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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85330-9 - Fundamental Planetary Science: Physics, Chemistry and Habitability Jack J. Lissauer and Imke de Pater Index More information

INDEX

aá´ lava, 161, 161 f See also winds planetary rings; Solar asteroids, 310–347 ablation, 104 f , 177, 247, aerodynamic drag, 57, 294 System: formation of; See also Chicxulub 293–94, 336, 425 aerogel, 340, 341 f specific planets impact; K-T absolute magnitude, 72 f , 312 age of mammals, 485–86 angular momentum event/boundary; absorption bands/lines, albedo(s) distribution, 415, 422, near-Earth objects; 97–100, 97 f –98f , See also specific Solar 445 Tunguska impact 117–18, 210 f , 213 f , System objects Aniakchak Caldera, 163, event 220 f , 270, 326–28, of blackbodies, 385 f , 164 f binary/multiple systems 326t, 331, 387 f , 400 f 392 Annefrank (5535 Annefrank). of, 320–22, 521t See also spectra Bond albedo, 89, 106, 130, See asteroids captured, 321–22 absorption coefficients, 97, 386, 522t (individual) colliding, 56, 318–321, 102, 104–5 in climate change, antapex (hemispheric), 282 325, 344, 443 abundances (atmospheric), 130–32, 130 f anthropic principle, 473 composition/taxonomic 116, 523t of exoplanets, 459–460 anthropogenic climate classes of, 443 accretion, 135, 297–98, geometric albedo, 90, 326, change, 486 composition/types of, 302–3, 304 f , 360, 362, 331, 334, 516t, 522t anticyclones, 122, 122 f 320 f , 324, 326–332, 371–73, 416, 429, measurement of, 13–14 anti-greenhouse effect, 104, 326t, 327 f , 331 f , 434–35, 440–46 monochromatic albedo, 115, 486 334, 344, 438 See also planetary 89, 106 antineutrinos, 77 condensation sequences accretion and planet/moon surfaces, Antiope (90 Antiope). See of, 438 achondrites, 286, 288–291, 142 asteroids (individual) defined, 7, 310 290 f –91f , 301–4, 305, single scattering, 101–2 antipodes, 176 differentiation in, 331 of transiting planets, 392 apex (hemispheric), 260, 282, 288–290, 416, 438 See also chondrites Alfven´ field-draping model, 294 discovery of, 285 acid rain, 470 197 f Apollo missions, 18, 146 f , Earth-crossing, 38, 179, acronyms used in text, 505–7 ALH (Allen Hills) meteorites. 168 f , 178–79, 290–91, 314 adenosine triphosphate See meteorites 229–231, 291, 529t impact craters on, 321, (ATP), 456–57, 457 f (classes/types) apparent magnitude, 9, 312 327–333, adiabatic phenomena, 79–80, Amalthea, 6 f , 269, 269 f , Archaea, 476, 477 f , 481–82, 329 f –330 f , 332 f , 93–94, 106, 113–14, 356 f , 517t, 519t 490 f 335, 344 118 f , 119, 126, 148, amino acids, 457–58, Archimedean spiral, 193–94, information provided by, 148 f , 171, 178, 214 f , 473–74, 481 194 f 325, 328 246 angle of repose, 155 Archimedes principle, 153 Jupiter’s effects on, 38, See also lapse rates angular momentum. See Ariel, 6 f , 277, 279 f , 518t, 312–13, 313 f , 319, Adrastea, 269, 269 f , 517 f , Kepler’s laws of 520t 439 519t planetary motion; orbital Aristotle, 453 and the Kozai mechanism, aeolian processes, 165, 250, elements of Solar artificial intelligence, 455, 37–38 293 f System objects; 493 libration of, 34

561

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-85330-9 - Fundamental Planetary Science: Physics, Chemistry and Habitability Jack J. Lissauer and Imke de Pater Index More information

Index 562

asteroids (cont.) 324 Bamberga, 310 atmosphere. See planetary biospheres, 134, 456, 459, lightcurves of, 14 433 Eros, 7 f , 328, 330, atmospheres 462, 465, 493 main belt asteroids 330 f , 471t, 521t, atmospheric escape, 127–29, black holes, 73–74, 81 (MBAs), 56, 312–13, 531t 134, 328 black smokers, 475, 475 f 319 f , 321, 324, 511 Davida, 520t atmospheric tides, 52 blackbodies 324 f , 330–33 617 Patroclus, 521t AU (astronomical unit) curves of, 87, 113, 123, metamorphic, 438 624 Hektor, 314 defined, 5 264 f and meteorites, 285, 287, 703 Interamnia, 520t aurora, 16, 113, 196, defined, 87 289 f , 290–91, 305, 951Gaspra, 7 f , 531t 198–203, 201 f –2f , radiation from, 16, 77, 79, 326 2867 Steins, 7 f , 531t 205, 216, 216 f , 219, 87–88, 88 f , 100, nomenclature of, 310–11 5261 Eureka, 34 261, 265 f 105, 106, 261 orbits of, 39 f , 312 f , 319, 5535 Annefrank, 7 f , Australopithecus, 484–85 temperatures of, 90–91, 319 f –320 f , 343, 531t Avogadro’s number, 67, 93 102, 105 414, 438–39 6489 Golevka, 56 axial tilt. See obliquity blanketing effect, 432 Palomar-Leiden survey 9969 Braille, 7 f , 531t blue shift, 100, 106 asteroids, 39 f 25143 Itokawa, 7 f , bacteria, 454, 465, 472, See also Doppler shifts physical properties of, 328–330, 329 f , 521t, 476–482, 477 f , 480 f , blueberries (martian), 8–9, 143, 323–25, 531t 490, 490 f 252–53, 253 f 521t Dactyl, 7 f , 321, 321 f , Balmer, Paschen and Brackett Bohr radius/semiclassical and planetesimals, 325, 331, 531t series, 95 theory, 95 328, 343, 438–39 2002 AA29, 314 Bamberga (324 Bamberga). bolides, 167, 214 f , 285, 295, planets perturbed by, 42 asteroids (taxonomic classes) See asteroids 319 f , 467, 467 f , 469 radioactive decay in, 154 C-type (carbonaceous), (individual) See also meteors rotation rates of, 323–25, 275, 321 f , 326–28, banded iron formations Boltzmann’s constant, 67, 79, 324 f 326t, 327 f , 331, (BIFs), 133–34, 134 f , 86, 88–89, 105, 106, sedimentation on, 147 331 f , 344 480 f 510t space weathering of, 326 D-type, 326, 326t, 327 f Baptistina family (NEOs), Boltzmann’s postulate, 81 spacecraft exploration of, M-type (metal), 326t, 327, 319 bombardment eras, 134, 178, 3, 7, 531t 327 f , 331, 344 barometric law, 68–71, 70 f , 229, 233, 249, 480 f spectra of, 310, 323–334, P-type, 326, 326t, 327 f 111, 124, 126 Borrelly. See comets 329, 438 S-type (stony), 326–331, basalts (individual) tectonic activity on, 142 326t, 327 f , 329–331, lunar, 145, 229, 231 f , bow shock, 177–78, 196 f , temporal evolution of, 344 235, 255 198–99, 255 343–44 V-type (vestoid), 326t, molten, 146 f , 149–150, Brahe, Tycho, 25, 336 tidal forces on, 321, 325 327, 331–32 161, 161 f , 175, 229 Braille (9969 Braille). See water-formed minerals in, W-type, 326t, 327 oceanic, 151, 158, 464 asteroids (individual) 489 asteroid belt planetary, 233, 235, branching ratio, 300 asteroids (individual) depletion in, 438–39 238–240, 250–52, breccias, 143, 146 f , 147, 1 Ceres, 10, 43, 310, 319, Kirkwood gaps in, 37, 59, 252 f 177, 291, 291 f 331, 471t, 520t, 521t, 312 types of, 144 f , 145, 157, brightness temperature, 90, 531t location of, 43, 311–12, 157 f 90–91 2 Pallas, 310, 324, 520t, 312 f , 344 on Vesta, 326–27, 331 brown dwarf desert, 401, 521t and mass extinctions, 463 β Pictoris, 399 f , 419–420, 435 4 Vesta, 43, 290, 298, 310, mass of, 310, 415 421 f brown dwarfs 324, 326t, 327, as meteorite source, β-decay, 80–82 defined, 11 331–32, 332 f , 471t, 287–291 Biela. See comets deuterium fusion in, 83 520t, 531t, minor planets/NEOs in, (individual) and exoplanets, 381, 544 f –47f 43, 311–14, 319 f , big bang, 65, 77–79, 83 383–84, 386, 389, 10 Hygiea, 310, 520t, 521t 328, 415 binary/multiple star systems, 398, 420, 460 21 Lutetia, 7 f , 330 f , 331, and planetary 373, 383, 386–87, formation of, 434 531t atmospheres, 446 387 f , 389, 399–400, and free-floating giant 52 Europa, 520t resonances in, 38, 56, 343 419, 443, 444 planets, 385 87 Sylvia, 520t, 521t Yarkovsky effect in, 56 binding energy (nuclear), gravitational contraction 90 Antiope, 321 f , 521t asthenosphere, 151, 151 f , 76–77, 77 f in, 73, 75 f , 79, 83 243 Ida, 7 f , 321, 321 f , 159 f , 263 biogeochemical cycles, spectra of, 386, 387 f 331, 521t, 531t astronomical unit (AU), 463–65 bulk composition, 18, 221, 253 Mathilde, 7 f , 331, defined, 5 biological evolution, 461, 227, 286, 303, 325–27, 331 f , 521t, 531t Atlas, 275, 277 f , 369, 517t, 476 f , 493 329, 396, 441, 445 279 Thule, 38, 312 f , 314 519t biosignatures, 488 butterfly pattern, 190, 192 f

Index 563

CAI (calcium-aluminum centrifugal forces, 15, 30, 50, petrographic types of, cosmic rays’ effects on, inclusions), 287 f , 57, 95, 122, 151–52, 146 f , 287, 288 f , 329–330, 335–36, 297–98 201–2, 352–53, 419, 291 f , 297–98, 303 339 calderas, 162 f , 163, 164 f , 421 refractory inclusions in, deceased, 310–11 260–61, 272, 280 centrifugal potential energy, 415, 445–46 defined, 7, 310 Callisto 32, 152 on Vesta, 327 depletion of, 344 atmosphere of, 136 centrifugal radius, 419 volatile elements in, 304 f , dust in, 13, 335, 335 f , composition of, 267–69 centripetal force, 30, 47 445–46 337–340, 340 f , ice on, 267, 267 f Ceres (1 Ceres). See asteroids chondrules, 143, 286–87, 341–44 impact craters on, 175, (individual) 287 f –88f , 297–98, dynamically new comets, 180, 261 f , 267–68, Cernan, Eugene A., 141 302–4, 305, 415, 446 310 267 f chaos, 38–43, 39 f , 43, 59, chromophores, 209, 211 Earth-crossing, 179 magnetic field of, 17, 268 275, 278, 313–16, 315, chromosphere, 190, 190 f , ecliptic comets (ECs), oceans/water within, 17, 343, 481 193 310 269, 489 chaotic terrain, 264 circumplanetary disks, 372, field-draping model of, orbit of, 517t Chapman reactions, 124 441 197 f rotation of, 519t charge exchange, 125, 128, circumsolar disks, 19 heliocentric distances of, size of, 6 f , 259, 519t 203, 215, 338, 340 circumstellar disks, 2, 12, 337–39, 342, 343 f visual magnitude of, 517t charged particle precipitation, 385, 414, 419–420, ice in, 7, 337–38, 445 Calypso, 275, 277 f , 517t, 17, 113, 188, 202, 205 420 f , 436 f , 444, 447 information provided by, 519t Charon, 8, 12, 33, 52, 321 f , circumstellar habitable zones, 19, 325 Cambrian explosion/period, 333–34, 441, 443, 521t 459–462 and the Kozai mechanism, 464, 476, 483 f , 484 Chelyabinsk meteorite fall, cirques, 165 38 carbon cycle, 463–64, 493 182 Clark, Arthur C., 493 Kreutz sun-grazing family, carbon dioxide chemical evolution, 301–2, Clausius-Clapeyron equation 323 in comets, 342–43 423–24, 476 f of state, 118 magnetic attributes of, 17, on Earth, 114, 131–33, chemical fractionation, 297, clays, 144 f , 146–47, 198 132 f , 406, 463 416 164–67, 263, 475 mantles of, 335 forms of, 86, 165, 247 chemical propulsion in Clementine spacecraft, masses of, 12–13 as a greenhouse gas, 226, rocketry, 527 529t Mercury impacted by, 234 227, 461, 464, 473 chemical sediments, 147 climate change/evolution, meteor showers caused by, on Mars, 116 chemical separation in 130–36, 137, 484–86, 325 in photosynthesis, 456, meteorites, 296 493 nearly isotropic comets 472 chemical weathering, 166–67 closure temperature, 298 (NICs), 310 on terrestrial planets, 110 chemolithotrophs, 456 clouds. See molecular as NEO source, 314 and the Urey weathering Chicxulub impact, 468–69, clouds/cloud cores; nomenclature of, 310–11 reaction, 131–34, 469 f planetary atmospheres; nongravitational forces in, 133 f Chiron, 39, 40 f , 316, 328, specific planet 12–13, 318 on Venus, 116, 227, 459 471t atmospheres nuclei of, 13, 318, in volcanism, 160 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), CNO (carbon-nitrogen- 322–23, 325, 334–39, carbon-silicate cycle, 136, 488 oxygen) cycle, 334 f , 337 f , 342–43 463–64, 463 f chlorophyll, 456–57, 488, 80 orbits of, 12–13, 311–12, carbon-silicate weathering, 488 f coefficient of restitution, 327, 343 136 CHON particles, 340, 344, 354–55, 427 origins of (Kuiper belt), 7, Cassandra, 274 f 440 comets, 310–347 310, 316, 335, 343, Cassini, Giovanni, 207, 357 chondrites See also comet tails; 415, 439 Cassini spacecraft, 203, See also achondrites; comets (individual) origins of (Oort cloud), 209 f , 211 f , 214, meteorites: chondritic aerogel-captured particles 7–8, 310–12, 317, 217–19, 217 f –18f , ages of, 298, 300 of, 340, 341 f 335, 343, 344, 415, 270–76, 271 f –72f , carbonaceous, 286–87, albedos of, 142, 335, 440 358, 363, 531t, 549 f 294 f , 297, 304 f , 365 periods of, 310, 316–17, catalytic destruction of ozone, 331, 365, 524t captured by Jupiter, 269 317 f , 338, 343, 125 components of, 297–98 CHON particles in, 340 343–44, 344 celestial engineering, 488 decay rates in, 297–98 colliding with Earth, 309 pinnacles on, 336, 336 f , centaurs, 5 f , 312, 314, 316, enstatite, 287, 291 f , 327 comas of, 18, 212, 310, 344 328, 343, 344, 387 information provided by, 336–342, 337 f reservoirs of, 439–440 central flash, 16 286 composition of, 142, scarps on, 344 centrifugal acceleration, ordinary, 287, 287 f –88f , 334–35, 334 f , size distributions of, 426 290, 293, 329–330 342–44 318–19

