g. W. gurnett 'Dngrid Schneider A PiimU Attain Mature Rs/gm/ m ike Ha^nmiU KimAmn stjerAaii

...and God has made die earth a wide expanse, that you may traverse its open ways. — Qur'an: SuratNuh (71), ayahs 19-20

There is not an animal on earth, nor any being that wings its flight, but is a people like unto you. — Qur'an: Surat al-An'am (6), ayahs 38

he Qur'an asserts an exceptionally demanding environmental ethic, one the West has only begun to explore (Bagader et al. 1994; For­ ward and Alam 1994; al-Faruqi 1995, 53-56; Khalid and O'Brien T1992). Humankind is given the earth but is warned that all creatures are a "people like unto you" with the function to bear witness to God's maj­ esty. Reality in much of the Middle East and North Africa, however, seems to mock Islam's environmental scruples. Forests, woodlands, and wetlands are gone along with their wildlife, while places that once supported pastures and fields are now entirely de-vegetated. There is silence where hunters once stalked their prey. Explanations for environmental degradation are many, but of greater concern is the seeming indifference of many Islamic countries to possibly calamitous environmental degradation. Nature, and its conservation, has been neglected in the face of nation-building, economic development, and regional geopolitical realities. There are, however, encouraging reserves. The origin of Jordan's re­ signs of change in the Arab World's serves are typically British-colonial, approach to nature conservation. In but the reserves and their admini­ Jordan, this change is both obvious stration have uniquely evolved to and dramatic. This paper reviews the give major responsibility for conser­ origin, objectives and status of Jor­ vation to a private organization. A dan's nature reserves. Jordan has a policy context and administrative rich and diverse natural and cultural structure offering a secure manage­ environment which offers excep­ ment environment in which repre­ tional opportunities for conservation sentative reserves can prosper along through the establishment of nature with allied conservation activities is

Volume 16'Number 2 1999 75 developing. As a result, Jordan is particularly King Hussein and Queen able to marshal an unusual mix of Noor. natural and institutional resources for Comparable in size to Indiana, the accomplishing its goals, and is con­ biological importance of the 89,411- sequently becoming a regional leader sq-km country rests in its topography in nature conservation. and climate (al-Eisawi 1985; Fein- Our discussion is based on eight brun and Zohary 1955; Atkinson weeks of field work in the summer of and Beaumont 1981; Hadidi 1985). 1996 facilitated by the American From the eastern portion of the Dead Center for Oriental Research in Sea Rift Valley at 100 to 300 m be­ Amman. During this time, we inves­ low sea level, there is a steep and tigated the historical geography of dramatic ascent to between 1,250 Jordan's nature reserves as well as and 1,650 m and then a plateau de­ contemporary conservation and scending gradually toward Iraq and tourism policy. We systematically Saudi Arabia. The climate of the reviewed Jordanian planning docu­ most densely settled portions of Jor­ ments, conducted structured inter­ dan, the western fringe of the pla­ views with both governmental and teau, is typically Mediterranean but non-governmental personnel, and of the driest type, with precipitation made site visits to the majority of concentrated in cool winter months Jordan's nature reserves. In the while the summers are hot and dry. summers of 1997 and 1998, the Much of the Jordan Valley is sub­ senior author followed up on the tropical, but 86% of Jordan is steppe data obtained in 1996 while he was and desert while only 14% is capable engaged in archaeological excava­ of supporting Mediterranean shrub tions in Jordan. and woodland, the majority of which is devoted to agriculture and settle­ The Country ment. Significantly, Jordan's topog­ Though having a long history of raphic and climatic variety rests sol­ human occupation, modern Jordan idly in a transitional zone between was declared in 1946 upon termina­ three of the world's major bi- tion of the British mandate estab­ omes—Mediterranean, Irano-Tura- lished after World War I. King nian, and Saharo-Indian (Feinbrun Hussein assumed the throne in 1952 and Zohary 1955, 5). The result of and remained in power until his this location is a close proximity of death in early 1999. His wife, Queen species generally thought of as sepa­ Noor, is a Princeton-educated ar­ rated by continents. Cheetah and chitect. A large part of Jordan's pro­ wolf, fox and hyena have hunted gress in conservation is directly at­ deer and gazelle in the same field, tributable to the active interest and while birds from Europe, Asia, and strong support of the royal family, Africa have soared above.

76 The George Wright FORUM Several characteristics of Jordan's and incompletely understood. Over­ history and sociopolitical condition grazing, which has literally de-vege­ profoundly affect its ability to create tated large areas, is clearly the main and care for nature reserves. First, culprit. Concentrations of stock sup­ significant archaeological sites are ported now by watering and feeding practically ubiquitous and coincide programs have long exceeded carry­ predictably with biologically impor­ ing capacity, resulting in the virtual tant sites. An oasis or wadi (i.e., wa­ denudation of the eastern and south­ tercourse) important to fauna and ern steppe and desert to the extent flora was undoubtedly important to that Jordan can no longer provide Paleolithic and Neolithic man, to livestock for local markets cheaper Ammonites, to Greeks and Romans, than carcasses can be imported from and Umayyad Arabs. Biological con­ Romania, Turkey, and Australia servation is inseparable from the (Burnett et al., in press). management of antiquities, and both By the 1960s, the decline of natu­ are vital to Jordan's embryonic tour­ ral conditions in Jordan had pro­ ist industry. Second, Jordan has had voked environmental anxiety—a re­ to steer a difficult, and sometimes alization of the possibility of envi­ unsuccessful, course among power­ ronmental catastrophe (Grove 1987). ful and frequently hostile neighbors. In reaction, the Royal Jordanian Geopolitical realities, most notably Hunting and Shooting Club, formed the 1967 Arab-Israeli War and the in the 1930s as an elite hunting and 1991 Persian Gulf War, have often environmental club with restricted distracted Jordan's attention away membership, reorganized itself as the from important domestic issues, in­ Royal Society for the Conservation cluding conservation, while flooding of Nature (RSCN) and began a ca­ it with refugees that give it a de facto reer that would make it the leading population growth far in excess of its advocate for, and administrator of, natural growth (Jordan Department Jordan's nature reserves. Among its of the Environment 1991, 149). patrons was King Hussein. In 1963, the King invited an Englishman, Guy Foundation of Mountfort, to conduct a survey of Nature Reserves Jordan's biological resources Hatough et al. (1986) and Ha- (Mountfort 1965, 1974). The selec­ tough-Bouran and Disi (1991) have tion of Mountfort was fortuitous. A reviewed the historical presence of distinguished soldier with World megafauna in Jordan as well as its War II service in North Africa, Italy, demise, but only a few studies have Burma, the Pacific, and Germany, he detailed the demise of individual was also a successful and wealthy species (e.g. the ostrich, Jennings businessman as well as an avid ama­ 1986). The causes for environmental teur ornithologist. During his later degradation are obvious, if complex life, he led eight expeditions to other

Volume 16 • Number 2 1999 77 countries that would result in the land (Nelson 1996) and a distin­ founding of protected areas, and he guished career as a seabird orni­ was a founding member of the World thologist at University of Aberdeen. Wildlife Fund. Mountfort's Jordan However, the station survived long expedition, which included such enough for Nelson to complete re­ distinguished personages as Julian search for a beautiful and authorita­ Huxley, resulted in a proposal to tive book (1974) on the Azraq Oasis. create five national parks. Had these materialized, a large system embrac­ Post-war Conservation ing about 8.5% of Jordan would have In its initial conservation efforts, resulted (Clarke 1979a, 7). Jordan demonstrated a pattern like Clearly the highest priority among that encountered in other areas of Mountfort's suggestions was Azraq, a British colonial influence (Grove 12,000-sq-km internal drainage ba­ 1987; MacKenzie 1987). Environ­ sin centered on the Azraq Oasis and mental anxiety based on the disap­ wetland. Here Mountfort envisioned pearance of game species developed, a national park in excess of 4,000 sq followed by a realization that action km consisting of oasis, wetland, could and should be taken to relieve playa, and limestone and basalt de­ this anxiety. Local leadership turned sert, devoted to tourism, conserva­ to the imperial authority for scientific tion, research, education, and dem­ and administrative expertise, advice, onstration and extension work and direction. In this case, the roles among the Bedouin. Clearly its of the RSCN and King Hussein, and greatest importance, however, is as a the imperial representatives, watering point on the flyways linking Mountfort and Nelson, are arche­ Asia and Europe to Africa (Wallace typal examples of the colonial ap­ 1982; 1983). On July 26, 1965, King proaches to conservation. Hussein proclaimed his intent to de­ As the chaos of 1967 subsided, clare the Azraq National Park, and this pre-war pattern repeated itself, work began on creation of an Azraq only in broader outline. With the Biological Station to be headed by a continued patronage of King Scotsman, Bryan Nelson (Boyd Hussein, the RSCN emerged as Jor­ 1966; Nelson 1985a). dan's leading advocate for conserva­ Then Jordan was plunged into the tion. Too, while Jordan still de­ brutal 1967 Arab-Israeli War, di­ pended on leadership and technical verting it from domestic issues, in­ assistance from the United Kingdom, cluding conservation, well into the imperial influence became indirect next decade. Iraqi intervention in and legitimized by being channeled eastern Jordan stopped the creation through an international organiza­ of Azraq National Park, closed the tion, the International Union for the Azraq Biological Station, and sent Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Bryan Nelson packing back to Scot­ Under its sponsorship, the English-

78 The George Wright FORUM man John Clarke inventoried Jordan tion, and it constitutes official policy for potential biological reserves. He of both the RSCN and the govern­ brought to the task exceptional expe­ ment of Jordan to this day (Table 1, rience in Africa and the Middle East Figure 1). which he eventually (1981) turned Clarke (1979a) prioritized this list into a doctorate in forestry at the in descending importance: Azraq University of Georgia. His report on Wetland, Shaumari, Zubia, Mujib, Jordan (1979a) identified both po­ Burqu, Rajil, Dana, Jabel Masadi, tential areas for protection as well as Rum, Abu Rukbah, Bayir, Jarba. a general outline of priorities for ac­ The priorities were determined by

Table 1. Proposed nature reserves of Jordan.

Map Location Name Status Area (sq km) Land Type 1 Burqu 1,4 950 eastern desert 2 Zubiya 2 12 Mediterranean Forest 3 Wadi Rajil 1 860 eastern desert 4 Azraq 2,5 12 oasis Wetlands 5 Shaumari 2 342 eastern desert 6 Wadi Mujib 2 212 escarpment 7 Abu Rukbah 1 410 steppe 8 Wadi Bayir 1 440 eastern desert 9 Wadi Dana 2 150 escarpment 10 Jarba 1 40 steppe 11 Jebel Masadi 2 460 escarpment 12 Wadi Rum 3 560 southern desert

Conservation status: 1 = No action; 2 = Administered by the RSCN; 3 = Administered by several state and local agencies including the RSCN; 4 = Proposed biosphere reserve; 5 = Ramsar wetland

Sources: Clarke 1979a; Hatough-Bouran and Disi 1991; Jordan Department of Environment 1991.

Volume 16'Number 2 1999 79 Figure 1. Location map of the proposed protected areas of Jordan. Map numbers are keyed to Table 1. perceived risk to each area and by Shaumari, Zubia, and Mujib are un­ the perception of what would be the der RSCN management. Burqu and maximum conservation accomplish­ Rajil are both so far removed geo­ ments achievable at a minimum of graphically from the threat of either effort and costs. The RSCN has development or tourist interests that stayed close to the priorities but not they have not merited action. Burqu slavishly. The Azraq Wetland has is, however, a proposed Biosphere remained a high priority, while Reserve and Rajil is a likely site for 80 The George Wright FORUM wild release of part of the Arabian It has established a large herd of oryx herd now at Shaumari. Dana Arabian oryx at Shaumari (Figure 2) and Rum took on priority by virtue (Clarke 1977; 1979b; Nelson of opportunity, proximity to the 1985b). Extinct in the wild, the 200- tourist market, and social issues well member herd is breeding success­ beyond ecological consideration. fully and animals have been given to Several of the areas are no longer re­ Syria. The RSCN has plans to re­ alistic candidates for conservation. lease oryx in the wild, probably in For example, significant oil shale de­ Wadi Rajil, an area almost inaccessi­ posits underlie Abu Rukbah, test ble by motor vehicle and where drilling has been done, and produc­ straying animals would most likely tion early in the next century is a drift into Saudi Arabia which has virtual certainty (Shawabkeh 1991). effective game protection programs. Consequently, investment in the area At Shaumari, experiments with for the purposes of conservation is breeding and re-introduction of os­ pointless. trich are underway, while a large Clarke's list, reflecting the British herd of Nubian ibex (Figure 3) has enthusiasm for the hunt as well as the been established at Wadi Mujib and RSCN's history as a hunting club, release experiments are underway. gives preference to areas that provide Clarke's list, however, needs to be habitat for game species, and Jordan reconsidered with the objective of has accomplished much in this arena. protecting Jordan's biological diver-

Figure 2. Arabian oryx at Shaumari Reserve. Photo: G. W. Burnett

Volume 16 • Number 2 1999 81 Figure 3. Nubian ibex at Mujib Reserve. Photo: G. W. Burnett sity, most notably its vegetation and protecting, conserving and managing smaller creatures. Realizing this, the wildlife. In 1966 the Ministry recog­ RSCN has initiated, predictably un­ nized RSCN as being primarily re­ der the auspices of the IUCN, a sponsible for Jordan's wildlife pro­ process of re-inventorying Jordan for tection, and in 1975 vested it with potential reserves. the authority to enforce hunting regulations. As a private organiza­ Organizational Changes tion, the RSCN is governed by an Jordan's journey toward creating a elected board of directors and is system of nature reserves is of im­ supported by committees advisory to mense interest to regional and inter­ its specific activities. Until 1993, national conservationists partly be­ membership was available only by cause of its success and partly be­ approval of the board and consisted cause of its unique structure. With of less than 0.05% of the adult the IUCN encouraging nations to population. Structured into opera­ develop flexibility in management of tional units—conservation, education protected areas, Jordan's distinc­ and public awareness, wildlife re­ tively privatized approach to conser­ serves, research and scientific affairs, vation certainly demands attention. hunting control, and heritage—the Jordan's Ministry of Agriculture is staff reported directly to the board's responsible for, among other things, general director.

82 The George Wright FORUM International recognition of the was built and occupied during the RSCN as critical in Jordan's conser­ Ottoman Period. Floundering in vation efforts has required review snow at the broken crest of the es­ and reform of the RSCN's structure carpment, T. E. Lawrence describes and administration, again under su­ "looking down across the chessboard pervision of the IUCN. The resulting houses of Dana village, into sunny strategic plan (RSCN 1996) adopted Arabah, fresh and green thousands of this mission statement: "[T]o con­ feet below" (1991, 498). Unfortu­ serve and enhance wildlife and wild­ nately, this most charming hill village life habitat whilst actively promoting with its spectacular panorama had an understanding of the natural envi­ become derelict, a situation the ronment, its protection and interde­ RSCN set out to correct. The pendence with people." To accom­ mosque was rebuilt, a guest house plish the mission, its organization built, the irrigation works restored, was streamlined and decentralized. village women taught new hand­ The RSCN was reorganized in six crafts from jewelry to soap-making, sections—research and surveys, re­ and their products marketed in Am­ serves, wildlife enforcement, admini­ man as well as Dana. The rejuve­ stration, awareness, and fund rais­ nated Dana village is a lesson in the ing—under the direction of a full- natural environment's interdepend­ time executive director accountable ence with people. to the board of directors. The plan also set ambitious goals for member­ The second reserve that the ship expansion and public educa­ RSCN has focused on is the Azraq tion. Wetlands (Figure 5). At the end of Because of the strategic planning, the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, the Azraq two reserves have absorbed most of Oasis opened to settlement and hun­ RSCN's time in recent years. The dreds of wells were dug to irrigate first is Dana Reserve. Extending crops as varied as olives and prickly- from the Wadi Araba up to the crest pear cactus. The water table fell from of the escarpment, the rugged terrain near the surface to 12 meters below shelters ibex, mountain gazelle, red and springs at the oasis dried up. At foxes, badgers, rock hyrax, hare, and the Azraq wetlands, cAin Soda, the porcupine. At Dana, the RSCN has spring and pool that feeds the Dash- initiated research projects, improved sha Marsh, the 12-sq-km wetland, its trails and provided a camp­ had reversed itself and become a ground. But the crux of RSCN activ­ drain. When water from geological ity at Dana Reserve has been restora­ sources was pumped into the pool, tion of Dana village (Figure 4). Be­ the pool developed leaks and would cause of its springs, the village has not hold water, even with the spring certainly been occupied for thou­ sealed. The Azraq wetlands, it was sands of years, but the current village assumed, were no more.

Volume 16 • Number 2 1999 83 Figure 4. Dana Village. Photo: G. W. Burnett

A reasonable, if not entirely satis­ pumped directly into the wetlands, a factory, design is being attempted to series of channels that weave their save the wetland. The cAin Soda way toward the center of the playa. spring and pool is admittedly sacri­ Along its way, new pools to provide ficed. Geological water is being for bird habitat are being con-

84 The George Wright FORUM Figure 5. Archaeological excavation, Dashsha Marsh pool, Azraq Wetlands. Photo: G. W. Burnett structed. To rid the wetland of the a natural wetland. The alternative, plague of rank grass which now however, is no wetland at all, and its chokes it, and to restore something disappearance would mean the de­ of its naturally grazed variety, a small struction of hundreds of thousands herd of feral water buffalo imported of migrating birds that depend on it. from Syria is being introduced. The In implementing this project, the plan, well along its way to imple­ RSCN is transferring lessons learned mentation, is subject to criticism in at Dana by carefully integrating local that an artificial wetland will replace economic and educational interests

Volume 16 • Number 2 1999 85 into the project. The intended les­ social, economic, and educational son, as at Dana, is that people are the welfare. While many government ultimate beneficiaries of conserva­ conservation agencies profess con­ tion. cern for their neighbors, many of Conclusions these confessions seem to lack sin­ Over the past 30 years, Jordan has cerity. It is discouragingly difficult, engaged in attempts to conserve its though not impossible, to find ex­ biological resources through the es­ amples of government-sponsored tablishment of nature reserves. In so conservation actually benefiting local doing, it has evolved an unusual ap­ populations in substantial ways. The proach by empowering and relying RSCN and its employees are not on a private conservation organiza­ protected by automatic appropria­ tion to do many of those things gov­ tions and civil service status. Ac­ ernment generally does in other complishing its mission, conserva­ countries. Though unorthodox, the tion, and indeed its survival as an approach seems to be working and institution, is directly dependent on has much to commend it. Possibly its ability to relate conservation to the most surprising effect of Jordan's human welfare. The result is a lean arrangement is the RSCN's almost organization with a "fire in its belly," obsessive desire to link its projects intent on conservation and bettering and activities to advancing the local its neighbor's lives.

References Atkinson, K., and P. Beaumont. 1971. The forests ofjordan. Economic Botany 25,305-311. Bagader, Ahmed Abubakr, A. T. el-Sabbagh, Mohamed al-Glayand, Mawil Samarrai, and Othman Llewellyn. 1994. Environmental Protection in Islam. 2nd ed. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Boyd,J. M. 1966. Intemationaljordan Expedition, 1966. Nature 212, 663-665. Burnett, G. W., Raid al-Baqain, and Murl Dirksen. In press. The situation of the Bedouin of Jordan's Karak Plateau. Journal of Third World Studies. ClarkeJ. E. 1977. Reserve for Arabian oryx. Oryx 14, 31-35. . 1979a. A proposal for wild reserves in Jordan. IUCN Project 1591. Unpublished manuscript. Amman: Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature. . 1979b. Some personal experiences of conservation in dry land. Black Lechivc 13, 6-9. . 1981. A model wildlife program for developing countries. Unpublished dissertation, University of Georgia, Athens. al-Eisawi, Dawud M. 1985. Vegetation in Jordan. Studies in the History and Archaeology ofjordan 2, 45-57. al-Faruqi, Isma'il. 1995. Islam. Beltsville, MD.: Amana Publications. Feinbrun, Naomi, and M. Zohary. 1955. A geobotanical survey of Transjordan. Bulletin of the Research Council of Israel 50(1), 5-35. Forward, Martin and Mohamed Alam. 1994. Islam. Pp. 79-100 in Attitudes to Nature, Jean Holm and John Bowker, eds. London: Pinter. Grove, R. 1987. Early themes in African conservation: The Cape in the nineteenth century. Pp. 21-39 in Conservation in Africa: People, Policies and Practices, D. Anderson and R. Grove, eds. London: Cambridge University Press. Hadid, Adnan. 1985. The nature of environment, with special relation to the country ofjordan. Studies in theHistory and Archaeology ofjordan 2, 19-24. Hatough, Aha M. A., Dawud al-Eisawi, and Ahmad Disi. 1986. The effect of conservation on wildlife in Jordan. Environmental Conservation 13, 331-335. 86 The George Wright FORUM Hatough-Bouran, Alia, and Ahmad Disi. 1991. History, distribution, and conservation of large mam­ mals and their habitats in Jordan. Environmental Conservation 18, 19-32. Jennings, M. C. 1986. The distribution of the extinct Arabian ostrich Stuthio camelus syriacus Roth­ schild, 1919. Fauna of Saudi Arabia 8, 447-461. Jordan Department of the Environment, Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs and the Environment. 1991. A National Environment Strategy for Jordan. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Khalid, Fazlun M., and Joanne O'Brien, eds. 1992. Islam andEcology. London: Cassell. Lawrence, T. E. 1991 [1926, 1935]. Seven Pillars of Wisdom: A Triumph. New York: Doubleday An­ chor. MacKenzie, J. M. 1987. Chivalry, Social Darwinism, and ritualized killing: The hunting ethos in Cen­ tral Africa up to 1914. Pp. 40-56 in Conservation in Africa: People, Policies and Practices, D. An­ derson and R. Grove, eds. London: Cambridge University Press. Mountfort, G- 1974. So Small a World. London: Hutchinson. . 1965. Portrait of a Desert. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Nelson, B. 1974. Azraq: Desert Oasis. Athens, Oh.: Ohio University Press. . 1985a. Azraq: A case study. Studies in the History and Archaeology of'Jordan 2, 39-44. . 1985b. Return to Azraq. Oryx 19, 22-26. . 1996. Personal communication, October 31. RSCN [Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature]. 1996. Draft strategic plan for the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature. Unpublished manuscript. Amman: RSCN. Shawabkeh, Khalid. 1991. The geology of the Adir area. Map Sheet No. 3152ii. Geological Mapping Division, Bulletin 18. Amman: Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, H. K. O.Jordan. Wallace, D. I. M. 1982. Observations on migrant birds at Azraq and north-east Jordan up to April, 1967. Sandgrouse 4, 77-99. . 1983. The breeding birds of the Azraq Oasis and its desert surround, Jordan, in the mid-1960s. Sandgrouse 5, 1-18.

G. W. Burnett, Department of History and Geography / Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management, Clemson University, Clem- son, South Carolina 29634 Ingrid Schneider, Department of Recreation Management and Tourism, Ari­ zona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287

Volume 16 • Number 2 1999 87