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=XVDPPHQIDVVXQJ =LQRYLL 6KHQGHURYLFK 7RONDWFKHY ² HLQ VRZMHWLVFKHU .QVWOHU MGLVFKHU +HUNXQIW NUHLHUWH HLQH HLQGUXFNVYROOH 6HULH YRQ IQI %LOGHUQ PLW GHP 7LWHO ´-HVXVLQ0DMGDQHNµ'LH6HULHZDUGHU+|KHSXQNWYRQ7RONDWFKHYVLQWHQVLYHU$XV- HLQDQGHUVHW]XQJPLWGHQ(UIDKUXQJHQGLHHUDOV6ROGDWGHU5RWHQ$UPHHZlKUHQG GHU%HIUHLXQJGHU.RQ]HQWUDWLRQVODJHU0DMGDQHNXQG$XVFKZLW]JHPDFKWKDWWH6FKR- FNLHUWYRQGHPGRUW*HVHKHQHQ]HLJWHU-HVXVDOV/DJHULQVDVVHQGHUHLQHJHVWUHLIWH 8QLIRUPWUlJWGLHDOOHQXUP|JOLFKHQ'LIIDPLHUXQJV]HLFKHQDXIZHLVW²GHQMGLVFKHQ gelben Stern, das rote Dreieck politischer Gefangener und die individuelle Gefange- nennummer. Die numerische Tätowierung am Unterarm ist auch zu sehen. Die ver- schiedenen Abschnitte des Lagerlebens werden als die der traditionellen Passion Christi GDUJHVWHOOW:lKUHQGGHU.QVWOHUGLHYHUVFKLHGHQHQ3KDVHQGHV/HLGHQV-HVXNDQR QLVFKSRUWUDLWLHUWEDVLHUWVHLQNQVWOHULVFKHV6FKDIIHQDXI GHQGHUEHNDQQWHQ0DOHUHLHQ der europäischen Renaissance. Der Artikel platziert Tolkatchevs Bilderserie in einem EUHLWHUHQNXOWXUHOOHQXQGYLVXHOOHQ.RQWH[WGDHUVRZRKOGLH(QWZLFNOXQJGHVÄKLVWRUL- VFKHQ-HVX¶W\SLVFKIUGDV'HQNELOGGHV(XURSDVGHV -DKUKXQGHUWVXQGGHU.XQVW GHV5XVVLVFKHP5HDOLVPXVDOVDXFKGHQ(LQÁXVVGHUGHXWVFKHQ$YDQWJDUGHXQWHUVXFKW 'DGXUFKELHWHWVLFKHLQWLHIVLQQLJHUHV9HUVWHKHQYRQ7RONDWFKHYV$UEHLWXQGLKUHUXQL- versellen Botschaft.
Abstract ,Q =LQRYLL6KHQGHURYLFK7RONDWFKHY ² D6RYLHWDUWLVWRI -HZLVKRULJLQ FUHDWHGDVWULNLQJVHULHVRI ÀYHLPDJHVHQWLWOHG´-HVXVLQ0DMGDQHNµ7KHVHULHVZDVWKH FXOPLQDWLRQRI 7RONDWFKHY¶VLQWHQVLYHSUHRFFXSDWLRQZLWKWKHH[SHULHQFHKHDVD5HG
* 0DQ\WKDQNVWR3URI-RKQ(%RZOW8QLYHUVLW\RI 6RXWKHUQ&DOLIRUQLDIRUUHDGLQJDQGFRPPHQ- WLQJDQHDUOLHUYHUVLRQRI WKLVDUWLFOHDQGWR'U9LWD6XVDNDQG'U(YJHQ\.RWO\DUIRUWKHLUKHOS ZLWKVRPHRI =LQRYLL7RONDWFKHY¶VLPDJHV 60 MIRJAM RAJNER
Army soldier, endured upon taking part in liberation of the concentration camps Maj- GDQHNDQG$XVFKZLW]6KRFNHGE\WKHDFWXDOVLJKWVKHZLWQHVVHGKHGHSLFWHG-HVXVDV an actual camp inmate, wearing a striped uniform marked by every possible defamation VLJQ²WKH-HZLVK\HOORZVWDUWKHUHGWULDQJOHRI SROLWLFDOSULVRQHUVDQGWKHLQGLYLGXDO prison number, the numerical tattoo on his lower arm can also be seen. The different stages of camp life are portrayed as the traditional Passion of Christ:KLOHVKRZLQJWKH DFWXDOVLWXDWLRQVWKHDUWLVWEDVHGKLPVHOI XSRQWKHZHOONQRZQ(XURSHDQ5HQDLVVDQFH SDLQWLQJVFDQRQLFDOO\GHSLFWLQJ-HVXV¶VXIIHULQJ7KHDUWLFOHSODFHV7RONDWFKHY¶VVHULHV LQDEURDGHUFXOWXUDODQGYLVXDOFRQWH[WE\H[SORULQJWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI WKH¶KLVWRULFDO -HVXV·LQWKH thFHQWXU\(XURSHDQWKRXJKWDQG5XVVLDQUHDOLVWDUWDQGE\H[DPLQLQJ the impact of the German avant-garde. By doing so, a deeper understanding of the XQLYHUVDOPHVVDJH7RONDWFKHY·VZRUNVHQWDLOLVRIIHUHG
,QWURGXFWLRQ $WWKHEHJLQQLQJRI -XO\ WKH5HG$UP\OLEHUDWHG0DMGDQHNWKHFRQFHQ- WUDWLRQFDPSVLWXDWHGQHDU/XEOLQ3RODQG)LUVWFRQFHLYHGLQ2FWREHU DV DIRUFHGODERUFDPSIRU6RYLHWSULVRQHUVRI ZDUDIWHUWKHLQFHSWLRQRI 2SHUD- WLRQ5HLQKDUGLQ DLPHGDWWKHDQQLKLODWLRQRI 3ROLVK-HZV0DMGDQHN EHFDPHDQH[WHUPLQDWLRQFDPS7KHUDSLGRQVODXJKWRI WKH6RYLHWDUP\GLG QRWOHDYHHQRXJKWLPHIRUWKHFDPS·VFRPPDQGHUVWRGHVWUR\WKHHYLGHQFH WKXVWXUQLQJ0DMGDQHNLQWRWKH´EHVWSUHVHUYHGµFRQFHQWUDWLRQFDPSZKLFK presented the liberators with a detailed picture of the Nazi death machine.1 =LQRYLL 6KHQGHURYLFK 7RONDWFKHY ² D 6RYLHW DUWLVW RI -HZLVK RULJLQVHUYLQJLQWKH5HG$UP\FDPHZLWKKLVXQLWWR6RNRORZDWRZQOHWQH[W to Majdanek.2 Acting under the orders of the Political Department of the
1 :LœQLHZVND$QQD 5DMFD&]HVâDZ 0DMGDQHNWKH&RQFHQWUDWLRQ&DPSRI /XEOLQ7UDQVODW- ed from the Polish by Anna Zagórska. Lublin 1999. 2 =LQRYLL6KHQGHURYLFK7RONDWFKHY ² ZDVERUQLQD-HZLVKDJULFXOWXUDOVHWWOHPHQW 6KFKHGULQ%HODUXV+HUHFHLYHGWKHDUWLVWLFWUDLQLQJLQ.LHYDWD-HZLVKDUWLVDQ·VVFKRRODQG DW9N+87(0$6 7KH+LJKHU6WDWH$UWLVWLFDQG7HFKQLFDO:RUNVKRSV LQ0RVFRZ$VD PHPEHURI WKH )LUVW 8NUDLQLDQ )URQW VWDWLRQHG DW /XEOLQ KH SURGXFHG RYHU WKH QH[W WKLU- W\ÀYHGD\VDERXWWKLUW\ZRUNVRI DUWGHSLFWLQJWKHKRUURUVKHVDZDQGOHDUQHG about in the camp.37KHVHZRUNVZHUHWKHÀUVWDFFRXQWE\DQDUWLVWRI 1D]L DWURFLWLHVDQG7RONDWFKHYXVLQJKLVSUHYLRXVH[SHULHQFHZLWKLPDJHVGHSLFWLQJ the Russian civil war (1921) and the German occupation (1941), created highly individualized, emotionally charged art works that immediately became identi- ÀHGDVYLVXDOV\PEROVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKH+RORFDXVW8SRQVKRZLQJWKHPWR DPHPEHURI WKH3ROLVK6RYLHW1D]L&ULPHV,QYHVWLJDWLRQ&RPPLVVLRQ7RO- katchev was urged to complete the series prior to the opening of the trial of 0DMGDQHN·VFDSWXUHGSHUSHWUDWRUVZKLFKZDVSODQQHGWREHKHOGLQ/XEOLQLQ WKHDXWXPQRI :KLOHWU\LQJWRIROORZWKHLQIRUPDWLRQSURYLGHGE\WKH FDPS·VVXUYLYRUV DW WKH WLPH RI LWV OLEHUDWLRQ LQ WKH 0DMGDQHN VHULHV 7RON- atchev showed scenes from the time it was still active, thus creating powerful DUWLVWLFLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI KXPDQVXIIHULQJ7KHDUWLVW·VUHPLQLVFHQFHVRI WKHVH ÀUVWHQFRXQWHUVDSSHDUHGLQSULQWPDQ\\HDUVODWHULQ ´,VWRRGDORQJWLPHQH[WWRWKHFUHPDWRULXPWKDWWXUQHG5XVVLDQVDQG-HZV3ROHV DQG8NUDLQLDQV*UHHNVDQG)UHQFKLQWRDVKHV²SHRSOHRI GLIIHUHQWQDWLRQDOLWLHV different ages, and different religions that had been brought here from all over RFFXSLHG(XURSHµ4 $OWKRXJK VXFK DQ XQLYHUVDOLVWLF DSSURDFK UHÁHFWV 6RYLHW SROLF\ 7RONDWFKHY must have been aware at the time he was working on his series that more WKDQSHUFHQWRI 0DMGDQHN·VYLFWLPVZHUH-HZV7ZRRI WKHZRUNVKHFUH- DWHGZKLOHVWDWLRQHGLQ6RNRORZFOHDUO\H[SUHVVKLVLGHQWLÀFDWLRQZLWKWKHP DQGDFNQRZOHGJPHQWRI WKHLUVXIIHULQJ2QHRI WKRVHZDVDKLJKO\V\PEROLF SDLQWLQJ ´7DOHVNRWHQµ ÀJ ZKLFK LV WKH 3 Private Tolkatchev at the Gates of Hell. Majdanek and Auschwitz Liberated. Testimony of DQ$UWLVW>H[KLELWLRQFDWDORJXH@(GE\ )LJ =LQRYLL7RONDWFKHYÅ7DOHVNRWHQ´ JRXDFKHFKDUFRDODQGFUD\RQRQSDSHU [ FPFROOHFWLRQRIWKH 7KH 0DMGDQHN VHULHV ZDV FRPSOHWHG DQG H[KLELWHG DW WKH /XEOLQ $UW 0XVHXP MXVW EHIRUH WKH RSHQLQJ RI WKH WULDO RI 0DMGDQHN·V FRPPDQGHUV ZKLFKEHJDQRQ1RYHPEHU 7KHH[KLELWLRQUHYHUEHUDWHGWKURXJKRXW 3RODQGZDVH[WHQVLYHO\UHYLHZHGLQWKHSUHVVDQGGXULQJWKHIROORZLQJ\HDU LQWHQGHGWRHOLPLQDWHWKHODVW-HZVLQDQXPEHURI FDPSVLQFOXGLQJ0DMGDQHN%HWZHHQ DQG-HZVZHUHNLOOHGWKHUHLQDVLQJOHGD\6HH.UDQ]7RPDV] 'DV.RQ]HQWUD- WLRQVODJHU0DMGDQHNXQGGLH´$NWLRQ5HLQKDUGWµ,Q ´$NWLRQ5HLQKDUGWµ'HU9|ONHUPRUG DQGHQ-XGHQLP*HQHUDOJRXYHUQHPHQW ² (GE\%RJGDQ0XVLDâ2VQDEUFN SS²)RUDQDQDO\VLVRI 7RONDWFKHY·V+RORFDXVWDUWHVSHFLDOO\WKHDOEXPV´7KH6KHWO Auschwitz”, DQG´7KH)ORZHUVRI $XVFKZLW]µVHHP\IRUWKFRPLQJDUWLFOH )URP´7KH6KHWOµ ² WR´7KH)ORZHUVRI $XVFKZLW]µ ² DQG%DFN7KH&UHDWLRQ5HFHSWLRQ DQG'HVWLQ\RI =LQRYLL7RONDWFKHY·V$UW,Q ,PDJHVRI 5XSWXUHEHWZHHQWKH(DVWDQGWKH :HVW7KH,FRQRJUDSK\RI $XVFKZLW]DQG+LURVKLPDLQWKH$UWVDQG/LWHUDWXUHRI (DVWHUQ (XURSH (GE\8UV+HIWULFK5REHUW-DFREVHWDO&RORJQH ZINOVII TOLKATCHEV’S JESUS IN MAJDANEK 63 was shown in a number of Polish towns and cities. Hundreds of thousands VDZLW,Q)HEUXDU\ WKHÀUVWWKRXJKWIXOO\GHVLJQHG´0DMGDQHNµDOEXP ZDVSXEOLVKHGLQ:DUVDZLQDQHGLWLRQRI FRSLHV7KHLQWURGXFWRU\WH[WV ZHUHZULWWHQLQ3ROLVK5XVVLDQ(QJOLVKDQG)UHQFKDQGWKH3ROLVK*RYHUQ- ment sent these albums to the heads of the Allied states, government minis- WHUVDQGPLOLWDU\RIÀFHUV6 +RZHYHU WKH 0DMGDQHN H[SHULHQFH ZDV RQO\ DQ LQWURGXFWLRQ WR ZKDW ZRXOGKDSSHQRQ-DQXDU\ ZKHQ7RONDWFKHYQRZDFFRPSDQ\LQJWKH 3ROLVK6RYLHW 1D]L &ULPHV ,QYHVWLJDWLRQ &RPPLVVLRQ DUULYHG DW $XVFKZLW] only hours after the liberation of the camp by the Red Army.7 Although the Nazis had emptied the camp of its prisoners and destroyed far more of the GHDWKPDFKLQHWKDQWKH\KDGDW0DMGDQHNWKHFDPS·VVL]HDQGVLWHVZHUHPXFK more devastating. Along with the bodies of the dead, there were more than 7,000 living prisoners, most of them sick and in a state of collapse.8 Arriving without art supplies and lacking the seclusion of Sokolow, Tolkatchev began WRGRFXPHQWRQWKHVSRWZKDWKHVDZDQGKHDUG,QWKHFDPS·VIRUPHUKHDG- TXDUWHUVKHIRXQGDVXSSO\RI SDSHU²RIÀFLDOVWDWLRQHU\ZLWKSULQWHGOHWWHU- heads – and used them for his pencil-drawn testimonies. It is in the same year, following his encounter with the atrocities of Aus- FKZLW]WKDWKHFUHDWHGDKLJKO\PRYLQJVHULHVHQWLWOHG´-HVXVLQ0DMGDQHNµ ZKLFKDVLQWKHFDVHRI KLV´7DOHVNRWHQµXVHVUHOLJLRXVLPDJHU\WRUHVSRQG WRWKHKXPDQFDWDVWURSKHKHZLWQHVVHG&RPSULVHGRI ÀYHZRUNVWKHVHULHV VKRZV-HVXVDVDFDPSLQPDWHVXIIHULQJWKURXJKDOOWKHVWDJHVRI KXPLOLDWLRQ stigmatization, hard work, and death, which are depicted in such a manner WKDWWKH\UHFDOOWKHVWDJHVRI &KULVW·V3DVVLRQ9 In one of the scenes, offering DVWULNLQJYHUVLRQRI DWUDGLWLRQDO¶(FFH+RPR·LPDJH-HVXVZHDULQJDSULV- RQHU·VVWULSHGJDUELVmarked by every possible sign of defamation – he is a 6 3ULYDWH7RONDWFKHYHG6KHQGDUS 7RâNDF]HZ=LQRYLM 0DMGDQHN Z\VWDZDZ6XNLHQQLFDFK >H[KLELWLRQFDWDORJXH@&UDFRZ 7 Private Tolkatchev, ed. Shendar, pp. 6–7, 38. 8 6WU]HOHFNL$QGU]HM ´/LEHUDWLRQµ0HPRULDODQG0XVHXP$XVFKZLW]%LUNHQDX$YDLODEOHDW KWWS HQDXVFKZLW]RUJKLQGH[SKS"RSWLRQ FRPBFRQWHQW WDVN YLHZ LG ,WHPLG OLPLW OLPLWVWDUW DFFHVVHG-XQH 9 ,ZRXOGOLNHWRWKDQNWR0UV$QHO7RONDFKHYD6KLHOGWKHDUWLVW¶VGDXJKWHUIRUNLQGO\JUDQWLQJ PHSHUPLVVLRQWRSXEOLVK=LQRYLL7RONDWFKHY¶VVHULHVÅ-HVXVLQ0DMGDQHN´FXUUHQWO\RQORDQ at the Majdanek State Museum, Lublin, Poland. 64 MIRJAM RAJNER -HZD3ROHD5XVVLDQDQGDSROLWLFDOSULVRQHUZLWKKLVDUPEHDULQJDWDWWRRHG QXPEHU ÀJ 10 7RONDWFKHYZDVQRWDORQHLQXVLQJWKHLPDJHRI &KULVWDQGKLVVXIIHULQJ to respond to the Holocaust. Ziva Amishai-Maisels showed in her pioneering ZRUNRQ+RORFDXVWDUWKRZWXUQLQJWR-HVXVDQGVSHFLÀFDOO\-HVXVDVD-HZ- LVKYLFWLPDSSHDUHGLQDQXPEHURI DUWLVWV·ZRUNVRI ZKLFK0DUF&KDJDOO·V ´:KLWH&UXFLI[LRQµRI LVDQHDUO\DQGZHOONQRZQH[DPSOH11 Moreover, VKHKDVVKRZQKRZ-HVXVSUHVHQWHGDVDKLVWRULFDOFKDUDFWHUZDVDOUHDG\XVHG E\QLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\-HZLVKDUWLVWVDVDFRPPHQWRQ-HZLVKGHVWLQ\DQG-HZ- LVK&KULVWLDQUHODWLRQV12:KDWLVVWULNLQJDERXW7RONDWFKHY·VVHULHV´-HVXVLQ 0DMGDQHNµLVWKDWKHFUHDWHGDPRGHUQ3DVVLRQDVD6RYLHW&RPPXQLVWDUWLVW :LWKWKLVDUWLFOH,KRSHWRRIIHUVRPHLQVLJKWVVRXUFHVDQGSDUDOOHOVRI WKLV XQXVXDOFKRLFHIRUDQDWKHLVW-HZVXFKDV7RONDWFKHY +LVWRULFDO-HVXVLQ1LQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\$UW The Russian Connection In the opening pages of his recently published book dealing with the nine- WHHQWKFHQWXU\ TXHVW IRU D KLVWRULFDO -HVXV 1RUZHJLDQ WKHRORJLDQ +DOYRU 0R[QHVOLQNVWKHVHDUFKIRUDKLVWRULFDOSUHVHQWDWLRQRI -HVXV&KULVWZLWKWKH H[SUHVVLRQRI PRGHUQLGHQWLWLHV7KHTXHVWLRQ¶ZKRZDV-HVXV·DOZD\VUHODWHV KHFODLPVWRWKHH[LVWHQWLDOTXHVWLRQ¶ZKRDP,ZKRDUHZH·UHIHUULQJQRWRQO\ to religious, but also to social, political, and national identities.13 The develop- PHQWRI WKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\·VKLVWRULFDO-HVXVVWXGLHVLHWKHH[SORUDWLRQ 10 It is important to note that, although this series was created following his encounter with $XVFKZLW]²LWDGGVWKHWDWWRRXVHGLQWKDWFDPSWR&KULVW·VDUP²7RONDWFKHYWLWOHGLW´-HVXV LQ0DMGDQHNµDQGQRW´-HVXVLQ$XVFKZLW]µ)RUKLPWKHÀUVWDQGVWURQJHVWVKRFNKHH[SH- rienced was the encounter with Majdanek. His private writings of the time, preserved by his family, show that it was this encounter that created the feeling of inability to comprehend the scope of the disaster, which he saw as an abyss dividing human history into the periods EHIRUHDQGDIWHU0DMGDQHN6HH6NO\DUHQNR*DOLQD =LQRYLL7RONDFKRY.KXGR]KQLNLLRJR FKDV,Q =LQRYLL7RONDFKRYWYRUL]PX]HLQLNKWDSULYDWQLNK]ELURN$OEXP.LHYS 11 $PLVKDL0DLVHOV=LYD 'HSLFWLRQDQG,QWHUSUHWDWLRQ7KH,QÁXHQFHRI WKH+RORFDXVWRQ WKH9LVXDO$UWV2[IRUG HVSFK´7KH&UXFLÀHG-HZµSS² &KDJDOO·V´:KLWH &UXFLÀ[LRQµLVSUHVHQWO\DWWKH$UW,QVWLWXWHRI &KLFDJR,QY1R VHHKWWS ZZZ DUWLFHGXDLFFROOHFWLRQVDUWZRUN . 12 $PLVKDL0DLVHOV=LYD 7KH-HZLVK-HVXVLQ-RXUQDORI -HZLVK$UW SS² LGHP 2ULJLQVRI WKH-HZLVK-HVXVLQ &RPSOH[,GHQWLWLHV-HZLVK&RQVFLRXVQHVVDQG0RGHUQ$UW (GE\0DWWKHZ%DLJHOODQG0LOO\+H\G1HZ%UXQVZLFN1-SS² 13 0R[QHV +DOYRU -HVXV DQG WKH 5LVH RI 1DWLRQDOLVP $ 1HZ 4XHVW IRU WKH 1LQHWHHQWK &HQWXU\+LVWRULFDO-HVXV/RQGRQDQG1HZ )LJ =LQRYLL7RONDWFKHY´(FFH +RPRµ IURPWKHVHULHV´-HVXVLQ Majdanek”), 1945, gouache, charcoal DQGFUD\RQRQSDSHU[FP $QHO7RONDWFKHYD6KLHOGRQSHU- manent loan at The State Museum at Majdanek, Lublin. RI -HVXVDVDKLVWRULFDOÀJXUHOLYLQJDQGDFWLYHLQDVSHFLÀFSHULRGRI WLPHDQG DVSHFLÀFJHRJUDSKLFDODUHDSDUDOOHOHGWKHULVHRI QDWLRQDOLVPDQGWKHIRUPD- WLRQRI PRGHUQQDWLRQVWDWHVDQGWKHLUH[SDQVLRQWKURXJKFRORQLDOLVP:KLOH WKHROGV\VWHPSUHIHUUHGDGRJPDWLFLPDJHRI DFHOHVWLDO-HVXVDVUXOHURI WKH FKXUFKDQGDPRGHOIRU(XURSHDQPRQDUFKVDVUXOHUVRI WKHLUZRUOGO\HPSLUHV WKHFKDQJHVUHVXOWLQJIURPWKH)UHQFK5HYROXWLRQVWUHVVHGWKHQHHGIRUDQHZ KXPDQ-HVXV7KLVQHHGEHFDPHHYHQPRUHSURQRXQFHGDVDUHVXOWRI RQJR- ing dramatic social and economic changes – urbanization, new relationships between social classes, changes in public morality and gender roles. However, although those changes included a new, critical attitude towards religion, reli- JLRXVEHOLHIVDQG&KULVWLDQPRUDOLW\ZHUHVWLOOLPSRUWDQWDQGWKHKXPDQ-HVXV was now viewed as a model for humanity, a symbol for individuals and for people.14 A number of books written in the course of the nineteenth century, 14 Ibid. 66 MIRJAM RAJNER SULPDULO\E\&KULVWLDQWKHRORJLDQVDQGVFKRODUVRI &KULVWLDQLW\H[SORUHGWKLV QHZDSSURDFK7KH\ZHUHELRJUDSKLHVRI -HVXV·OLIHWKDWHQDEOHGDPRGHUQ UHDGHUWRFRQFHLYHRI -HVXVDVDKXPDQEHLQJHQYLVLRQWKHODQGDQGWKHVRFLHW\ in which he lived, and identify with them by transferring them to his or her RZQWLPHQDWLRQDOLW\DQGFRXQWU\:KLOH*HUPDQDXWKRUVZHUHWKHÀUVWWR SXEOLVKKLVWRULFDOUHFRQVWUXFWLRQVRI -HVXV·OLIHWKHPRVWSRSXODU DQGPRVW RIWHQFULWLFL]HG YHUVLRQZDVWKHRQHZULWWHQE\WKH)UHQFK2ULHQWDOLVW(UQHVW 5HQDQ ZKLFK ZDV WUDQVODWHG LQWR VHYHUDO (XURSHDQ ODQJXDJHV LPPHGLDWHO\ after its publication in Paris in 1863.15 &RQWHPSRUDU\LPDJHVLQPRGHUQDUWWKDWLGHQWLI\ZLWKVXFKDQHZKXPDQ -HVXVFOHDUO\IROORZWKLVWUHQG7KHUHIRUPV-HVXVLQWURGXFHGKLVVDFULÀFHIRU the cause, and the suffering and martyrdom characterizing his life and Passion became models for modern reformers, for theirVDFULÀFHDQGtheir suffering. $PRQJWKHHDUOLHVWH[DPSOHVRI DUWZKLFKXVHLPDJHVRI -HVXV·GHDWKDQGKLV VDFULÀFHIRUWKHZHOIDUHRI KXPDQLW\DVDPHWDSKRUIRUFRQWHPSRUDU\SROLWL- FDOHYHQWVLVSUREDEO\-DFTXHV/RXLV'DYLG·VIDPRXVSDLQWLQJ´7KH'HDWKRI 0DUDWµ $OWKRXJK-HDQ3DXO0DUDWWKHPXUGHUHG)UHQFKUHYROXWLRQDU\ leader, is shown in a contemporary setting – in his own bathroom, his lifeless right arm and head hanging to the right, as well as the bleeding cut on the upper right of his chest – his mortal wound is clearly reminiscent of images RI WKH3LHWjHVSHFLDOO\0LFKHODQJHOR·VIDPRXVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ7KHWUDGLWLRQDO &KULVWLDQDWWULEXWHVGUDZDFOHDUSDUDOOHOEHWZHHQWKHGHDG&KULVWDQG²LQWKH H\HVRI VXSSRUWHUVRI WKH)UHQFK5HYROXWLRQVXFKDV'DYLG²WKHLUPDUW\UHG political leader.16 $QRWKHUZHOONQRZQH[DPSOHLV)UDQFLVFR*R\D·VIDPRXV´7KH7KLUGRI 0D\ RU 7KH ([HFXWLRQV RQ 3UtFLSH 3tR +LOOµ Goya, passion- ately siding with his fellow citizens in their revolt against the occupying forces RI 1DSROHRQ·V DUP\ VKRZV D FDSWXUHG ÀJKWHU LQ KLV ODVW PRPHQWV EHIRUH EHLQJVKRWE\DÀULQJVTXDGZLWKKLVUDLVHGDUPVUHFDOOLQJDFUXFLÀ[LRQ+LV 15 ,ELGS7KHHDUOLHVWFULWLFDOUHYLHZRI WKHQLQHWHHQWKFHQWXU\-HVXVVWXGLHVZDV6FKZHLW]HU $OEHUW 9RQ5HLPDUXV]X:HUGH(LQH*HVFKLFKWHGHU/HEHQ-HVX)RUVFKXQJ 7ELQJHQ 16 9DXJKDQ:LOOLDP 7HUURUDQGWKH7DEXOD5DVD'DYLG·V0DUDWLQ3LFWRULDO&RQWH[W,Q -DFTXHV /RXLV'DYLG·V0DUDW(GE\:LOOLDP9DXJKDQDQG+HOHQ:HVWRQ1HZ kneeling posture and the wound on his right palm, recalling stigmata, clearly GUDZXSRQ&KULVWLDQLFRQRJUDSK\5REHUW+XJKHVFRPSDUHVWKHSDLQWLQJWR DQDOWDUSLHFHGHGLFDWHGWRWKH´UHOLJLRQRI SDWULRWLVPµ17 By contrast, in his ´'HDG&KULVWZLWK$QJHOVµ – painted in 1864, a year after Renan published his LQÁXHQWLDO´/LIHRI -HVXVµ²(GRXDUG0DQHWDQDGPLUHURI *R\DGLVWDQFHG KLPVHOI IURPWKHKHURLFDQGSDWULRWLFVDFULÀFHDQGXQGHUOLQHGWKHVXIIHULQJRI a humble, human being.18([KLELWHGDWWKH3DULVLDQ6DORQRI WKHSDLQWLQJ ZDVDWWDFNHGE\WKHFULWLFVZKRFRQGHPQHGLWIRU´DODFNRI GHFRUXPµ7KH VWDUNUHDOLVPRI &KULVW·V´FDGDYHURXVERG\µDQG´WKHVHHPLQJO\KXPDQDQJHOVµ ZHUHDOVRFHQVXUHG WKHFULWLFVDUJXHGWKDWWKHSDLQWLQJFRPSOHWHO\ODFNHGDQ\ VHQVHRI VSLULWXDOLW\DQGWKHÀJXUHRI WKHEDWWHUHG&KULVWZDVVDLGWRPRUH FORVHO\UHVHPEOH´WKHERG\RI DGHDGFRDOPLQHUWKDQWKHVRQRI *RGµ19 How- HYHU0DQHW·VZRUVW¶FULPH·ZDVWKHIDFWWKDWKHSDLQWHG&KULVW·VZRXQGRQWKH left side of his chest and not, traditionally, on the right. Although apparently done by mistake, Manet decided not to correct it. By switching the sides he EURNHZLWKDORQJOLQHRI HVWDEOLVKHG&KULVWLDQLFRQRJUDSK\DQGRPLWWHGRQH RI &KULVW·VWUDGLWLRQDODWWULEXWHV WKHULJKWVLGHRI KLVERG\V\PEROL]LQJKLV righteousness, was replaced by the left, turning him into an ordinary wounded and dead mortal human being. $ERXWWKHVDPHWLPH5XVVLDQDUWLVWVDOVREHJDQWRH[SHULPHQWZLWKPRG- HUQLPDJHVRI -HVXV,QWKHZDNHRI WUHPHQGRXVVRFLRSROLWLFDOFKDQJHVLQWUR- GXFHGE\$OH[DQGHU,,·VUHIRUPVSULPDULO\WKHOLEHUDWLRQRI WKHVHUIV Russian intellectuals, faced with the misery of this mass of people who were now free but illiterate, impoverished, and unemployed, underwent intense VRXOVHDUFKLQJ4XHVWLRQVRI PRUDOLW\HWKLFVDQGRQH·VFRQVFLHQFHEHFDPH major issues in Russian philosophy, literature and arts in the 1860s, culminat- ing in the Narodniki 3RSXOLVW PRYHPHQW1RWVXUSULVLQJO\5HQDQ·V´/LIHRI 17 +XJKHV 5REHUW *R\D /RQGRQ SS²*R\D·V “The Third of May, 1808” is FXUUHQWO\DWWKH0XVHR1DFLRQDOGHO3UDGRLQ0DGULGLQYQR3 )RUWKHLPDJHVHH KWWSV ZZZPXVHRGHOSUDGRHVYLVLWDHOPXVHR²REUDVPDHVWUDVÀFKDREUDREUDHO² GHPD\RGH²HQPDGULGORVIXVLODPLHQWRVHQODPRQWDQDGHOSULQFLSHSLR (accessed -XQH 18 The painting is presently at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv. no. )RUWKHLPDJHVHHKWWS ZZZPHWPXVHXPRUJFROOHFWLRQWKHFROOHFWLRQRQOLQH VHDUFK DFFHVVHG-XQH 19 /D9LH3DULVLHQQH0D\4XRWHGLQ +DQVRQ$QQH&RIÀQ 0DQHWDQGWKH0RGHUQ Tradition. New Haven and London 1977, p. 106, n. 224. 68 MIRJAM RAJNER -HVXVµ translated into Russian as early as 1864, inspired leading authors such DV/HY7ROVWR\DQG)\RGRU'RVWR\HYVNLDVZHOODVDUWLVWVOLNH,YDQ.UDPVNRL DQG 9DVVLO\ 3ROHQRY20 6LPLODU WR 0DQHW .UDPVNRL KLPVHOI D UHEHO DJDLQVW the conservative Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg and the founder of an LQGHSHQGHQWDUWFRPPXQHVHWRXWWRFUHDWHKLVRZQ5XVVLDQ-HVXVDVDPHW- DSKRUIRUKLVSHRSOH·VVXIIHULQJ21,QWKHPLGV.UDPVNRL²LQVSLUHGE\ WKHQHZVRFLDODZDUHQHVVDQGWKHVHDUFKIRUDKXPDQ&KULVW²VWDUWHGZRUNRQ DSDLQWLQJEDVHGXSRQWKH1HZ7HVWDPHQWSDVVDJHWKDWGHVFULEHV-HVXVEHLQJ tempted by the devil in the desert, after he had withdrawn there in order to IDVWDQGFRQWHPSODWH 0DWWKHZ ² /XNH ² +RZHYHULQVWHDGRI WKH WUDGLWLRQDOGHSLFWLRQVRI WKHGLDORJXHEHWZHHQ-HVXVDQGWKHGHYLO.UDPVNRL FUHDWHGDSRZHUIXOLPDJHRI DORQHVRPH&KULVWVLWWLQJRQDURFNDPLGDGHVR- late, stony landscape, detached from his surroundings and isolated in his own WKRXJKWVDQGLQQHUEHLQJ ÀJ +LVKDQGVIROGHGLQDJHVWXUHRI XQFHUWDLQW\ WKDWVXJJHVWVLQQHUVWUXJJOHH[SUHVVDKXPDQDWWHPSWWRFRPHWRWHUPVZLWK GLIÀFXOW PRUDO TXHVWLRQV ¶:KHUH WR WXUQ" :KDW LV WKH ULJKW ZD\"· ,Q D OHW- WHUZULWWHQWRKLVIULHQGWKHZULWHU9VHYRORG0*DUVKLQLQVL[\HDUV DIWHU.UDPVNRLKDGFRPSOHWHGDQGH[KLELWHGKLV´&KULVWLQWKH'HVHUWµWKH DUWLVWH[SODLQHGWKDWKHGLGQRWEDVHKLVLPDJHRI &KULVWRQHLWKHU5XVVLDQ 2UWKRGR[PRGHOVRU:HVWHUQDUWEXWUDWKHU²DVDWUXHUHDOLVW²IRXQGKLV PRGHOLQHYHU\GD\OLIH.UDPVNRL·VVWDUWLQJSRLQWZDVDFKDUDFWHUWDNHQIURP life, an aged Russian peasant that the artist saw sitting motionless on a rock IRUKRXUVLPPHUVHGLQKLVRZQZRUOG:KLOHREVHUYLQJKLPKHIHOWWKDWLWZDV H[DFWO\WKLVVLPSOHPDQSRQGHULQJKLVWURXEOHVZKRUHÁHFWHGDOORI 5XVVLD·V 20 5HQDQ(UQHVW =KL]Q,VXVD6IUDQWVX]NDJR,0RQDNRY'UHVGHQ6HHDOVR%DLOH\+HD- WKHU 2UWKRGR[\0RGHUQLW\DQG $XWKHQWLFLW\7KH 5HFHSWLRQ RI (UQHVW 5HQDQ·V¶/LIH RI -HVXV·LQ5XVVLD1HZFDVWOH8.)RUWKHWKHPHRI -HVXVLQWKHZRUNVRI QLQHWHHQWKFHQ- WXU\5XVVLDQDUWLVWVVHH/DQJ:DOWKHU. 7KH¶$WKHLVP·RI -HVXVLQ5XVVLDQ$UW5HSUHVHQWD- WLRQVRI &KULVWE\,YDQ.UDPVNR\9DVLO\3ROHQRYDQG1LNRODL*H7UDQVODWHGIURP*HUPDQ E\ 6DUD .DQH ,Q 1LQHWHHQWK&HQWXU\ $UW :RUOGZLGH (-RXUQDO RI 1LQHWHHQWK &HQWXU\ 9LVXDO&XOWXUHQR $XWXPQ KWWS ZZZZHEFLWDWLRQRUJ+ \4TDG2 (accessed -XQH 21 .UDPVNRL·VDUWLVWV·FRPPXQHGHYHORSHGLQWRWKH:DQGHUHUVPRYHPHQW 5XV3HUHGYL]KQLNL a society of Russian artists who initially hoped to educate people and bring about social FKDQJHVE\GHSLFWLQJVRFLDOO\DZDUHVFHQHVLQDUHDOLVWVW\OH6HH9DONHQLHU(OL]DEHWK.ULGO Russian Realist Art. The State and Society. The Peredvizhniki and their Tradition. Ann Arbor 1977. ZINOVII TOLKATCHEV’S JESUS IN MAJDANEK 69 )LJ ,YDQ.UDPVNRL´&KULVWLQWKH'HVHUWµRLORQFDQYDV[FP The State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow. SDLQ.UDPVNRLUHDOL]HGWKDWWKLVSHDVDQWDVDV\PERORI KLVSHRSOH·VVXIIHULQJ FRXOGVHUYHDVDPRGHOIRUD5XVVLDQ&KULVW22 $OWKRXJK.UDPVNRL·VUHYROXWLRQDU\DSSURDFKZDVWKHREMHFWRI FULWLFLVP and there were even rumors about his possible heresy, the painting was not repressed.23 Actually, already in 1871 the Academy of Arts in St Petersburg set DVDQREOLJDWRU\GLSORPDWKHPHIRULWVVWXGHQWVDVFHQHIURPWKHOLIHRI -HVXV VKRZLQJKLPUDLVLQJIURPWKHGHDGWKHGDXJKWHURI -DLUXVWKH&DSHUQDXP V\QDJRJXHFDUHWDNHU 0DWW ² 0DUN ² /XNH ² $OWKRXJK 22 7KHOHWWHULVTXRWHGLQ,YDQ1LNRODHYLFK.UDPVNRL²9\VWDYNDSURL]YHGHQLLN² letiyu so dnya rozhdeniya. (G WKHWKHPHVWUHVVHG-HVXV&KULVW·VGLYLQHQDWXUHDQGKLVDELOLW\WRSHUIRUPPLUD- FOHV UDWKHUWKDQKLVKXPDQWUDLWV ,O\D5HSLQDQG9DVVLO\3ROHQRY²ERWKVRRQ to become leading Russian Realist artists – used it in their diploma works pri- PDULO\WRHODERUDWH&KULVW·VRULHQWDO0LGGOH(DVWHUQVXUURXQGLQJV7KXVERWK SDLQWLQJVLQFOXGHGLQWKHGHSLFWLRQRI -DLUXV·KRPHQXPHURXVGHWDLOVVXFKDV a Turkish table, oriental carpets, and striped, colorful clothes. Moreover, in RUGHUWRVWUHVVWKH¶-HZLVKQHVV·RI WKLVKRPHERWK5HSLQDQG3ROHQRYDGGHG a sign on the wall inscribed with the Hebrew word PL]UDK (DVW FXVWRPDU- LO\KXQJLQ-HZLVKWUDGLWLRQDOKRPHVRQWKHZDOOIDFLQJ-HUXVDOHPWRLQGLFDWH to the members of the household towards which direction they should turn when praying. Repin also depicted a lighted three-branch candelabra, clearly UHPLQLVFHQWRI WKH-HUXVDOHP7HPSOH·VVHYHQEUDQFKHGmenorah.24 6XFKGHSLFWLRQVRI &KULVW·V¶DXWKHQWLFVXUURXQGLQJV·GHULYHGIURP5HQDQ·V ¶RULHQWDOL]DWLRQ·RI -HVXV·OLIH/LNH5HQDQZKRZURWHKLV´/LIHRI -HVXVµZKLOH WUDYHOLQJLQ²WKURXJK2WWRPDQ6\ULDDQG3DOHVWLQHXVLQJKLVHQFRXQ- ter with the actual geography and local Arab population to construct the set- WLQJIRU-HVXV·ELRJUDSK\25 Polenov would eventually come to do so something VLPLODU$OUHDG\LQKHEHJDQWRSODQKLVPRQXPHQWDOSDLQWLQJ´&KULVWDQG WKH:RPDQ7DNHQLQ$GXOWHU\µZKLFKKHZRXOGFRPSOHWHRQO\LQDIWHU WUDYHOLQJ RQ VHYHUDO RFFDVLRQV WKURXJK *UHHFH WKH 0LGGOH (DVW DQG 3DOHV- tine from 1881–82 onwards.26 A number of preparatory sketches and paintings GHSLFWLQJORFDOODQGVFDSHVDQGSHRSOH²%HGRXLQV$UDEVDQG-HZV²OHGWRD VHULHVRI ZRUNVUHSUHVHQWLQJWKHOLIHRI -HVXV$PRQJWKHEHWWHUNQRZQDUH ´2QWKH/DNHRI *HQQHVDUHWµRI VKRZLQJ-HVXVGUHVVHGDVDFRQWHPSR- UDU\%HGRXLQVWDQGLQJRQWKHVKRUHRI WKH6HDRI *DOLOHHDQG´'UHDPV RQWKH Rocks)” of 1894, depicting the same character sitting alone in a rocky landscape. 7KHODWWHUZRUNFOHDUO\DOOXGHVWR.UDPVNRL·VSDLQWLQJEXWXQOLNHKLVH[SUHVVHV an ethnographic interest, rather than raising philosophical and moral issues. 24 )RUWKHSDLQWLQJVE\5HSLQDQG3ROHQRY´-HVXV5DLVLQJ-DLUXVDQG'DXJKWHUIURPWKH'HDGµ UHVSHFWLYHO\VHH KWWS ZZZZLNLDUWRUJHQLO\DUHSLQUDLVLQJRIMDLUXVGDXJKWHU and KWWS ZZZZLNLDUWRUJHQYDVLO\SROHQRYUHVVXUHFWLRQRIMDLUXVGDXJKWHU (both ac- FHVVHG-XQH 25 6HHWKHVXEFKDSWHU´/LIHRI -HVXVDV7UDYHO:ULWLQJDQG%LRJUDSK\µUHODWLQJWR5HQDQ·VERRN LQ0R[QHV -HVXVDQGWKH5LVHRI1DWLRQDOLVPSS² 26 3ROHQRY·VÀQDOYHUVLRQRI ´&KULVWDQGWKH:RPDQ7DNHQLQ$GXOWHU\µ²LVSUHVHQW- O\DWWKH7UHW\DNRY*DOOHU\0RVFRZVHH KWWS ZZZDEFJDOOHU\FRP3SROHQRYSROHQRY html DFFHVVHG-XQH ZINOVII TOLKATCHEV’S JESUS IN MAJDANEK 71 3ROHQRY·V ¶RULHQWDO· &KULVW ZDV HYHQ PRUH SUREOHPDWLF WKDQ .UDPVNRL·V image of a suffering human being.27 It raised the tension between the histor- LFDO&KULVW·V6HPLWLF-HZLVKRULJLQDQGWKH&KULVWLDQIDLWKWKDWKDGGHYHORSHG from his teaching. Renan solved this by introducing a racial dimension and UHODWLQJWR&KULVWDVWRDQ$U\DQZKRGLVWDQFHGKLPVHOI ZLWKKLVWHDFKLQJDQG OLIHIURPWKH´ORZO\DPRUDORULHQWDO6HPLWHVµ28 Polenov, on the other hand, in the spirit of social criticism and the search for higher ethics and morals, saw WKHUHOLJLRXVHVWDEOLVKPHQWRI KLVRZQGD\DVDWUDYHVW\RI &KULVW·VRULJLQDOLGH- DOLVP,QDOHWWHUWRKLVFROOHDJXHWKH5XVVLDQDUWLVW9LNWRU9DVQHWVRYKHZURWH ´«IRUPH&KULVWDQGKLVPLQLVWU\DUHRQHWKLQJEXWFRQWHPSRUDU\RUWKRGR[\ DQGLWVWHDFKLQJDUHVRPHWKLQJHOVHHQWLUHO\ WKHRQHLVORYHDQGIRUJLYHQHVV WKHRWKHU«LVIDUUHPRYHGIURPLWµ29 ,W ZDV WKLV FRQWURYHUV\ EHWZHHQ &KULVW·V-HZLVK RULJLQ DQG &KULVWLDQLW\·V GLVWDQFLQJLWVHOIIURPDQGRIWHQDQLPRVLW\WRZDUGV-XGDLVPWKDWOHG-HZLVK WKLQNHUVLQWHUHVWHGLQ6HFRQG7HPSOH-XGDLVPWRDOVRUHODWHWRWKHQLQHWHHQWK FHQWXU\¶KLVWRULFDO·-HVXVDQGSUHVHQWKLPDVODZDELGLQJ-HZ$PRQJWKHPRVW LPSRUWDQWZHUHWKH*HUPDQ-HZLVKKLVWRULDQ+HLQULFK*UDHW]LQKLV´+LVWRU\ RI WKH-HZVµ ² DQG$EUDKDP*HLJHUWKH*HUPDQ-HZLVKVFKRODU DQGUHIRUPUDEELZKRLQKLVLQQRYDWLYH´-XGDLVPDQGLWV+LVWRU\µ (1864) rede- ÀQHG-HVXVDVD3KDULVHHDQGDOLEHUDOL]HURI -XGDLVP,WZDVSUHFLVHO\LQHDUO\ &KULVWLDQLW\WKDW*HLJHUXOWLPDWHO\VDZDEHWUD\DORI -HVXV·-HZLVKPHVVDJH30 ,WLVSUREDEO\QRFRLQFLGHQFHWKDWWKHÀUVW-HZLVKDUWLVWZKRLQWHUSUHWHGD KLVWRULFDO-HVXVDVDQ2ULHQWDO-HZZDVWKH5XVVLDQ-HZLVKDUWLVW0DUN$QWRNRO- skii, whose 1873–78 sculpture can be understood as a contemporary response 27 2Q WKH WKHPH RI &KULVW LQ 3ROHQRY·V ZRUN VHH =DNKDUHQNRYD /\XERY· ,YDQRYQD (YDQ- JHO·VND\DWHPDYWYRUFKHVWYH3ROHQRYD,Q 3ROHQRYLUXVVND\DNKXGR]KHVWYHQQD\DNX·OWXUD YWRURLSRORYLQ\;,;²SHUYRLFKHWYHUWL;;YHND(GE\(OHRQRUD9LNWRUHYQD3DVWRQ Mos- cow and St Petersburg 2001, pp. 49–56. 28 5HQDQZURWH ´2QHRI WKHSULQFLSDOGHIHFWVRI WKH-HZLVKUDFHLVLWVKDUVKQHVVLQFRQWURYHUV\ and the abusive tone that it always infuses into. There never were in the world such bitter TXDUUHOVDVWKRVHRI WKH-HZVDPRQJWKHPVHOYHV,WLVWKHIDFXOW\RI QLFHGLVFHUQPHQWWKDW makes the polished and moderate man. Now the lack of this faculty is one of the most FRQVWDQWIHDWXUHVRI WKH6HPLWLFPLQGµ6HH5HQDQ(UQHVW “7KH/LIHRI -HVXVµ New York S )RUDGLVFXVVLRQRI 5HQDQDQGKLV$U\DQ-HVXVVHH+HVFKHO6XVDQQDK $EUDKDP *HLJHUDQGWKH-HZLVK-HVXV&KLFDJRDQG/RQGRQ SS² 29 9DVLO\ 3ROHQRY WR 9LNWRU 9DVQHWVRY -DQ ,Q 3ROHQRY9DVLO\ 'PLWULHYLFK 3LV·PD GQHYQLNLYRVSRPLQDQL\D(GE\ )LJ 0DUN$QWRNROVNLL´(FFH +RPRµ ´&KULVWEHIRUHWKH3HRSOHµ ²EURQ]H [[FP The State Russian Museum, 6W3HWHUVEXUJ,QYQR&. WR WKH H[SORUDWLRQ RI WKH WKHPH E\ KLV 5XVVLDQ FROOHDJXHV² .UDPVNRL 3ROHQRYDQG5HSLQ$VWKH\VWULYHGWRFUHDWHDKXPDQQDWLRQDO-HVXVVRGLG $QWRNROVNLL+LV´(FFH+RPRµ RU´&KULVWEHIRUHWKH3HRSOHµ ÀJ VKRZV -HVXVFDSWXUHGDQG WLHGE\D URSH DWWKHPRPHQWKHZDV SUHVHQWHGWRWKH FURZGZKLOH3RQWLXV3LODWHXWWHUHGKLVIDPRXVZRUGV´%HKROGWKHPDQµ -RKQ +RZHYHU$QWRNROVLL·V-HVXV OLNHWKDWRI .UDPVNRLDQG3ROHQRY GRHV QRWIROORZWKHWUDGLWLRQDO:HVWHUQLFRQRJUDSK\GHSLFWLQJDVFRXUJHGKDOIQD- NHGDQGYXOQHUDEOH&KULVWZLWKDZUHDWKRI WKRUQVRQKLVKHDGPRPHQWV EHIRUHWKHFUXFLÀ[LRQEXWDWKRXJKWIXODQGGLJQLÀHG,VDLDKDV$QWRNROVNLL called him, dressed in striped Bedouin garb, wearing a skullcap. Nevertheless, LQFRQWUDVWWRKLV5XVVLDQFROOHDJXHV$QWRNROVNLLDVD-HZKDGQRGRXEWVDERXW &KULVW·VHWKQLFLW\:KLOHUHVSRQGLQJWRWKHFULWLFLVPDQGH[SODLQLQJKLVPRWLIV $QWRNROVNLLVWUHVVHGQRWRQO\WKHFRUUXSWLRQRI WKH&KULVWLDQLW\WKDW´DFWVLQ WKHQDPHRI &KULVW²DJDLQVW&KULVWµEXWDOVRWKHIDFWWKDW&KULVW·V-HZLVK RULJLQVGUDZWKHWZRVLGHV²-HZVDQG&KULVWLDQV²FORVHU31 31 The marble sculpture produced in 1876 is presently at The State Tretyakov Gallery in Mos- cow, KWWS ZZZWUHW\DNRYJDOOHU\UXHQFROOHFWLRQBVKRZLPDJHBLG DFFHVVHG-XQH ZINOVII TOLKATCHEV’S JESUS IN MAJDANEK 73 =LQRYLL7RONDWFKHY $6RYLHW-HZLVK$UWLVW Under the Soviets any form of religion was suppressed. The new society SUHDFKHG DWKHLVP UHOLJLRQ ZDV WR SDUDSKUDVH .DUO 0DU[ FRQVLGHUHG WKH ´RSLXPRI WKHSHRSOHµ2QHIRUPRI UHHGXFDWLQJWKHPDVVHVZDVWKHHVWDE- lishment of the so-called anti-religious museums where artifacts and art works ZHUHXVHGWR´XQPDVNWKHP\WKRI &KULVWGHPRQVWUDWHWKHUHDFWLRQDU\QDWXUH RI WKHLGHRORJLFDOEDVLVRI &KULVWLDQLW\DQGPRUHJHQHUDOO\GLVSURYHWKHWKH- ory of spiritual revelation.”32 In the late 1950s, American author and scholar RI UHOLJLRQ 0DUFXV %DFK GHVFULEHG LPDJHV RI &KULVW VKRZQ LQ WKH H[KLELW RI /HQLQJUDG·V.D]DQ&DWKHGUDOZKLFKIURP KRXVHGWKH0XVHXPRI WKH+LVWRU\RI 5HOLJLRQDQG$WKHLVP ´7KHUHZDVWKHSDLQWLQJRI &KULVWWKH RSSUHVVRU &KULVWWKHGULYHURI WKH+RUVHVRI WKH$SRFDO\SVHJULQGLQJSHRSOH XQGHU WKHLU KRRYHV DQG &KULVW WKH ¶-HZLVK )RUWXQHWHOOHU·µ33 2Q WKH RWKHU KDQGWKH:DQGHUHUVGXHWRWKHLUVRFLDOO\DZDUHWKHPHVDQGUHDOLVWVW\OHZHUH especially popular in the Soviet period and were considered to be the natu- ral predecessors of Socialist Realism.347KLVH[SODLQVWKHQZK\$QWRNROVNLL·V ´&KULVWEHIRUHWKH3HRSOHµZDVLQWHUSUHWHGDVDPRUDOSKLORVRSKLFDOHWKLFDO DQGVRFLDOO\DZDUHZRUNDFFRUGLQJWRZKLFK-HVXVDSSHDUHGDVD´UHIRUPHU who stood against the aristocracy of the Pharisees and Sadducees and their injuVWLFHVDQGIRXJKWIRUMXVWLFHIUDWHUQLW\DQGIUHHGRPRI WKHSHRSOH«µ7KH statues were shown at The Russian Museum in Leningrad (the bronze copy) and the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow (the marble version).35 Similar Soviet UKHWRULFVWUHVVLQJWKHXVHRI &KULVW·VLPDJHDQGWKH1HZ7HVWDPHQW¶P\WK·LQ 2014). Antokolsky created clay and plaster models in 1873 and 1874, and a bronze copy in 6HH.X]QHWVRYD(UD9DVLOHYQD 00$QWRNROVNLL]KL]QLWYRUFKHVWYR0RVFRZ ÀJVDQG )RUGLIIHUHQWLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVRI $QWRNROVN\·V-HVXVVFXOSWXUHVWUHVVLQJ HLWKHULWV-HZLVKRULWVXQLYHUVDOPHVVDJHVHH $PLVKDL0DLVHOV 7KH-HZLVK-HVXVSS ² 5DMQHU0LUMDP 7KH$ZDNHQLQJRI -HZLVK1DWLRQDO$UWLQ5XVVLD,Q -HZLVK$UW 16 (1990– SS² /LWYDN2OJD 5RPHDQG-HUXVDOHP 7KH)LJXUHRI -HVXVLQWKH&UHDWLRQRI 0DUN$QWRNRO¶VNLL,Q 7KH$UWRI %HLQJ-HZLVKLQ0RGHUQ7LPHV(GE\%DUEDUD.LUVFKHQ- EODWW*LPEOHWWDQG-RQDWKDQ.DUS3KLODGHOSKLDSS² *ODQWV0XV\D. :KHUHLV 0\+RPH"7KH$UWDQG/LIHRI WKH5XVVLDQ-HZLVK6FXOSWRU0DUN$QWRNROVN\² 3O\PRXWK8.SS² 32 (OOLRW0DUN 7KH/HQLQJUDG0XVHXPRI WKH+LVWRU\RI 5HOLJLRQDQG$WKHLVP,Q 5HOLJLRQ LQ&RPPXQLVW/DQGVQR S 33 )URP%DFK0DUFXV *RGDQGWKH6RYLHWV (1958), TXRWHGLQ(OOLRW 7KH/HQLQJUDG0XVHXP p. 126. 34 9DONHQLHU 5XVVLDQ5HDOLVW$UW, pp. 165–193. 35 .X]QHWVRYD(UD9DVLOHYQD 00$QWRNROVNLLSS² 74 MIRJAM RAJNER RUGHUWRXQGHUOLQHWKH5XVVLDQSHRSOH·VVXIIHULQJXQGHUWKH7VDUVZDVDVFULEHG WR.UDPVNRL·V´&KULVWLQWKH'HVHUWµDOVRNHSWLQWKH7UHW\DNRY*DOOHU\36 =LQRYLL7RONDWFKHY·VDUWLVWLFHGXFDWLRQPRVWSUREDEO\EURXJKWKLPLQFRQ- WDFWZLWKWKHJUDQGPDVWHUVRI WKH5XVVLDQ5HDOLVW6FKRRO KRZHYHUGHYHORS- LQJGXULQJWKH VKHDEVRUEHGRWKHULQÁXHQFHVDVZHOO7RONDWFKHYZDV as noted, born in 1903 in Shchedrin, a small town in the province of Minsk (present-day Belarus), near Bobruisk. Shchedrin was founded in the early VDVD-HZLVKDJULFXOWXUDOFRORQ\,Q LWQXPEHUHGPRUHWKDQ -HZVZKRFRPSULVHG SHUFHQWRI WKHWRZQ·VSRSXODWLRQ37:LWKWKHGHFOLQH of the timber business in the area, many left town, as did the Tolkatchev family, ZKRPRYHGWR.LHY387KHUHDFFRUGLQJWRH[FHUSWVIURPDQDXWRELRJUDSKLFDO WH[WSXEOLVKHGLQ 7RONDWFKHYEULHÁ\VWXGLHGDWD-HZLVKDUWLVDQ·VVFKRRO and became an apprentice to a signboard painter. 