Index 564

comets (cont.) completely integrable motion, nuclear reactions produced Democritus, 453 solar heating of, 7, 71, 31 by, 297–98, 301 dendritic river systems, 326, 344 Conan Doyle, Arthur, 85 as plasma source, 202–3 249–250 and Solar System condensation flows, 121, 123, in primordial denitrification, 465 formation, 19 246 nucleosynthesis, 77 deuterium, 11, 75 f , 77–79, spacecraft exploration of, conduction, 91–92, 106, 111, protection against, 199 83, 296, 385, 419, 434 3, 7, 531t 113, 154, 156, 261, 432 and protoplanetary disks, diamond(s), 143, 143 f , 149, splitting of, 311, 322–23, conglomerate rocks, 144 f , 423 f 297 322 f , 325, 339 f 146 and space-weathering, 326 diapirs, 267, 275 surface features of, 314, conic sections, 30–31, 31 f spallation caused by, 77 differentiation 335–36, 335 f –36f , conjugation (gene transfer), cosmic spherules, 292–93, in asteroids, 288–290, 336 f , 344 482 293 f 416, 438 temporal evolution of, conjunction of planets, 37–40 Coulomb effects, 74, 76, 77 f , of the Earth, 71 343 constituent relations, 147 79–81, 95 heat generated by, 115, and thermal winds, 198 continental drift, 86, 157–59, covalent bonds, 143, 457 154, 159–160 visibility of, 336–37 158 f Crater Lake caldera, 163 in KBOs, 438 comets (individual) convection craters. See asteroids; impact in magma, 149–150 1P/Halley, 7 f , 310–11, atmospheric, 126 cratering; impact craters; in meteorites, 286, 290, 335–38, 335 f , 343, energy transported by, 86, saturation (by craters); 300–303, 305 530t 91, 93–94, 106, 113, volcanic craters; specific in moons, 263, 268, 416 2P/Encke, 310, 314 154–58, 432 planets; specific in parent bodies, 286, 302 3D/Biela, 322 and exoplanets, 405 satellites in planetesimals, 285, 302 9P/Tempel 2, 7 f , 335–36, in giant planets, 148, 155, creeping motion/surface in planets, 82, 296, 416, 335 f , 531t 208, 466 creep, 155, 166 442, 446, 447 17P/Holmes, 323 mantle convection, critical argument (orbital radioactive decay causing, 19P/Borrelly, 7 f , 531t 152–53, 155–57, 183 element), 38 82 73P/Schwassmann– and the moist greenhouse critical point of water, 148, differentiation of cells, 476, Wachmann 3A, effect, 136 148 f 483, 492 322 f in the Sun, 189, 190 f , Cruithne (3753 Cruithne). See Dione, 6 f ,15f , 34, 37, 272, 81P/Wild 2, 7 f , 336 f , 204 asteroids (individual) 274 f , 275, 517t, 519t 446, 531t Copernicus, Nicolaus, 3, 10, crustal dichotomies, 243, dipole fields, 19, 215, 218, C/Hale–Bopp, 311 f , 342, 453 244 f , 255 222, 222 f , 465 343 f , 471t Cordelia, 278, 370–71, 518t, crusts. See surfaces of planets dipole moments (magnetic), C/Hyakutake, 341, 342 f 519t and moons 198, 216 C/Kohoutek, 310–11 core nucleated accretion cultural evolution, 493 dipoles, 16–17, 236, 465 C/McNaught, 340 f model, 435, 435 f Curie point, 16, 204 dirty snowball theory, 334, C/West, 322, 323 f , 339 f cores. See interiors of specific Curiosity rover, 253, 254 f , 334 f , 344 D/Shoemaker–Levy 9, planets; molecular 531t disequilibrium (as life 168, 181, 211–13, clouds/cloud cores; cyclostrophic balance, 122, requisite), 456, 458, 212 f –13f , 223, 269, stellar cores 242 493 311, 322–23, 372, Coriolis effect/force, 32–33, disequilibrium (in planet 469 120–22, 120 f –21f , Dactyl (moon of 253 Ida), formation), 220, 424–25 comet tails 121 f , 137, 208, 213 7 f , 321 f , 331, 531t disk instability hypothesis, of C/McNaught, 340 f coronae (solar). See Sun Daphnis, 275, 277 f , 363, 435 comets defined by, 310, coronae (venusian), 156, 368 f , 517t, 519t, 550 f DNA (deoxyribonucleic 316 239–240, 240 f dark energy/matter, 2 acid), 455 f , 457–58, disconnection of, 195, coronal mass ejections Darwinian evolution, 454, 458 f , 474, 479, 481–82 197 f , 198, 341, 342 f (CME), 193–96, 194 f , 473–75, 479–485, 494 domes (pancake-like), of D/Shoemaker–Levy 9, 200 Dawn spacecraft, 331–33, 239–240, 240 f –41f 212 f corpuscular drag, 56–57, 332 f , 531t domes (volcanic), 162, 164 f , as dust tails, 55, 337, 57 f , 325 decametric radio emission, 229, 233, 239–240, 337 f , 339, 340 f , 344 cosmic rays 216, 219 240 f –41f , 266 f , 267 as ion tails, 55, 195, 198, and comets, 329–330, decay chains, 299, 299 f Doppler broadening, 100 337 f , 341, 344 335–36, 339 decay constant, 299 Doppler radial velocity overview, 336–341 exposure ages of, 290, 301 Deccan Traps, 240 techniques, 400 as plasma tails, 341, 344 galactic, 203, 301, 339 deflation of surfaces, 166 Doppler shifts, 14, 98, as streamers/striae, 339, and the heliosphere, 9 f degeneracy pressure, 73–74 99–100, 106, 379, 385, 339 f –340 f and meteorites, 301, 489 Deimos, 259–260, 260 f , 394 f compact objects, 74, 434 mutation caused by, 479 372, 443, 517t, 519t Drake, Frank, 453, 492

Index 565

Drake equation, 453–54, banded iron formations on, snowball Earth, 130–31, thermal structures of, 492–93 133–34, 134 f , 480 f 130 f , 464 111–15, 112 f , 118 f , dunes, 166, 166 f biosphere of, 134, 456, solar heating of, 16 119, 136 dust (cometary). See comet 459, 462, 465, 493 and solar velocity troposphere of, 114, 117, tails; comets density of, 516t, 523t variations, 380 f 119 dust (from Earth impacts), differentiation of, 71 spectral energy Earth-Moon system, 12, 34, 467–471, 486 ecliptic of, 29 distribution of, 385 f 42 f , 50, 52, 59 dust (interplanetary) erosion on, 147, 157, spectral measurements of, earthquakes, 50, 155, See also comet tails; 166–67, 472 117 f 157–58, 159 f , 167, comets; meteors; rings geoid of, 152–53, 153 f thermal attributes of, 86, 467, 471–72 of specific planets geological time on, 480 f , 111, 114–18, 117 f , Earthrise, 227 f captured, 181 483 f 131–36, 132 f , 135 f , eclipses and condensation flows, geophysical data on, 516t 154–55, 165, 165 f annular, 22–23 123 ice ages on, 131, 134–35, thermosphere of, 114 information provided by, in the Kuiper belt, 318 190, 464, 485 topography of, 153, 52, 383, 399 microcraters formed by, imaged from space, 227 f 164–65 Jupiter-Io, 261, 264 f , 168 impacts on, 167–68, Urey weathering reaction 265 f and planet formation, 296 168 f , 179 f –180 f , on, 133 f Saturn-Enceladus, 15 f and solar radiation, 54–57, 181–82, 249, volcanism on, 86, 104, secondary, 386, 393 113 442–43, 442 f , 447, 142, 155, 159–163, solar, 2, 22–23, 190, sources of, 56, 325 466–471, 467 f , 160 f –61f , 163 f , 192 f and star formation, 19 469 f –470 f , 471t 243, 261, 471–72 timing variations of, 387 as stardust, 297, 340 interior of, 50, 86, 133 f , weathering processes on, ecliptic plane, 29, 55, 312, stratospheric, 292–93, 150–51, 151 f , 133 f , 136 312 f , 385, 439 293 f , 325 153–54, 160, 182, winds on, 121, 164–66, eddies, 122, 126–27, 246 Sun-orbiting, 8, 298 183, 204, 463–64, 166 f Edgeworth-Kuiper belt. See zodiacal, 8, 325, 344 472 young Earth, 478–79 Kuiper belt dust (on planets and ionosphere of, 199 Earth atmosphere effective gravity, 57, 152, satellites), 164–66, 176, magnetic attributes of, See also greenhouse 352, 426 220, 222, 261, 261 f , 6–7, 17, 198–200, effect/warming; ozone effective temperature, 18, 90, 266 f –67f , 272–73, 199 f , 200 f , 203–4, aurora in, 199–200, 201 f 98 f , 103, 103 f , 105–6, 276 f , 280 f , 289 222, 237, 465, 525t carbon dioxide in, 116, 114–15, 154, 222, dust devils, 246–47, 247 f martian ejecta on, 487 132 f , 133 f , 134, 387 f , 522t dust entrainment, 338–39 mass of, 516t 463 f , 523t Einstein, Albert, 25, 32 dust storms, 166, 246–47, natural disasters on, clouds in, 118–19 See also general theory of 246 f –47f 167–68, 182, composition of, 18, 116, relativity dwarf planets, 10, 310 467–472, 467 f , 523t Einstein ring, 383, 384 f See also Eris; Makemake; 469 f , 471t formation of, 130, 131–34 ejecta Pluto obliquity of, 48–49, 49 f , ionosphere of, 112 f , See also impact craters dwarf stars, 387 f , 391 f , 461, 465–66, 485 125 f , 196 and atmospheres, 129, 466 oceanic crust of, 151, mesopause in, 111 178, 183 See also brown dwarfs 159 f , 180, 182 meteorological conditions from the Chicxulub crater, dynamics. See planetary oceans on, 122, 131–36, in, 112 f , 119–122, 469–470 dynamics/motion 238, 255, 259, 459, 122 f , 133, 137, defined, 167 overview 462–63, 463 f , 480 f 164–66, 166 f , 190, Earth microbes in, 486–87 dynamics of spherical bodies, (see also oceans: life 459, 465 on Eros, 330 43–46 developing in) methane in, 114, 117, 134, excavated, 171 dynamo processes, 16 orbit of, 4 f , 5, 12, 42, 461, 472–73 in Jupiter’s rings, 372 Dysnomia, 334 291 f , 515t molecular diffusion in, on Mars, 249, 250 f Dyson sphere, 489 plate tectonics on, 142, 126–27 and mass extinctions, 153, 155, 159, 180, oxygen in, 116, 123–25, 468 Earth 183, 243 125 f , 133–34, 134 f , optical depth of, 470–71 See also Earth atmosphere; radio emissions from, 472, 480t, 523t and planet formation, extrasolar planets; 203 parameters of, 522t 432–33 greenhouse rock ages on, 414 solar radiation absorbed and regolith formation, effect/warming; life: rotation of, 13, 120 f , by, 102 176, 320 on Earth; Moon; 121 f , 516t spectrum of, 99 f , 385 f secondary craters formed near-Earth objects size of, 5, 6 f ,13f , 516t, stratosphere of, 116–17, by, 172, 538 f albedo of, 516t, 519t, 522t 523t 125, 325, 470–71 ejecta (supernova), 302

Index 566

ejecta blankets/curtains, 167, energy scaling, 173 moment of inertia ratio, images/imaging of, 169 f , 171–76, 172 f , energy transport overview, 263 384–85, 384 f , 180, 183, 232, 240–41, 91–105 oceans within, 17, 164, 398–99 249, 432 Ensisheim meteorite fall, 259, 263–64, 281, and Jupiter, 379, elastic materials, 152 284–85 462, 489 380 f –81f , 385–86, electromagnetic induction enthalpy, 66–68, 68 f orbital resonance of, 387 f , 398–402, heating, 303, 438 entropy, 66–67, 82, 405, 456 36–37, 37 f , 53, 260 403 f , 407–8 electromagnetic radiation, 74, enzymes, 474, 478 size of, 6 f , 259, 260 Kepler planet candidates, 87, 102, 105 Epimetheus, 34, 34 f , 37, surface of, 259, 263–67, 181, 381, 395–97, electromagnetic spectrum, 277 f , 367, 369, 370 f , 265 f –66f , 273 395t, 401–4, 87 f , 105 517t, 519t tidal forces on, 154, 159 403 f –6f , 410 electron capture, 82 Epstein drag, 57 wedge-shaped ridges on, and the Kozai mechanism, elemental abundances, 78t, EQ (encephalization 263, 265 f 37–38 221, 416 quotient), 484–85, 484 f eutectic behavior, 149 mantles of, 397, 405, emission spectra, 97–99, equation of radiative evaporative loading 407 f , 408 f 97 f , 106, 115–18, transport, 101, 106 parameter, 129 and Mars, 406 117 f , 191 f , 220, 392, equation of time, 22 evaporites, 144 f , 147 mass-radius relationships 398 equations of state, 69, 74–75, evolutionary convergence, of, 396–98, 402, Enceladus 102, 105, 118, 147 479 407 f , 408 f albedo of, 142 equilibrium temperature, 16, excavation ﬂow, 171, 172 f migration of, 446 atmosphere of, 8, 110, 115 90–91, 102–5, 153–54, exobase, 111, 127–28 in multiple star systems, diapirs on, 275 396, 460, 522t exogenic features/processes, 386–87, 399–400 geysers on, 17, 162, 259, equipotential surfaces, 352 155, 180, 182 naming of, 389 273, 275, 276 f , 281, equivalent microstates, 67 exoplanets. See extrasolar and Neptune, 381 f , 389, 357, 489 Eris (136199 Eris), 7, 310, planets 395, 397, 397 f , 401, heat loss on, 155 315, 315 f , 328, 334, exospheres, 111, 113, 127, 403 f , 407 ice on, 273 440, 521t 472 and orbital eccentricity, impact craters on, 273 Eros (433 Eros). See asteroids exothermic reactions, 66–67, 379, 383, 388–390, magnitude of, 517t (individual) 432 399 f , 400–401, 400 f orbit of, 357, 358 f , 517t erosion. See Earth; impact exozodiacal clouds, 385 orbits of, 446, 447 physical properties of, craters: erosion of; extrasolar planets phase angle measurements 272–73, 519t impact erosion; Mars; (exoplanets), 377–412 of, 386 polar regions of, 273, Venus around β Pictoris, 399 f physics of, 404–9 276 f , 357 escape velocities, 14, 30, atmospheres on, 110 and planet formation, 2–3 resonance locks of, 37 128–29, 154, 203, candidates (see Kepler and pulsars, 378–79, and Saturn, 15 f , 17, 275, 442 f , 487, 527, 538 f planet candidates) 387–88, 388 f , 398 277 f , 357, 358 f , 363 eukarya/eukaryotic cells, 454, characterizations of, and the radiative time size of, 6 f 455 f , 468, 476, 477 f , 385–86, 409 f constant, 406, 408 f surface of, 273 479–482, 480 f , 483, detection/discoveries of, resonances in, 467 temperatures on, 273, 492 378–389, 381 f , and Saturn, 380 f , 381 f , 276 f Eureka (5261 Eureka). See 384 f , 389 f –394 f , 385–86, 389, 391, tidal heating on, 154, 275 asteroids (individual) 395–404, 398 f , 395–96, 398–400, tiger stripes on, 273, 276 f Europa 407–8, 410, 446 408 volcanism on, 110, 142, albedo of, 142 vs. Earth, 389, 396–400, sizes of, 381–84, 389, 155, 159 atmosphere of, 267 397 f , 402 f –4f , 410 395, 395t, 396 f , encephalization quotient auroral footprint of, 216 f Earth-like, 379, 395, 398–402, 404 f –5f , (EQ), 484–85, 484 f bands on, 263, 266 f 397 f , 404–5, 407 f , 408, 408 f –9f , 410 Encke. See comets composition of, 263 408, 409 f , 410, 453, statistics, 400–404, (individual) diapirs on, 267 460 f , 466 401 f –6f , 414 Encke’s Gap, 360, 370 f , 371 geysers on, 162 formation models for, 414, theories/observations on, endogenic features/processes, gravity of, 267 443–44 446 155, 180, 182, 268, 277, ice crust of, 263, 266 f , and gas giants, 382, 385, in transit, 378, 381–83, 281 267, 281 387 f , 390–402, 381 f , 385, 391–97, endosymbiosis, 482 impact craters on, 142, 390 f , 394 f , 400 f , 391 f , 393 f , 397 f , endothermic reactions, 66 178, 266 f 402 f –3f , 406–8, 399–400, 402–3, energy balance and interior of, 263 410, 435, 444 403 f , 404 f , 407, 410 temperature, 86–91 lenticulae on, 264 habitability of, 460 and Uranus, 381 f , 391, energy convection. See and life-form speculation, hot Jupiters (see vulcan 396, 397 f , 444 convection 259 planets) varieties among, 72

