2.0 SELECTING AND DEFINING A RESEARCH PROBLEM
Engr. (Prof.) Azikiwe Peter ONWUALU FNSE, FNIM, FAEng, FAS African University of Science and Technology (AUST), Abuja. Former Visiting Professor, National Universities Commission (NUC), Abuja. Former Director General, Raw Materials Research and Development Council (RMRDC), Abuja.
Email: [email protected]: [email protected]
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 1 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja LECTURE MODULES
• 2. Selecting and defining a research problem • 2.1 Problem formulation • 2.2 Criteria for selecting a problem • 2.3 Identifying variables • 2.4 Evaluating problems • 2.5 Functions of a hypothesis • 2.6 Experimental design & Statistical analyses of data • 2.7 Preparations before conducting your research • 2.8 Disruptive research and innovation • 2.9 Product oriented/market driven research
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas African University of Science and Technology, Abuja 2 TRAINING METHODS
Lectures Case Study Questions Discussion Assessment
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 3 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja TEXTBOOKS AND RESOURCES (1)
• Agbaje, A. 2010. Introductory Lecture Notes on Research Methodology. University of Ibadan, Ibadan. • Asika, N. 2012. Research Methodology in the Behavioural Sciences. Learn Africa Plc. Ikeja. • Eko, E.E. 2015. Effective Writing and Communication. HEBN Publishers Plc, Ibadan. • Gupta, S.C. Fundamentals of Statistics. Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai. • Kothari, C.R. and Garg, G. 2014. Research Methodology . 3rd Edition. New Age International Publishers., New Delhi. • Northrop, R.P. Introduction to Instrumentation and Measurements. 2nd Edition. Taylor and Francis, Florida.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 4 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja TEXTBOOKS AND RESOURCES (2)
• Onwualu, A.P. 2012. Commercialization of ST&I Spin off. A Paper delivered at the Federal Ministry of Science and Technology Capacity Building Program held in Abuja. • Onwualu, A.P. 2013. Research and Development Spill overs Patents and the Incentives to Innovate in Nigeria. A paper delivered at the one day public seminar on Intellectual Property and Technology Transfer (IPTT) at the Assembly hall, Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria. • Onwualu, A.P., Obasi, E., Olife, I.C. and Inyang, A. 2013. (Eds.) Unlocking the Potentials of Nigeria’s Non-Oil Sector. Pitmak Publishers Ltd, Abuja. by Raw Materials Research and Development Council. ISBN: 978-978-52367-2-9 • Onwualu, A.P., Ogunwusi, A.A., Olife, I.C. and Inyang, A. 2013. (Eds.) Raw Materials Development for the Transformation of the Manufacturing Sector in Nigeria. Published by Raw Materials Research and Development Council. ISBN: 978-978-52367-1-2. • Onwualu, A.P. 2015. Optimizing the potentials of research in a university: case of University of Port Harcourt. Invited Keynote paper presented at conference to mark 40th anniversary of University of Port Harcourt, Centre for Research Management, University of Port Harcourt. • Onwualu, A.P. 2015. Academia industry collaboration as a strategy for commercialization of research output in Nigeria. Invited keynote paper Strategic Academia Industry Interface, University of Benin, Benin City. 24th August, 2015.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 5 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja TEXTBOOKS AND RESOURCES (3)
• Ugonna, U.D and Onwualu. A.P. 2016. Beyond Research and Development: Policy Options for Overcoming the Obstacles to Commercialization of R&D in Nigeria. International Journal of Technology Transfer and Commercialization (Accepted for publication). • Onwualu, A.P. 2016. Benchmarks for research for the generation of exploitable intellectual property. Workshop on Intellectual Property, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. 12th – 13th April, 2016. • Onwualu, A.P. 2017. Research Methodology and Communication (in press). • Onwe, O.J. (Undated). Research Methodology. National Open University of Nigeria Lecture Notes MGS 731. • Osuala, E.C. 2013. Introduction to Research Methodology. Africana First Publishers Plc, Onitsha. • Sing, Y.K. 2006. Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics. New Age International Publishers, New Delhi. • Spiegel, M.R. and Stephens, L.J. 2008. Theory and Problems of Statistics. 4th Edition. Schaum’s Outline Series, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 6 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja 2.2 CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A PROBLEM Researcher’s Ecosystem Scientific Content Novel, revolutionary, transformative Potential Local, regional, global impact Scalable Feasibility Sustainability Requirements of funding agency . Summary . Questions and Discussion
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 7 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this session, you should be equipped with knowledge on the criteria to consider when selecting a research problem.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 8 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja RESEARCHER’S ECOSYSTEM Background training of researcher. Researcher’s competence. Past Experiences and knowledge. Career track and future career. Researchers interest and passion.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 9 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja SCIENTIFIC CONTENT New models (mathematical or statistical) New designs and products Products can be goods or services New procedure or technique Intellectual property (patents) Contribution to knowledge, extending what is scientifically known
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 10 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja NOVEL Out of the box strategic thinking Revolutionary Transformative Disruptive Big idea that can change the world
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 11 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja LOCAL, REGIONAL AND GLOBAL IMPACT Local Impact (solving local problems such as power, transport, water, food) Regional Impact (problems that cut across regions such as Africa, ECOWAS) Global Impact (global problems such as communication, entertainment, global warming, global conflicts, infectious diseases, food safety, high volume products and services)
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 12 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja SCALABLE
Possibility of commercialization Potential Market and end user Challenges of Market entry Challenges of infrastructure for moving from idea to product
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 13 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja FEASIBILITY
Technical Feasibility Economic Feasibility Social Feasibility Research Facility
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 14 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja SUSTAINABILITY
Funding Post funding Environmental issues Gender issues Leadership and mentorship
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 15 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja REQUIREMENTS OF FUNDING AGENCY
In some cases, for donor funded projects the criteria are already set by the funding agency. The researcher should endeavor to meet these requirements. In most cases, the criteria listed above are the similar to what is usually prescribed. In addition, the area of focus will be specified by the funding agency.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 16 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja MAJOR DIRECTION OF GLOBAL RESEARCH Energy (green, renewable, clean energy) Materials (value addition, new materials) ICT (mobile apps, bid data, smart systems) Food security (high yielding and disease resistant varieties, food production inputs, post harvest systems, marketing and packaging, food safety, mechanization) Environment (climate change, desertification, erosion, pollution control, recycling) Healthcare (vaccines, organic drugs, infectious diseases, public health) Advanced Production and Manufacturing Systems (3D printing, superconductors, GMOs, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, Space Systems)
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 17 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
• Questions from participants ??? • Discuss two major research projects as case study
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 18 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja 2.3 IDENTIFYING VARIABLES . Meaning of variables in research . Types of Variables . Quantitative and Qualitative Variables . Steps in Identifying Variables . Controlling Variables . Summary . Questions and Discussion
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 19 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this session, you should be equipped with the knowledge and skill to identify, understand and control variables in a research project.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 20 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja MEANING OF VARIABLE
A concept is an abstraction based on characteristics of perceived reality. For example, the concept “height” is used to measure how tall or short a human being is. A variable is a concept that can vary in the course of an experiment. It is important to identify all variables in a research project at inception, in order to avoid obtaining spurious results. It may not be possible to study all the variables but one must know that those variables are important for the study.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 21 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja EXAMPLES OF VARIABLES A study of waste water or effluent from a brewery: The water quality can be measured by different variables including level of acidity (pH). This is affected by a number of other variables, thus; pH = f(T, SS, COD, H, G, Mg, Cl) Where T=temperature; SS=suspended solids; COD=Chemical Oxygen Demand
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 22 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja TYPES OF VARIABLES
Dependent Variable Independent Variable Continuous Variable Discrete variable Extraneous Variables
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 23 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja DEPENDENT AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLES At the beginning, all variables must be identified. Those variables which can be used to characterize the behaviour of the process or system and which usually depend on other variables are referred to as Dependent Variables. The levels of the dependent variable are usually not set by the researcher. Those variables whose levels can be set and varied by the researcher in order to determine the effect on the dependent variables are referred to as independent variables. They are sometimes referred to as treatments.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas African University of Science and Technology, Abuja 24 QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE VARIABLES Quantitative Variables – those variables which can take numerical values and can be measured. Eg: weight, height, cost, temperature, pressure. Qualitative Variables – those variables that are descriptive and can only be observed, not measured. Eg: colour, smell. They are sometimes called categorical variables.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 25 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS VARIABLES Discrete variables: A variable is discrete when it takes a finite set of values. Continuous Variables: When the variable can take an infinite set of values between two specified points. Note that a variable can be discrete at a time and at other times becomes continuous depending on the scale and resolution of measurement.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 26 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
Extraneous variables (sometimes called confounding variables) are those variables which are not being studied but which can actually affect the results of the research. They include those ones ignored by the researcher. Examples include: human error in measurements, instrument error, environmental effects such as noise in electrical signals, temperature of the environmental area. Extraneous variables can introduce spurious results in a research and need to be identified and controlled.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 27 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja STEPS IN IDENTIFYING VARIABLES
Conduct literature review on the problem List the dependent variable(s) List the independent variable(s) Based on the problem formulated, reduce the dependent variables to the major important ones that can be measured. In the same manner, reduce the independent variables to the ones that can be varied. Provide adequate control mechanism for the extraneous variables.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 28 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja CONTROLLING EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES Blocking or replications Sampling techniques Use of standard procedures Minimizing the occurrence by considering all possible variables in planning the experiment
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas African University 29 of Science and Technology, Abuja SUMMARY
Types of variables include dependent and independent; discrete and continuous; quantitative and qualitative. It is important to identify all possible variables in a research project at inception. Those variables which cannot be identified at the beginning which eventually affect the results are called extraneous variables. Extraneous variables can be controlled by employing proper sampling techniques and using statistical tools to analyze the data.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 30 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
• Questions from participants ??? • Using two equations, discuss dependent and independent variables.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 31 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja 2.4 EVALUATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM . Statement of the research problem . Criteria for evaluating a research problem . Summary . Questions and discussion
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 32 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, you should be equipped with the following knowledge: meaning of a research problem criteria for evaluating a research problem
