Lund University Hanna Kenne Publishing Studies FBMK12 Joint Faculties of Humanities and Theology Supervisor: Ann Steiner Spring Term 2018

Giving Publishing a Bad Name?

A Study of Gender Pay Gap and Gender Segregation in the UK Publishing Industry

Abstract This essay has examined the mandatory annual gender pay gap reports published by five of the UK’s biggest publishing organisation. In 2017, a new government legislation concerning gender pay gap transparency was enforced. This legislation states that organisations with an employment number of 250 or more are required to report on their gender pay gap annually.

th The first of these annual reports were due by March 30 ,​ 2018. These reports include median ​ and mean average gender pay gap, as well as gender pay gap for bonuses. In addition to this, the reports need to include percentage of the proportion of men and women employed in each quartile. The aim of this essay was to compare these reports in regards to each other, as well as to the UK average gender pay gap to see if there were any substantial differences. The essay also wanted to study sticky floors, glass ceilings and gender segregations to see if these were visible in the publishing industry.

Keywords: Gender Equality, Publishing Studies, Gender Pay Gap Report, Sticky Floors, ​ Glass Ceilings, Gender Segregation.

1

Abstract 1

Introduction 3 Purpose 4 Material and Delimitation 4 Method 4

Theory 5 Gender Roles and Gender Hierarchy 5 Gender Structures and Gender Segregation 7

Previous Research 9

Understanding the Gender Pay Gap Report 9 Equal Pay and Gender Pay Gap 10 The Four Paying Quartiles 11

Gender Pay Gap Results 12 Gender Pay Gap Reports 14

Comparative analysis 19 Lower and Lower Middle Quartile 20 Upper Middle and Upper Quartile 23

Discussion 26

Conclusion 28

References 31

2 Introduction Gender equality is one of the most talked about subjects in today’s society, and 2017 saw things such as the #metoo movement, which further sparked the discussions about an unequal society. But what is gender equality, and how do we reach it? According to the English ​ Oxford Living Dictionaries, gender equality is “[t]he state in which access to rights or ​ ​ opportunities is unaffected by gender” (OED) meaning that, regardless of gender, all people should have the same opportunities, rights and responsibilities. An issue that has been discussed for a long time is that women have been, and are to some extent still, paid less than men. Reaching equal pay for equal job would be a big leap forward in reaching gender equality. This essay wants to research how this relates to today’s book industry. In 2015, former Prime Minister David Cameron vowed to eliminate Britain’s gender pay gap in one generation (BBC News). The idea was to do this by using one of the strongest tools in reaching gender equality: transparency. In order to reach such transparency, in 2017, a government gender pay gap legislation was introduced. This legislation states that organisations with an employment number of 250 or more are required to report on their

th gender pay gap annually. The first of these annual reports were due by March 30 ,​ 2018. ​ These reports include median and mean average gender pay gap, as well as gender pay gap for bonuses (GPG Reporting Guidance). In addition to this, the reports need to include percentage of the proportion of men and women employed in each quartile. These quartiles are, in other words, salary range divided into 4 sections, from lowest to highest paid. ​ For a long time, the publishing industry has had a reputation of being female dominated. According to Philip Jones, a recent study carried out by the Publishers Association estimates that UK publishing staff is 69% female (The Bookseller). Further, in an article in The Guardian, Stephanie Merritt claims that it is estimated that two thirds of all ​ ​ fiction books sold in the UK are bought by women (Merritt, The Guardian). So not only is the ​ ​ majority of publishing staff women, but it is argued that women dominate all stages of publishing: production, dissemination and consumption. However, the publishing world is not free of gender divisions, and although all publishing sectors are overwhelmingly staffed by women, these articles make it seem as if he industry still has a senior management that is dominated by men. Nonetheless, the publishing industry is seen as “female friendly”, but this

3 essay wants to research if this is apparent in regards to employment level and pay in some of UK’s biggest publishing houses.

