ethnic food; in other words, not all ethnic food items are healthy. of vacaons in unusual locaons, reflects and strengthens friendships, Therefore, people choose healthier food when they travel to a new and promotes openness to new cultures. Given that almost all culture, regardless of whether these food items are ethnic or not. students who parcipated in the focus groups have menoned these Also, immigrants who consider health an important issue when eang links explicitly, the five items that scored the highest were supported can choose food from other ethnicies. Moreover, it does not have to by the data gathered from survey of internaonal graduate students be from their nave dining choices since they want to eat only in the U.S. The result pertaining to the least scored item, (of faith) is healthy food regardless of the origin of the food. interesng. Faith‐related concerns didn’t seem as important as the other connecons. Mulple perspecves could explain this finding. In With regard to the reasons underlining the potenal importance the process of acculturaon, new immigrants tend to abolish their aached to ethnic food, seven items were used. Six of the seven original cultural identy and seek contact with members of the host items scored (3.40 and above), namely the relaonship between community, a phenomenon described as assimilaon according to ethnic food and culture, ethnic food helps in evoking memories of Zagea & Brown (2002). Applied to the finding of this study, home, the relaonship between ethnic food and naonal identy, internaonal students may ignore some of their religious concerns ethnic food provides a sense of belonging, ethnic food is a remedy for when they move to a new culture, or it may be that the foreign homesickness, and the relaonship between ethnic food and diet. The circumstances are not conducive to their religious; as a result, they relaonship between ethnic food and faith scored the least (2.32). In may abandon some religious food habits. It is also possible that faith the focus groups when parcipants were asked about the reasons is less of a concern for internaonal students simply because food why ethnic food was important to them, varied reasons were that is prepared and served in accordance with their faiths is not indicated in the responses. Parcipants revealed that ethnic food is available, leading them to accept an alternave type of food. important to their culture because they connect to it through the food they prepare and consume. They menoned that they oen use With regard to the current percepons held by internaonal students their home country food as a means of retaining their cultural on the availability and quality of ethnic food restaurants and retailers identy. Food plays an essenal role as a cultural product because it in the U.S., parcipants reported an overall moderate average of

Table 8. Inclusion of Ethnic Food into University On‐Campus Food Opons and the Academic Experience (n=269) Scale Items n % Universies should give much more consideraon to include ethnic food into on‐ campus dining services Strongly Disagree 10 3.7 Disagree 19 7.1 Neither Agree Nor Disagree 54 20.1 Agree 98 36.4 Strongly Agree 88 32.7 The inclusion of ethnic food opons into on‐campus food dining services would have a posive impact on educaonal experiences Strongly Disagree 12 4.5 Disagree 22 8.2 Neither Agree Nor Disagree 63 23.4 Agree 100 37.2 Strongly Agree 72 26.8 The Journal of Foodservice Management & Education Page |29

percepons about the availability of ethnic food restaurants. Based for this lies in the expense of some kinds of ethnic foods. Some on the data gathered from the focus groups, parcipants’ percepons parcipants in the focus groups stated they save a certain amount of regarding the availability and quality of ethnic food restaurants and money every month to dine at ethnic food and purchase ethnic food retailers were lower. This is because most parcipants menoned ingredients. Their only problem was with the relavely high prices of that they usually leave towns in order to either dine at ethnic food both dining and purchasing ethnic ingredients. restaurants or purchase ethnic ingredients for personal cooking. This finding could be jusfied by the fact that six universies have CONCLUSION AND APPLICATION parcipated in this study, so it might be in some towns surrounding The relevance of this study is rooted in the topic it has invesgated. parcipated campuses ethnic food provisions were more available Although some studies have concentrated on other aspects of than the area where the focus groups were conducted. This could internaonal students, research that considers the importance of explain the lower average level of percepons in regards to the ethnic food [as a relevant variable in the overall experience of the availability of ethnic food restaurants and ethnic food retailers. internaonal students] does not exist. Implicaons of findings of this Clearly, the business community around some university campuses is study can be derived from university administrators and from ethnic not fully aware of internaonal students as a target market. food operators/owners.