Index 567

and Venus, 397 f , 406 fusion, thermonuclear. See See also extrasolar planets; interior structures of, 142, vulcans among, 389, thermonuclear Jupiter; Saturn 207, 434, 446, 447 391–92, 392 f , 394 f , fusion/reactions gas retention age of and life, 466–67 396–97, 467 meteorites, 298, 303 magnetic fields of, 5, 17 extraterrestrial intelligence Gaia hypothesis, 473, 493 Gaspra (951 Gaspra). See mass ejected by, 445 (ETI)/life, 3, 281, galactic cosmic rays, 9 f , 203, asteroids (individual) mass-density relation in, 453–54, 488–493, 490 f 301, 339 Gaussian scale height, 355, 74–76, 76 f extrusive rocks, 145 galactic habitable zone, 462 422 migration of, 437–38, galactic tides, 343, 415, 437, gegenschein, 325 443, 446 faint young Sun problem, 461 439–440, 439 f general theory of relativity moons of, 8, 136, 281, 353, faulting, 156–57, 156 f , 159, Galilean satellites, 53, 104, (Einstein), 25, 42 f , 440–41, 445, 467 278 152, 179, 179 f , 214, 383 orbits of, 4 f , 447 Fermi, Enrico, 488 216, 216 f , 263 f , 269, generalized eccentricity, 30 physical data on, 516t Fermi’s paradox, 488 416, 441 genes/gene processes, 454, pressures on, 147, 148 f Ferrel cells, 121, 121 f See also Callisto; Europa; 457–58, 461, 475–77, rings of, 8, 349, 352 f figure (planetary), 152 Ganymede; Io 479–485, 487 rotation of, 121 fireballs, 167, 171, 178, 212, Galileo Galilei, 3, 258, genetic evolution, 461, 493 surfaces of, 142, 207 212 f , 319 f , 469–470 259–260, 349, 349 f , geoids, 152–53, 153 f , 155, temperatures on, 147 first law of thermodynamics, 453 241, 243–44 winds on, 122, 392 27, 66, 93–94, 456 Galileo spacecraft data, 114, geologic time, 43, 50, 154, Gibbs free energy, 67–68, fission, spontaneous, 82, 302 200, 203, 208 f , 209, 167, 204, 373, 483–84, 68 f , 82, 456–57 fission tracks, 302 212, 214–15, 268–69, 483t, 486 f Gilbert, William, 187 fluid metallic hydrogen, 148 425, 531t geostrophic balance, 121 f , Giotto spacecraft, 335, 335 f , flux absorption, 89 Galileo spacecraft images, 122, 208 340, 343, 530t flux density, 88, 88 f , 90, 95, 156 f , 212 f , 227 f , geysers. See Enceladus; glaciers, 155, 165, 247, 98 f , 105, 124 261 f –62f , 265 f –66f , Europa; Triton; 248 f flux reflection, 90 268 f –69f , 321, 321 f , volcanism; Yellowstone global warming. See flyby vs. orbiter missions, 12 331, 350, 356 f , 488 National Park greenhouse effect/ focusing effects of impacts, γ -ray fluorescence, 17 giant impact model. See warming 176 Ganymede Moon: formation of Golevka (6489 Golevka). See folding of planar surfaces, atmosphere of, 136 giant planets, 207–25 asteroids (individual) 156–57 auroral footprint of, 216 f See also extrasolar planets; grabens, 156 f , 157, 159, 230, formation age of meteorites, composition of, 267–68 gas giants; ice giants; 233–34 298, 303 impact craters on, 175, Jupiter; Neptune; gradation, 164 formation enthalpy, 66–67 267–68, 268 f Saturn; Uranus gram-mole, 93 fossil fuels, 406, 463, 472–73 impactors on, 136, 268 f adiabats of, 148, 148 f granites, 144 f , 145, 150–51, fossils magnetic field of, 17, 268, atmospheres of, 110, 116, 158–59 calcium carbonite formed 281 129, 137, 155, 207, granulation patterns, 189 by, 147 mass of, 8 407, 416, 434, 522t, graphite, 143, 143 f , 149, EQ of, 485 moment of inertia ratio, 523t 297, 304 and evolution rate, 479, 268 bodies influenced by, 439, gravitational forces (internal), 481 oceans/water within, 268, 466–67 72–73, 75 f , 79, 83, 154, information provided by, 269, 489 and centaurs, 312 183, 214, 218, 419, 421, 52, 467–68, 474, 478, orbit of, 517t and circumplanetary disks, 432–33 483, 483 f , 485 orbital resonance of, 441 gravitational interactions, 25, martian, 487 36–37, 37 f , 260 convection in, 155, 466 31, 43–46, 312–13, 323, microbial, 488, 490 f physical properties of, densities of, 14, 445, 516t 368, 399, 426, 429–430, microfossils, 478–79, 490 519t energy radiation by, 73, 439 oldest, 480t size of, 6 f , 8, 259, 260 87, 155 See also Newton’s laws of fractionation, 128, 295–97, stratigraphy of, 156 f formation of, 434–37, motion and gravity 296 f , 300–302, 304, surface of, 273 435 f , 446, 447 gravitational moments, 47, 332–33, 416, 430, 472, tectonic activity on, 268 f free-floating giant planets, 151, 207, 360 478 visual magnitude of, 385 gravitational potential, 32, 45, Frail, Dale, 387 517t gravitational interactions 46, 129, 152, 167, 353, Fraunhofer absorption volcanism on, 268 f in, 73, 353 427, 429–430, 435 spectrum, 97–98 gas drag, 57–58, 181, 372, helium on, 79, 110, 116, gravitational potential energy, free-fall timescale, 418, 421 426, 429, 467 129, 150, 217–18, 15, 32, 59, 71, 73–74, freeze-out temperatures, gas giants, 5, 142, 207, 216, 223, 387 f , 396, 440, 151, 167, 417–19, 432, 424–25 223, 447 447 436

Index 568

gravitational torques, Haumea family, 319, 324–25 horizontal resonances, 367 Iapetus, 6 f , 272–73, 275 f , 422–23, 429, 436, 442 Hayabusa spacecraft, horseshoe orbits/libration, 517t gravity. See gravitational 328–29, 329 f , 531t 33 f , 34, 44 f , 314, 429 ice. See comets; Kuiper belt; features of specific heat flux, 92, 154, 261, 434 horsts, 156 f , 157, 159 sublimation of ice; bodies heat-flow parameters, 524t hot Jupiters. See also specific moons; specific gravity fields, 13, 19, 45–48, Heisenberg uncertainty extrasolar planets: planets 142, 150–53, 182, principle, 99–100 vulcan planets, ice (actions of), 165 201–2, 302 Hektor (623 Hektor). See 389–396, 401–2, 444 ice (types of), 148–49, 165 Great Red Spot (GRS). See asteroids (individual) H-R diagram. See ice ages, 48, 131, 134–35, Jupiter Helene, 275, 277 f , 517t, Hertszprung–Russell 190, 464, 485 greenhouse effect/warming 519t diagram ice giants, 5, 207, 221, 223 See also anti-greenhouse heliocentric distance, defined, Hubble Space Telescope ice sheets, 165, 227, 464 effect; runaway 7 (HST) ice-covered greenhouse greenhouse effect; heliopause, 9 f , 10, 195 limitations of, 391 effect, 104, 104 f Venus helioseismology, 18 Solar System objects icy bodies, 8, 104, 148 f , 154, and climate change, heliospheres, 9–10, 9 f , 188, imaged by, 200, 212, 176, 310, 343, 447 130–36 194–95, 339 219, 310, 323, 327, Ida (243 Ida). See asteroids clouds creating, 119 helium 365 (individual) defined, 16 See also giant planets; as space observatory, 532t ideal gas/gas law, 69, 92–94, on Earth, 102–4, 114–15, Jupiter; Neptune; transiting planets observed 111, 147, 422 130–36, 132 f –33f , Saturn; Uranus by, 391, 394 See also perfect 461, 470 atmospheric, 4, 110, young stars imaged by, gas/perfect gas law and habitability issues, 202–3 419 IDPs (interplanetary dust 409 f , 459–462, 492 in the big bang, 79–80, Hugo, Victor, 452 particles). See (dust ice-covered, 104, 104 f 83 Huygens, Christiaan, 270, interplanetary) on Mars, 102, 114, heated/pressurized, 349, 350 f igneous asteroids, 326t, 135–36, 461 147–48, 160 Huygens spacecraft/probe, 327 f , 438 in negative feedback loop, interstellar, 10 115–16, 270, 271 f igneous meteorites, 303 133 f in meteorites, 298 Hyakutake. See comets igneous rocks, 143, 144 f , overview, 102–6 in radioactive decay, 82, (individual) 145, 150, 182, 286, 288, in positive feedback loop, 298 Hydra, 321 f , 333–34 297, 303, 327, 438 131 f sedimentary, 218 hydration, 167 immiscible materials, and solar heating, 102–3, in stars, 71, 73, 80, 83, hydrodynamic escape, 128, 149–150, 214, 218 137 188–89, 417, 419, 433 impact basins, 153, 169 f , solid-state, 104, 281 461 hydrogen (metallic), 148, 231 f –32f , 268, on Titan, 102, 104, 115 Hellas impact basin, 243–44, 204, 215, 218, 221–23 274 f –75f , 332 on Triton, 280–81 244 f –46f , 246, 248 f , hydrogen atoms, 69, 75, 95, See also Mars; Mercury; greenhouse gases, 103 f , 254 f , 255 108, 125, 127–28, 133, Moon 130–32, 132 f , 134, Herschel, William, 206 136, 236 impact cratering, 155, 409 f , 461, 464, 468, Hertszprung–Russell hydrogen burning, 11, 73, 167–68, 176–180, 470, 486 diagram (H-R), 72 f 75 f ,75t, 334 180 f , 416, 445 groundwater, 162, 164, 250 high pressure/temperature hydrogen burning limit, 11, impact craters environments, 147–49, 75 f See also asteroids; ejecta; habitable planets, defined, 148 f hydrostatic equilibrium, ejecta 462 Hilda asteroids, 37–38, 313 68–71, 68 f , 82, blankets/curtains; habitable zones (HZs), 395, Hill sphere, 33 f , 34–36, 110–11, 152–53, 323, Meteor Crater; 444, 459–467, 460 f , 35 f , 59, 393, 429, 441 419, 422 meteorites; specific 489–491, 493 Hill’s problem, 31 hydrothermal processes planets Hadley cell circulation, 121, Hipparcos satellite, 381 (biological), 475 f , 491 from bombardment eras, 121 f , 242, 246 HIPPO (mass extinction hydrothermal processes (in 134, 178, 229, 233, Hadley Rille, 157 f , 163, 230 acronym), 486 planet formation), 303 249 Hale–Bopp. See comets Holmes. See comets Hygiea (10 Hygiea). See chains of, 176–77, 183, (individual) (individual) asteroids (individual) 260, 331, 544 f half-lives, 77–79, 130, Homestead meteorite fall, Hyperion, 6 f , 275, 278 f , characteristics of, 173–75 299–301, 299t 295, 295 f 517t, 519t complex, 168–69, 173 Halley. See comets homo erectus/habilis, 484 hypersonic/hypervelocity crater density/rates, (individual) homo sapiens, 486 impacts, 168, 168 f , 178–181, 179 f , Haumea (136340 Haumea), homochirality, 474 170 f , 183, 294 180 f , 183 324–25, 328, 521t hopanes, 478–79 HZ. See habitable zones dating of, 181, 183