Purpose By doing a comparative study on five of the biggest UK publishing organisations, this essay intends to discuss and analyse gender segregation within those companies, as well as the difference in pay between their male and female employees. The publishing houses in question are Penguin Random House, Macmillan Publishers, Hachette UK, HarperCollins and Bloomsbury Plc. The essay will examine four main questions: - What are the differences in pay and employment level between men and women in the publishing houses with books on The Guardian’s 2017 bestseller list? ​ ​ - How do the different publishing organizations gender pay gap reports look in comparison with each other? - What types of gender segregations can be found in the five publishing houses? - Is the idea of sticky floors and glass ceilings true for the UK publishing industry?

Material and Delimitation The material for this study is based on the gender pay gap reports from five UK publishing companies. These were chosen by two criterions. Firstly, they were all represented on The ​ Guardian’s top 100 bestselling books from 2017. This chart is made up by books across genres, and is ranked according to how many copies each book has sold. Twenty different publishing houses were represented on this list. Secondly, to qualify for the obligatory gender pay gap reports, the organisations in question must be staffed by 250 or more people. Penguin Random House, Macmillan Publishers, Hachette UK, HarperCollins and Bloomsbury Plc were the five publishing organizations that met these criterions. Each gender pay gap report was compiled by the publishing organisation itself.

Method A quantitative approach was employed to collect data to establish which of the publishing houses this essay would research. To do so, a list of books from The Guardian’s bestseller list ​ ​ that fell within the scope of this essay was compiled with information such as imprint,

4 publishing house and parent organisation (see appendix 1). The gender pay gap reports from the five parent organisations that qualified were then gathered from the online databases for gender pay gap reports on the UK government’s website. The gender pay gap reports were then analysed in a attempt to show gender divisions in employment levels and pay quartiles within all five publishing houses. As these reports vary in information not all findings were equally extensive. The discoveries of this analysis were presented in charts and diagrams, as well as explanatory text. The five gender pay gap reports were then discussed in an comparative analysis in order to unveil any difference in gender segregation, and in the division of men and women across paying quartiles. These results were discussed in relation to gender theories.

Theory Gender Roles and Gender Hierarchy Gender roles and gender hierarchy are two subjects that have been discussed for a long time. The term “gender-roles” focuses on the fact that gender is a taught behaviour, and that all people learn, as well as re-enact, the given gender-coded roles that society has set out for them. According to Tom Henthorne, the idea of separating biological sex from gender was scientifically and theoretically acknowledged in the 1950’s (50). Judith Lorber, professor ​ emerita of sociology and women’s studies, argues in the book The Inequality Reader: ​ ​ Contemporary and Foundational Readings in Race, Class and Gender, that sex is determined ​ by the genitalia we are born with, while gender is a taught phenomenon that takes shape by, for example, name, clothing, as well as by how we are treated. She further argues that “as soon as [children] can talk, they start to refer to themselves as members of their gender” (277), and start practicing their constructed gender roles. Lorber suggests that the reason for this is that from the moment the sex of a child is discovered, that child is treated as either a boy or a girl (277). Considering this, it would seem as if gender is not an innate behaviour, but that of a social construction. In the making of gender roles, a gender hierarchy is also developed. In this hierarchy, one of the gender roles must be the superior. This order can be described through gender systems. Yvonne Hirdman, a Swedish professor of history, was one of the first people to introduce the concepts of gender systems in Sweden. Although it was not always like this,