The majority of respondents prefer to cook at home, this result could The findings obtained in the present study provide evidence that be an indicaon of a lack of ethnic food restaurants. Or it might be there is a lack of aenon concerning ethnic food dining needs in the service and diversity available in these restaurants that is not American educaonal instuons. This should incline university adequate, leading internaonal students to cook at home. This could administrators to be aware of this issue and subsequently, solve it. also be aributed to the data showing that the majority of Only (33.1%) of the parcipang universies in the present study respondents are graduate students who are not required to live on provide on‐campus ethnic dining services and (66.9%) do not. campus and parcipate in meal plans. The focus group work revealed Therefore, university administrators must take more acon to include two pernent issues regarding dining habits: some internaonal ethnic dining services into their current on‐campus opons. According student’s limited budgets, and, the tastes of ethnic food ingredients to Namvar (2000), accurate and mely informaon with regard to are not the same as those which can be found in their home country. what is likely to happen to the economy and society has always been Therefore, when internaonal students cook at home they save an important issue for business decision makers. Given that the money and at the same me try to assimilate a taste that is closer to enrollment of internaonal students is increasing, knowing how to home than that is offered by restaurants. In terms of whom they eat sasfy the needs of these unique students will be of value to with, most of parcipants menoned that they usually eat out with university administrators especially within the intensive compeon friends. This finding is consistent with other previous research. For environment of aracng and retenon more internaonal students. example, Counihan and Van Esterk (1997) argue that eang and sociability are intertwined, and this was a student experience. To Universies who provide on‐campus ethnic opons are experiencing a some extent, this result is consistent with the findings of Naonal beer reputaon among internaonal students over those Restaurant Associaon (2000), which indicated that Chinese universies who do not. But to improve ethnic opons, those restaurants represent “basic family appeal” and aracts almost all universies should concentrate on issues that have more aachment consumers (Mills, 2000). Also, this finding supports the focus group to ethnic food. Those aspects of ethnic food are the most important, findings which indicated that ethnic food represents many aspects of which means that improving current services is necessary to sasfy the parcipants’ lives beyond hunger sasfacon only. It represents a internaonal ethnic food requirements. Also, pursuant to the results, form of social gathering, socializing, and enjoying the company of faith should not be considered when improving services because it friends. Despite the busy me of most of students, the majority of comparavely has a low aachment to ethnic food. But it might be them indicated that they eat out once a week and 2 to 3 mes a worth considering when it comes to those ethnicies whose religion week. This means that ethnic food is important and it plays a basic impacts their consumpon, such as Muslims and Jews, where there role in their lives, which explains why internaonal students give it are sets of restricons and specific ways of processing food. priority in their schedules. To beer understand the specifics of various ethnicies, universies With regard to miles, parcipants usually travel monthly to dine at could discuss with various groups of internaonal students their ethnic food restaurants and to purchase ethnic food ingredients needs and preferences regarding their ethnic food. Those universies which are used for personal home cooking. Parcipants who travel 5 should learn from past trends and apply the informaon obtained to miles or less were the majority, followed by those who travel for their present and future schemes when it comes to market the more than 25 miles. Obviously, in some universies, ethnic food university. As the number of internaonal students increase in most restaurants and retailers are available, while for some areas they are of the U.S. university and college campuses, these instuons will not. This means that some areas surrounding college towns are need to always be looking for feedback from their target customers, missing this kind of services, it would be worthy for business because it helps them provide products and services that these praconers and university administrators to think of how to serve students want. By idenfying who their customers are and what they internaonal students target by fulfilling their ethnic food needs. want, universies will have an easier me bringing them in, providing Comparing this result to the findings of the focus groups, some them with value, and bringing them back. With regard to markeng parcipants menoned that they oen leave their town to meet their and recruing efforts, universies are compeng to aract ethnic dining needs by eang at ethnic food restaurants or purchasing internaonal students due to the benefits they bring. In doing so, ethnic food ingredients. In relaon to the amount of money universies use different markeng and recruing taccs such as: parcipants spend in a month on ethnic food, the majority of employing on‐campus ethnic dining to beer recruitment efforts. respondents spend between $51.00 ‐ $100.00, followed by those who spend between $50.00 or less. This means that despite the limited Learning from and benchmarking with universies in the U.S. with budgets of some internaonal students, they sll spend a poron of proven ethnic food operaons on campus can be a step in the right their income to fulfill their ethnic dining needs. A possible explanaon direcon. Universies who do not serve ethnic food into on‐campus

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