39 During the Revolution DQGWKH&LYLO:DULQ8NUDLQHWKH\RXQJ7RONDWFKHYUHDFWHGWRWKHEORRGVKHG in his works of art. Soon thereafter he began to tread the path of a successful %ROVKHYLNDUWLVWDQGDVDPHPEHURI WKH´ZRUNLQJ\RXWKµRUJDQL]DWLRQDQG ODWHUWKH&RPPXQLVW3DUW\KHFUHDWHGSURSDJDQGDSRVWHUVDQGSDLQWHGPXUDOV +LVDUWHGXFDWLRQLQFOXGHGVWXG\LQJDWWKHIDPRXV9N+87(0$67KH+LJKHU 6WDWH $UWLVWLF DQG 7HFKQLFDO :RUNVKRSVLQ 0RVFRZDV ZHOO DV LQ .KDUNRY ZKHUHKHFUHDWHG$*,73523DUW,QVSLUHGE\KLV ² VHUYLFHLQWKH 5HG$UP\·VDUWLOOHU\DVDPDFKLQHJXQQHUKHFUHDWHGDVHULHVRI OLWKRJUDSKV HQWLWOHG´7KH5HG$UP\µVWUHVVLQJLWVKHURLFUROHDVDSURWHFWRURI WKHSHRSOH )URP 7RONDWFKHYEHJDQWRSDUWLFLSDWHUHJXODUO\LQ6RYLHWDUWH[KLELWLRQV DQGLQWKHHDUO\ VZDVDSSRLQWHGSURIHVVRULQWKH)DFXOW\RI *UDSKLFVRI WKH.LHY$UW,QVWLWXWH 36 Stasov,9ODGLPLU9DVLOHYLFK ,]EUDQQ\HVRFKLQHQL\D9RO STXRWHGLQ%ROVKD\D VRYHWVND\DHQWVLNORSHGL\D(GE\9DYLORY9RO0RVFRZ SS²)RU.UDPVNRL·V OHWWHUVDOVRSXEOLVKHGLQ DQGWKHGLVFXVVLRQRI KLV´&KULVWLQWKH'HVHUWµVHH LELG 9RO0RVFRZ SS²9ODGLPLU 9DVLOHYLFK 6WDVRY ² WKH IDPRXV 5XVVLDQPDQRI OHWWHUVDUWFULWLFVSRNHVPDQRI WKH:DQGHUHUVPRYHPHQWDQG$QWRNROVNLL·V SHUVRQDOIULHQGRULJLQDOO\SXEOLVKHGWKHDUWLVW·VH[WHQVLYHFRUUHVSRQGHQFHLQ $QWRNRO- VNLL0DUN0DWYHHYLFK (JR]KL]QWYRUHQL\DSLV·PDLVWDW·L(GE\9ODGLPLU9DVLOHYLFK6WDVRY St Peterburg 1905. The 1937 publication includes a selection from it. 37 6OXWVN\ $OWKRXJK QRZ PDLQO\ FUHDWLQJ PRQXPHQWDO SURSDJDQGD DUW LQ WKH RIÀ- FLDO 6RFLDOLVWUHDOLVW VW\OH SURPRWHG E\ 6WDOLQ·VJRYHUQPHQW 7RONDWFKHY DOVR illustrated books. These generally comprised works by Soviet authors such DV0D[LP*RUN\1LNRODL2VWURYVN\DQG/HRQLG3HUYRPDLVNLLEXWWKH\DOVR LQFOXGHG(ULFK0DULD5HPDUTXH·VIDPRXV DQWLZDUQRYHO´$OO4XLHWRQ WKH:HVWHUQ)URQWµ7RONDWFKHY·VERRNLOOXVWUDWLRQH[KLELWHGPXFKPRUHIUHH- GRPLQVW\OHDQGWKHXVHRI YDULRXVDUWLVWLFVRXUFHVIURP)UDQFRLV0LOOHWDQG +RQRUp 'DXPLHU WR WKH *HUPDQ H[SUHVVLRQLVWV QRWDEO\ .DHWKH .ROOZLW] whose art Tolkatchev knew and cherished from the early 1920s. 'XULQJWKH V6RYLHW5XVVLDGHYHORSHGVSHFLDOFXOWXUDOWLHVZLWK:HL- mar Germany and much of its contemporary art, viewed by the Soviets as UHYROXWLRQDU\ZDVH[KLELWHGLQ0RVFRZDQG8NUDLQHXQWLOWKHHDUO\ V40 A ZLGHUDQJHRI DUWLVWVUHSUHVHQWLQJVW\OHVDQGPRYHPHQWVVXFKDV([SUHVVLRQ- ism, Neue Sachlichkeit, and Bauhaus, took part. However, high transportation costs meant that Soviet audiences were mainly able to see graphic works, book illustrations, and posters, rather than oil paintings and sculptures. Neverthe- OHVV *HUPDQ ([SUHVVLRQLVP DQG SROLWLFDO DUW EHFDPHKLJKO\ FKHULVKHG DQG ZHUHDQDO\]HGDPRQJRWKHUVE\VXFKDZHOONQRZQ5XVVLDQ-HZLVKDUWFULWLF DV 40 3\VFKQRYVND\D=LQDGLD 'HXWVFKH.XQVWDXVWHOOXQJHQLQ0RVNDXXQGLKUH2UJDQLVDWRUHQ,Q %HUOLQ0RVNDX0RVNDX%HUOLQ ² %LOGHQGH.XQVW3KRWRJUDSKLH$UFKLWHNWXU(G E\,ULQD$QWRQRZDDQG-|UQ0HUNHUW0XQLFKDQG1HZ )LJ *HRUJH*URV]´&KULVWZLWK *DVPDVNµ GUDZLQJSKR- tograph 000196– Rauch collection, ,17(5)2720XQLFK 7RONDWFKHYXVHGH[SUHVVLYHVW\OHSULPDULO\LQKLV ²SDVWHOVDQGRLOV LQVSLUHG E\ WKH ZULWLQJV RI WKH IDPRXV 5XVVLDQ-HZLVK DXWKRU 6KROHP $OH- LFKHP7KH\ZHUHFUHDWHGIRUWKH .LHYH[KLELWLRQGHGLFDWHGWRWKHODWH 42 $VLGHIURPWKH .LHYH[KLELWLRQLQWKDWVDPH\HDUIRXUWHHQRI 6KROHP$OHLFKHP·VZRUNV ZHUHSXEOLVKHGLQWKH6RYLHW8QLRQ,QDGGLWLRQDODUJHH[KLELWLRQ´7KH-HZVLQ7VDULVW5XVVLD ZINOVII TOLKATCHEV’S JESUS IN MAJDANEK 77 )LJ =LQRYLL7RONDWFKHY´7KH In 1941, after the German attack on the USSR and the outbreak of hos- WLOLWLHVEHWZHHQWKHWZRFRXQWULHV7RONDWFKHYEHFDPHWKHKHDGRI WKH&RP- PLWWHH RI WKH &RPPXQLVW $UWLVWV RI 8NUDLQH DQG ZDV DFWLYH LQ HYDFXDWLQJ artists and their families. Despite his age, he also volunteered to join the Red Army, and as a private accompanied the armored forces and participated in EDWWOHV$OOWKLVJDYHKLPÀUVWKDQGH[SHULHQFHRI WKHVXIIHULQJRI WKHORFDO SRSXODWLRQPDLQO\-HZLVKDQG3ROLVKLQÁLFWHGERWKE\WKH*HUPDQVDQGWKHLU 8NUDLQLDQVXSSRUWHUV,QRQHRI WKHZRUNV´7KH DQGWKH8665µZDVKHOGLQ DW/HQLQJUDG·V(WKQRJUDSKLF0XVHXPVWUHVVLQJWKH%ROVKH- YLNYLHZRI WKHQHZ¶6RYLHW-HZLVKFXOWXUH·6HH.UXSQLN,JRU 6RYLHW&XOWXUDODQG(WKQLF 3ROLFLHVWRZDUGV-HZV$/HJDF\5HDVVHVVHG,Q -HZVDQG-HZLVK/LIHLQ5XVVLDDQGWKH6RYLHW 8QLRQ(GE\ )LJ =LQRYLL7RONDWFKHY´7KH2SHQ*DWHµ )LJ =LQRYLL7RONDWFKHY´6WLJPDWL]HG IURPWKHVHULHV´-HVXVLQ0DMGDQHNµ 0DQµ RLORQFDUGERDUG[ gouache, charcoal and crayon on paper, FPFROOHFWLRQRIWKH )LJ *LRYDQQL$QWRQLR Bazzi, Christ Presented to the People (Ecce Homo), late ÀIWHHQWK²PLGVL[WHHQWK century, oil on canvas, 60 [ FP7KH0HWURSRO- itan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of Asbjorn R. Lunde, in memory RI KLVSDUHQWV.DUODQG (OLVD/XQGH QR 1996.261. VXUURXQGHGKHUHE\PRFNLQJ1D]LRIÀFHUVWKXVFORVHO\UHFDOOLQJWUDGLWLRQDO :HVWHUQVFHQHVGHSLFWLQJWKHPRFNLQJRI -HVXV ÀJ 7KHIROORZLQJLPDJHV DVLQWUDGLWLRQDO3DVVLRQVFHQHVVKRZ&KULVW·V²DQGWKXVWKDWRI DOOSULVRQHUV² SDLQIXOZD\WR*ROJRWKD KHLVFDUU\LQJDKHDY\EXUGHQ ÀJV² ²GHSLFWHG as similar to carrying the cross – comprised of barbed wire that recalls a gigan- WLFZUHDWKRI WKRUQV KHLVJDVVHGLQDJDVFKDPEHU ÀJ VKRZQZLWKKLV DUPVVSUHDGDVRQWKHFURVVLQWKHIDPRXV*UQZDOGSDLQWLQJ ÀJ ZKLOH DUHDOLVWLFDOO\GHSLFWHGEDUUHGZLQGRZRI DJXDUG·VERRWKDSSHDUVLQWKHXSSHU ULJKWFRUQHU KHLVEXUQHGLQDFUHPDWRULXP ÀJ WKDWERWKUHFDOOVDUHDORQH EXWDOVRUHIHUVWRWKHIDPRXV5HQDLVVDQFHSDLQWLQJ´'HDG&KULVWµE\0DQ- WHJQD ÀJ %\VXFKLQWHQWLRQDOERUURZLQJIURPWKHSDVWLFRQVRI :HVW- ern art and culture, Tolkatchev simultaneously showed its destruction in the ÁDPHVRI WKH+RORFDXVW &KULVW·V3DVVLRQDVD+RORFDXVW,FRQ $VQRWHGDERYH&KDJDOOKDGXVHGWKHWKHPHRI DFUXFLÀHG-HZLVK-HVXVDV a victim of the Nazi regime as early as 1938. He continued to use this motif throughout the war years while he, as a refugee in America, imagined the 80 MIRJAM RAJNER )LJ =LQRYLL7RONDWFKHY´7KH )LJ /RUHQ]R/RWWR´&KULVW&DUU\LQJWKH $SSHDUDQFHµ IURPWKHVHULHV´-HVXV &URVVµRLORQFDQYDV[FP0XVpH in Majdanek”), 1945, gouache, char- GX/RXYUH3DULVSKRWR501*UDQG3DO- FRDODQGFUD\RQRQSDSHU[ DLV PXVpHGX/RXYUH 7KLHUU\/D0DJH FP$QHO7RONDWFKHYD6KLHOGRQ 5) ² permanent loan at The State Museum at Majdanek, Lublin. GHVWUXFWLRQDQGPXUGHURI HDVWHUQ(XURSHDQ-HZV$V$PLVKDL0DLVHOVKDV VKRZQWKHUHZHUHQXPEHURI+RORFDXVWDUWLVWVDSDUWIURP&KDJDOOZKRWXUQHG WRWKHWKHPHRI &KULVW·VVXIIHULQJLQRUGHUWRUHODWHWRWKHLURZQDQGRWKHU +RORFDXVWYLFWLPV·VXIIHULQJ6RPHRI WKHPOLNH7RONDWFKHYLPDJLQHG-HVXV in the concentration camp.43 Among them also was Hugo Huppert, a poet and SUHZDU9LHQQHVH&RPPXQLVW+XSSHUWOLYHGIRU\HDUVLQWKH6RYLHW8QLRQ DQGZDVEHVWNQRZQDVWKHWUDQVODWRURI 0D\DNRYVN\·VSRHWU\LQWR*HUPDQ,Q XSRQDUULYLQJZLWKWKH6RYLHWVWURRSVWR9LHQQDKHSXEOLVKHGDPRYLQJ EDOODGHQWLWOHG´'HU+HLODQGYRQ'DFKDXµ ´7KH6DYLRUIURP'DFKDXµ 7KH poem, originally written in 1943 as part of the collection A Heart in a Tank, is based on a true story and tells about the tragic death of an Austrian priest LPSULVRQHGLQ'DFKDX7KH66GHFLGHGWRPRFNKLPE\WXUQLQJKLPLQWR-HVXV crowning him with barbed wire and shooting him tied to a cross, while he was 43 $PLVKDL0DLVHOV &KULVWLQWKH&DPSV,Q LELG'HSLFWLRQDQG,QWHUSUHWDWLRQ, pp. 187–189. ZINOVII TOLKATCHEV’S JESUS IN MAJDANEK 81 )LJ =LQRYLL7RONDWFKHY´7KH*DV &KDPEHUµ IURPWKHVHULHV´-HVXVLQ Majdanek”), 1945, gouache, charcoal DQGFUD\RQRQSDSHU[FP $QHO7RONDWFKHYD6KLHOGRQSHU- manent loan at The State Museum at Majdanek, Lublin. IRUFHGWRZHDUDVLJQLGHQWLI\LQJKLPDV´-RVVHO²D-HZLVK3ULQFHµ44+XSSHUW·V EDOODGZDVSXEOLVKHGDVDERRNDQGLOOXVWUDWHGE\ZRRGFXWVFUHDWHGE\)HU- G>LQDQG"@.zUDWRGD\DQXQNQRZQDUWLVW7KHLPDJHRI DFURZQHG&KULVWOLNH LQPDWHSXVKLQJDZKHHOEDUURZFORVHO\FRUUHVSRQGVWR7RONDWVFKHY·VFUHDWLRQ Like Tolkatchev, Huppert served in the propaganda units of the Red Army GXULQJWKHZDUZRUNLQJDVVHFUHWDU\WR,O\D(KUHQEXUJWKHIDPRXV6RYLHW-HZ- ish writer.45 It was in 1943 that Huppert wrote two more moving poems, as SDUWRI WKHVDPHFROOHFWLRQ´$+HDUWLQD7DQNµ2QHHQWLWOHG´$KDVYHUµWHOOV DERXWD:DQGHULQJ-HZIURP9LWHEVN´ZKHUHQRRQHODPHQWVDQ\PRUH ZKHUH QRPRUH-HZVDUHOHIWDVWKH\DOOOLHNLOOHG«µ 44 +XSSHUW+XJR 'HU+HLODQGYRQ'DFKDX9LHQQD 45 'XULQJWKHZDU\HDUV,O\D(KUHQEXUJWRJHWKHUZLWK6RYLHW-HZLVKZULWHU9DVVLO\*URVVPDQ DQGDVDPHPEHURI WKH-HZLVK$QWL)DVFLVW&RPPLWWHHZDVHQJDJHGLQFRPSLOLQJPDWHULDO IRUWKHVRFDOOHG´%ODFN%RRNµDFROOHFWLRQRI GRFXPHQWVDQGWHVWLPRQLHVGHVFULELQJWKH DQWL-HZLVKFULPHVSHUSHWUDWHGRQWKHWHUULWRU\RI WKH6RYLHW8QLRQDQG3RODQG,WLVSRVVLEOH that Huppert worked for him at that time and was helping him with this project. 82 MIRJAM RAJNER )LJ 0DWWKLDV*UXQHZDOG ´&UXFLÀ[LRQµ GHWDLO IURPWKHFHQWUDO&UXFLÀ[- ion panel of the Isenheim Altarpiece, oil on panel, F²0XVpHG·8QWHU OLQGHQ&ROPDU%ULGJHPDQ ,PDJHVQR;,5 XQLYHUVDOLVWDSSURDFKWKHSRHWIROORZV$KDVYHUWRWKH0LQVNJKHWWR·V´ZDLOLQJ wall” which appears to him to be a map of the world, in which all borders KDYHGLVDSSHDUHGDQGPDQ\QDWLRQVGLVÀJXUHGE\SDLQPL[WRJHWKHULQWRD GUHDGIXOWKUHDWHQLQJDUP\$QRWKHUSRHPGHGLFDWHGWRWKDWVDPH´:DLOLQJ :DOORI 0LQVNµGHVFULEHVLWDVDZDOOSUHVHUYLQJDOOWKHVRUURZVDQGZRUGVRI WKH-HZLVKYLFWLPVZKLFKZLOORQHGD\EHUHOHDVHGIURPVLOHQFHDQG¶UHDG·DVD book by all the people.46 ,Q WKHLU DUWERWK +XSSHUW DQG 7RONDWFKHY JDYH H[SUHVVLRQ WR WKHPRVW profound need to cope with the aftermath of the Holocaust, which they wit- QHVVHGDV5HG$UP\VROGLHUVDQG6RYLHWFLWL]HQV6WDOLQ·VPRUHUHOD[HGDWWLWXGH WRZDUGV WKH H[SUHVVLRQ RI QDWLRQDOLW\ DQG UHOLJLRXV EHOLHIV DGRSWHG GXULQJ :RUOG:DU7ZRDVDPHDVXUHWRJDLQZLGHUVXSSRUWDQGKHOSLQÀJKWLQJWKH 46 KWWS ZZZNODKUJHVHOOVFKDIWDW+XSSHUWKWPO DFFHVVHG-XQH ZINOVII TOLKATCHEV’S JESUS IN MAJDANEK 83 )LJ =LQRYLL7RONDWFKHY ´&UHPDWRULXPµ IURP WKHVHULHV´-HVXVLQ0DM- danek”), 1945, gouache, charcoal and crayon on SDSHU[FP$QHO Tolkatcheva-Shield, on permanent loan at The State Museum at Majdanek, Lublin. Germans,47 led them to create images imbued in universally understood pain, VXIIHULQJDQGVDOYDWLRQ-HZVDQG&KULVWLDQVZHUHXQLWHGDVYLFWLPVRI 1D]LVP DQG-HVXVEHLQJERWKD-HZDQGD&KULVWLDQH[SUHVVHGWKLVQHHGPRVWGHHSO\ The Soviet poet and the artist thus added a new meaning to the image of a ¶KLVWRULFDO-HVXV· (SLORJXH In 1946 Tolkatchev was demobilized and returned from Poland to the Soviet 8QLRQ%\ KLVZDUWLPHZRUNZDVDOUHDG\EHLQJFULWLFL]HGDVH[DJJHUDWHG DQGKRVWLOHWR6RYLHWYDOXHV$OWKRXJKWKHVHULHV´-HVXVLQ0DMGDQHNµZDVQHYHU published, the authorities had found out about it and the artist was accused 47 6HH5HGOLFK 6KLPRQ :DU +RORFDXVW DQG 6WDOLQLVP$ 'RFXPHQWHG6WXG\RI WKH-HZLVK $QWL)DVFLVW&RPPLWWHHLQWKH8665. /X[HPERXUJ 84 MIRJAM RAJNER )LJ $QGUHD0DQWHJQD´'HDG&KULVWµFWHPSHUDRQFDQYDV[FP3LQDFRWHFDGL %UHUD0LODQ:LWKWKH3HUPLVVLRQRI WKH0LQLVWHURGHL%HQLHGHOOH$WWLYLWj&XOWXUDOLHGHO7XU- LVPR6%6$(GL0LODQR RI XVLQJ:HVWHUQVW\OHRI VSUHDGLQJFDSLWDOLVWQDWLRQDOLVPDQGP\VWLFLVPDQG RI GHIRUPLQJWKHLPDJHRI ¶6RYLHWPDQ·7KHVHDFFXVDWLRQVSDUDOOHOHGWKHQHZ general post-war Soviet attitude of avoiding any acknowledgment of either -HZLVKSHUVHFXWLRQRUWKH-HZLVKFRQWULEXWLRQWRWKHZDUHIIRUWZKLFKZHUH now seen as a form of nationalism and separatism.48 7KHRIÀFLDODWWLWXGHWRZDUGV7RONDWFKHYDQGKLVZRUNGLGKRZHYHUFKDQJH LQWKHPLGVL[WLHV7KXVLQ WRPDUNWKHWZHQWLHWKDQQLYHUVDU\RI WKH 6RYLHWYLFWRU\LQ:RUOG:DU7ZRWKHGUDZLQJVPDGHRQ$XVFKZLW]VWDWLRQHU\ ZHUHÀQDOO\SXEOLVKHGLQ.LHYLQDQDOEXPHQWLWOHG´$XVFKZLW]1HYHUWKHOHVV 48 6NO\DUHQNR =LQRYLL7RONDFKRYS ZINOVII TOLKATCHEV’S JESUS IN MAJDANEK 85 ´-HVXVLQ0DMGDQHNµZDVH[KLELWHGIRUWKHÀUVWWLPHRQO\DIWHUWKHFROODSVHRI WKH6RYLHW8QLRQLQDUHWURVSHFWLYHH[KLELWLRQRI 7RONDWFKHY·VZRUNDW WKH1DWLRQDO0XVHXPLQ.LHY8NUDLQH49 49 ,ELGSÀJV²