5 nowadays the word gender is most often used to distinguish between culture and biology (Hirdman 50). Hirdman mentions the theorist Gayle Rubin, who in 1984 coined the phrase “sex/gender system” or “sex/gender/sexuality system”. Rubin describes this system as “the ​ set of arrangements by which a society transforms biological sexuality into products of human activity, and in which these transformed sexual needs are satisfied” (159). In other words, Rubin proposes that the link between social gender, biological sex and sexual attraction is, in fact, a product of culture. What her theories, according to Hirdman, fail to problematize, is the male dominant relationship of power between the different sexes (50). Hirdman describes the gender system as standing on a foundation made up by two principles: dichotomy and hierarchy (51). Dichotomy, or “the power of separation”, refers to the separation of gender, where what is considered to be male and female should not be mixed. This separation implies that masculine and feminine are opposites to one another, which, in turn, means that men and women should act in different arenas of society. In the book Paradoxes of Gender, Lorber argues that “the continuing purpose of gender as a ​ ​ ​ modern social institution is to construct women as a group to be subordinate to men as a group” (33). This leads us to the second principle of Hirdman’s description of gender systems: hierarchy. Hierarchy refers to the man as being the norm of mankind, and as a result of this, women are less valued. In other words, men represent the positive while women symbolize the negative. This takes the shape of typical masculine activities often being considered to be more valuable than typically feminine activities. The labour market is not an exception to this rule. As is the case in most modern societies, there is a hierarchy within different places of the job-market, as well as in different professions. Some professions are considered to be female, like for example nursing and waitressing, and some to be male, like for example construction and computer engineering. According to Anna Wahl, studies shows that even within occupations predominantly female there are gender hierarchies (27). As a consequence of the established separation of gender that leaves men in superiority, people contribute to said construction which further normalizes it and makes it a natural part of life (Hirdman 51-2). This is done by adapting to the social norms that has been set in place. According to Hirdman, all societies, in one way or another, create and maintain this system in which men and women are assigned to perform different tasks and hold different positions. This disaffiliation might take different expressions, but within the labour

6 market one example is the lingering conception of men and women being better suited for different professions or positions. Hirdman claims that women work in professions, or are often placed in subordinate roles, that are less paid than the ones usually assigned to men (52).

Gender Structures and Gender Segregation In her doctoral thesis, Anna Wahl studies gender structures in organizations. Wahl, who is currently a professor and one of the vice principals at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, studied career development of female engineers and MBA´s in Sweden, approaching the subject with a feminist perspective and theory. She found that the gender structure of organizations consists of three types of segregations: - The number of men and women employed within an organisation. - The distribution of men and women over different positions, tasks and professions. - The hierarchical distribution of men and women between levels of influence and power within a profession (359). Wahl’s feminist approach focus on what consequences gender and power structure in the labour market might have. The different mechanisms that drive and enable workplace inequality between men and women is something that Trond Petersen and Ishak Saporta developed a framework for in their research article “The Opportunity Structure for Discrimination”. They could identify three main discrimination systems that are especially apparent: allocative discrimination, valuative discrimination and within-job discrimination. Allocative discrimination means that men and women are sorted into, and occupy, different industries, occupations and jobs that are less or more paid. In other words, men and women are presented with different opportunities and different pay. Barbara Reskin means that it could also be described as gendered jobs (12). Valuative discrimination can be described as the value a job is given based on whether it is generally done by men or women. This system is most apparent in regards to occupations as a whole. For example, many functions in the publishing industry is carried out by women. This would then, according to Petersen and Saporta, result in the occupation having lower pay and prestige. Terms such as “men’s work” and “women’s work” are often used, where the term “women’s work” has a less attractive ring to it.

7 Within-job discrimination, the third system that Petersen and Saporta identifies, is concerned with the discriminations of the employees themselves within an occupation. This discrimination is visible both in hiring processes, as well as in the overall evaluation of male and female employees. It takes the shape of less recognition, prestige and reward for female workers. For example, male workers are more highly valued which results in a disadvantage for women in terms of opportunities to advance into more senior roles. This essay will mainly discuss within-job discrimination. At least two types of gender segregations within the system can be distinguished in regards to the publishing business. These are “horizontal” and “vertical”. Horizontal segregation is described as an under- and over representation of men and women across occupations. Francesca Bettio and Alina Verashchagina states that the idea is that some occupations are dominantly female and some are dominantly male (10). Some occupations that are normatively thought of as gendered are, for example, nursing, social work and construction work. Seeing as this essay is only concerned with one industry, horizontal segregation is not very applicable more that to discuss whether the industry is more employed by men or women. Vertical segregation is best described as men’s domination in high status jobs, regardless if the industry in question is traditionally and normatively male or female. When vertical segregation is discussed, “sticky floors” and “the glass ceiling effect” are often mentioned. Alison Booth claims that sticky floors are when women are in positions where it is difficult to get promoted. They might get a small promotion and a one-off wage increase, but are then stuck in their segment of payment (5). Sticky floors can be used to describe a discriminating employment pattern that keeps, for example women, in low paying jobs. In the publishing industry, these would mostly be entry level and assistant jobs. According to The Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the glass ceiling effect is described as ​ ​ “an intangible barrier within a hierarchy that prevents women or minorities from obtaining upper-level positions”. The term was, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, first used in 1984 by Gay Bryant (OED glass ceiling).These women, or minority groups, already hold a good middle management job, but is unable to advance up the career ladder that is offered to their male colleagues. As most UK companies and organisations, the publishing industry struggles with both horizontal and vertical segregation. These gender theories are used in the research and discussion of this essay.

8 Previous Research There is an extensive amount of research done on both gender pay gap, gender roles, gender hierarchies and gender segregation. The mentioned subjects have been discussed and researched both separately but also together. These subjects, that falls within the gender research branch, are often discussed in relation to specific professions and occupations. In 2009, Eva Amundsdotter studied how gender norms in work organizations can be developed, made visible and altered. This essay is interesting in which part transparency plays in the publishing industry. Amundsdotter believes that through openness and transparency, change is possible, and norms can be dissolved. Many of the studies done on gender roles, gender hierarchies and gender segregation talk about sticky floors and glass ceilings. In 2015, Mary S. Morgan studied the terms “sticky floors” and “glass ceilings” as phenomenons. Morgan is concerned with how the subject of the glass ceiling has been turned into an “objectively recognized and described social scientific phenomenon” (Morgan 22). Morgan does not study a specific organisation or profession in her essay, but her findings make a theoretical base that is applicable to the publishing industry. Research on the role that gender plays in the book industry has been made. For example, in 2017, Dana B. Weinberg and Adam Kapelner wrote a research article called “Comparing gender discrimination and inequality in indie and traditional publishing”. The article is mostly concerned with the difference in representation of authors and books published by indie or traditional publishing houses, based on gender. A few things that are discussed in the article are pricing of books, differences in royalty earnings for male and female authors, and gendered genres. Thus far, no research has been done on gender roles, gender pay gap, gender hierarchies and gender segregation in publishing staff, which is the interest of this essay.

Understanding the Gender Pay Gap Report In order to understand the underlying reason for this research, as well as how it was performed, some concepts and ideas of the gender pay gap reports will need clarification. The gender pay gap reports only categorize gender as either male or female. Therefor this essay will not discuss any other possible gender identities. Some other concepts in the gender pay

9 gap reports also need further explanation: the difference between gender pay gap and equal pay, and what quartiles are and which approach this essay takes to them.

Equal Pay and Gender Pay Gap Since the Equal Pay Act from 1970, UK law prohibits men and women being paid different rates for the same, or equivalent, jobs. The Equal Pay Act was mostly replaced in 2010 by The Equality Act, part 5, chapter 3. Apart from being an act to reach gender equality, the ​ Equality Act is also inclusive of minority groups, and is most easily described as an anti-discrimination law. Another thing that differentiates The Equal Pay Act from 1970 from part 5, chapter 3 of The Equality Act from 2010, is that it states that not only should men and women have equal pay for equal work, but should also have the same work opportunities as each other. In other words, it is there to ensure equal treatment and access to employment for everyone. While one has to assume that all UK business oblige by this law, reports have still found that women do not earn as much as men. To help us understand the reasons for this, the government put pressure on employers by introducing the Gender Pay Gap legislation. This act states that all organisations with 250 or more employees must report their mean and median gender pay gap for hourly wage, as well their bonus gender pay gap. In addition to this, they need to disclose the percentage of men and women in every paying quartile. Gender pay gap is based on the average earnings of men and women across all quartiles. The percentage of mean gender pay gap is the difference in average hourly pay that female and male employees receive. The people that count as employees are those with a contract of employment and those with a contract to do work or provide services for the organisation in question. Mean pay gap is calculated by adding each employee’s hourly rate and then dividing the result by the number of male and female employees respectively. This leaves you with the average hourly earnings of men and women, and these results are compared between each other.

For example, if an organisation has a high majority of men in higher paying positions, and a high majority of women in lower paying positions, the mean gender pay gap will be more

10 significant. Positive percentage means there is a gender pay gap in favour of men, while negative percentage means it is favourable for women. While mean gender pay gap shows the average earnings of male and female employees, the median gender pay gap shows the difference in the midpoints of the hourly pay rates for men and women. Median gender pay gap is calculated by ranking all employees’ hourly rate, respectively for men and women, from highest to lowest, and marking the figure in the middle of those lists. The median pay for men is, in turn, compared to the median pay for women.

The differences in calculation mean and median gender pay gap are quite significant. The median avoids the potential bias of influence of numbers in either extreme, meaning the lowest wage in relation to the highest wage. So while mean gender pay gap is very telling of how men and women are represented in each paying quartile, the median gender pay gap shows us the difference in what the average male and female employee is earning.

The Four Paying Quartiles As mentioned before, the gender pay gap reports divide all the employees into four paying quartiles. Depending on salary, one either ends up in the low, lower middle, upper middle or upper quartile. What is not revealed in the gender pay gap reports is the pay range in each quartile. Neither do the reports make public the job types and titles that tend to end up in which quartile. This fact makes it difficult to draw conclusions on many interesting aspects, and one is left to make assumptions. There is a lack of transparency of pay in the UK publishing industry. In 2017, a survey carried out by bookcareers.com studied pay in the publishing industry. However, the results are not on their website, and can only be accessed for a substantial amount of money which made it impossible to add sai information to this essay. The American trade news magazine Publishers Weekly, did a similar survey in 2017, ​ ​ but on the US market. The survey was aimed at studying gender and pay in the publishing business. According to Publishers Weekly’s article, several different thing will influence what ​ ​ ​ ​ 11 an employee’s pay will be. This essay will assume that two of the main things that determine pay is which branch within the industry one works in, as well as one’s level of seniority. While the level of seniority will affect which paying quartile all male and female employees are sorted into, Publisher’s Weekly has ranked, from low to hight, each division of the ​ publishing industry in the following order: editorial, operations and production, sales and marketing, and at the top management. (Publisher’s Salary Survey 51-2). Because of the lack of transparency on pay and job levels in the UK publishing business, this essay will assume that the two different financial markets are similar. This is to make some sort of distinction to ​ which job positions are likely to pay what.

Gender Pay Gap Results As previously mentioned, the five publishing houses this essay will research and discuss were picked for two different reasons: they all had books on The Guardian’s bestseller list of 2017 ​ and they all have 250 or more employees. For clarification, as well as full disclosure, the graph below will present all of the publishing houses that had books on the list, as well as how many books each publishing house had. In 2017, 20 different publishing houses had books on The Guardian’s bestseller list. ​ ​

In order to understand the process of choosing the material for this essay, it is important to describe and make visible how the British publishing business is comprised. As is the case in most publishing industries across the world, the UK publishing business is complex in such a way that many of the publishing houses are owned by a “parent organisation”. Although there

12 are many independent publishers still making up a large part of the market, most publishing houses are part of a much larger corporate group. Hachette UK is an example of these organisations. They are made up by several companies, for example Headline Publishing Group, Hodder & Stoughton, Orion Publishing Group and Little, Brown and Company. These publishing houses, in turn, have their own imprints (see appendix 1). To put the fact of the matter into perspective, only five of the publishing houses with books on the bestseller list are independent from larger organisations: Bloomsbury, Profile Books, Elliott & Thompson, Short Books and Faber & Faber. So, with the exception of these five publishing houses, the rest of the publishers with books on the bestseller list are owned by a parent company, which changes the graph from earlier:

Out of the ten remaining organisations represented on the bestseller list from 2017, five published their gender pay gap report for 2017. The other five publishing houses are not staffed by 250 or more people, which means they do not meet the requirements for the report. As mentioned earlier, the ones that have published their reports are Penguin Random House UK, Hachette UK, Macmillan Publishers, HarperCollins and Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. Below, each of the five publishing houses results will be presented and discussed separately. What the reports are concerned with is the percentage of men and women in each quartile, the mean gender pay gap, median gender pay gap, mean bonus pay gap and median bonus pay gap. As the publishing houses all have similar publication, this essay will not discuss genres, or whether the five publish fiction or nonfiction books.

13 Gender Pay Gap Reports Penguin Random House UK Penguin Random house, with all their publishers and imprints, had 27 books on The ​ Guardian’s 2017 bestseller list. The organisation consist of two big publishing houses that ​ merged in 2013, Penguin and Random House (Penguin Random House). These two publishing houses, in turn, consist of several different publishing houses, for example Michael Joseph, Transworld, Vintage and Cornerstone. The fact that roughly 44% of The ​ Guardian’s bestseller list from 2017 consisted of books published by Penguin Random House does therefore not come as a great surprise. All in all, the company is estimated to have over 2000 employees. Because of a merger of Penguin and Random House in 2013, the organisation as a whole has two different employing entities, The Random House Group and Penguin Books Ltd & DK. This means that their gender pay gap report has been split into three different parts: The Random House Group and Penguin Books Ltd & DK separately, and the organisation as a whole. What is interesting is that the results of these three gender pay gap reports look quite different to each other. The results for the three different divisions of the Penguin Random House report were as follows:

Mean Gender Pay Gap: 11.3% Median Gender Pay Gap: -1.6% Mean Gender Bonus Gap: 33% Median Gender Bonus Gap: -24.4%

Mean Gender Pay Gap: 16.4% Median Gender Pay Gap: 13.9% Mean Gender Bonus Gap: 45.2% Median Gender Bonus Gap: 5.3%

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Mean Gender Pay Gap: 6.1% Median Gender Pay Gap: -9.5% Mean Gender Bonus Gap: 35.8% Median Gender Bonus Gap: 30.4%

The division of men and women across the different paying quartiles is quite different compared between The Random House Group and Penguin Books Ltd & DK. While the latter had an upper quartile that was mostly female and a lower paying quartile that was mostly male, The Random House Group had a lower paying quartile that was mostly female while the upper quartile was predominantly male. The middle quartiles were all female dominated, across both entities, although The Random House Group had slightly more male employees. Interestingly, the division within each quartile had resulted in men being, on average, paid -9.5% less than women by Penguin Random House Ltd & DK. All entities of Penguin Random House had a mean gender bonus gap in favour of male employees. The median gender bonus gap is not as wide for The Random House Group, and Penguin Random House as a whole had a negative result, which means the median gender bonus gap is in favour or women.

Hachette UK Hachette UK is one of the UK’s biggest publishers. In 2017, they had a total of 15 books on The Guardian’s bestseller list. As well being one of the biggest publishers in the UK, ​ Hachette UK is a part of the Hachette Livre Group, which is the third largest trade and educational publisher in the world. Hachette UK divided their gender pay gap report into two different entities, Hachette UK Ltd and Hachette UK Group. The legal entity of Hachette UK Ltd is comprised of Hachette Children’s Group, Headline, Hodder Education, Hodder & Stoughton, John Murray Press and group functions including Digital, Consumer Insight, Finance, Legal, HR and most

15 employees of Group IT. Hachette UK Ltd has 756 full pay employees. Hachette UK Group includes, in addition to the divisions mentioned above, Bookouture, Octopus, Orion, Quercus, Bookpoint, Hachette Distribution, LBS and Little, Brown. Hachette UK Group has 1524 full pay employees. The results for Hachette UK Ltd and Hachette UK group were as follows:

Mean Gender Pay Gap: 29.69% Median Gender Pay Gap: 24.71% Mean Gender Bonus Gap: 79.54% Median Gender Bonus Gap: 62.64%

Mean Gender Pay Gap: 14.18% Median Gender Pay Gap: 1.32% