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Ethiopian Orthodox Church Forests: Opportunities and Challenges For ETHIOPIAN CHURCH FORESTS OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES FOR RESTORATION KERKBOSSEN IN ETHIOPIË MOGELIJKHEDEN EN UITDAGINGEN VOOR RESTAURATIE PROMOTER : Prof.Dr.F.J.J.M.Bongers Persoonlijk hoogleraar bij de leerstoelgroep Bosecologie en Bosbeheer, Wageningen Universiteit CO-PROMOTEREN : Dr.Demel Teketay Fanta Regional Director,Forest Stewardship Council,African Regional Office (FSC Africa),Accra,Ghana Dr.Ir.F.J.Sterck Universitair Docent bij de leerstoelgroep,Wageningen Universiteit PROMOTIECOMMISSIE : Prof.Dr.M.J.A.Werger,Universiteit Utrecht Prof.Dr.F.Berendse,Wageningen Universiteit Prof.Dr.ir.B.Muys,K.U.Leuven,België Prof.Dr.R.Boot,Tropenbos International,Wageningen Dit onderzoek is uitgevoerd binnen de C.T. de Wit Graduate School Production Ecology & Resource Conservation ETHIOPIAN CHURCH FORESTS OPPORTUNITES AND CHALLENGES FOR RESTORATION Alemayehu Wassie Eshete PROEFSCHRIFT Ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor Op gezag van de rector magnificus Van Wageningen Universiteit, Prof.Dr.M.J.Kropff, in het openbaar te verdedigen op woensdag 31 oktober 2007 des ochtends te 11.00 uur in de Aula Alemayehu Wassie Eshete (2007) Ethiopian Church Forests: opportunities and challenges for restoration. PhD thesis,Wageningen Univeristy, Wageningen,The Netherlands. ISBN: 978-90-8504-768-1 Subject headings: species richness and diversity,structural composition,soil seed bank, seed predation, livestock grazing, microsite, management, regeneration, restoration,church forest,dry afromontane forest,Ethiopia This study was carried out at the Forest Ecology and Forest Management Group, Centre for Ecosystem Studies,Wageningen University. This Thesis is dedicated to my late parents Ato Sisay Wassie and W/o Munit Emiru whom I missed too early. I would like also to dedicate to the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Church and its scholars for generations of dedication and faithfulness to the church and its surrounding forests. Had not been to the conservation patronage of Ethiopian orthodox church, these forests would have gone long time ago. CONTENTS 1 CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 21 CHAPTER 2 SPECIES AND STRUCTURAL COMPOSITION OF CHURCH FORESTS IN A FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE OF NORTHERN ETHIOPIA Alemayehu Wassie, Frank Sterck and Frans Bongers 51 CHAPTER 3 SOIL SEED BANKS IN CHURCH FORESTS OF NORTHERN ETHIOPIA : IMPLICATIONS FOR THE CONSERVATION OF WOODY PLANTS Alemayehu Wassie and Demel Teketay 73 CHAPTER 4 POST -DISPERSAL SEED PREDATION AND SEED VIABILITY IN FOREST SOIL : IMPLICATIONS FOR THE REGENERATION OF TREE SPECIES IN ETHIOPIAN CHURCH FORESTS Alemayehu Wassie, Tesfaye Bekele, Frank Sterck, Demel Teketay and Frans Bongers 93 CHAPTER 5 THE EFFECT OF LIVESTOCK GRAZING ON TREE REGENERATION IN CHURCH FORESTS OF ETHIOPIA Alemayehu Wassie, Frank Sterck, Demel Teketay and Frans Bongers 113 CHAPTER 6 TREE REGENERATION IN CHURCH FORESTS OF ETHIOPIA : EFFECTS OF MICROSITES , SEED AVAILABILITY , LITTER AND WEED CONTROL Alemayehu Wassie, Frank Sterck, Demel Teketay and Frans Bongers 135 CHAPTER 7 GENERAL DISCUSSION 153 REFERENCES 179 APPENDIX 187 SUMMARY 197 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 201 CURRICULUM VITAE , PUBLICATIONS 203 EDUCATION STATEMENT OF THE GRATUATE SCHOOL PE & RC CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION Chapter 1 – General Introduction - 1 General Introduction Tropical dry forests are among the most exploited forest ecosystems of the world and have been increasingly fragmented (Cabin et al., 2002). The fragmentation results in small stands of forest bordered by open, often agricultural lands (Bustamante and Castor,1998; Kollmann and Buschor,2002; Fleury and Galetti, 2004; Saunders et al., 1991). Under the increasing pressure by the human population,via e.g.grazing activities or tree harvesting, natural regeneration may be hampered and, as a result, the persistence of the remnant forest patches and their indigenous species in many areas are threatened.This is particularly the case in the rapidly developing tropical areas such as in Ethiopia ( Cotler and Ortega- Larrocea,2006) . Dry Afromontane forests of Ethiopia have faced vast exploitation and almost all these forests have been converted to agricultural lands (EFAP,1994; Demel,1996; Tesfaye et al., 2003), except for small fragments that are left in the most inaccessible areas or around churches (“Church forests”) (Bingelli et al., 2003; Alemayehu Wassie et al., 2005a; Aerts et al., 2006a; Bongers et al., 2006). The disappearance of the forests has been most drastic during the past 100 years.In the beginning of the 1900s, the forested area of the country was estimated at about 40% (EFAP, 1994) but now downscaled to 4.2 % of the land area (FAO, 2001). However,the small isolated patches of natural forest stands occurring around more than 30,000 churches still persist in a degraded landscape and might contribute to restoration,biodiversity conservation and provide many other economic and social benefits.The effectiveness of these church forests to provide “ecosystem services” for the landscape and serve as ‘stepping stones’ for restoration will depend on their long-term sustainability. Recent inventories show that populations of the tree species in the church forests are small,decreasing in extent over time and several tree populations appear to have no regeneration at all (Alemayehu Wassie, 2002; Bingelli et al., 2003; Alemayehu Wassie et al., 2005a). Population decline and failure of regeneration may contribute to a progressive ecological deterioration of church forests (Viana et al.,1997; Alemayehu Wassie,2002; Bingelli et al.,2003). The overall objective of this PhD research is therefore,to assess forest community structure and composition of the church forests, investigate major problems for regeneration of woody species and thus explore the possible options for conservation and forest restoration in Northern Ethiopia. Chapter 1 – General Introduction - 2 Ethiopian churches and their enveloping remnant forests In the northern highlands of Ethiopia,patchy remnants of old-aged Afromontane forests can be found mainly around the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahido Churches (EOTC).Forests in other areas have been completely destroyed and converted into farms and grazing lands over centuries. Hence, when a traveler sees a patch of indigenous old-aged trees in the northern highlands of Ethiopia,he/she can be sure that there is an Orthodox Church in the middle. They are visible from a great distance,with a majestic appearance,usually built on small hills “overlooking” the surrounding villages. The local people call these churches with the surrounding trees as “debr” or “geddam”. “Debr” or “Geddam” is seen by the followers as the most holy place religiously as well as a respected and powerful institution socially. EOTC,an indigenous and integral Christian Church of Africa,is one of the oldest Churches in the world (Aymro and Motovu 1970; Alemayehu, 2002). The word ‘Tewahido’ is the Ethiopian term meaning ‘made one’. The church considers this word the best expression conveying the faith of the church, as it emphasizes the inseparable unity of the Godhead and Manhood in the Person of Christ.The EOTC is numerically the largest of the five non-Chalcedonian Eastern Churches – the Coptic, the Ethiopian, the Syrian, the Indian and the Armenian, which were historically called “The Oriental Orthodox Churches”. It has over 40 million followers, 500,000 clergies and 35,000 churches in Ethiopia. In addition to its religious activities,EOTC has also a long history of conservation of forest resources, which usually envelop the churches.Although the main purpose of churches is as places for worship, burials and meditating religious festivals, they also provide valuable, often unique, and secured habitats for plants and animals, and green spaces for people. The Church perceives nature in a holistic manner.In their concept, nature includes among others,human beings,forests/trees,animals,water,other land features and the nation as a whole. Pilot studies suggest that church forests might be relics or blueprints of ancient and largely lost forest ecosystems,that they are hotspots of biodiversity for indigenous species,and therefore they might serve as priority areas for in-situ conservation and meanwhile maintain as prestigious religious sites (Alemayehu, 2002; Bingelli et al., 2003; Alemayehu Wassie et al., 2005a&b; Bongers,et al.,2006).The local communities do have higher respect and thrust in the EOTC than other local institutions, which has made the church the central institution and platform for socio-economic issues of the people. The positive attitude to the resources protected by the church and the acceptance of the church Chapter 1 – General Introduction - 3 tradition could thus be an opportunity for forest ecosystem conservation and restoration (Alemayehu Wassie,2002). From vegetation sampling done on eight of these churches in South Gondar (Northern Ethiopia), it was found that forests that surround the church have an area ranging from 1.6 ha to 100 ha.The total number of woody species and families in each of the eight churches ranged from 18 and 22 to 22 and 42 respectively. The plant density ranged from 731/ha to 2250/ha and basal area (calculated from woody plants with dbh ≥ 10 cm) ranged from 25 m 2/ha to 110 m 2/ha.The South Gondar indigenous woody species profile was compared as a checklist with the species recorded in the sampled churches. Accordingly from the total 125 woody species found in the zone,81 species were recorded in the eight sampled churches and 16 species were recorded which had not been listed in the checklist (Alemayehu
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