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Peer-reviewed | Manuscript received: June 12, 2015 | Revision accepted: October 15, 2015 Legume flours: Nutritionally important sources of and

Gerhard Jahreis, Melanie Brese, Matthias Leiterer, Ulrich Schäfer, Volker Böhm, Jena

Summary Vegetarian and vegan have become fashionable. Some consumers now see themselves as partial vegetarians and greatly restrict their consumption of animal products. This has led to an increase in the demand for alternative sour- ces of protein, in the form of legumes and their processed products. enhance the feeling of fullness and can contribute to lowering blood pressure. Moreover, proteins have a favorable effect on lipid metabolism. For this reason, legume flours are important sources of plant protein. Flours from soya, lupin, and green have been studied. The highest content of protein was found in soya and lupin, which both contained ca. 35 g protein per 100 g. Lupin flour had the highest content of kernel fiber, corres- ponding to 35 g/100 g soluble kernel fiber. In addition, lupin and soya flour only had a low content of easily digestible : ca. 8–10 g/100 g. flour had a high content of starch and a low content of protein and is used in making bread, cakes and pastries; one possibility would be to replace 10–20% of this with legume flour. The amino acids contained in the legume flour would enhance the nutritional value of the cereal protein. The fat content in legume flours other than soya flour was clearly under 10 g/100 g. The omega-6/omega-3 ratio in lupin and green pea flour was in accordance with the recommended maximal ratio of 5:1. Most legume flours are a good source of magnesium, iron and zinc, as well as of vitamin E, the , and carotenoids. Aside from their nutritional and physiological benefits, legume flours are cheaper than protein and fiber extracts from legumes. For ecological and nutritional/physiological reasons, only plant protein should be used to enrich protein relative to fats and carbohydrates. Lupin is an interesting alternative to soya in Europe, as it has a high content of protein. Legume flour can be used to enrich bread, cakes or pastries, or meat products. It supports good health and is easy to process.

Keywords: legume flour, pulses, plant protein, dietary fiber, protein quality, fat quality, carotenoids, vitamins, trace elements

Introduction

Demand is increasing for for pea and broad beans doubled in legumes, such as pea, lupin, 2015 relative to the previous year. beans, and . An increase in Highly processed are now the content of grain legumes in consumed in large quantities, but Citation: would support sustainable have a lower content of protein Jahreis G, Brese M, Leiterer and nutrition, and than conventionally produced M, Schäfer U, Böhm V (2016) would be good for health. The foods. “Tasty”, cheap, and energy Legume flours: Nutritionally use of grain legumes in Europe dense components are deliberately important sources of protein needs to be developed. This is why selected for processing and manu- and dietary fiber. Ernahrungs both scientists and politicians are facturing, with the consequence Umschau 63(02): 36–42 attempting to promote human that the proportions of carbohy- This article is available online: consumption of these valuable drate and fat increases at the ex- DOI: 10.4455/eu.2016.007 foods. One result has been that the pense of protein. Analysis of the area in Germany under cultivation nutrient supply in the USA be-

36 Ernaehrungs Umschau international | 02/2016 the PREDIMED study, a randomi- zed, controlled clinical study with more than 7,000 volunteers [8]. If the intake of plant protein is in- creased in isocaloric exchange with or animal protein,

© Elena Schweitzer/iStock/Thinkstock this is associated with lower mor- tality from coronary heart disease, as has been shown, for example, in the Iowa Women´s Health Study [9]. Sources of plant protein, such as soya , lupin, chickpea, lentils or , are of particular interest in the context of pro-vege- tarian nutritional habits. The pres- ent studies exclusively employed flours from European culture.

For ecological and nutritional/physiological reasons, protein content of foods should be enriched with legumes: lentils, beans, chickpea or green pea (not depicted) are suitable sources of plant proteins. Materials & methods