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas African University of Science and 33 Technology, Abuja WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM? • A question the researcher wants to answer. • An interrogative sentence or statement that asks what relation exists between two or more variables. • A question asked in order to address an area of concern where there is a gap in knowledge. • An action taken to provide knowledge when there is no ready response by instinct or by previous acquired knowledge. • A statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated or a troubling question that exits in a field of study or application.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 34 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEM • Intuition. • Personal Practical experience. • Social issues in society. • Economic problems in society. • Folklores. • Existing theory. • Previous research. • Literature • Consultation with experts and industrialists. • Field work and market research. • Brainstorming.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 35 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM STATEMENT Adequate highlight of the nature of the problem. Key variables must be identified. Variables must be measurable. Method of research and data analysis must be specified.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 36 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM (1) • Clarity: the problem must be specific, clear and brief. • Feasibility: there must be evidence of adequate resources in terms of technical feasibility, time, money, skills and potential reward. • Ethics: the problem must address ethical concerns. • Importance and Significance: Must address an important problem of significance to the local, regional and global community. Implications of research to policy. • Scientific Content: must fill gap in theory and knowledge, use unique methods, repeatable, use of new measurement techniques or improvement on existing methods, development of new equipment, process or theory. • Equipment and facilities: There must be adequate equipment and facilities to carry out the research. • Researcher Competence: The researcher must have training and experiences relevant to the study. Otherwise the research team must be multidisciplinary in nature. • Environmental and Sustainability issues: The research must address issues of environmental impacts and sustainability of potential results.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 37 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM (2) • Timeliness: The work plan must show timeliness of operations. • Budget: There must be adequate budgetary to support literature search, stipends for research assistants and support personnel, transport, materials, laboratory fees, etc. • Originality: the problem should be original, unique, new, current and has not been studied in the same way before by other researchers. • Intellectual Property: The problem should have potential of generating intellectual property. • Commercialization: The research problem should be such that the result should be scalable and the possibility of commercialization of result high.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 38 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja ACTUAL EVALUATION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM • To evaluate a research problem in actual practice, the criteria above can be used to develop a matrix. • Each of the criteria is given a weight or all of them can be given equal weight as the case may be. • The problem is then scored on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 represents low and 5 represents high, with 2, 3, 4 between them. • At the end the scores are tallied to obtain a total which can be used for evaluating or assessing the problem. • This procedure is very useful for self assessment by the researcher before sending out a project proposal. • It is also useful for assessors, when confronted with choosing from a number of alternatives.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 39 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja SUMMARY A research problem is evaluated using different criteria including: originality, scientific content, technical and economic feasibility, clarity, ethics, relevance and importance and potential production of intellectual property and commercialization of results.
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 40 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION
Questions???? Discussion: A problem was initially stated as: “What are the effects of global warming on crop production?”. Discuss how to change the problem to: “How does global warming affect post harvest production of cereal crops in Nigeria?”
Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 41 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja 2.5 FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS Meaning of hypothesis Null and alternative hypothesis Characteristics of a good hypothesis Functions of hypothesis Sources of hypothesis Hypothesis testing Summary Questions and discussion
Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 42 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this module, participants will understand the meaning of hypothesis and formulate and test hypothesis in research.
Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 43 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja MEANING OF HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis is a proposition, an informal intelligent guess about the solution to a problem. It can also be an intelligent guess of the relationship between variables in a research project. Research hypothesis is usually stated in a general sense Statistical hypothesis is stated in specific terms
Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 44 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS
The hypothesis provides the link between reality, theory and explanations in research. It assists the researcher to transform his ideas into testable forms. It enables the researcher identify relevant variables in a research. It enhances the design of the research. It enables the researcher analyze results scientifically. It makes the research to be more focused and directed towards desired goals. It helps to save time in research
Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 45 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS It should be clear, not ambiguous. It should be specific and precise. It should be capable of being tested. It should state relationship between two variables. It should be limited in scope. It should be stated in simple terms. It should be consistent with known facts.
Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 46 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS
• Experience • Literature • Theory • Previous work • Thinking • Brainstorming among members of research team. • Potential end users of the research.
Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 47 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja NULL AND ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
• Suppose we want to compare the performance of two cars using a particular variable such as fuel efficiency. • Assume that fuel efficiency is represented by A and B for each of the cars respectively. • We can set a Null Hypothesis that A=B, that is there is no significant difference between the fuel efficiency of the two cars. • The Null Hypothesis is Ho: A=B • The Alternative Hypotheses is that the two values are not the same • Ha: A≠B; A>B; A
Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 48 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja STEPS FOR HYPOTHESIS TESTING
• State or formulate the hypothesis. • Select levels of significance for testing, usually 5% or 1%. • Decide on the test Statistic. • Normal distribution, Z-statistic is usually used for large sample size, n>=30. • Student t-distribution (t-statistic) is used for small sample size, n<=30. • Calculate the test statistic (see next slide) • Obtain the tabulated value of the statistic (α in the case of one tailed test and α/2 in the case of two tailed test), using n-1 degrees of freedom. • Apply the decision rule and accept or reject the null hypothesis. • If the Null hypothesis is accepted, then the alternative hypothesis is rejected and vice versa.
Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 49 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja DECISION RULE FOR TESTING HYPOTHESIS • As an illustration, suppose we have a situation where there are 15 observations and we want to use 5% level of significance. • The degrees of freedom (n-1) become 14 df. • From t-table we obtain: Tu=1.761, Tl=-1.761 for one sided rejection region. Tu=upper value of t and Tl=lower value of t. Tu=2.145, Tl=-2.145 for two sided rejection region. • Calculate t-statistic (Tc) as: µ−µ표 푆 • Tc= where 푆푥 = 푆푥 푛−1 • µ= sample mean; µo=population mean, Sx=standard error of sample mean, S=standard deviation. • If Tc Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 50 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja WORKED EXAMPLES The concepts above can be understood more by working through examples 1-20, pages 193-227 of Kothari, C.R 2004. Research Methodology. Ebook Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 51 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja SUMMARY Hypothesis is used to for making an intelligent guess about the relationship between variables in a research project. They are usually stated as Null and Alternative Hypotheses. Such hypotheses, once formulated and stated must be tested using statistical analysis, by comparing t, z and F statistic calculated using standard equations and those obtained from statistical tables using appropriate degrees of freedom and levels of significnce. Decision rules are used to accept or reject the null hypothesis. These are used to improve the level of confidence in assessing observed differences between variables in an experiment. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 52 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION • Questions from participants???? • Discussion: Why do we have to use hypothesis in a scientific research. Can we do without it? Under what circumstances do we have to use Z, t and F statistic in analysis of data. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 53 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja LECTURE 2.6 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN and STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Development of mathematical model. Software development for numerical solution. Survey. Development of research equipment. Development of a process, material or product. Experimental design. Library, field and laboratory experiments. Instrumentation and measurements. Data analysis and validation of models. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 54 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this module, participants will be equipped with knowledge of experimental designs and statistical analysis of data to improve the formulation of research problems. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 55 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja INFORMAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS Before and after treatment design, without control After treatment only design (with control) Before and after treatment design (with control) Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 56 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja BEFORE AND AFTER TREATMENT DESIGN WITHOUT CONTROL • In this type of experimental design, measurements are taken before and after treatment is applied. • There is no control. • The effect of the treatment is taken as the difference between the value of the variable before and after the treatment. • Such experimental designs can introduce extraneous variables but may be the only option especially in expensive experiments. • Only simple statistics can be used for analysis of data. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 57 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja AFTER TREATMENT ONLY DESIGN WITH CONTROL • In this type of design, no measurements is made on the experimental object until after the treatment. • However, measurement is made on both the object that received the treatment and a control that did not receive treatment. • This is allowed when it is not possible to measure before and after treatment on the same object or sample. • Data generated can only be analyzed using simple statistics. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 58 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja BEFORE AND AFTER TREATMENT DESIGN (WITH CONTROL) • In this type of design, the relevant variables are measured on the sample or object before and after treatment. • In addition, the variables are also measured on a control sample or object. • This design helps in minimizing the effects of extraneous variables. • However, it is more costly than the earlier designs. • The data cannot be subjected to rigorous statistical analysis. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 59 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja FORMAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS Complete Randomized Design Randomized Block Design Latin Square Design Factorial Design Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 60 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja COMPLETE RANDOMIZED DESIGN In this design samples are assigned treatments at random in order to minimize the effect of extraneous variables. The treatments are next replicated. It can be analyzed by one way or two way analysis of variance. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 61 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja RANDOMIZED BLOCK DEISGN This is an improvement on the complete randomized deisgn. In addition to the randomization, the concept of blocking is introduced. First the experimental area is divided into blocks. The treatment, including control are assigned at random to the block with replications. There can be 2,3, 4 etc blocks. Two way analysis of variance is used for the analysis. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 62 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja LATIN SQUARE DESIGN In agricultural field experiments, there may be variations in the field with respect to nutrients, moisture content. Such extraneous factors can be minimized by using them as if they are blocks in the design. That way, the treatments are randomized in the different blocks such that no one level of treatment appears in the same location throughout the field. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 63 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja FACTORIAL DESIGN In some experiments, the number of factors or variables can be many and at different levels. Such experiments can be handled by factorial designs It is possible to have 2x2x4 factorial experiments. It is probably the most superior design because it can handle any number of variables. However, it can be expensive since the number and levels of variables leads to a large number of experimental samples or units. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 64 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA Tabulation of results. Descriptive statistics Descriptive plots and graphs Regression analysis Analysis of variance (ANOVA) Use of software for analysis of data. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 65 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS These are tools used for describing data generated from a research. They include: frequency, mean, mode, median, range, mean deviation, standard deviation. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 66 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja DESCRIPTIVE PLOTS AND GRAPHS Pie charts Bar charts Graphs Trend analysis Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 67 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja COMPUTER APPRECIATION • Operating Systems (MS-DOS, Windows, Mac, Linux, Unix) • Managing Files, folders and general navigation within the computer • File Formats (doc, docx, pdf, jpg,odt) • Computer protection • Multi-media use of computers • Keyboarding • Communication using computers • You must have a functional lap top Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 68 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja USE OF INTERNET FOR RESEARCH Communication and interaction among researchers Literature search Google Yahoo Other search engines Filtering and optimizing your search Scientific Networks Journal Alerts Blogs Open source and other e-resources Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 69 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja STATISTICS PACKAGES SPSS Statsgraphics SAS Statistical Lab Analytica BMDP GenSTAT Excel Minitab Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 70 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja NUMERICAL ANALYSIS Matlab TK Solver Analytica GNU Octave Free Mat Lab View Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 71 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS Abacus ANSYS Nastram REEM Adina OpenFoam Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 72 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja PRESENTATION Skype Power Point Websites (Word Press) Video (You tube) Animation Use of pointers Body language Timeliness of presentations Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 73 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja GRAPHICS Any Chart Chart Director DADiSP Datacopia EJS PLPlot EZL Fusion Charts GNU Plot Lab Plot Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 74 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja WORD PROCESSING AbiWord Calligra Words Ether Pad GNU Texmacs Polaris Office Adobe Page maker Apple Pages Documents to Go Lotus Word Pro Tech Writer Word Perfect Google Docs Authorea Adobe Buzzword ComWriter Microsoft Office Online Microsoft Word LaTEX Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 75 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja ENGINEERING DESIGN Granta ProE AutoCAD Autodesk Product Design Suite CATIA ZW3D Mech Designer BricsCAD Solid Edge Geomagic Design Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 76 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja REGRESSION ANALYSIS • Simple and multiple regression. • Linear, non linear regression. • Curve fitting • Details and examples in Spiegel (Schaum’s series) Chaper 13, pg 316 E-book. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 77 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Details of procedure for analysis of variance (ANOVA) in the e-books: Siegel (Schaum series) Chapter 16, pg 403; Kothari, Chap 11, pg 256-284 Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 78 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja SUMMARY • Experimental designs include formal and informal designs. • Informal designs include: before and after treatment design, without control; after treatment only design (with control); before and after treatment design (with control) • Formal designs include complete randomized design, randomized complete block design, latin square design and factorial design. • Analysis of data can be achieved with different computer software packages including SPSS and Minitab. • Researchers should train and re-train themselves on the use of these and other computer applications to enhance the quality of their research. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 79 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION • Questions????? • Discussion: . Discuss the difficulties in using formal experimental designs in research. . Discuss the challenges in using software packages for research and how to overcome the obstacles. Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 80 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja PRACTICAL SESSIONS Using Minitab and SPSS, practice data analysis….. Descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, regression and correlation, analysis of variance, graph plotting, etc Prof A.P. ONWUALU, fas 81 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja LECTURE 2.7 PREPARATION BEFORE CONDUCTING YOUR RESEARCH • Obstacles and challenges of research. • Internal preparations before conducting your research. • External preparations before conducting your research. • Identify and pursue your targets. • Summary. • Questions and discussion. Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 82 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this module, participants should be equipped with knowledge on preparations to make before embarking on research. Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 83 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja CHALLENGES OF RESEARCH • Accuracy and reliability of data and research results. • Poor record keeping. • Poor funding. • Poor library facilities. • Poor ICT infrastructure. • Poor power supply. • Logistics challenges (laboratory supplies). • Institutional bureaucracy. • Cooperation among research team members. Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 84 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja INTERNAL PREPARATIONS BEFORE CONDUCTING YOUR RESEARCH • Identify and formulate the research problem properly. • Carry out extensive literature review. • Design the research • Develop and work plan and budget • Conduct a review and peer review of the research plan. • Ensure all research materials and equipment are available. • For each of the plans, ensure you have a plan B. • Review plans and logistics through project meetings. • Ensure proper documentation as the project proceeds. Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 85 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja EXTERNAL PREPARATIONS BEFORE CONDUCTING YOUR RESEARCH • Establish linkages with relevant researchers outside your university. • Establish linkages with industry and potential users. • Plan for a robust ICT facility. • Create and maintain a functional website. • Establish web presence through social media. • Ensure that external procurements are planned for, allowing for adequate lead times. • Where foreign exchange is involved, work out how to overcomes current challenges in the foreign exchange market. Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 86 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja IDENTIFY AND DEVELOP PLANS FOR MEETING TARGETS ON TIME • Number of PhDs and MScs to be produced. • Number of innovations and products to be produced. • Patents and other intellectual properties. • Start-ups. • Commercialization. • Adoption of research results by industry Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 87 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja IDENTIFY AND DEVELOP PLANS FOR MEETING TARGETS ON TIME • Number of PhDs and MScs to be produced. • Number of innovations and products to be produced. • Patents and other intellectual properties. • Start-ups. • Commercialization. • Adoption of research results by industry Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 88 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja SUMMARY • Research is confronted by a number of obstacles and challenges. • Before embarking on research, theses obstacles should be identified. • Plans should be made on how to overcomes the obstacles before embarking on the research. Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 89 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION • Questions by participants???? • Discussion: Identify potential obstacles to the execution of a research project. Discuss how to overcome each obstacle identified. Prof. A.P. ONWUALU, fas 90 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja LECTURE 2.8 DISRUPTIVE RESEARCH AND INNOVATION • Importance of Research • Types of Research • Types of Innovation • Research, Innovation, Wealth Nexus • Characteristics of Disruptive Research and Innovation • Examples of Disruptive Research and Innovation • How to Achieve Disruptive Research and Innovation • Summary . Questions and Discussion. Prof Onwualu, fas African University of Science and Technology, Abuja 91 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this module, participants should be able to initiate and implement Disruptive Research and Innovation using multi-disciplinary teams. Prof Onwualu, fas 92 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH • Deeper understanding of nature and environment. • Custodian of Knowledge. • More Acquisition of Knowledge. • Exploitation of Knowledge for New Products and Services. • Sustainable Innovation System. • Sustainable Industrialization. • Wealth Creation. • Economic Growth and Sustainable Development. Prof Onwualu, fas 93 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja TYPES OF RESEARCH (1) Pure research Fundamental or the theoretical research. Basic and original. Can lead to the discovery of a new theory. Can result in the development or refinement of a theory that already exists. Helps in getting knowledge without thinking of implementing it in practice. Applied research Based on the concept of the pure research. Is problem oriented. Helps in finding results or solutions for real life problems. Provides evidence of usefulness to society. Helps in testing empirical content of a theory. Helps in developing the techniques that can be used for basic research. Helps in testing the validity of a theory but under some conditions. Provides data that can lead to the acceleration of the process of generalization. Prof Onwualu, fas 94 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja TYPES OF RESEARCH (2) Exploratory research Involves exploring a general aspect. Includes studying of a problem, about which nothing or a very little is known. Follows a very formal approach of research. Helps in exploring new ideas. Helps in gathering information to study a specific problem very minutely. Helps in knowing the feasibility in attempting a study. Descriptive research Simplest form of research. More specific in nature and working than exploratory research. It involves a mutual effort. Helps in identifying various features of a problem. Restricted to the problems that are describable and not arguable. Existing theories can be easily put under test by empirical observations. Underlines factors that may lead to experimental research. It consumes a lot of time. It is not directed by hypothesis. Prof Onwualu, fas 95 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja TYPES OF RESEARCH (3) Diagnostic study Quite similar to the descriptive research. Identifies the causes of the problems and then solutions for these problems. Related to causal relations. It is directed by hypothesis. Can be done only where knowledge is advanced. Evaluation study Form of applied research. Studies the development project. Gives access to social or economical programmes. Studies the quality and also the quantity of an activity Prof Onwualu, fas 96 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja WHAT IS INNOVATION? The process of translating an idea or invention into a value added product or service that is marketable Innovation is bringing into being a better idea or method while invention is just to create an idea or method Innovation leads to more effective ideas, processes, technologies, products and services that are readily available to the market. It is usually assured in an economy when there is a functional National System of Innovation (NSI) based on the Triple Helix Concept (Government, Research and Industry working together). Prof Onwualu, fas 97 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja •Figure iv. Waves of Innovation Model. •Source: Hargroves, K. and Smith, M. (2005), p 17.[1] • [1] Hargroves, K. and Smith, M.H. (2005) The Natural Advantage of Nations: Business Opportunities, Innovation and Governance in the 21st Century, Earthscan, London. Prof Onwualu, fas 98 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja TYPES OF INNOVATION • Evolutionary or Revolutionary • Incremental or Radical • Product, Service and Process Prof Onwualu, fas 99 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja INNOVATION and WEALTH OF NATIONS There is direct relationship between innovation output and wealth of nations Prof Onwualu, fas 100 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja RESEARCH, INNOVATION AND DEVELOPMENT NEXUS ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT INNOVATION RESEARCH Prof Onwualu, fas 101 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja EXAMPLES OF PRODUCTS OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATION Computer, television, radio, air conditioner, fan, washing machine, GSM. Internet, Facebook, Whatsapp, Tweeter, Microsoft, Apple, HP, printers. Bicycle, motorcycle, car, aircrafts, engines, train, drones, rocket, missile. Telephone, photography, films, cinema, novels, camera, dryer, cooker. Capacitor, OLED, solar cell, battery, petrochemicals, bulb, flourescent. X-ray, microwave, radio signal, eye glass, clock, stethoscope, ECG. Paper, pencil, pen, ink, books, calculator, CAD/CAM systems, e-books. Industrial chemicals, drugs, packaging materials, cement, lubricants. Buildings, roads, railway, airports, seaports, space station, glass, steel. Soccer, monopoly scrabble, golf, cricket, handball, baseball, toys. THESE DISCOVERIES HAVE MADE LIFE MORE INTERESTING AND ENABLED MAN TO OVERCOME THE CHALLENGES OF HIS ENVIRONMENT. For a minute, let us reflect on some other achievements of man, aided by innovations and research. Prof Onwualu, fas 102 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja RICH OR POOR? ANY INNOVATION? Prof Onwualu, fas African 103 University of Science and Technology, Abuja TRANSPORTATION-AIRCRAFTS Prof Onwualu, fas 104 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja ENERGY- ELECTRICITY Prof Onwualu, fas 105 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja AGRICULTURE-TRACTORS Prof Onwualu, fas 106 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja HEALTHCARE-HOSPITAL EQUIPMENT Prof Onwualu, fas 107 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja GLOBAL INNOVATION SPECTRUM: Where is Nigeria? • Different Indices can be used to quantify Innovation. These include: International Innovation Index; Innovation Indikator; Innovation Union Scoreboard; Global Competitiveness Index; Bloomberg Innovation Index and Global Innovation Index (GII) • GII gives an indication of the capability of an economy in generating and using innovation continuously for development • It is an average of two sub indices namely input and output sub indices Prof Onwualu, fas 108 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja GLOBAL INNOVATION INDEX = Average of Input and Output Indices Innovation Input Sub Index Pillars • Institutions • Human Capital • Research • Infrastructure • Market Sophistication • Business Sophistication Innovation Output Sub Index Pillars • Knowledge and Technology Output • Creative outputs Prof Onwualu, 109 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja GII: Framework of the Global Innovation Index 2014 Prof Onwualu, fas 110 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja GLOBAL INNOVATION INDEX 2014 RANKING 1. Switzerland 64.78 10. Honk Kong 56.82 2. UK 62.37 21. Japan 52.41 3. Sweden 62.29 29. China 46.57 4. Finland 60.67 53. South Africa 38.25 5. Netherlands 60.59 78. Tunisia 32.94 6.USA 60.09 85. Kenya 31.85 7. Singapore 59.24 96. Ghana 30.26 8. Denmark 57.52 109. Burkina Faso 28.18 9. Luxemburg 56.86 110. Nigeria 27.76 Prof Onwualu, fas 111 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja Food and Agricultur e Health Commerc care, Education e and and Industry Employme CHALLENGES nt OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Housing and Power, Urban Transport and Developmen Communicatio n t Water, environm ent and Security Prof Onwualu, fas 112 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja Wealth Increased Productivity and Science Production Innovation and Research and Entrepreneurship Development Technological Engineering Capability Capability Prof Onwualu, fas 113 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja SOLUTION TO NIGERIA’S PROBLEMS DISRUPTIVE RESEARCH AND INNOVATION Prof Onwualu, fas 114 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja CHARACTERISTIC OUTCOMES OF DISRUPTIVE RESEARCH AND INNOVATION Completely displaces existing ideas, products, services and the way we do things Leads to enormous wealth creation Leads to tremendous improvement in standard of living Leads to global disruptions in technology available to do things that hitherto were impossible Prof Onwualu, fas 115 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja EXAMPLES OF PRODUCTS OF DISRUPTIVE RESEARCH AND INNOVATION • Wikipedia vs traditional encyclopeadia (Wikipeadia has 5 million articles and is free; Encyclopeadia Brittanicca has 120,000 articles, costs $1000 and bulky). • Computers vs traditional methods of calculation or word processing • Data Storage (floppy disk, CD, USB) • Display – LED (light bulb, CRT, LEDs) • Food processing and storage • Air-conditioning • Drip Irrigation in a dessert • Organ transplants • Smart mobile phones • Speed trains and jumbo jets • Publishing Prof Onwualu, fas 116 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja CHALLENGES OF DISRUPTIVE RESEARCH AND INNOVATION • Very Costly in terms of equipment, personnel and research funds • Higher risk of failure • Longer to achieve • Requires functional infrastructure • Requires high skill and continuous training • Requires dedication and persistent work. • Requires multi-disciplinary teams. Prof Onwualu, fas 117 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja STRATEGIES TO ACHIEVE DISRUPTIVE RESEARCH AND INNOVATION Look at the big picture - Projects that integrate theory and simulation, practice and experiments, surveys, capacity building, patents, product development, scale- ups, start-ups. Entrepreneurial research - Do not be discouraged by your environment in terms of available funding, laboratory, time etc Identify and engage partners in the Triple Helix (government, industry and academia) Consider research that are game changers and can completely change existing processes and products. Prof Onwualu, fas 118 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja SUMMARY • Research leads to innovation and innovation leads to wealth of nations. • The challenges of development in Nigeria are such that disruptive research and innovation must be evolved and used. • Strategies for evolving disruptive research and innovation include entrepreneurial, multi- disciplinary research which must be aimed at changing the way we do things. Prof Onwualu, fas 119 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION Questions from participants???? Discussion: • Identify any existing disruptive research and innovation in Nigeria?. • In your field of specialization, identify one possible disruptive research and one possible disruptive innovation. • Identify the challenges in implementing such an innovation and proffer solutions. • Is it possible to have disruptive research and innovation in Nigeria?. Prof Onwualu, fas 120 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja LECTURE 2.9 PRODUCT ORIENTED AND MARKET DRIVEN RESEARCH Curiosity oriented research Product oriented research Market driven research Challenges Prospects Strategies for fostering product oriented and market driven research Summary Questions and discussion Prof Onwualu, fas 121 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this module, participants should be equipped with knowledge to be able to initiate and implement curiosity oriented research, product oriented research and market driven research. Prof Onwualu, fas 122 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja CURIOSITY ORIENTED (DRIVEN) RESEARCH Research that is done to satisfy the curiosity of the researcher. Used to achieve deeper understanding of a phenomenon. Useful in establishing theories, standards, etc. Examples include establishment of laws such as Newton’s laws of motion. They may not have immediate application in the short term. For a developing country such as Nigeria, many people may think that this is not useful because of the numerous problems begging for solution. But it should be noted that most applied and product oriented research are based on curiosity driven research. Prof Onwualu, fas 123 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja PRODUCT ORIENTED RESEARCH • Research targeted at production of goods and services which may or may not be in demand. • It is based on the technology push model of research where technologies or products are developed and pushed into the market. • Advantages include that it can quickly expand the range of products in an economy. • It can also energize the production of products not earlier considered by consumers. • It may not necessarily require high scientific content. • It can be costly especially when it fails. • It required aggressive and comprehensive marketing to penetrate the market. • It is a better model for a developing country because impact is immediately felt. Prof Onwualu, fas 124 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja EXAMPLES OF PRODUCT ORIENTED RESEARCH • Development of a new method of writing. • Development of a product to minimize fuel consumption in a vehicle. • Development of a more efficient roofing material. • Development of a new machine tool. • Development of a new solar powered telephone hand set. Prof Onwualu, fas 125 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja MARKET DRIVEN RESEARCH • Research targeted at providing the need of a clientele or the general public. • It is based on demand and so the results of the research find immediate application. • The demand can be actual or perceived but must be confirmed before the commencement of research. • Some times the research is done in collaboration with the end user (research-industry linkage) Prof Onwualu, fas 126 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja EXAMPLES OF MARKET DRIVEN RESEARCH • Research on alternative energy sources. • Research on infectious diseases. • Research on high yielding and disease resistant planting materials. • Research on cheaper and safer means of transport. • Research on cheaper and more efficient means of communication. Prof Onwualu, fas 127 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja IMPLEMENTING PRODUCT ORIENTED and MARKET DRIVEN RESEARCH • Global market survey of products. • Survey of existing patents and trademarks. • Interaction with product producers and consumers to understand what is required. • Identify target products that can displace or compete favorably with existing products. • Product or goods/service can be developed using contract research or contract production. • It may require convincing potential clients to contract the researcher for a particular technology, product or service. Prof Onwualu, fas 128 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja CHALLENGES Product must be of highest standards to satisfy regulatory and standard organizations. Poor intellectual property regime. Difficulties in commercialization and manufacturing of products. Poor access to funds to drive research to the point of producing acceptable goods and services. Very few venture capital companies. Absence of research environment that can support product oriented and market driven research such as industrial or technology parks. Competition with imported technology, goods and services which reduces the real market demand for products. Lack of collaboration culture to support very serious multi-disciplinary teams that can bring researchers, industry and funding institutions together. Prof Onwualu, fas 129 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja STRATEGIES FOR FOSTERING PRODUCT ORIENTED AND MARKET DRIVEN RESEARCH • There should be a national integrated approach to research and development. • A group of experts including key people from academia, industry and government can come together and identify major research thrusts. • These can be used to challenge universities to form multi- disciplinary consortium of researchers based on the expertise of each university. • Adequate funding will be provided to drive each research to the end product in the market. • In the mean time, universities should form such groups to cover key sectors of the economy and then cultivate the buy in of the other stake holders and pursue the projects. Prof Onwualu, fas 130 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja SUMMARY • For most developing countries, researchers should focus on product oriented and market driven research as opposed to curiosity or pure research. • Such research must focus on developing products and services, especially the type that can solve immediate problems. • Multi-disciplinary teams of researchers in universities should be formed to address the challenges facing Nigeria in different areas of the economy. • Such research must be targeted at technologies, products and services determined as requires by people. Prof Onwualu, fas 131 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION Questions ?????? Discussion: • Identify the challenges in forming and operationalizing multi-disciplinary research teams that can handle product oriented and market driven research. • Discuss the challenges that can face such a team and how to overcome them. • Identify clusters of research themes that can lead to product oriented and market driven research. Prof Onwualu, fas 132 African University of Science and Technology, Abuja