Index 569

erosion of, 167, 176, flux tube of, 216 Janus, 34, 34 f , 37, 264 f , magnetic attributes of, 180–81, 249 global heat flux of, 261 275, 277 f , 367–69, 148, 198, 200, excavation flow in, 172 f , hot spots on, 16, 261, 370 f –71f , 517t, 519t 214–16, 215 f –16f , 249 264 f –65f Jeans escape, 127–28, 137, 222, 261–63, 525t formation/stages of, impact craters on, 142, 328, 434 mass of, 4–5, 72, 434, 170–76, 172 f , 174 f , 178, 180, 260 Jeans mass, 418 516t 175 f and Jupiter’s radio jetting, 171, 322 mean motion resonance of, on icy satellites, 170, 175 emissions, 216 joints/jointing, 156 f , 157, 38 and meteoroids, 167–173, magnetic attributes of, 157 f methane on, 116, 211–12, 175–76, 329 200, 265 f Jupiter 213 f microcraters, 168, 168 f mantle of, 261 See also extrasolar planets; migration of, 437–38 morphology of, 168–170, neutral clouds on, 215, giant planets; planet moons of (see Adrastea; 173–76, 174 f , 175 f , 215 f , 263 formation Amalthea; Callisto; 177–78 orbital resonance of, accretion zone of, 429 Europa; Galilean primary, 172, 176, 232 36–37, 37 f , 53, 260 albedo of, 516t, 519t, 522t satellites; Ganymede; secondary, 172, 176, 229, physical properties of, asteroids effected by, 38, Io; Thebe) 231, 538 f , 544 f 260–61 312–13, 313 f , 319, moons of, listed, 517t, simple, 168–69, 169 f plasma torus of, 215, 445 519t transient, 172–73 215 f , 263 atmosphere of, 76, 116, orbit of, 4 f , 312 f , 373, impact erosion, 128–29, 135, shape of, 260–61 207–12, 211, 211 f , 515t 295, 433–34, 433 f , 462 size of, 6 f , 259 214, 223, 416, 425, ovals on, 208–9, 210 f , impact flux, 167, 178, 180 f , sodium cloud surrounding, 522t, 523t 223 181, 289, 301, 466, 468 215 f aurora on, 200, 202 f , phase angle measurements impact frustration of life, sublimation on, 110 216 f of, 89 471t, 478–79 surface of, 260–61 bolide impact on, 214 f photochemistry of, 211, impacts and natural disasters, temperatures on, 16, brown belts on, 207–8, 211 f 182, 467–472, 493 261–62 207 f –9f planetesimals influenced inorganic molecules, 474 tidal forces on/in, 25, 53, and centaurs, 316 by, 437 intelligence and technology, 92, 160, 260, 281 comets captured by, 269 plasma torus surrounding, 484–85 volcanism on, 25, 110, composition of, 4–5, 17, 215 interior structure of the Earth. 142, 155, 159, 180, 223, 416, 434, 440 radiation belts of, 216, See Earth: interior of 215, 259–263, 262 f , convection on, 148 216 f internal heat: sources, losses 264 f –65f , 281 density of, 71, 223, 516t, radio emissions from, 188, and transport, 153–55, winds on, 123 523t 203, 216, 385 183 ion flux, 237 f D/Shoemaker–Levy 9 and resonance locks, 37 interplanetary dust particles. ionization, 95, 113–14, impact on, 168, 181, ring moons of, 269 f See dust (interplanetary) 125–26, 137, 190, 263, 211–13, 212 f –13f , rings of, 8, 350, 355–56, interplanetary magnetic field, 338, 341 223, 269, 311, 356 f , 363, 373 196–99, 196 f –97f , ionospheres, 16, 110, 322–23, 372, 469 rotation of, 203, 215, 516t 341 125–26, 188, 190, eclipsed, 261, 264 f –65f , size of, 6 f , 74, 75 f , 516t, interplanetary medium, 196–200, 196 f –97f , 265 f 523t 191–98, 325 202–4, 216 energy radiated by, 214 and solar motion/velocity interplanetary spacecraft, See also Earth; Io; Jupiter; and exoplanet variations, 380 f –81f 527–532 Mars; Venus investigation, spectra of, 209–10, interplanetary torque, 48, 48 f iridium, 468, 469 f 380 f –81f 210 f –11f , 213, 219, interstellar medium, 9 f ,10 iron-sulfur schemes, 475 fluid metallic hydrogen on, 387 f intrusive rocks, 145 isobars, 121–22, 121 f , 122 f 148 storms on, 209, 223 invariable plane, 29 isolation mass, 429 formation of, 434–38 Sun-Jupiter system, 43 inverse β-decay, 82 isomers, 473–74 geophysical data on, 516t temporary orbits around, inverted stratigraphy, 171 isostatic conditions, 142, Great Red Spot (GRS), 35, 35 f Io 151–53, 175, 183, 230, 122, 207–9, 208 f , thermal attributes of, 87, albedo of, 261 242, 244 210 f , 223 90, 112 f , 114–16, atmosphere of, 8, 110, isotopic conditions, 128, 292, helium on, 72, 116, 207, 148 f , 154, 208 f , 215, 263 295–97, 297, 302, 304, 214, 214 f , 217, 415, 211 f , 446 aurora on, 261, 265 f 416, 490 440 tidal forces of, 211 auroral footprint of, 216 f Itokawa (25143 Itokawa). See interior of, 154, 204, 214, white zones on, 207–8, dust on, 261, 262 f asteroids (individual) 214 f , 216 207 f –9f in eclipse, 261, 264 f , ionosphere of, 200 winds on, 203, 208, 209 f , 265 f Jacobi constant, 32–34, 33 f luminosity of, 3–4, 441 216, 223

Index 570

Jupiter comet family, 269, 415 Kreutz Sun-grazing comet lava, 142, 145, 155, 157, line broadening, 99–100 family, 323 161–64, 161 f –62f , line of nodes, 29, 47 Kaguya spacecraft, 230, 529t K-T impact event/boundary, 169, 175, 181 lithospheres, 150–51, 154, Kardashev, Nikolai, 487 182, 468–470, 469 f , lava flows. See Moon: maria 157–160, 159 f , 230, karst topography, 164 481, 485–86 on; volcanism 237 f , 242–43, 261 KBOs. See Kuiper belt Kuiper, G.P, 314 laws of thermodynamics, Little Ice Age, 190 objects Kuiper belt, 7–8, 43, 316–18, 65–66, 82, 94, 456 longitude of the ascending Keeler gap, 275, 352 f , 368 f , 317 f , 324, 344, 415, Legendre polynomials, 46–47 node, 26 f ,29 550 f 437, 440, 443, 445 Levy, David, 211 Lowell, Percival, 243 f , 491 Kelvin-Helmholtz timescale, See also Ceres; comets; libration of energy/heat, LUCA. See last universal 436 Pluto 33–34, 38, 67, 71, 73, common ancestor Kepler, Johannes, 3, 11–12, Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) 124, 432, 487 luminous matter/dark matter, 25, 453 See also comets; Eris; life, 452–500 2 Kepler planet candidates, Haumea family; complex life development, Luna spacecraft, 3, 178–79, 395–97, 395t, 397 f , Pluto; Varuna 480 f , 482–84, 483 f 229, 527, 528 f , 529t 401–4, 403 f –6f , 410 vs. asteroids, 416, 438 defining, 454–55, 493 Lunar Crater Observation and Kepler shear, 358, 427 binaries among, 438–39 on Earth, 3, 65, 188, 281, Sensing Satellite, 229 f , Kepler spacecraft/ and centaurs, 316 453, 465–67, 529t observatory, 394–96, classical, 314–15 476–79, 480 f Lunar Prospector spacecraft, 404 f , 406–8, 532t concentrations of, 43 on Europa, 259 231 f , 529t Keplerian orbits defined, 310 extraterrestrial, 3, 281, Lunar Reconnaissance of β Pictoris planets, 399 f families among, 319–10 488–493, 490 f , 493 Orbiter, 230, 529t, 537 f of comet dust, 55, 58 formation of, 438–39 and giant planets, 466–67 Lutetia (21 Lutetia). See components of, 11, 58 Jeans escape from, 328 and impacts/natural asteroids (individual) and gravitational mass/density of, 323–24 disasters, 467–472, Lyapunov characteristic interaction, 36 1992 QB1, 314 471t, 478–79 exponent, 39, 39 f , and Io, 215 orbits of, 5 f , 7, 415, and intelligence, 484–85 41–42 of molecules, 423 437–38 mantles’ role in forming, Lyapunov timescale, 39, 43 and oblate planets, 47, origin of, 445 456, 463, 472 Lyman α, 95, 393 59 plutinos in, 315 on Mars, 242, 253, Lyman limit/series, 95 perturbations in, 36, 426 properties of, 9 486–87, 489–491 in protolunar disks, 443 f quantities of, 8 and the Moon, 465–66 Maat Mons volcano, 162 f and radial velocity spectra of, 328 on moons, 3, 259, 281 Mab, 278, 366, 518t detection, 390, 394 f sputtering on, 181 origin of, 473–79 macroscopic objects, 55–56, and Saturn’s rings, 360, and Triton, 279, 328 and the phylogenetic tree, 286, 304, 339, 356, 360, 367, 370 velocities of, 319 476–78, 477 f , 482 363 f , 366, 372, 415 of three-planet systems, and zodiacal light, 56 and planetary satellites, macroscopic organisms, 454 388 f 2–3 macroscopic processes, 65, and transit timing Lagrangian points, 32–34, planets affected by, 67, 126 variations (TTVs), 33 f , 43, 59, 275, 312, 472–73, 494 Magellan spacecraft, 156 f , 382–83 314, 353, 415 requirements for, 458–59, 162 f , 178, 239–240, Keplerian speed/velocity, Lake Untersee, 104 459, 462–68, 465, 239 f –241 f , 531t 54–55, 57–58, 203, 215, Lambert’s exponential 493 magma, 86, 142, 145–46, 263, 426 absorption law, 101–2 sub-life forms, 454 149–150, 158–163, Kepler’s laws of planetary Laplace, Pierre-Simon, 309 surface morphology 159 f , 235, 239–240, motion, 11–12, 26–27, Laplace’s equations, 45, effected by, 167 261, 263, 288 26 f , 53–54, 57–58, 418 46 techniques for examining, See also volcanism Kilauea volcano, 160 f , 161 f Laplacian plane, 325 474 magnetic dipole moments, kinetically inhibited lapse rates, 94, 136, 246 technological life, 485, 198, 216 reactions, 424, 456 See also adiabatic 487–88, 491–93 magnetic dynamo theory, 204 Kirchhoff’s laws, 97, 97 f , phenomena lightcurves, 14, 15, 322, magnetic fields, 16–17, 19, 102 last universal common 323 f , 350 f , 382–83, 113, 195–97, 197 f , Kirkwood gaps, 37, 39, 39 f , ancestor (LUCA), 384 f , 391–92, 203–5, 341, 465–66 59, 312–13 475–76, 478–79, 391 f –93f , 398, 398 f See also giant planets; Koronis asteroids, 331 487 limb brightening/darkening, Moon; Sun; terrestrial Kozai resonance, 37–38, 394, latent heat, 65, 67–68, 94, 99, 208 f , 382, 391–92 planets; specific 444 111, 113, 118–19, 129, limiting flux, 127–28 planets KREEP (lunar chemical 136, 149 Lindblad resonance, 362, magnetic flux, 190 f , 194, 216 compound), 229 lateral gene transfer, 481 369 f magnetic torques, 422, 445

Index 571

magnetohydrodynamic canals/channels on, 242, induced magnetospheres tidal forces on, 244 dynamo, 204 242 f , 249–251, of, 198 topography of, 237 f , magnetopause, 195, 198–99, 250 f –51f , 491 f interior of, 237 f , 243–44 243–46, 244 f –45f , 199 f and the carbon cycle, 406, ionosphere of, 112 f , 126, 254 f magnetosheath, 198–99, 464 188 Valles Marineris on, 199 f carbon dioxide on, Kasei Vallis outflow on, 243–44, 244 f magnetospheres, 14, 71, 113, 134–35, 255 251 f valley and outflow systems 180, 188, 195, 198–205, climate of, 134–35, 453, lander sites on, 250–54, on, 249–251, 199 f , 205 459 251 f –54f 250 f –51f See also magnetic clouds on, 119, 243 f lava flows on, 161 volcanism on, 135, 142, attributes of specific condensation flows on, life on, 242, 253, 486–87, 161–62, 162 f , 163 f , planets 123 490–91 243, 243 f , 246 magnetospheric plasma, 110, crust of, 243–44, 244 f , magnetic fields of, 7, 17, water on, 135, 164, 248, 188, 198–203, 199 f 245 f 244, 253–55, 254 f 249 f , 251–53, 255 magnetotail, 199, 199 f , 215 dendritic river systems on, map of, 491 f weathering processes on, main sequence stars 249–250 mass of, 516t 136 circumstellar disks around, density of, 516t, 523t meteorites from, 292, winds on, 122, 128, 164, 419–420 dunes on, 166, 166 f , 292 f , 294 f , 305, 166, 166 f , 246–47, Earth-like planets orbiting, 243 f , 248 f , 252 f , 468, 486–87, 247 f , 252, 252 f 460–61, 460 f 540 f 489–490, 490 f Mars Exploration Rovers, exoplanets orbiting, 379, dust devils/storms on, methane on, 461, 490 250–54, 252 f –54f 389 f , 396, 398, 246–47, 246 f , 247 f moment of inertia, 244 Mars Express spacecraft, 400–401 ejecta from, 260, 486 moons of, 8, 15, 517t, 519t 162 f , 248 f , 260 f , 531t H-R diagram of, 72 f ejecta on, 249, 250 f Mount Sharp on, 543 f Mars Global Surveyor HZs around, 459–461 erosion on, 240 obliquity of, 48, 48 f , 121, (MGS), 247 f , 249, and the Kepler mission, escape velocity from, 292 135, 247–48, 465 251 f , 254 f , 489 f , 531t 395–96 fossils from, 487–88, oceans on, 459 Mars Odyssey spacecraft, leaving the sequence, 493 490 f Olympus Mons on, 162, 249 f , 531t post-main sequence stars, free-air gravity of, 231 f , 162 f –63f , 243, 246 Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter, 58, 461 245 f orbit of, 4 f ,5–6,41f , 242 f , 244 f pre-main sequence stars, frost on, 165 f 121, 123, 135, 291 f , Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 419 geoid of, 243–44 312 f , 313, 515t (MRO), 248 f , 529t, properties of, 71–73, 72 f , geologic exploration on, ozone on, 116 540 f –42f 75 f , 79–80, 83 250–54, 251 f –54f and planet formation, Mars-Phobos system, 52 Sun among, 43, 72 f , 79, geophysical data on, 516t 431 f , 434, 439 mascons, 230 83, 344 glaciers on, 247 polar regions of, 165 f , mass extinctions, 99–100, main-belt asteroids. See gravity of, 243–44, 245 f , 242, 242 f –43f , 464, 468–69, 469 f , asteroids 255 246–47, 246 f , 248 f , 480 f , 483 f , 484–86, Makemake (136472 greenhouse effect on, 102, 465 486 f , 493 Makemake), 328, 521t 104, 114, 135–36, rock types on, 147 mass motion, 113, 154 mantles. See comets; interiors 461 rotation of, 516t mass wasting, 155, 164, of specific planets; gullies on, 250, 251 f saltation on, 246 335–36 magma habitability of, 453, 459, size of, 6, 6 f ,13f , 243, massive planets. See giant Mariner spacecraft, 117 f , 461–62 255, 516t, 523t planets 169 f , 232 f , 236, 241 f , Hadley cell circulation on, spectral measurements of, mass-losing stars, 25, 58, 59 530t 246 116–18, 117 f , 385 f Mathilde (253 Mathilde). See Mars Hellas impact basin on, sublimation on, 110 asteroids (individual) See also Deimos; Phobos 243–44, 244 f –46f , surface of, 235, 237 f , Mauna Loa volcano, 162, achondrites on, 289 246, 248 f , 254 f , 255 242–44, 250–54, 163 f , 243 albedo of, 516t, 519t, highlands of, 249, 255 251 f –54f Maunder minimum, 190, 522t Husband Hill on, 252 f tectonic activity on, 159, 191 f atmosphere of, 18, 110, ice on, 242–43, 243 f , 243 Maxwell, James Clerk, 348 112 f , 115–16, 122, 246–49, 248 f , 249 terraforming on, 487 Maxwell-Boltzmann 134, 244, 246, impact basins on, 243 f , Tharsis region of, 135, distribution, 79 489–491, 522t, 523t 244–46, 244 f –46f , 243–46, 244 f , 245 f Maxwellian distribution blueberries on, 252–53, 254 f , 255 thermal attributes of, function, 127–28 253 f impact craters on, 176, 112 f , 113, 115–18, Mayor, Michel, 389, 389 f brightness variations in, 179 f , 249–250, 117 f , 135–36, 135 f , MBAs. See asteroids: main 386 250 f –51f , 255 165, 165 f , 246–47 belt asteroids