Materials tween 1971 and 2006 found that protein is diluted by carbohydrate the protein fraction decreased by 1 or by fat [4]. LEE et al. [5] showed Flours from the following manufac- energy percent (En%) and the car- that the decrease in the study par- turers were used for these studies: bohydrate and fat fraction increa- ticipants‘ plasma levels of ghrelin 1. 5 soya flours (W. Schoenenber- sed by 8 En% [1]. Other studies too and their feeling of fullness were ger, Magstadt; Vantastic foods, have indicated “protein dilution” in both much greater after eating a Nabburg; Bauck, Rosche; Spiel- highly processed food. This leads breakfast roll with added lupin berger, Brackenheim; L.I. Frank, to an imbalance, which is evident flour rather than with a roll of Twello/the Netherlands) in increased energy uptake from pure flour. Moreover, the 2. 4 chickpea flours (Naturawerk, carbohydrates and fat and decrea- calorigenic effect (specific dynamic Hannover; TRS Wholesale, South- sed energy uptake from proteins. effect) for protein is 20–30 En%, all/UK; Global Foods Trading, Although the German Nutrition for carbohydrates 5–15 En%, and Biebesheim; Bauck, Rosche) Society (DGE) specifies a reference for fats 0–3 En% [6]. 3. 5 lupin flours (Gesund & Leben, value of 15 En% from protein, In addition, in Western countries, Stockach; Prolupin, Grim- there are demands to increase this there has been a marked trend in men; purvegan, Ramsen with 2 to 30 En% [2]. recent years towards the develop- batches; L.I. Frank, Twello/the For ecological reasons, any in- ment of nutrition which is more Netherlands) crease in protein supply should plant-based, as this reflects the 4. 1 green pea flour (Müller’s Mühle, be exclusively due to additional wish for greater environmental Gelsenkirchen) plant proteins, although 30 En% compatibility and is certainly too high. This de- [7]. In (swine Methods mand is based on the protein le- or poultry), about 3 kg of plant verage hypothesis [3], which as- protein are needed to give 1 kg Protein content was determined sumes that protein appetite exerts meat protein. Thus, 2 kg plant by the Kjeldahl method (N factor a “leverage effect”. The hypothesis protein is lost when 1 kg animal 5.8). Fat content was determined postulates that the feeling of sa- protein is consumed. Aside from by Soxhlet extraction after HCl di- tiation is mainly determined by this ecological aspect, pro-vege- gestion. concentrations the quantity of protein consumed. tarian nutritional habits, with a were determined with an amino acid The proportion of nutritional pro- lot of , , legumes, analyzer (Biochrom 30; Laborservice tein is negatively associated with and nuts, can also reduce the risk Onken, Gründau). total energy uptake (F = 6.9; p < of cardiovascular diseases. For ex- Total fiber was determined by Bio- 0.0001), unrelated to whether the ample, this has been confirmed by quant (Merck Darmstadt; in accor-

Ernaehrungs Umschau international | 02/2016 37 Science & Research | Original Contribution

dance with L.00.00–18 § 35 LFBG total protein. The content in lupin negligible in all flours. The principle [Lebensmittel- und Futtermittelge- and green pea was clearly lower component of vitamin E was γ-toco- setzbuch, German Food and Consu- with more than 2% (• Table 2). The pherol, although soya flour also had mer Goods Act]). After acid digestion content of the two sorts of a relatively high content of α-toco- of the ash under pressure, bulk and pea was ca. 7%, which was higher pherol. Soya flour also had a rele- trace elements were determined than the values for soya (6%) and vant content of δ-tocopherol, and using the following techniques: cal- for lupin (5%). The high arginine lupin flour a corresponding content cium, phosphorus, sulphur, magne- content of lupin flour was striking, of γ-tocotrienol. sium, potassium, iron, copper, zinc, at ca. 11%, while the corresponding and manganese with ICP-AES; sele- value was under 8% in soya flour. nium with hydride-AAS. To deter- Lupin flour exhibited a high content Discussion mine the content of carotenoids and of simple unsaturated fatty acids vitamin E, the flours were extracted (• Table 3). In general, the lipids The “land consumed” for the pre- with methanol/tetrahydrofuran in the legume flours contained few paration of the food consumed in (1+1, v/v). Prior to the quantita- saturated fatty acids. Soya and Germany can be calculated from the tive solvent extraction of the carote- chickpea flour were rich in polyun- results of the National Consumption noids, the flours were softened with saturated fatty acids (ca. 60%). The Study II (NVS II) and reaches 2,365 water. HPLC analysis of carotenoids omega-6/omega-3 ratio (n6/n3) m2 per person per year [12]. This was performed with a C30 column reached the very high value of 22 in means that each inhabitant of Ger- [10], and of vitamin E isomers with soya flour, but was only 5 in lupin many “uses up” more agricultural a diol column [11]. and green pea (• Table 3). One stri- area than is available to the overall king result was that lupin contained population (1,920 m2 per person per more than 2% of C22:0. year). 69% of the area is needed for Results After correction for the high ab- the production of animal products. solute content of fatty acids, soya The most important step in achie- The content of dry matter in the flour contained the highest propor- ving a balance would be to decrease individual legume flours varied tion of n3 fatty acids (1.4 g/100 g). the import of soya beans as animal between 90 and 95 g/100 g. The However, the proportion of n6 fatty . An important precondition highest protein content – ca. 35 acids is high too (• Table 4). Because in achieving this objective would be g/100 g – was found in soya and of the narrow n6/n3 ratio, lupin is to cultivate domestic legumes and lupin flour; chickpea and green pea a better source of n3 fatty acids than use them directly in human nutri- contained less than 20 g/100 g soya. tion. (• Table 1). The highest content of Soya and lupin flour are rich in cal- fat was found in soya flour, with cium (• Table 5). Soya flour con- Protein > 20 g/100 g. The content of fiber tained the highest content of mag- was greatest in lupin flour, at 35 nesium. All the flours examined In order to fully exploit the sati- g/100 g. Although soya and chick- were rich in iron. Soya flour had a ety effect of protein, several au- pea only exhibited a low content of relatively high selenium content of thors (e.g. [2]) have recommended carbohydrates, a very high content almost 20 μg/100 g. to considerably increase its current of carbohydrates – > 50 g/100 g The legume flours contained lutein. proportion of ca. 15 En%. For eco- – was found in pea flour. The ash Nutritionally relevant concentra- logical reasons, an increase in the content of flour was 3–4 g/100 g. tions of zeaxanthin were only found proportion of protein in food should In soya and chickpea, the content of in chickpea and lupin flour •( Table be exclusively attained with plant sulphur amino acids was ca. 3% of 6). The content of carotenes was protein. For a variety of nutritio- nal, physiological and technological reasons, the first choice would be Total protein Total fat Total fiber Ash Digestible carbohy- drates (estimated increased consumption of legumes. difference) Our own studies have concentrated Soya 35.6 ± 0.6 22.8 ± 2.3 22.6 ± 6.8 3.6 ca. 10 on lupin proteins. A human inter- Chickpea 18.6 ± 1.4 5.8 ± 0.1 15.4 ± 4.5 3.5 ca. 45 vention study was performed in which 25 g lupin protein daily was Lupin 35.0 ± 1.8 8.8 ± 2.1 35.1 ± 3.7 4.3 ca. 8 added to food; there was a favorable Green pea 19.4 1.3 10.2 3.1 > 50 effect on plasma lipids [13]. The Tab. 1: Total protein, total fat and total fiber content of the legume flours effect was particularly favorable if (g/100 g original substance) lupin kernel fibers were administe-

38 Ernaehrungs Umschau international | 02/2016 Soya Chickpea Lupin Green enriched with arginine leads to reductions in total and LDL Cystine 1.5 ± 0.1 1.7 ± 0.1 1.4 ± 0.2 1.4 cholesterol, like the lupin protein 1.4 ± 0.1 1.6 ± 0.1 0.7 ± 0.1 0.9 diet itself [15]. Arginine seems to Threonine 4.1 ± 0.1 3.9 ± 0.2 4.2 ± 0.6 4.2 function as an NO donor and thus Valine 4.4 ± 0.4 4.2 ± 0.2 3.8 ± 0.3 4.4 not only helps to reduce blood pres- Isoleucine 4.2 ± 0.2 4.1 ± 0.2 4.0 ± 0.4 3.9 sure, but influences lipid metabolism Leucine 7.7 ± 0.4 7.7 ± 0.3 7.3 ± 0.7 7.1 by modulating the genes of lipid ho- Tyrosine 4.0 ± 0.5 2.7 ± 0.2 4.3 ± 0.9 3.6 meostasis [16]. The hypotensive ac- tivity of lupin proteins may also be Phenylalanine 5.0 ± 0.2 5.9 ± 0.4 4.0 ± 0.4 4.9 influenced by bioactive peptides (e.g. Lysine 6.0 ± 0.1 7.0 ± 0.3 4.9 ± 0.4 7.2 ACE inhibitors) released during dige- Tryptophan 1.5 ± 0.1 1.4 ± 0.1 1.0 ± 0.3 0.7 stion [17]. Thus, just as with soya, Asparaginic acid/ 11.8 ± 0.1 12.1 ± 0.4 10.7 ± 0.7 12.2 lupin protein can be exchanged for carbohydrates and then exert a fa- Serine 5.5 ± 0.2 5.6 ± 0.2 5.6 ± 0.4 5.6 vorable effect on cardiovascular risk Glutaminic acid/ 18.2 ± 0.4 17.1 ± 0.4 21.5 ± 1.6 19.7 factors [13, 15, 18, 19]. Glutamine In this context, it should be pointed Glycine 4.4 ± 0.2 4.3 ± 0.1 4.4 ± 0.5 4.8 out that the fraction conglutin γ is Alanine 4.7 ± 0.2 4.5 ± 0.1 3.8 ± 0.5 4.4 often absent from lupin protein iso- lates. As conglutin is particularly Histidine 2.7 ± 0.2 2.7 ± 0.1 2.8 ± 0.5 2.5 γ active in reducing cholesterol levels Arginine 7.8 ± 0.2 9.2 ± 0.5 11.2 ± 1.1 8.6 [20], total protein extracts should be Proline 5.3 ± 0.8 4.4 ± 0.4 4.4 ± 0.5 3.9 used in food production. Several publications have pointed Tab. 2: Amino acid content of the examined legume flours (% total protein) out that individual legumes may be highly allergenic. Our own studies red; this had a favorable effect on sure, sometimes accompanied by fa- have found essentially no differen- blood lipids in volunteers with hy- vorable effects on lipid metabolism. ces between the tested legumes and percholesterolemia [14]. These changes are thought to be – a known – in Even though these studies were per- largely linked to the high content of subjects with or without atopic al- formed separately either with le- arginine in lupin protein. A current lergy (• Table 7). Even though most gume protein or with legume kernel study has demonstrated that a milk allergic reactions to soya beans in- fibers, most legume flours may also be used directly to enrich foods such Soya Chickpea Lupin Green pea as bread, rolls, , meat paste SFA 15.3 ± 4.2 13.6 ± 0.3 17.6 ± 3.6 17.5 etc. The peeling of the (e.g. MUFA 23.0 ± 3.6 27.7 ± 4.6 47.8 ± 15.3 26.2 lupin seeds) before producing the PUFA 59.7 ± 4.5 58.7 ± 4.6 34.6 ± 12.0 56.6 flour leads to an additional protein enrichment and changes in the fiber Σ n3 6.6 ± 1.1 2.6 ± 0.2 7.5 ± 2.3 8.5 components resulting in an increase Σ n6 53.1 ± 3.5 56.2 ± 4.4 27.1 ± 13.9 47.8 of nutritionally important soluble n6/n3 8.2 21.8 4.6 5.7 fibers. C16:0 10.8 ± 0.5 10.5 ± 0.3 9.9 ± 2.6 12.6 As regards the amino acid distribu- C18:1 c9 21.4 ± 3.4 25.7 ± 4.6 42.0 ± 11.4 25.0 tion, soya and pea protein contain C18:1 c11 1.2 ± 0.1 1.3 ± 0.1 1.8 ± 0.9 0.5 at least 6% lysine, while lupin pro- tein contain ca. 5% lysine (• Table C18:2 c9,12 53.1 ± 3.5 56.1 ± 4.4 26.8 ± 14.1 47.7 2). When lupin flour is used e.g. in C18:3 c9,12,15 6.6 ± 1.1 2.6 ± 0.2 7.4 ± 2.3 8.3 flour mixtures the low lysine level C22:0 0.4 ± 0.0 0.3 ± 0.0 2.3 ± 1.1 0.2 is partially compensated by its high protein content. On the other hand, Tab. 3: Fatty acid distribution of the examined legume flours (% of the lupin protein is very high in argi- FAME), with the n6/n3 ratio (in bold) nine (ca. 11%). Clinical studies with FAME = fatty acid methyl esters; MUFA = monounsaturated fatty acids; lupin flour have found significant n3 = omega-3 fatty acids; n6 = omega-6 fatty acids; PUFA = polyunsa- turated fatty acids; SFA = saturated fatty acids reductions in systolic blood pres-

Ernaehrungs Umschau international | 02/2016 39 Science & Research | Original Contribution

Soya Chickpea Lupin Green pea Soya Chickpea Lupin Green pea SFA 3.3 0.7 1.5 0.2 Calcium 221 ± 37 86 ± 48 220 ± 34 47 MUFA 5.0 1.5 4.0 0.3 Phosphorus 594 ± 48 370 ± 23 407 ± 108 417 PUFA 12.9 3.2 2.9 0.7 Magnesium 231 ± 14 127 ± 11 162 ± 30 96 Σ n3 1.4 0.1 0.6 0.1 Potassium 1,764 ± 114 1,040 ± 70 1,156 ± 189 1,030 Σ n6 11.5 3.1 2.3 0.6 Sulphur 389 ± 25 219 ± 14 280 ± 49 158 C16:0 2.3 0.6 0.8 0.2 Iron 7.7 ± 3.0 5.9 ± 1.1 4.6 ± 1.7 4.3 C18:1 c9 4.6 1.4 3.5 0.3 Zinc 4.1 ± 0.6 3.1 ± 0.3 3.7 ± 0.4 2.5 C18:1 c11 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.0 Manganese 2.8 ± 0.4 2.6 ± 0.8 4.8 ± 5.2 1.2 C18:2 c9,12 11.5 3.1 2.2 0.6 Copper 1.3 ± 0.2 0.7 ± 0.1 0.5 ± 0.1 0.6 C18:3 c9,12,15 1.4 0.1 0.6 0.1 Selenium 19.1 ± 12.3 6.2 ± 5.7 4.7 ± 2.5 1.6 (µg/100 g) Tab. 4: Mean fatty acid content of the examined legume flours(g/100 g) Tab. 5: Content of bulk and trace elements in the examined MUFA = monounsaturated fatty acids; n3 = omega-3 fatty legume flours(mg/100 g; selenium μg/100 g) acids; n6 = omega-6 fatty acids; PUFA = polyunsaturated fatty acids; SFA = saturated fatty acids

volve only mild symptoms, there ver, lupin and soya flour contain luble. This fraction is highest in is evidence that allergic reactions small fractions of easily soluble lupin kernel fibers and lowest in to lupin are often accompanied by fibers which reduce postprandial pea fibers [24]. High content of systemic reactions, about as severe glycaemia [23]. Conversely, pea fibers with low fractions of ea- as in allergy [22]. Although contains smaller fractions of pro- sily digestible carbohydrates lead this requires further investigation, it tein and fiber and larger fractions to low postprandial glycaemia should not lead to any restriction in of carbohydrates (more than 50 after consumption, due to delayed the use of lupin in food production. g/100 g). Before the introduction bioavailability. An according fa- of the , the pea was an im- vorable nutrition reduces the level portant source of starch in Cen- of body fat, even after ad-libitum Carbohydrates and fibers tral Europe. It follows that the consumption [25]. Diets con- As lupin and soya flours contain growing desire for de-energization taining increased levels of protein large fractions of proteins and fi- would be better met by lupin or and carbohydrates of low glyce- bers, they have correspondingly soya than by the pea. mic index favor the maintenance low fractions of carbohydrates In the kernel fibers of legumes, of body weight (after weight loss) (less than 10 g/100 g). Moreo- 50–80% of total fibers are - so and improve the risk markers of inflammation, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular di- Soya Chickpea Lupin Green pea seases. (all-E)-lutein 0.64 ± 0.27 0.47 ± 0.06 0.56 ± 0.25 0.75 Legume fibers exhibit several other (all-E)-zeaxanthin 0.07 ± 0.01 0.43 ± 0.08 0.21 ± 0.04 0.08 advantages over cereal fibers. -Le (all-E)-α-carotene n. n. < 0.06 < 0.06 < 0.06 gume fibers had a higher content of soluble components leading to en- (all-E)-β-carotene n. n. n. n. < 0.06 n. n. hanced formation of volatile fatty (9Z)-β-carotene n. n. n. n. n. n. n. n. acids (acetic acid, propionic acid, (13Z)-β-carotene n. n. n. n. 0.08 ± 0.03 n. n. and ). Volatile fatty α-tocopherol 6.4 ± 1.5 2.2 ± 0.2 1.1 ± 1.7 0.11 acids inhibit cholesterol synthesis β-tocopherol 0.44 ± 0.24 < 0.15 n. n. n. n. [14] and butyric acid can reduce γ-tocopherol 23.0 ± 3.5 11.5 ± 2.3 15.3 ± 1.5 5.0 the risk of colorectal cancer [26]. Moreover current studies show δ-tocopherol 7.0 ± 3.3 0.74 ± 0.32 0.47 ± 0.19 0.15 that acetic acid enhances the fee- β-tocotrienol n. n. < 0.15 n. n. n. n. ling of satiation from fibers by in- γ-tocotrienol n. n. < 0.15 0.41 ± 0.47 n. n. fluencing central homeostatic me- Tab. 6: Content of carotenoids and tocopherols/tocotrienols in the chanisms, as well as through the examined legume flours(mg/100 g) known action on the baroreceptors n. n. = undetectable in the gastrointestinal tract [27].

40 Ernaehrungs Umschau international | 02/2016 Soya bean Peanut Lupin Green pea than control, together with sig- nificantly better dough properties Non-atopic 3.3 2.2 2.2 2.2 and reduced bread consistency Atopic 7.0 4.2 5.6 14.1 [34]. Tab. 7: Fraction of positive reactions to legumes (%) in the skin Studies have shown that 10% prick test on 183 volunteers (81 atopic, 102 non-atopic) substitution of wheat flour with [21] lupin flour improves bread qua- lity [35]. This improvement is due Fats The tocopherol content in legume to crosslinks in lupin and wheat flour (α-tocopherol: 0.1–6.4 protein, as well as the fibers‘ high The lipid fraction in legumes is mg/100 g, γ-tocopherol: 5.0–23.0 water binding capacity. Substi- only of secondary importance. mg/100 g) present a similar pat- tution of more than 10% reduces Relatively high fat content (> 20 tern to linseed [10]. 50 g soya bread quality, as lupin protein is g/100 g) was only found in soya bean flour can provide the recom- less elastic, and gluten structure is flours. Correspondingly, soya mended intake of vitamin E (toco- impaired by the greater fiber con- flour contained the highest con- pherol equivalents) of 12–15 mg/ tent. Few studies have been per- tent of n6 fatty acids (ca. half the day. Lupin and chickpea can also formed on the baking characte- fat content) (• Table 4). In accor- make an important contribution ristics of legume-enriched cereal dance with the requirements of the to tocopherol intake. flours. In particular, more inves- DGE, the n6/n3 ratio should have The legume flours contained tigations must be performed on a maximal value of 5:1; how- 0.5–0.8 mg/100 g (all-E)-lutein; the technological and functional ever, in the present case it is as this was of the same order as for effects of different protein com- high as 7:1 to 10:1 (• Table 3). durum , yellow wheats or positions. The reference values of 5:1 are , and much higher than for only fulfilled by lupin and pea soft wheats, spelt, rye or [29]. flours. Chickpea fat is particu- In recent years, there has been in- Conflict of Interest larly unfavorable. Almost half of creasing interest in using lutein Prof. Jahreis is chairman of the UFOP commis- sion (Union zur Förderung lupin fat consists of the monoun- and zeaxanthin to support the von Öl- und Proteinpflanzen e. V. = Union for saturated fatty acids. Moreover, therapy of macular degeneration the Promotion of Oil and Protein e. V.). together with green pea, it has the [30]. Moreover, legumes are rich Furthermore, the authors declare no conflict of interest. greatest fraction of the n3 fatty in vitamin B1 (ca. 0.5 mg/100 g), acid α-linolenic acid (• Table 3). vitamin B2 (0.3–0.5 mg/100 g), Thus, if wheat or rye flour in food and (200–400 μg/100 g) is to be partially replaced, it would [31, 32]. Prof. Dr. Gerhard Jahreis1, 2 1 be desirable to use lupin flour, as Dr. Melanie Brese Dr. Matthias Leiterer3 this contains only a little additio- Technological and Dr. Ulrich Schäfer1 nal fat, albeit of high quality. 1 functional properties PD Dr. Volker Böhm 1 Institut für Ernährungswissenschaften If legume flours are to be widely Friedrich-Schiller-Universität, Jena Trace elements and vitamins used in food production, they 2 E-Mail: [email protected] 3 The fractions of iron and zinc are must possess various technologi- Thüringer Landesanstalt für Landwirtschaft, Jena of the order of 4–8 mg/100 g and cal properties. These include good 2–4 mg/100 g, respectively. These solubility, ability to form emul- values are of relevance for nutri- sions, foam or gels, and water tional physiology (• Table 4). binding capacity. Current studies 50 g lupin flour could then cover have shown that legume flours between one fifth and one quar- are partially superior to wheat ter of the recommended daily in- flour in this respect. Raikos et al. take of these elements. The phy- [33] demonstrated the following tate content in domestic legumes sequence for water binding pro- is less than 2% (soya: 2–5%). The perties: phytate content of lupin is parti- lupin > broad beans > green pea cularly low. In contrast to soya, > wheat. lupin products will hardly influ- Bread enriched with pea flour ence zinc absorption [28]. exhibits a lower

Ernaehrungs Umschau international | 02/2016 41 Science & Research | Original Contribution

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