Redalyc.Geography, Sustainability and the Concept of Glocalization

Investigaciones Geográficas (Mx) ISSN: 0188-4611 [email protected] Instituto de Geografía México

Verstappen, Herman Theodoor Geography, sustainability and the concept of glocalization Investigaciones Geográficas (Mx), núm. 70, diciembre, 2009, pp. 106-113 Instituto de Geografía Distrito Federal, México

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Geography, sustainability and the concept of glocalization

Herman Theodoor Verstappen*

Abstract. Sustainability focuses on the question whether social balance and human aspirations? Sustainable develo- our planet can sustain the present and future global human pment is a realistic concept only if its economic aspects are impact. The related environmental issues and particularly shouldered by social and environmental considerations and global changes, such as increasing temperatures, rising sea if regional and local diversity is respected. The globalization level, deforestation and deteriorating biodiversity, have required today thus should be coupled with decentralized become a key subject in earth science research. The social glocalization. In this interdisciplinary field of regional di- and economic components of sustainability, however, get fferentiation geography can make important contributions. less scientific attention and are often ignored in political and Earth observation from satellites and data handling using religious circles. Emphasis is on the symptoms of the issue geoinformation systems are essential tools. rather than on coping strategies. Are the growing population numbers and social discrepancies compatible with sustaina- Key words: Development, geography, global change, glo- bility and is the free market economy of our consumption balization, glocalization, sustainability. society compatible with the ecological limits of growth,

Geografía, sustentabilidad y el concepto de glocalización

Resumen. La sustentabilidad se basa en la pregunta de si cimiento, de equilibrio social y las aspiraciones humanas? nuestro planeta puede sostener el impacto humano global El concepto de desarrollo sustentable sólo es realista si se del presente y del futuro. Temas ambientales relacionados, apoya en sus aspectos económicos, en las consideraciones y en particular los cambios globales como son el aumento ecológicas y sociales, y si se respetan las diversidades locales de las temperaturas, el incremento del nivel del mar, la de- y regionales. La globalización así requerida debería estar forestación y el deterioro de la biodiversidad, se han vuelto acompañada de una glocalización descentralizada, y en el temas clave en la investigación de las Ciencias de la Tierra. campo interdisciplinario de la diferenciación regional, la No obstante, los componentes sociales y económicos de geografía puede hacer contribuciones importantes. La ob- la sustentabilidad reciben menos atención científica y son servación de la Tierra desde los satélites y el manejo de los ignorados en los círculos políticos y religiosos. Se da mucho datos por medio de los sistemas de información geográfica mayor énfasis a los sistemas que a la búsqueda de estrate- son herramientas esenciales para tal fin. gias. ¿Son compatibles con la sustentabilidad los números del crecimiento poblacional y las discrepancias sociales? Palabras clave: Desarrollo, geografía, cambio global, glo- ¿Es compatible la economía de libre mercado de nuestra balización, glocalización, sustentabilidad. sociedad consumista con los límites ecológicos de cre-

* International Institute for Geoinformation Science and Earth Observation (ITC), Mozartlaan 188, 7522 HS Enschede, The Netherlands. E-mail: [email protected] Geography, sustainability and the concept of glocalization

“We are now at a stage in the evolution tural and grazing practices. De Castro (1953), in of geographical knowledge when an accounting his equally impressive “Geography of Hunger”, can be made of the mutual relations between the earth and focussed on the issue of food shortage and famine its human inhabitants” in the past and the present. He highlighted in par- Josué de Castro ticular the importance of the socio-economic and political context and the related mismanagement caused by wars, landlordism, etc. Surprisingly, he INTRODUCTION disregards population increase as a factor because, according to him, every individual can increase The human impact on the environment has in- food production. However, this may, in the author’s creased at an alarming rate since the beginning of view, apply to subsistence farming and other rural the industrial revolution and particularly in recent societies, but certainly not to the modern indus- decades. Scientists, governments and the public trialized world where only a very small percentage at large are gradually becoming aware of the fact of the population is engaged in food production that the data gathered on issues such as land de- (Curry and Hugo, 1984). Every human being has gradation, deforestation, water- and air pollution, to be fed and has to be provided with work and climate change, etc. clearly indicate a world-wide shelter. Carson (1962), wrote “Silent Spring” when ecological degradation of our planet due to unsus- realizing that the massive use of pesticides for rai- tainable human activities. Early warnings, based sing the food production required for the growing on a variety of observations and local studies, date world population, had adverse side-effects on bird back more than a century, but systematic, global, life, biodiversity and other forms of degradation of investigations only became possible when, in the the biosphere. FAO’s “Green Revolution” served 19sixties, the conventional research methods could its aim, but temporarily only, because the global be coupled with continuous monitoring of our pla- population growth is continuing. net by earth observation from satellites and when At present it is gradually understood that not the techniques required for handling the enormous only our environment is in danger but also that amount of the gathered data had become available the fate of humanity is at stake. The data gathered in the form of geographical information systems. about the deteriorating state of the earth, first doubted by some, have been proven to be statis- tically significant. A dwindling group of scientists THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL still attempts to deny or minimize the related DEGRADATION anthropogenic driving forces. These discussions about the causes of global environmental changes The kinds and magnitudes of the causative devas- are in fact diverting our attention from the core of tating human activities are reflected in the statistics the problem: Our globe obviously cannot support on the use and depletion of non-renewable resour- the growing demands of the consumption society. ces, on the application of pesticides, the quantities This is, therefore, incompatible with sustainable of urban waste, etc. Scientists, alarmed naturalists, development. Some kinds of human impact have journalists and novelists have highlighted specific already caused irreversible changes; for others it will harmful effects of these activities. Several of these take centuries to restore the natural balances even publications were eye-openers that shocked large if we (could) stop or modify the causative human sectors of society and contributed to triggering activities immediately. Sustainability is also endan- appropriate action. In “The Rape of the Earth” gered by the growing socio-economic disparities Jacks and Whyte (1939) gave an impressive, well- all over the world. This threat is a rather neglected documented overview of the rapidly increasing soil element in the context of sustainability, even in glo- erosion all over the world resulting from excessive bal research programmes. Yet it is evident that the pressure on the land and inappropriate agricul- growing numbers of have-nots all over the world

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are not only a time - bomb under the consumption Rome in its report “Limits to Growth” (Meadows, society but also preclude global sustainability. The 1972), is a landmark in this context. The problem latter can only be achieved if environmental, social has been highlighted further in the Brundtland Re- and economic elements are in balance. port “Our Common Future” (1987) of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (UN CSD). This provoked a cascade of publications PLANET EARTH: A DYNAMIC SYSTEM (Schubert and Láng, 2005). Also Al Gore’s “Earth in the Balance” (1993) and “An Inconvenient The natural ecological conditions at the surface Truth” (2006) contributed substantially to the of our planet result from the complex and ever global awareness of the problem that now ranks changing interactions between the geosphere and high on the international political agenda, as is the biosphere where subtle equilibria between evidenced by the UN Conference “Agenda 21” in the land surface, the oceans and the atmosphere Rio de Janeiro and the UN Millennium Develop- play a leading part. Together, these factors form ment Goals Report (2005). The United Nations a dynamic system that is generated by a number declared 2008 “The International Year of Planet of driving forces and ultimately by the sun. This Earth”, the events of which actually began in 2007 system is affected by variations in solar radiation and will continue throughout 2009. and other extraterrestrial phenomena. However, it is also very sensitive for disturbances in the existing ecological equilibria on the earth and this makes it INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH extremely vulnerable for the massive interferences PROGRAMMES AND SUSTAINABILITY with nature by our modern society (Goudie, 1981; Heap, 2004). The ecological damages caused by The large international research programmes, such the increasingly intensive human interference with the as the International Geosphere Biosphere Progra- environment have for many decades been ignored, mme (IGBP), the World Climate Research Pro- underestimated or simply accepted as a matter of gramme (WCRP) and the International Human fact (Bianchi, 1994). Humanity should urgently fa- Dimension (IHDP), each comprising numerous ce the acute environmental problems and concen- specific projects, that have been launched in recent trate on developing appropriate coping strategies at decades aim at investigating the present state of the global scale (Bohle, 1993). The invention and our planet and the past, ongoing and expected application of new technologies is urgently needed environmental changes (Verstappen, 2001). The but also changing our priorities and ways of life will international scientific community at large is be inevitable. The decisions to be taken should be involved in this interdisciplinary global research. rooted in scientific research on the global, regional The aim of the International Year of Planet Earth and local levels, related to the complex ecology of is to promote the use of the knowledge gathered the earth and to the needs of a sustainable society. by hundreds of thousands of scientists all over the Geography, traditionally focussing on regional world about the earth and its climate and environ- differences in the interrelations between society ment, for building safe, healthy and economically and natural environment, can play an important strong societies. Although the emphasis often is on part in this research (Yeung, 1996). geosciences it is understood that a-biotic and biotic That devastation of our environment is a bo- factors are inseparable where our physical environ- omerang with detrimental effects for society that ment is concerned. The focus is on humanity, both even endangers the future of mankind is now as devastating actor and as potential victim (Eckart gradually, and by some only reluctantly, becoming and Kraft, 2006). These research programmes have accepted (Verstappen, 1996a). We are the causes significantly increased our knowledge of the dyna- and as well victims of the present rape of our planet. mics of our planet and have resulted in awareness The, now famous, warning issued by the Club of raising world side. Two questions remain, however.

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First one may wonder whether the orientation of rapidly, particularly during the last decade. This all research done is sufficiently geared towards the is very positive indeed and gives us hope that so- core of the issue: how to cope with the environ- ciety is a dynamic system too, capable of making mental problems (Graaff, 2008). Secondly one may the appropriate decisions and introducing the argue that the response by the global community changes required for its future. Humanity has, and its leaders is as yet inadequate for developing from the dawn of its existence, always managed to a sustainable global village. survive, though with pains and pitfalls. However, As to the first question: Our knowledge about our problems today are of a much larger, global, the physical characteristics of the globe has made dimension and demand rethinking the limits unprecedented progress since the advent of earth of growth. Diversified projects for reducing the observation from satellites. At present continuous global environmental degradation and the misuse monitoring of the state of the earth is a fact. In of natural resources have been launched by inter- the beginning the information so gathered was national organizations and national governments. mainly valid on the global level. However, the In comparison to what is really required the efforts high-resolution satellite data that have become are, however, as yet marginal only. They will remain available subsequently, made this technology also so unless the societal factors that do not comply valid on the regional and local levels. The cascade with sustainability are recognized and remedied. of information so produced is being structured and The world is consuming too much but individuals visualized with the aid of geo-information systems in the economically strong, “overdeveloped”, parts (GIS) that also satisfy the need for integrating of the world are unwilling to restrain and those aerospace data with other scientific and statistical in poor countries are with justification looking information. Modelling techniques then serve forward to a better living. Reducing economic to reveal trends of change and to predict future growth is, for governments, political suicide and environmental conditions. The accuracy of these reducing the world population by birth control is predictions will undoubtedly increase in the co- unacceptable for many religious leaders. Obviously ming years, with growing data input and improving sustainability encompasses much more than the modelling techniques. However, one may wonder physical environment only. whether the issue of change is not overemphasi- zed, in view of the fact that already the present situation is unsustainable. There can be no doubt SUSTAINABILITY: AN ETHICAL that monitoring and revealing the fragile dynamic OBLIGATION AND URGENT NECESSITY system of our planet are important scientific issues that should form the basis for global management. The term “sustainable development” is often On the other hand, however, it is rather irrelevant used nowadays, in U.N. circles, by government for practical purposes to know that today’s global authorities and in the media. For a better unders- warming and related sea level rise are at least tanding of this term it is necessary to define what mainly due to human factors: the disturbances of is meant with these two words: “sustainable” and the planetary dynamic system already are either “development”. Sustainability basically implies the irrevocable or their remedy requires centuries of thorough, continuous maintenance of our global millennia. We simply have to face the problem and life support system. It is a complicated matter as respond timely by appropriate action. both our environment and the society are ever- This leads us to the second question: is the res- changing dynamic systems. The environmental ponse by the global society and its leaders adequate conditions have been subject to change by natural at the moment. The scientific community has been causes over the geological time scale and at present very successful in raising global awareness of the especially by massive human impact. Society has alarming situation and managed to get the issue been changing during the past centuries and even high on the international agenda. All this evolved millennia under the influence of a variety of factors.

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Economic, social and cultural factors rank high −as it appears to be doing at the moment– the in this context but also changes and limitations environment may to some extent benefit, but there of environmental resources should be mentioned. will be widespread unemployment and the jobless will Nature and society are closely interwoven, and further destabilize the social pillar of sustainability. the study of their interrelationships, the hardcore The only answer is a better distribution of sustaina- of the science of geography, ranks high in sustai- ble economic resources at planetary, regional and nability matters. local levels. This is the core of the sustainability Sustainability comprises economic, social and issue; a core that is difficult to accept for society environmental aspects. These three basic elements because it implies that we have to change our are closely related and should be in balance. An priorities, lifestyles and values. efficient economic system is mentioned first by The difficulties that many of us have with recog- those who believe that the social and ecological nizing the intricate relationship between humanity goals can only be reached when sufficient financial and the ecology of our planet, derives, at least par- resources are available. Others point out that where tly, from the fact that we been taught for millennia social balance fails, the have-nots will cause political that mankind is a divine creation, separate from unrest and uprisings that preclude the creation of the biosphere and born to be master of the world. a sustainable society. This applies to the world as This human-centred concept of being apart from a whole and on the national level also. The econo- nature has brought about a certain arrogance and mic discrepancy between the rich countries of the disregard for environmental issues that facilitates “North” and the poor countries of the “South” is a the ruthless exploitation and destruction of the major destabilizing factor in the world of today. The earth’ resources. We should reconsider our attitudes socio-economic change in the USA in the period and define the ethics of sustainability (Engel and 2000-2006 is an example on the national level. Engel, 1990: Adam and Madl, 2002), realizing that The economic growth of the USA in that period we form a part of nature and live carefully with it! was 18%, but the income of the average American Even in some global research programmes this fact nevertheless decreased by 1.1%. At the same time is sometimes overlooked. During the International the income of the highest ten percent income Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR), group increased 32% and of the highest 0.1 % even for instance, emphasis was on the impact of natural 425%. (NRC Handelsblad 1 November 2008). It is disasters on society. The mandate of the consecu- evident that social deterioration is not only unac- tive International Strategy for Disaster Reduction ceptable but also conflicts with sustainability. The (ISDR) is larger and also covers the risks caused by idea that environment comes first as an element in technological, industrial, disasters. That huma- sustainability is increasingly heard. Don’t we have nitarian disasters are excluded is understandable, the obligation to save our planet for ethical reasons because these usually relate to inadequate gover- and also for our own sake? They proclaim that the nance and thus belong to the political agenda of correct order is: Planet – Person – Profit. the U.N. Environmental disasters endangering the When the word “development” is used in the biosphere, however, are as yet completely ignored, context of sustainability, one should realize that even though the communities forming part of the society must get organized within the limits set local ecology are also adversely affected by those by our planetary resources (Mosishima, 2002). events. The present surge of globalization even ex- Emphasis thus is by necessity on the fulfilment of poses humanity at large to environmental disasters. basic needs and the achievement of a state of well- being for all. The continuously rising consumption rates, required to blow-up the economic balloon GLOBALIZATION OR GLOCALIZATION? of our consumption society, are, at the global scale, incompatible with the environmental basis It is beyond doubt that achieving sustainability of sustainability. If the economic balloon bursts requires co-ordinated action at a planetary scale

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not only in the field of environment but also en- lization by the decentralized bottom-up approach compassing society and economy. It has become of glocalization rooted in deep respect for the rich clear a few decades ago, however, that a centralized diversity of our planet and of humanity. The emer- production system, enforced by governments, can- gence of an intercultural global village will result not manage the magnitude and complexity of eco- in reconsidering our values and in new concepts nomic activities in a world that is rapidly evolving for sustainable development. Those who fear the into a patchwork of interdependent communities. present migration waves from the poor to the rich Negligence of environmental issues and human parts of the globe, for instance, should realize that aspirations also made sustainability problematic. these waves are the symptom of a global problem, The decentralized free market production system, not the cause of it. Building walls at international dominating world economics today, has brought boundaries or whatever restrictive measure, is enormous economic progress in many parts of the therefore bound to fail. Remedy of the economic world. It is not a panacea for our major problems, and social driving forces is the only realistic res- however (Verstappen, 1994). The driving force ponse to the issue. All members of society have of the system is a continuous increase of produc- the right to decide about their future and this tion and a steadily growing consumption society. requires worldwide awareness of global problems This concept clashes with the limits of the global and active participation of all segments of society environmental resources and thus conflicts with in solving them. The future is in our hands (Vers- sustainability. The total freedom left to the captains tappen, 1995b). of industry versus employees and consumers also puts the social component of sustainability at risk. The idea that the system would be self-regulating GEOGRAPHY: A KEY TO in this respect is overestimating the moral restraint GLOCALIZATION AND SUSTAINABILITY of humans and therefore unrealistic. Pitfalls such as the present economic crisis with steeply rising The understanding that the global issues that are unemployment, stock market swindle, continuing challenging humanity in our days do not only high bonuses for managers, etc., are inherent to concern the realm of economics but also encompass the system. a complex pattern of physical and social elements A way out may be in realizing that globalization automatically brings geography in focus (Ghorra- in its present form is lopsided as it is restricted Gobin, 2008). Apart from analytical studies in mainly to economic affairs (Hertz, 2001). The many fields there is a great need for comprehensive global economy lacks the stabilizing effects of go- geographical approaches (Vallega, 2001). It is not vernments and trade unions that characterize the surprising therefore that geographers have, from economy on national, provincial and municipal the onset, been involved in the formulation and levels in democratic countries. Globalization in launching of several global change research pro- these sectors is badly needed. Environmental equity grammes and it is encouraging to see that many should be the guiding principle for all actors. This geographers are now actively engaged in them principle has been advertised first by non-govern- (Verstappen, 1995a,c). The input of geography is mental organizations, such as the World Wildlife threefold. First, there are analytical contributions Fund and Green peace. It is becoming accepted by several specialized branches of geography. More gradually by national governments and in the fundamental, however, are the comprehensive international arena. studies made in the area of humanity and envi- An important prerequisite for obtaining ronment, a traditional focus of our science. In the worldwide support for the implementation of the third place geographers contribute by revealing the changes required to save our planetary resources importance and intricate mechanisms of regional for the future generations, is the replacement of the differentiation. The challenges of our time have present, centralized, top-down approach of globa- resulted in a worldwide renaissance of geographical

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thinking, even among non-geographers (Verstap- CONCLUSIONS pen, 1996b). Some specific fields of geographical inputs are The creation of a sustainable global society requires listed below. the continuous balance between three elements: environmental capacity, economic drives and human 1. Studies on past landscape evolution for asses- aspirations. It is evident that the present process of sing the present situation and changes in the globalization is incompatible with sustainability, foreseeable future. but humanity is as yet ill-prepared to invent con- 2. Modelling landscape dynamics, including hu- sumption- and production patterns that can last for man activities, for understanding the ecological generations. We are facing a dramatic dwindling systems and elucidating landscape heterogeneity. of planetary resources and a widening gap between 3. Research on anthropogenic causes and social and within rich and poor countries. This has trigge- consequences of environmental change. red large-scale international migrations and protest This includes Environmental Impact Assess- movements in many parts of the world. This unrest ment (EIA) and Social Impact Assessment (SIA) will certainly increase in the years to come if the of environmental changes. economic- and social balance remains. 4. Regional studies on resource systems and cycles Further there is a concentration of power and (e.g. energy, water, nutrients) in the context of access to the economic process in the hands of mul- sustainable resource management. tinational organizations that precludes corrective 5. Appraisal of social behaviour and of coping interventions by national governments and trade strategies, traditional and new, with environ- unions. Strong international governance and cross- mental constraints. This includes the issues of boundary cooperation of labour organizations can economic development versus environmental remedy this socio-economic unbalance. They are, conservation and perception and adaptation however, no guarantee for safe-guarding the envi- of environmental quality. ronmental balance that is another prerequisite for 6. Environmental hazard studies and risk assess- sustainability. It has become clear that the present, ment, issues of increasing importance because centralized, “top-down” concept of globalization, of the rising vulnerability levels in densely that disregards the global diversity of cultures and populated parts of the world. aspirations, should be replaced by the “bottom-up” 7. Geographical education, focussing on the need concept of glocalization that emphasizes the local for sustainable use of our planet. and regional diversity with due respect for humans and his world. In this context geography can play Geography has always been stimulated by and a crucial, pioneering part. responding to the evolving needs of society. In the age of discovery geographers described remote lands and peoples. It became an academic field in REFERENCES its own right in the 18th century, flourished in the 19th century and is now a mature science ready to Adam, H. and P. Madl (2002), The rape of Mother Earth. face the greatest challenge of all: the incompatibili- The rise and fall of western dominance [www. sbg. ty of the present global economy with social justice ac.at / ipk / avstudio / pierofun / funpage.htm]. Bianchi, E. (1994), “Global change perception”, Geo & and planetary resources. The research capacity and Clio Series, 1, Angelo Guerini e Associati, Milano. the technological means are available. Will society Bohle, H.-G. (1993), “Coping with vulnerability and cri- respond? ticality”, Freiburg studies in development geography, no. 5, Breitenbach Publ. Saarbrücken, Fort Lauderdale. Carson, R. (1962), Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin, Boston

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