Index 572

mean intensity, 95, 100–101 spin-orbit resonance of, finds of, 285–86, 292 iron, 285–87, 289 f , 295, mean lifetimes, 299, 338, 232, 234 fractionation in, 295–97, 302–3, 327 493 sputtering on, 110 296 f lithophile, 304 f mean longitude, 30 surface of, 231–37, 232 f igneous, 303 mesoderite, 290 f mean motion resonances, tectonic activity on, 233 information provided by, pallasite, 288, 290 f , 303 36–37, 39 f , 53, 313 f , temperatures on, 234 19, 295–96, 301, 305, primitive, 286, 303–4, 314–15, 315 f , 390, tidal forces on, 52, 53 f , 325 305, 446 395, 402, 438 440 lithophile elements in, siderophile, 286 mechanical weathering, 167 volcanic activity on, 286 SNC (shergotite-nakhlite- melt glasses, 177 233–34 from Mars, 292, 292 f , chassignite), 292, Mercury water on, 234 294 f , 305, 468, 292 f , 490 albedo of, 516t, 519t, 522t mesosiderites, 288, 290 f 488–490, 490 f as stones, 286 atmosphere of, 6, 110, mesosphere, 111, 112 f , from the Moon, 289, 291, stony-iron, 286, 288, 301, 116, 236, 255, 522t 114–15, 270, 522t 305 305 Caloris basin on, 232, Messenger spacecraft, Nakhla meteorite, 468 meteoroids, 147, 181, 240, 232 f 232 f –35f , 234–37, nickel in, 286–88, 285, 290, 292–95, 305, contraction of, 233 237 f , 531t 289 f –290 f 320–21, 329, 468 density of, 228, 516t, 523t metamorphic rocks, 143–46, orbits of, 290, 291 f See also meteorites; erosion on, 249 144 f , 158–59 parent bodies of, 56, meteors; formation of, 228, 236, metamorphism, regional and 285–87, 302–4, 305, micrometeoroids 430 local, 145 330 meteorology, 119–123 geophysical data on, 516t metamorphism, thermal, 287, and planet formation, 285, meteors, 177–78, 285, global mosaic of, 533 f 297, 329 301–4, 305 293–95, 295 f , 305 gravity of, 232, 234, 236 metazoa, 483 in protoplanetary disks, See also bolides; heavy elements on, 72 Meteor Crater, 168, 168 f , 143, 287–88, 296–98, meteorites; hollows on, 234, 234 f 295 301–4, 305, 416 meteoroids impact craters on, 142, meteor streams, 314, 338 radiometric dating of, meteor showers, 212, 213 f , 169, 169 f , 176, 178, meteorite showers, 295, 295 f 298–301, 299, 299t, 322, 325 179 f , 228, 231–32, meteorites, 284–308 305 methane, 86, 334, 342, 393, 232 f –35f , See also meteorites self-shielding in, 297 399, 400 f , 424 534 f –36f (classes/types); siderophile elements in, See also specific planets impacts on, 234, 236, 445 meteoroids; meteors; 286 methanogenic organisms, 456 intercrater plains on, micrometeorites and the solar photosphere, Methone, 275, 277 f , 517t, 232–33 ages of, 292, 298, 286, 289 f 519t interior of, 152, 236, 237 f 300–301, 305, 415 source regions of, 285, Metis, 269, 269 f , 517t, 519t iron on, 228, 236, 255, 430 and asteroids, 285, 289–292 microcraters, 168, 168 f magnetic attributes of, 287–291, 305, 326 spectra of, 291 f microlensing, 383–84, 384f , 6–7, 17, 222, 236–38, bulk composition of, 18 and tektites, 292 398, 398 f , 400, 403–4 237 f , 255, 525t chalcophile elements in, water-formed minerals in, micrometeorites, 110, mass of, 234, 516t 286 489 180–81, 202, 230, 289, obliquity of, 234 chemical separation in, meteorites (classes/types) 292–93, 293 f , 329, 356 orbit of, 4 f , 12, 296 achondritic, 289–291, micrometeoroids, 175, 229, 41 f –42f , 43, 53, chondrules in, 286–88, 301–4, 305, 331 292 234, 291 f , 447, 515t 287 f –88f , 302–4, ALH (Allen Hills), 292, mid-oceanic ridges/rifts, and phase angle 305, 415, 446 292 f , 294 f , 490, 158–160, 159 f , 183, measurements, 89, classifications of, 286–260 490 f 203–4 386 and cosmic-ray exposure chalcophile, 304 f Milankovitch cycles, 48, 131 and planet formation, 447 ages, 290, 301 chondritic, 286–87, Miller, Stanley, 474 polar regions of, 234, decay rates in, 299 f 287 f –89f , 291 f , Miller-Urey experiment, 474, 235 f , 255, defined, 285, 305 293, 294 f , 297–98, 474 f 534 f –35f densities of, 286 300–305, 300 f , Mimas rotation of, 14–15, 53, differentiation in, 286, 304 f , 325–27, 365, global map of, 551 f 100, 152, 234, 236, 290, 300–303, 305 415–16, 445 impact craters on, 272 516t Earth-originating, 292 and C-type asteroids, mass of, 519t scarps (rupes) on, 232, eucrite, 288, 290 f , 302, 326t movement of, 358 f 233 f , 236 327 enstatite, 287, 291 f , 327 orbit of, 517t size of, 6, 6 f ,13f , 228, falls/fall phenomena, 177, HED (Howardite– resonances of, 37, 367 259, 516t, 523t 181–82, 284–85, Eucrite–Diogenite), rotation rate of, 519t solar wind on, 236–37 289–295, 295 f 290, 302, 331–32 Saturn transited by, 15 f

Index 573

and Saturn’s rings, 362 f , 417–421, 417 f , 440, seismic activity on, 155 albedo of, 210 f , 516t, 364, 367, 368 f , 447, 474 seismometers on, 18 520t, 522t 370 f , 371 f molecular diffusion, 126–27 size of, 6 f , 228, 259, asteroids librating around, size of, 6 f , 272, 364, 519t moment of inertia/inertia 523t 34 surface of, 272 ratios, 44–45, 45, 52, in solar eclipses, 192 f atmosphere of, 98, 211 f , visual magnitude of, 517t 151–52, 236, 244, 263, sputtering on, 110 220, 220 f , 223, 416, mineralogy and petrology 268, 524t surface of, 228–230, 516t, 522t, 523t overview, 142–150 Moon 231 f , 255 auroral regions on, 203 minerals achondrites on, 289 tectonic activity on, 159, and centaurs, 316 See also specific minerals albedo of, 142, 228 230 cloud feature (Scooter) on, classifications of, 182 Apollo landing site on, topography of, 230, 231 f 220, 220 f defined, 142–43 537 f volatile depletion on, 441 composition of, 415–16, structures of, 143 f atmosphere of, 8, 110–11, volcanism on, 145, 157, 434 minimum mass (planetary), 230, 255, 522t 157 f , 161, 169, 175, density of, 516t, 523t 401 f , 420, 441 density of, 228, 441, 523t 181, 229–230 discovery of, 10, 12 minimum mass (solar Earth/Moon mass ratio, moonquakes, 50, 155, 230 geophysical data on, 516t nebula), 429 441 moons. See planetary Great Dark Spot on, 220, minor planets, 310–347 far side, 228 f , 528 f satellites; specific 220 f See also centaurs; Charon; formation of, 182, 228, moons; specific planets helium on, 207, 221, 223 comets; Eris; Eros; 430, 441–43, Mount Etna volcano, 163 interior of, 154, 204, Haumea; Itokawa; 442 f –43f , 445, 447, Mount Pinatubo volcano, 220–22, 222 f , 223 Makemake; 466 104, 471 and the Kuiper belt, 440, near-Earth objects; giant impact model for, Mount St. Helens volcano, 445 Pluto; Sedna; 442–43, 442 f , 466 160 f magnetic attributes of, trans-Neptunian gravity of, 230, 231 f Mount Tambora volcano, 198, 220–23, objects; Trojan highlands (terrae) of, 228, 471–72 222 f –23f , 525t asteroids; specific 228–29, 235 mudstone, 146–47 mass of, 4, 434, 516t minor planets ice on, 229, 255 multicellularity, 481, 481–82 methane on, 4–5, 98, 220, in the asteroid belt, 43, impact basins on, multiple bond molecules, 458 220 f , 280 f 311–12, 415 229–231, 231 f multiple star systems. See migration of, 437–38, 445 asteroids as, 7 impact craters on, 142, binary/multiple star moons of, 6 f , 8, 278–281, defined, 344 167, 169, 169 f , 170, systems 352 f , 370–71, 518t, information provided by, 172, 172 f , 175–76, mutation, 461, 479, 481, 485, 520t 19 178–79, 179 f –180 f , 493 obliquity of, 222 in the Kuiper belt, 43 181, 228–231, and the Oort cloud, 439 f masses of, 438, 521t 228 f –29f Nakhla meteorite, 468 orbit of, 4 f , 515t nomenclature of, 310–11 impact melt on, 539 f nano-diamonds, 297 and particle stability, 44 f orbits of, 311–12 interior of, 230–31, 231 f , natural satellites, 8, 12, 35, phase angle measurements properties of, 9, 521t 441–42 415 of, 89 reservoirs of, 43, 344 iron on, 228–231, 255 natural selection, 473, 476 f , planetesimals influenced satellites of, 259, 440–41 KREEP on, 229 479, 494 by, 437 size distributions of, magnetic field of, 19, 231 near-Earth objects (NEOs), radio emissions from, 203, 318–19 maria on, 142, 145, 175, 5 f , 56, 182, 312–14, 223 spin/rotation rates, 324 178, 181, 228–230, 313 f , 318–322, 319 f , and resonance locks, 37 and the Sun-Neptune 228 f , 232, 255, 268, 324 f , 328, 343, 344, rings of, 8, 281, 350, 355, system, 43 291, 305, 538 f 470 f 366, 372–73 Miranda, 6 f , 259, 277–78, mass of, 519t See also asteroids rotation of, 220, 223, 516t 279 f , 518t, 520t and Mercury, 228 (individual); Eros; size of, 6 f ,13f , 516t, mirror points, 200 f , 203 meteorites from, 289 Itokawa 523t missions into space, 527–532 obliquity of, 352 negative feedback spectra of, 210 f moist greenhouse effect, 136, orbit of, 517t loops/mechanisms, stratosphere of, 220 460 physical properties of, 133 f , 137, 464, 493 Sun-Neptune system, 43 mole (unit of mass 441–42, 519t Neptune thermal attributes of, 87, measurement), 67 polar regions of, 229, See also extrasolar planets; 90, 112 f , 114–15, molecular buoyancy 229 f giant planets; Nereid; 148 f , 154, 446 diffusion, 126–27 regolith on, 321 planet formation; and Trojan asteroids, 314 molecular clocks, 483 rilles on, 157 f , 163, 230 Proteus; winds on, 220, 223 molecular clouds/cloud cores, rock types on, 145, 146 f trans-neptunian Nereid, 6 f , 278–79, 281, 19–20, 302, 317, 343, rotation of, 152, 519t objects; Triton 518t, 520t

Index 574

neutrinos, 58, 79, 190 f by planetary rings, minor planets in, 311–12 orbital decay; orbital neutron flux, 81, 249 f 349–350, 350 f , 358, and Neptune, 439 f elements; orbital neutron half-life, 77–79 362, 365, 371 f object mass in, 8, 312 resonances; planetary neutron stars, 73–74, 81, 378 by Pluto, 333 objects entering, 429, rings; planetary New Horizons spacecraft, predictions of, 36 437–440, 439 f , 445 satellites; prograde 214, 265 f , 350, 531t rarity of, 13 and planet formation, 439 orbits; P-type orbits; Newton, Isaac, 3, 11–12, 24, ocean acidification, 134 and planetesimal-induced retrograde orbits; 453 ocean currents, 86 migration, 437 Saturn’s rings; S-type Newton’s laws of motion and oceanic crust, 151, 159 f , and Sedna, 316 orbits; tadpole orbits/ gravity, 11, 27–28, 45, 180, 182 shape of, 440 libration; specific bodies 58, 336, 369 oceans structure of, 317, 317 f orbits about mass-losing stars, nickel-iron, 167–68, 204, See also headings under open systems, 65, 456 58 286, 327, 424 tidal; mid-oceanic Ophelia, 278, 370–71, 518t, orbits about oblate planets, 47 NICs (nearly isotropic ridges/rifts; tides; 519t orbits of dust grains, 8 comets), 310 volcanism opposition effect, 17 organelles, 482 Nimbus 4 spacecraft, 117 f within Callisto, 17, 269 optical depth organic molecules, 18, 454, 1992 QB1 (KBO), 314 carbonate formation in, See also Saturn’s rings 458–59, 466, 474–75, nitrogen fixation, 464–65 147 of circumstellar disks, 474 f , 478, 490 Nix, 321 f , 333–34 and continental drift, 419–420 oxidizing atmospheres, 129 nodes, 11, 26, 29, 37, 47, 367 157–59, 159 f defined, 99 ozone, 114, 116–17, 123–25, nonbaryonic matter, 2 on Earth, 122, 131–36, in energy transport, 125 f , 472–73 nonthermal escape, 127–28, 238, 255, 259, 459, 94–95, 99, 101–3, 137 462–63, 480 f (see 111–13 pahoehoe lava, 161, 161 f northern lights, 200 also oceans: life and impact ejecta, 470–71 palimpsets, 175, 268 See also aurora developing in) normal optical depth, 354 Pallas (2 Pallas). See asteroids nuclear binding energy, within Europa, 17, 164, in photochemistry, 123–24 (individual) 76–77, 77 f 259, 263–64, 281, and planet heating Pallene, 275, 277 f , 517t, 519t nuclear stability, 81, 81 f 462, 489 processes, 396, 406 Palomar-Leiden survey nuclear winter, 486 evaporation of, 136, 270 and transiting planets, asteroids, 39 f nuclei (cellular), 476 life developing in, 462–68, 391–92 Pan, 275, 277 f , 359 f , 363, nucleic acids. See DNA; RNA 474 f , 475, 480 f orbital decay, 55, 56–58, 426, 370 f , 371, 517t, 519t, nucleons, 76, 77 f ,81–82 on Mars, 459 443 550 f nucleosynthesis, 76–82 on moons, 17, 164, 259, orbital elements of Pandora, 275, 277 f , 368 f , nucleotides, 457–58, 458 f 269, 281, 462, 489 exoplanets, 380, 400 f 369–370, 370 f , 371 f , ocean basins, 153, 157, See also entries under 372 f , 517t, 519t Oberon, 6 f , 277–78, 279 f , 467 Kepler Pangaea, 158 f 518t, 520t oxygen isotopes in, 296 f orbital elements of Solar panspermia, 486–87, 494 oblate planets, 15, 15 f , 40, on planets, 223 System objects Parker, Eugene, 193 46–48, 48 f , 142, 182, and the Urey weathering See also entries under Parker Model, 193–95, 194 f 207, 353–55 reaction, 131 Yarkovsky effect particle losses, 203 oblate speroids, 15, 151, 153 on Venus, 135 asteroids, 320 f , 520t Pauli exclusion principle, 74 obliquity (axial tilt), 25, 48, and volatiles, 433, 433 f , comets, 318–320 penumbrae of sunspots, 188, 121, 131, 414, 440, 445, 459, 462–63 minor planets, 521t 189 f 462, 465–66 Ohmic dissipation time, 204 planetary satellites, 8, 269, peptide bonds, 457 See also specific planets oligarchic planetary growth, 517t –520t perfect gas/perfect gas law, occultation (information 428–430 Solar System planets, 515t 69, 102, 105, 147 provided by), 13, 15, 18, Olympus Mons volcano, 162, TNOs, 315 f See also ideal gas/gas law 386 162 f –63f , 243, 246 orbital migration, 406–8, periapse, 86 occultation (photometric one-body problem, 27 437–39 angle of, 38 observation of), 393 f Oort,Jan,316 orbital perturbations and argument of, 11, 26 f , 29, occultation (planetary), and Oort cloud resonances, 36–40, 40 f 37–38 exoplanets, 382, 386, angular momentum in, 8 orbital resonances, 12, 37, defined, 29 392–93, 392 f , 393 f comets in, 7–8, 310–12, 37 f , 260, 275, 395, 466 and gas particle occultation (radio), 114, 358 317, 335, 343–44, orbiter vs. flyby missions, 12 trajectories, 418 occultation (solar), 194 f 344, 415, 439–440 orbits. See asteroid belt; longitude of, 11, 29, 47, occultation (stellar) defined, 7, 316 asteroids; comets; 382 by Eris, 334 formation of, 439–440, extrasolar planets; giant of moons and rings, 151, and planetary 445 planets; horseshoe 365, 367 atmospheres, 18 location of, 312 f orbits/libration; KBOs; passage of, 11

Index 575

and planetary apoapse Planck’s function, 392 and giant planets, 214, as reducing atmospheres, excursion, 390 Planck’s radiation law, 406–7, 414, 434, 129 of planetesimal orbits, 428 87–89, 90 434–39, 436–39, as secondary atmospheres, and tidal forces, 53, 444 planet formation, 413–451 441, 444–46, 446 129–137 perihelion, defined, 26 See also giant planets: and habitable zones, 462, spectral line measurements periodic chart of elements, formation of; 464 of, 115–17 513 planetary accretion; heat generated in, 154, thermal structures of, permissive ecology, 484 protoplanetary disks; 159, 430–33, 438, 110–15, 136 perturbations and resonances, terrestrial planets: 459, 464 and topography, 121–22 36–40, 59 formation of; specific and meteorite and ultraviolet radiation, perturbations of orbits. See planets bombardment, 180 f 461 orbits of specific bodies and atmospheric volatiles, models of, 2, 435, 444 and volatile petrology, 142–43, 159 129–137, 433–34 observation of, 2 accumulation/loss, See also rock blanketing effect in, 432 planetary embryos in, 433–34 classifications in circumsolar disks, 19 428–29 winds in, 86, 110, 120–21 phase angle, 17, 89–90, 312, and cratering rates, 445 in protoplanetary disks, planetary dynamics/motion 356, 356 f , 361 f , 386 differentiation in, 430–33, 417, 426–27 overview, 24–63 phase changes/processes, 431 f runaway accretion, planetary embryos, 426–430, 67–71, 68 f , 149, 182, and dust grains, 296–97 428–430, 428 f , 427 f –28f , 431 f , 432, 457 epoch of, 18, 228, 371–72, 435–36, 435 f 439, 442, 444–45 phase diagrams, 148 f , 149 415 simulations of, 430 planetary migration, 406–8, phase separation, 159–160, and exoplanets, 2–3, vs. star formation, 20 426, 429, 437–38, 443, 286 443–44, 446 stochastic nature of, 445–47 Phobos, 15, 15 f , 52, final stages of, 430, 431 f 440–41, 444 planetary properties, 11–19, 259–260, 260 f , 372, impacts during, 427–28, theories of, 2, 444–46 523t 443, 517t, 519t 430–34 planetary atmospheres, planetary protection, 487 Phobos 2 spacecraft, 15, 530t and isotopic fractionation, 110–140 planetary requirements for Phoebe, 6 f , 272, 275–76, 296 See also gas giants; giant life. See life: 278 f , 358, 517t, 519t and Mars, 431 f , 434, 439 planets; requirements for Phoenix Mars Lander, 165 f , and Mercury, 447 protoatmospheres; planetary rings, 348–376 531t and meteorites, 285, terrestrial planets; See also Jupiter: rings of; photochemical equilibrium, 301–4, 305 specific jovian moons; Neptune; Saturn’s 123, 127 models/simulations of, specific planets; rings; Uranus photochemistry, 110, 123–25, 430, 431 f specific satellites collisions within, 373 137, 211 and planetary migration, atmospheric escape, compositions of, 349 photodissociation, 123–25, 437–38 127–29, 133, 135–37 defined, 373 133, 135–36, 137, 211, planetesimal model for, and clouds, 118–19, 136 discoveries in, 3, 349–351 242, 297, 338, 472 438 compositions of, 115–18, diversity among, 355 photoionization, 95, 110, 123, planets as models for, 416, 416, 523t and equipotential surfaces, 125–26, 338, 341 418, 423, 425, 429, diversity of, 110 352 photolysis, 114, 123–26, 180, 431 f , 433, 446 Doppler shift and exoplanets, 391 211, 220, 270 primordial heat and, 159 measurements of, 116 flattening and spreading photons and energy levels in protoatmospheres in, energy transport in, 113, of, 354–55, 367, 370 atoms, 95–97 432–34 432 gap formation in, 423, photosphere. See Sun: Solar System as model for, equilibrium in, 422, 433 f 436 f photosphere of 2, 12, 19, 414–17, and exoplanets, 406 gravitational elements of, photosynthesis, 133, 454, 430, 444–45, 447 formation of, 446 352–54, 365, 367–68 456–57, 457 f , 463, tectonic activity in, 156 heat sources of, 113 loss mechanisms in, 372 468, 471t, 472–73, 475, theories of, 20, 398, and impact erosion, and moons, 366–371, 373, 480 f 444–46, 447 128–29, 433 f 416, 440 phyla, 476, 484 planetary accretion and meteorology, 121 f , orbits of, 373 phylogenetic tree, 475–78, and atmospheric volatiles, 122 f origins of, 373 477 f , 482 110, 130, 137, as oxygen atmospheres, and protoplanetary disks, Pioneer spacecraft, 214, 350, 433–34 129 373 530t collisions creating, 19–20 and the perfect gas law, resonances in, 360, 362 f , planar three-body problem. effects of, 15 147 366–371, 368 f , 369 f See three-body problem energy of, lost, 75 f , 406 photochemistry of, and Roche’s limit, 352 f , Planck curve, 90 and exoplanets, 446 123–25 353–54, 373 Planck’s constant, 87, 95 final stages of, 430 profiles of, 113–15 shepherding in, 369–371

Index 576

planetary rings (cont.) Neptune’s influence on, 178, 212, 212 f –13f , positrons, 79–80, 82 tenuous nature of, 373 437 469 post-main sequence stars, 58, and tidal forces, 351–54 and planet formation, vapor plumes, 171 461 waves in, 362, 364, 19–20, 325, 343, volcanic, 156, 160, 242, power laws, 318, 337, 343 f , 366–370, 426–430, 427 f –28f , 260–61, 262 f , 265 f , 344, 362–63 368 f –370 f 431 f , 439 273–75, 276 f , Poynting-Robertson drag, planetary rotation. See and planetary atmospheres, 280–81, 280 f , 363 54–56, 59, 290, 325, rotation; rotation of 130, 135–36 plutinos, 315, 438, 445 343, 372 specific bodies and planetary satellites, Pluto (134340 Pluto) pp-chain, 79–80 planetary satellites, 258–283 441 See also Charon p-process nucleosynthesis, See also giant planets; raw materials of, 423 albedo of, 123, 522t 82 minor planets; specific scattering of, 430, 437–39 atmosphere of, 7, 110–11, precession, 38, 46–48, 151, moons/satellites; and water accretion, 135 328, 522t 367 specific planets planets. See circumplanetary classification of, 10, 72, prefixes used in text, 509t albedos of, 6 f disks; dwarf planets; 314 pre-main sequence stars, 419 formation of, 441 giant planets; Kepler’s condensation flows on, 123 presolar grains, 296–98, habitability of, 466–67 laws of planetary discovery of, 314 303–4, 305 f , 340, 416 and life, 2–3 motion; minor planets; and hydrodynamic escape, pressure broadening, 100 listed, 519t –520t planet formation; 128 pressure gradient, 57, 65, obliquity of, 353 planetary accretion; ice on, 165, 328, 333, 120–22, 137, 418–19, orbits of, 8, 12, 259, 517t, planetary atmospheres; 333 f , 425 421, 426 518t planetary embryos; as KBO, 314–15, 324, 333 primary craters, 172, 176, 232 physical properties of, planetary migration; mass of, 12, 324, 333, 440, primitive rocks, 143, 295 519t, 520t planetary properties; 443 primitive solar nebula, 116, planetesimal planetary rings; methane on, 123, 333–34 328, 420 bombardment of, 441 planetary satellites; moons of, 321, 321 f , primordial atmospheres, regular/irregular, 441 planetesimals; 333–34, 443 129–130 and ring formation, protoplanets; terrestrial in a multiple system, 321 f primordial heat, 154, 351–52 planets; specific planets orbit of, 4 f , 315, 333, 159–160, 275 and ring-moon planets and life overview, 333 f primordial nucleosynthesis, interactions, 366–371 452–500 orbital resonance with 77, 79 rotation rates of, 519t, plasma Neptune, 37, 43 principal quantum number, 95 520t cometary, 197 f , 337, seasons on, 333, 333 f prograde orbit, defined, 8 size ranges of, 6 f 337 f , 341, 344 size of, 7, 333, 521t prograde orbits, 51 f , 441 surfaces of, 281 defined, 9–10 and solar motion/velocity prokaryotes, 454, 455 f , 459, tidal forces on, 351–52 of Galilean satellites, 215, variations, 380 f –81f 468, 472, 475–76, planetary topography, 153, 263 spectra of, 333 478–482, 480 f , 492–93 155, 164, 183, 409 f ionospheric, 199 f as TNO, 314, 315 f , 333 Prometheus, 275, 277 f , See also Earth; Mars; loss of, 188 volatile retention on, 328 368 f , 369–370, planetary satellites magnetospheric, 110, 128, Pluto-Charon system, 12, 33, 370 f –72f , 517t, 519t planetesimal-induced 188, 198–203 52, 321 f , 333, 441, 443 prominences, 190, migration, 437 solar, 4, 9–10, 191, 193, Poisson’s equation, 45 190 f –91f , 193, 194 f , planetesimals 195, 197–99 polar cells, 121 204 and asteroids, 325, 328, and space weather, 195 polar cusps, 199, 219, 223 proteins, 454, 457–58, 474, 343, 438–39 stellar, 4, 71, 79 polar flattening. See oblate 481 colliding, 427–28, 427 f , plasma torus, 215, 215 f , planets Proteus, 6 f , 281, 518t, 520t 430–34, 439 263 polar wander, 151–52 protoatmospheres, 432–34 differentiation in, 285, plasmasphere, 199, 199 f Polydeuces, 275, 277 f , 517t, protoplanetary disks 302 plate tectonics, 18, 116, 131, 519t See also planet formation formation of, 423–430 133 f , 135–36, 142, polymers, 454, 457–59, 475 and β Pictoris, 421 f and gas drag, 57 155–59, 159 f , 183, polymict rocks, 146 f CAIs in, 298 heat generated by, 430–31 456, 463, 463 f polypeptides, 457, 474, 481 chemistry in, 423–25, and Jupiter, 425, 437 See also tectonic activity polytropes/polytropic 424 f and the Kuiper belt, 440, on specific planets constant, 74–75 chondrites in, 287–88, 445 playas, 164 Pope, Alexander, 377 297–98, 301–4, 305, as meteorite source, 285, plumes positive feedback 416 296, 302–3 from dust devils, 247 f loops/mechanisms, and chondrules, 143, migration of, 426 from impact events, 130 f , 132 f , 136, 137, 297–98, 302–4, 305 Moon formed by, 182 128–29, 170 f , 171, 166, 464 convection in, 93

Index 577

disequilibrium processes 389 f –394 f , 399–403, reflectivity. See albedo rock classifications, 143–47, in, 423–25 410 refractory materials, 17 182 evolution of, 420–26 radiant point, 325 regional metamorphism, 145 rocket equation, 527 freeze-out temperatures in, radiation belts, 199, 202, regoliths, 135, 176–77, 229, rogue planets, 462 424–25 216 f , 237 240, 321, 325, 329, Rosetta spacecraft, 330, gaseous components of, radiation pressure, 25, 54–57, 329 f , 331, 363, 487 330 f , 531t 429, 434–39, 441 55 f , 59, 236, 325, regular and chaotic motion, Rosseland absorption gravitational instability in, 338–39, 344 38–40 coefficient, 104–5 435 radiative diffusion equations, relative humidity, 119 Rossiter-McLaughlin effect, kinetically inhibited 104–5 remanent magnetism/ 393–94 reactions in, 424 radiative energy transport, 91, ferromagnetism, 16, 19, rotation, 46–53, 91–96, 100, lifetimes of, 19, 425 100–102, 106, 113, 154, 188, 204, 255, 295, 303, 120–21, 137, 150–52, meteorites in, 143, 189 446 182, 352 287–88, 296–98, radiative equilibrium, 102–4, resonance locks, 37, 369–379 See also obliquity; 301–4, 305, 416 113 resonance zones, 314, 343 prograde rotation; planetary accretion in, radiative flux, 90, 102, resonances. See horizontal retrograde rotation; 426–27 104–5, 461, 468 resonances; Kozai rotation of specific planetary embryo See also heat flux; stellar resonance; Lindblad bodies formation in, radiation flux resonance; mean motion r-process, 81–82 426–430 radio emissions, 16, 188, resonances; orbital rubble pile composition, 269, planetary migration in, 190 f , 203, 216, 219, resonances; 320–21, 324, 329–331, 426, 429, 445–46 223, 385 perturbations and 334, 334 f and planetary rings, 394 radio occultation, 114, 358 resonances; planetary runaway greenhouse effect, and presolar grain radioactive decay rings; Saturn’s rings; 131, 135–36, 137, 460, formation, 304, 341 defined, 82 secular resonances; 464 shock fronts in, 421 and element balance, 65 vertical resonances runaway planetary solid-body growth in, isotopes formed by, 77, resonant forcing, 36–37, 367, accretion/growth, 425–430 130, 297–99, 302, 444 428–430, 428 f , spiral waves in, 37, 436 f 416 resonant perturbation, 37, 59, 435–36, 435 f stages of, 420–25 planetary energy generated 343, 439 rupes, 232–33, 233 f and the Sun, 447 by, 111, 154, 222, resurgent calderas, 163 Rydberg constant, 95 and torques, 422–23, 429, 407, 432, 459, 464 retrograde orbits, 29, 36, 52, 437 and protostellar material, 276, 394 f Safronov, Victor, 413 protoplanets, 423, 430, 432, 78t retrograde revolution, Sagan, Carl, 226, 270 435, 437, 442 f , 446 radioactive equilibrium, defined, 29 saltation, 166, 246 protostars, 79, 418–19, 421, 102–3 retrograde rotation, defined, San Andreas fault, 156–57 423–24, 423 f radioactive heating, 183 12, 14 sandblasting, 166, 180, 427 P-type orbits, 386, 387 f , radionuclide dating, 298, revolution (orbital). See orbits sandstone, 134, 144 f , 388 299t, 301 of specific bodies 146–47, 252 Puck, 278, 518t, 520t rampart craters, 249 Reynolds number, 57 satellites. See planetary pulsar planets, 387–88 random self-assembly of Rhea, 6 f , 178, 272, 274 f , satellites; specific pulsar timing, 378–79, 388, polymers, 475 517t, 519t moons/satellites; specific 388 f rarefaction waves, 171 rheology, 152, 156 planets pulsars, 378–79, 387–88 Rayleigh scattering, 123, Richter magnitude scale, 158, saturation (atmospheric), 94, 489 f 167 106, 118–19, 118 f , 136 Queloz, Didier, 389, 389 f Rayleigh–Jeans law, 87–88 rilles, 157, 157 f , 163, 230 saturation (by craters), 178, quintessence (fifth classical Rayleigh–Jeans tail, 392 ring moons, 269 f , 351, 354, 180–81, 228–29, 254 f , element), 453 rays from craters, 172, 172 f , 360, 366–371, 368 f , 260, 267–68, 274 f , 176, 183, 266 f , 274 f , 370 f –72f , 372 275, 416 racemic mixtures, 474 279 f rings (planetary). See saturation (in rocks), 253, radar, 13, 15, 17, 100, 178, recombination reactions, planetary rings; specific 464 234, 238–241, 270–73, 123–26, 479 planets saturation vapor pressure 340, 362–63, 492 red giants, 72 f , 73, 80, 461 RNA (ribonucleic acid), 458, curves, 118–19, 118 f , radial diffusion, 202, 358 red shift, 100, 106 474, 477 f , 481 136, 208, 210–11, 246 radial migration, 426, 429, See also Doppler shifts Roche, Edouard,´ 353 Saturn 446 redox reactions, 456–57 Roche division, 357 See also extrasolar planets; radial velocity reducing atmospheres, 129 Roche’s limit, 51, 351–54, giant planets; planet measurements/surveys, reflection spectra, 291 f , 328, 352 f , 373, 440–41, formation; Saturn’s 379–380, 385–394, 489 f 443 f rings

Index 578

Saturn (cont.) Saturn’s rings, 354–373 optical depth in, 354–58, and tectonic activity, 142 albedo of, 210 f , 516t, A ring, 275, 351 f , 357, 357 f , 360 f , 363, scattered disk objects (SDOs), 519t, 522t 358 f –59f , 360, 365–69, 365 f , 371 7–8, 315–16, 317 f , asteroids librating around, 363–64, 364 f , origins of, 369, 371–73 343, 415, 521t 34, 34 f 367–69, 550 f and Pan, 359 f , 363, 370 f , See also Eris; Haumea atmosphere of, 17, 76, B ring, 357–58, 371 scattering 116, 211, 211 f , 358 f –59f , 360, and Pandora, 368 f , from exoplanet 216–19, 223, 416, 361 f –62f , 363–64, 369–370, 370 f –72f atmospheres, 386, 392 522t, 523t, 548 f 367–69 particles in, 354–55, gravitational, 354, 429, aurora on, 200, 202 f , 219 C ring, 357, 358 f –59f , 362–64, 363 f , 367, 443–44 and Chiron, 316 364, 367–69 369 on Io, 262 f composition of, 4–5, 17, D ring, 357, 359 f Phoebe ring, 357 f , 358 planetary, 43 223, 416, 434, 436, E ring, 277 f , 361 f , 363, and Prometheus, 360, of planetesimals, 430, 440 365–66 368 f , 369–370, 437–39 density of, 207, 223, 516t, F ring, 275, 357, 360, 363, 370 f –72f planet-planet, 394, 523t 370, 371 f propeller structures in, 443–44, 447 geophysical data on, 516t G ring, 357, 361 f , 363 363, 364 f , 371 of radiation, 103 f helium on, 116, 154, 207, albedos of, 355, 362 radial structure of, 357–58 and radiation pressure, 54, 217–18, 415, 440 and Atlas, 369 and radio occultations, 358 100–101 interior of, 148, 154, azimuthal variations regolith in, 363 Rayleigh scattering, 123, 203–4 among, 358–360 resonances in, 360, 362 f , 489 f magnetic attributes of, 17, Cassini division in, 357, 366–371, 369 f , 371 f scattering phase function, 148, 198, 203, 358 f , 364, 368–69 Roche division in, 357 89, 89 f 218–19, 222, 272, cosmic ray interactions and the Roche limit, 360, solar, 215, 262 f 358, 525t with, 364 373 in Uranus’s rings, 365 f mass of, 4–5, 34, 75 f , and Daphnis, 368 f seasonal effects of, 217 Schiaparelli, Giovanni, 491 f 434, 516t diffuse sunlight shepherding in, 369–371, Schwarzchild radius, 61 mesopause on, 111 transmission in, 358 f 371 f Schwassmann–Wachmann. methane on, 116, 217, discovery/early spectra of, 363 See comets (individual) 218 f , 548 f observations of, 349 spiral/density/bending sea floor spreading, 158, migration of, 437–38 and Enceladus, 357, 358 f , waves in, 12, 37, 362, 159 f moons of, 6 f , 12, 363 364, 367–370, Search for Extra-Terrestrial 269–276, 271 f –77f , Encke’s Gap in, 357, 368 f –371 f , 373 Intelligence (SETI), 352 f , 441, 517t, 519t 370 f , 371, 550 f spokes in, 8, 358, 360, 453–54, 491–93 oblateness of, 15, 15 f and Epimetheus, 367, 361 f , 363, 372 second genesis, 487 orbit of, 4 f , 515t 368 f , 369, 370 f sputtering in, 372 second law of periapse of, 38 gap formation in, 363, 367, and stellar occultations, thermodynamics, photochemistry of, 211 368 f , 370 f , 371, 436 358, 362 66–67, 456 planetesimals influenced gravitational perturbations surface mass density of, secondary atmospheres, by, 437 in, 360, 362 f , 363, 364, 368 129–137 radio emissions from, 203, 370 f thickness of, 360–64 secondary eclipses, 386, 393 219, 223 hypothetical view of, 363 f widening angles in, See also exoplanets; ring moons of, 351 ice in, 362–63 367–68 occultations rotation of, 203, 219, 223, and Janus, 367, 368 f , 369, scale heights, 69, 111, (planetary) 516t 370 f –71f 126–28, 178, 355, 393, secular perturbation theory, size of, 6 f ,13f , 516t, Keeler gap in, 363, 368 f 433 37 523t large-scale structure of, See also pressure scale secular resonances, 37–38, and solar motion/velocity 356–57, 357t height 313 f variations, 380 f loss mechanisms in, 372 scarps sedimentary rocks, 131, 143, spectra of, 210 f , 211 f , main ring system, 355, on asteroids, 330–32, 144 f , 146–47, 164, 219 357, 362, 373 332 f , 344 250, 253, 253 f , 483 f storms on, 216, 217 f , mass of, 363–64, 373 on comets, 336 f Sedna, 315 f , 316, 328, 521t 218–19, 223, 549 f and Mimas, 358 f , 362 f , defined, 157 seismic activity, 50, 142, 155, thermal attributes of, 87, 364, 367, 368 f , formation of, 155 167, 170–71, 180, 183, 90, 112 f , 114–16, 371 f on Mars, 251 f 230, 329, 467 148 f , 154, 211 f , and moon orbits, 352 f on moons, 169 f , 175, 277, seismic cores, 176 217, 217 f , 446 moonlet gap clearing in, 279 f seismic data, 230, 537t winds on, 218–19, 218 f , 363 on planets, 232–33, 233 f , seismic experiment 223 opacity of, 364 236, 243, 248 f , 251 f (Chicxulub), 469 f

Index 579

self-gravity, 10, 15, 43–44, small macroscopic particles, in habitable zones, 460 spacecraft exploration of, 3 50, 353–54, 365, 55–56 moving bodies effected by, sputtering caused by, 110, 367–68, 417–18, SNC meteorites. See 55 f ,57–59 180 420–21, 436 meteorites as planetary energy source, velocities of, 10, 195, semidiurnal tides, 50–51 (classes/types) 86 195 f sexual reproduction, 481 snowball Earth, 130–31, and planetary temperature solid-state greenhouse effect, Shakespeare, William, 109 130 f , 464 structures, 91–97, 104, 281 shale, 133, 146–47, 158 solar day, 22 111, 113, 154 Sommerfeld, Arnold, 64 shepherding moons, 275, 278, solar eclipses, 2, 190, 192 f in protoatmospheres, 432 source function, 101–2 369–371 solar flares, 193, 195–96, 200 reradiated, 89–92, 89 f , southern lights, 200 shield volcanoes, 162, 162 f , solar flux/solar energy flux, 102, 104 See also aurora 239, 243, 272 48, 56, 90, 103, 125–26, Solar System space observatories, 532t shock fronts, 293, 421, 423 130, 395 See also asteroids; comets; space weather/weathering, shocked minerals, 146, 170 f , solar heating Kuiper belt; meteors; 188, 195–98, 234, 171, 469, 469 f of comets, 7, 71, 326, 344 Oort cloud; small 326–330, 335 Shoemaker, Carolyn and and the greenhouse effect, bodies; Sun; specific spallation, 77 Gene, 211 102–3, 137 planets specific heats, 94, 178 Shoemaker–Levy. See comets vs. internal heating, 16, age of, 42, 290–91, 296, specific intensity of radiation, (individual) 154 302, 355, 369, 372, 100 sidereal day, 22 on Mars, 246 415 specific volume, 93 siderophile elements, 229, and meteorological chaotic regions in, 39–40 spectra 286, 304 f extremes, 120 constraints on, 414–16 See also absorption silicate weathering, 133 f overview, 86–91 dynamical state of, bands/lines; emission simple craters, 168–69, 169 f and temperature gradients, 444–45 spectra; Jupiter; single bond molecules, 458 92 elemental abundances, 78t Saturn skin temperature (upper of upper atmospheres, 113 invariable plane of, 29 in asteroid analysis, 310, boundaries), 105 of Venus, 52 inventory of, 3–10, 323–24, 325–334, slumping motions/slumps, winds forced by, 121–23 4 f –6f 329 155, 173, 545 f solar maximum/minimum, orbital chaos in, 59 in atmospheric analysis, small bodies 190, 194 f origin of, 19–20, 57–58, 136, 209–10, 217 See also asteroids; comets; solar nebula 300, 414–16 in bulk compositional dust; KBOs; asteroids forming from, stability of, 40–43 analysis, 325, 329 meteorites; 327 solar wind in exoplanet planet meteoroids; meteors; comets forming from, See also stellar winds detection, 385–86, minor planets; moons; 340–41, 344, 440 and charged particle 385 f , 387 f planetary embryos; giant planets forming precipitation, 113, in extraterrestrial life-form planetesimals; TNOs from, 137 188, 202 investigation, 488 densities of, 69, 415 gravitational forces of, 20, and climate change, 130 Fraunhofer absorption discoveries of, 10 116 and corpuscular drag, spectrum, 98 forces acting on/exerted ice retained from, 445 54–57, 57 f in meteorite analysis, by, 25, 42–43, 49, and KBOs, 314 density of, 10 234–35 54–57, 59 meteorites forming from, formation of, 193–94 overview, 97–100 and Hill’s problem, 31 286, 302–4 and the heliosphere, 9–10, in planet classification, 310 mass/size relationship, 74 minimum mass model of, 9 f , 188, 195 and Saturn’s rings, 363 observations of, 13, 18, 20, 420, 429, 441, 446 and hydrodynamic escape, in surface sample analysis, 213, 213 f planetesimals forming in, 128 17, 230, 234–35, 251, orbits of, 12, 43, 47, 59 408 f , 426, 429 interacting with planets, 276 f organic molecules on, protoplanetary disk 196–200, 196 f , 199 f of TNOs, 326, 328, 334 490 forming in, 420–26, magnetic properties of, spectral line planets forming from, 20 424 f , 445 16–17, 71, 113, 188, measurements/profiles, and Roche’s limit, 51, 441 stages of, 420, 420–25 198, 202–3, 205 98–100, 98 f , 106, 116 satellites of, 443–44 and Venus, 135 on Mercury, 236–37 spectrographic biosignatures, shapes of, 13, 152, 415 solar radiation and the Parker model, 488 Sun-orbiting, 5 f ,8, and asteroids, 326 193–95, 194 f speed of light, 54, 87, 95, 438–440 and comets, 338 as plasma source, 199 f , 195, 383 surfaces of, 142 defined, 54 202–3 spherical symmetry, 25, survival lifetimes of, 43 and ejecta, 236 properties of, 193 45–46 as test particles, 31, 37 and gravitational and Saturn, 202 f , 219 spiral bending waves, 362, and void space, 14 interaction, 25 and solar mass, 58 364, 367, 369 f

Index 580

spiral density waves, 364, dust ejected into, 470–71 and the Kozai mechanism, tectonic activity. See plate 367, 369 f , 423, 429 of Earth, 116–17, 125, 38 tectonics; tectonic spontaneous fission, 82, 302 325, 470–71 luminosity of, 3–4, 71, 90, activity on specific s-process, 81 emission profiles in, 99 130–31, 190, 461, planets Sptizer Space Telescope, 391, energy transport in, 102 473, 486 tektites, 292, 469 f 532t of giant planets, 155, 220 and magnetic fields, Telesto, 275, 277 f , 517t, sputtering process, 110, 128, interplanetary dust in, 188–190, 194–95, 519t 180, 202, 230, 236–37, 292–93, 325 195 f Tempel. See comets 263, 267, 365, 372 methane in, 472 as main sequence star, 43, (individual) stability of the Solar System, of Neptune, 220 72 f , 79, 83, 344 temperature and energy 40–43 of planets, compared, mass of, 54, 58 balance, 86–91 star formation overview, 112 f mixing of elements in, 447 temperature gradients, 92, 94, 417–420 radiation absorbed by, 95 overviews, 3–4, 188–191 105, 113, 119, 121, 127, star SAO 158687, 349, 350 f temperatures in, 111, 114 photosphere of, 33 f , 286, 154, 242 stardust, 297 of Titan, 117 f , 270, 486 289 f temperature types, 90–91 Stardust spacecraft, 336, of Uranus, 220 polarity reversal of, 189 temporary orbits, 35, 35 f 336 f , 340, 341 f , 446, stress, defined, 152 and Poynting-Robertson terminal velocity, 177, 295 531t strewn fields, 295, 295 f drag, 54–55 termination shock, 9 f ,10 stars stromatolites, 478, 478 f prominences on, 190, terpanes, 478–79 See also headings under strong nuclear force, 76 190 f , 191 f , 193, terraforming, 487 stellar; main sequence S-type orbits, 386, 399 194 f , 204 terrestrial age of meteorites, stars; protostars; subduction, 153, 158, 159 f , protoplanetary disk of, 447 301 pulsars; Sun; young 160, 456, 463 f radiative zone of, 189 terrestrial planets stars sub-life forms. See life: and Solar System mass, 4, See also Earth; Mars; defined, 10–11, 71 sub-life forms 29 Mercury; planet formation of, 20, 439, 447 sublimation, 65, 68, 123, 234, spectral energy formation; Venus H-R diagram of, 72 f 246–47, 268, 333–39, distribution of, 385 f atmospheres of, 20, thermonuclear fusion in, 341, 344 spectrum of, 87, 88 f , 110–11, 122, 71, 79, 83 sublimation of ice, 110, 119, 97–98, 98 f 128–130, 136, 137, Stefan-Boltzmann 132, 165, 215, 247, 261, temperatures of, 79, 98, 446 constant/law, 88–89, 263, 318–19 193 f and circumplanetary disks, 105, 106 submicrometer particles, thermonuclear fusion in, 441 Steins (2876 Steins). See 54–57, 338, 360, 365 79, 83, 189, 190 f , densities of, 14, 415, 445, asteroids (individual) Sun 204 516t stellar cores, 71–73, 79–81, See also eclipses; headings tides created by, 50–52 dust storms on, 166 83 under solar; sunspots sunspots, 188–190, 189 f , elemental depletion in, 303 stellar evolution, 459 composition of, 188–89 191 f –93f , 193, 204 formation of, 303, 430–34, stellar luminosity, 71–73, convection in, 189, 190 f , superadiabatic atmospheric 431 f , 438, 446–47 72 f ,75f , 80, 83, 392, 204 layer, 113 geophysical data on, 516t 460–61 corona/coronal mass supergranulation, 189 giant planet influences on, stellar mass, 72–73, 72 f , 80, ejections, 22, 190–91, supernovae, 58, 73, 81–82, 466–67 82, 383–85, 418, 460 190 f –91f , 193–96, 302, 304, 335, 462 heat/temperatures on, 154, stellar nucleosynthesis, 193 f –94f , 200, 204, superrotating winds, 242 160 79–82 323 f , 387, 421 f surface creep, 155, 166 overviews, 2–8, 226–257 stellar properties and ecliptic plane of, 12 surface mass densities, 355, and regoliths, 176 lifetimes, 71–76 energy of, 204 364, 368, 429, 435 f solid surfaces of, 142 stellar radiation flux, 395–97, evolutionary track of, 73 f surface morphology, test particles, 5, 27, 31–32, 397 f , 460 formation of, 116 155–167, 182, 328, 33 f ,35f ,39f , 43, 44 f stellar remnants, 11, 73, 388 gravitational attraction of, 329 f , 472–73 Tethys, 6 f ,33f , 34, 37, 272, stellar winds, 58, 82, 420 54–55, 57 symbols used in text, 501–4 274 f , 275, 277 f , 517t, See also solar wind and the greenhouse effect, synchrotron radiation, 216 519t, 549 f steranes, 478–79 16, 102, 104 synodic periods, 62, 370 Tharsis region, 135, 243–46, strain, defined, 152 and helioseismology, 18 244 f –45f , 245 f , 246 stratigraphy, 155–56, 156 f , heliosphere of, 9–10, 9 f tadpole orbits/libration, 33 f , Thebe, 269, 269 f , 356 f , 171 interior of, 18, 190 f , 204 34, 38, 44 f , 314, 429 517t, 519t stratopause, 111 and the interplanetary Tagish lake meteorite fall, thermal conductivity, 17, 92, stratosphere field, 195 f 286 293–94 and anti-greenhouse Kepler’s laws and, 26, technology and intelligence, thermal flux/thermal energy effects, 104, 118, 486 28–29 485, 487–88, 491–93 flux, 102, 114

Index 581

thermal heat capacity, 66–67 on NEOs, 313 water on, 489 Trojan asteroids, 5 f , 33–34, thermal inertia, 92–93 planetary, 322, 440–42 winds on, 272, 273 f 37–38, 312, 314, thermal metamorphism, 287, on planetary rings, Titania, 6 f , 277, 279 f , 518t, 319–322, 326t, 327, 297, 329 351–52, 373 520t 344, 439, 521t thermal radiation, 14, 87–89, and Roche’s limit, 351–54 TNOs. See trans-Neptunian tropospheres, 95, 98–99, 104–5, 208 f , 392 stellar, 443 objects 110–15, 117–19, 117 f , thermal structures, 18, 93, on vulcans, 389 Toomre’s stability parameter, 125, 155, 270, 522t 110–15, 119, 136, 150 tidal heating, 25, 53, 154, 355, 423 true anomaly, 11, 26, 26 f thermal tide winds, 122–23, 160, 183, 259, 275, 281, torques on oblate planets, Tsiolkovskii, Konstantin 246 370, 459 47–48, 48 f Eduardovich, 493 thermodynamic tidal locking, 52, 460, 460 f , transduction/transformation tsunamis, 467, 470–72, disequilibrium, 456 462 (gene transfer), 482 471t thermodynamic equilibrium, tidal recession, 37, 466 transient craters, 172–73 Tunguska impact event, 178, 82, 101 tidal synchronization, 51 f , transit photometry, 381–83, 181–82, 295, 467, thermodynamics overview, 462 381 f , 400, 410 467 f , 471t 65–68 tidal torque, 51–52, 51 f , 59, transit timing variations 2002 AA29. See asteroids thermonuclear 440, 444 (TTVs), 382–83, 385, (individual) fusion/reactions, 71, 79, tidal winds, 121–22, 246 395 two-body problem, 25–31 83, 189, 190 f , 204 tidal zones, 463, 466 Transition Region and two-stream approximation, thermophiles, 468, 478 tide pools, 475 Coronal Explorer 105 thermospheres, 92, 111–15, tides, 122–23, 126, 230, 246, (TRACE), 191 f type I/II/III civilizations, 487 112 f , 122–23, 155, 242 343, 353, 440, 466 trans-Neptunian objects third law of thermodynamics, Titan (TNOs), 314–16, 315 f , UFOs (unidentified flying 66 albedo of, 270, 522t 321–22, 325, 328, objects), 488 tholins, 270 atmosphere of, 8, 17, 111, 333–34, 343, 521t Ulysses spacecraft, 203, 214, three-body problem, 31–36, 116, 136, 155, 165, See also Charon; Eris; 219, 531t 33 f , 37, 59, 388 f 259, 281, 488, 522t, Haumea; Pluto; umbrae of sunspots, 188, Thule (279 Thule). See 523t Varuna 189 f asteroids (individual) density of, 270 triple point of water, 119, 164 Umbriel, 6 f , 277, 279 f , tidal bulges, 50–53, 51 f ,59 downhill motions on, 155 tritium, 79 518t, 520t tidal circularization dunes on, 166 Triton uncompressed densities, 150, timescales, 401 greenhouse effect on, 102, albedo of, 522t 236, 441 tidal damping, 389, 400 f , 104, 115 atmosphere of, 8, 18, undifferentiated bodies, 331 444 ice on, 165, 270 110–11, 279–280, units and constants used in tidal decay, 259, 373 impacts/impact craters on, 328, 522t text, 509t –11t tidal deformation, 18–19, 25, 136, 271–72, 273 f captured, 445 unperturbed impact 49, 244 limb brightening on, 99 condensation flows on, 123 parameter, 427 f tidal disruption, 322–23, 353 liquid flows on, 164, 259, dust on, 276 f , 280 f Uranus tidal dissipation, 51–52, 51 f , 281 geysers on, 8, 162, 259, See also extrasolar planets; 53, 92, 154–55, 393–94, mass of, 8 280–81, 280 f giant planets; planet 462 mesopause on, 111 greenhouse effect on, 281 formation tidal forces methane on, 116, 155, 165, ice on, 110, 165, 280, albedo of, 210 f , 219 f , on asteroids, 320–21, 325 270–72, 489 280 f , 328, 425 516t, 519t, 522t in binary systems, 320–22 organic molecules in, 18, as KBO, 279, 328 atmosphere of, 17, 98, on comets, 211, 317, 322, 489 methane on, 123, 280 211 f , 219, 223, 416, 372 polar regions of, 270–71 orbit of, 12, 52, 278–79, 522t, 523t defined, 48–49 size of, 6 f ,13f , 259, 270 416, 445, 518t auroral regions on, 203 on Earth, 466 and solar wind, 198 physical properties of, and centaurs, 316 on Europa, 154, 159 stratosphere of, 104, 117 f , 520t color of, 98 galactic, 343, 415, 437, 118, 270, 486 polar regions of, 280–81, composition of, 415–16, 439–440, 439 f surface of, 270–71, 271 f , 280 f 434 giant planet-moon, 467 273 f seasons on, 279 density of, 516t, 523t in/on Io, 25, 53, 92, 160, thermal attributes of, size of, 6 f , 279 discovery of, 10 260, 263, 281 114–15, 117 f , 118, surface of, 259, 280, 280 f geophysical data on, 516t of Jupiter, 211 165 temperatures on, 280 helium on, 207, 221, 223 on Mars, 244 tholins on, 270 tidal forces on, 53 as ice giant, 5 on Mercury, 53 f , 440 transiting Saturn, 15 f volatile retention on, 328 impacts on, 445 on moons, 49, 49 f , 152, troposphere of, 270 volcanism on, 110, 142 interior of, 204, 220–21, 230, 260–61, 351–52 volcanism on, 136, 272 winds on, 8, 280 f , 281 222 f , 223

Index 582

Uranus (cont.) atmosphere of, 6, 17, 52, spectral energy 279 f –280 f , 281, magnetic attributes of, 112 f , 116, 122, 135, distribution of, 385 f 349–350, 361 f –62f , 198, 200, 221–22, 177, 227, 240, 246, spectral measurements of, 362, 365 f , 366 222 f , 525t 255, 516t, 522t, 116–18, 117 f Voyager spacecraft, 530t mass of, 4, 434, 516t 523t stratigraphy of, 156 f vugs (voids in rocks), 252 mass-density relation on, atmospheric tides on, surface of, 238–39, vulcan planets, 389, 391–92, 397 f 52–53 238 f –39f 392 f , 394 f , 396–97, methane on, 4–5, 98, 220 and the carbon cycle, 464 tectonic activity on, 159, 467 migration of, 437–38 carbonate formation on, 240, 240 f , 242 moons of, 276–78, 352 f , 406 terraforming on, 487 weathering (atmospheric), 370–71, 441, climate of, 459 thermal attributes of, 90, 133 f , 134, 166–67, 518t –520t clouds on, 238, 241–42, 112 f , 114–15, 180, 240, 251–52, 301, obliquity of, 414 241 f , 386 135–36, 135 f , 240, 463–64 orbit of, 4 f , 515t coronae on, 156, 239–240, 242, 461 See also carbon-silicate phase angle measurements 240 f topography of, 242 weathering; Earth of, 89 density of, 516t, 523t volcanism on, 142, 161, atmosphere: planetesimals influenced dunes on, 166 162 f , 238–240, meteorological by, 437 elevations on, 238–39, 240 f , 242 conditions in; Urey radio emissions from, 203, 239 f water loss on, 135–36 weathering reaction 223 energy absorption of, 16 weathering processes on, West. See comets (individual) rings of, 8, 349, 350 f , erosion on, 240 136 Whipple, Fred, 334 355, 364–66, geoid of, 241 wind streaks on, 166 white dwarfs, 72–74, 72 f , 364 f –65f , 371–73 geophysical data on, 516t winds on, 122, 166, 240, 388 rotation of, 15, 220, 223, gravity of, 242 242, 246 Widmanstatten¨ pattern, 288, 414, 516t greenhouse effect on, 16, vernal equinox, 29 289 f , 302 size of, 6 f ,13f , 516t, 90, 102, 114–15, vertical resonance, 267 Wien’s law/displacement law, 523t 135–37, 226–27, Very Large Array, 216 f 88, 90 spectra of, 210 f 241, 255 Vesta (4 Vesta). See asteroids Wild. See comets (individual) spin orientation of, 445 habitability of, 459, (individual) Wilson, E.O., 486 storms on, 219 f , 223 460–61, 464 Viking Orbiter spacecraft, Wilson cycle, 157 stratosphere of, 220 Hadley cells on, 121 250 f –51f , 530t wind streaks, 166, 280 f thermal attributes of, 87, impact craters on, 177–78, virial theorem, 73–74, 417 winds 112 f , 115–16, 148 f , 179 f , 240–41, 241 f viruses, 454 See also aeolian processes; 154 induced magnetospheres vis viva equation, 30 Coriolis effect/force; winds on, 220, 221 f , 223 of, 198 viscosity of magma, 145, solar wind; zonal Urey, Harold, 474 interior of, 152, 156, 160–61, 164 winds; specific Urey weathering reaction, 237 f , 240, 242 viscous relaxation, 180 planets; specific 131–34, 133 f , 137 ionosphere of, 17, 112 f , viscous torques, 423 satellites 126, 188 volcanic craters, 155, 157 f , directional, 121 Valles caldera, 163 lithosphere of, 237 f , 162–63 eddies and vortices in, Valles Marineris, 243–44, 242–43 volcanic rocks, 145 122 244 f magnetic attributes of, 198, volcanism, 19, 111, 130, generation of, 86, 110, valley glaciers, 165 242, 253, 255, 341 133 f , 135, 155, 120–21, 137 valley of nuclear stability, 81, mass of, 516t 157–161, 159 f , 182, Hadley cell circulation of, 81–82 obliquity of, 15–16, 414 456, 463, 485–86 121 f Van Allen belts, 199 orbit of, 4 f , 43, 291 f , See also domes (volcanic); on hot Jupiters, 392 van der Waals forces, 143, 515t geysers; magma; and hydrodynamic escape, 457 pancake-like domes on, specific planets; 128 vapor plumes, 171 239–240, 240 f –41f specific satellites and interior planetary Varuna (20000 Varuna), 323, photodissociation on, 242 volcanoes, 160 f –63f , 162, rotation, 203, 216, 521t and plate tectonics, 238, 239, 243, 272, 471–72 223 Vega spacecraft, 340 255 volume mixing ratios, 116 and planetary rotation, Venera spacecraft, 117 f , 238, rotation of, 14–15, 50, 52, vortices, 122 203, 216 238 f , 530t 152, 414, 516t Voyager data, 12, 114, 203, and solar heating, 121–23 Venus size of, 5, 6 f ,13f , 227, 209 f , 214, 218 f , 219, and spectral lines, 116 albedo of, 16, 386, 516t, 238, 523t 221 f –23f , 259, superrotating winds, 242 519t, 522t solar day of, 52–53 362–63, 371 f surface morphology asteroid/cometary impacts and solar velocity Voyager images, 162, 207 f , effected by, 164–66, on, 135 variations, 380 f 219–220, 219 f –220 f , 183

Index 583

and temperature/pressure X-ray ﬂuorescence, 17 Yohkoh spacecraft, 193 f zero-velocity curves, 32, 33 f gradients, 86, 110, young stars, 19, 58, 79, 385, zodiacal clouds/dust, 8, 344, 121, 137 Yarkovsky effect, 54, 56, 414, 419–420, 420 f , 385, 385 f thermal tide winds, 246 59, 290, 314, 318–320, 425 zodiacal light, 55–56, 325 weathering caused by, 343 zonal winds, 121, 208, 209 f , 180 Yellowstone National Park, zeroth law of 218, 218 f , 223, 242, Wolszczan, Alexander, 387 162, 163 f thermodynamics, 65 548 f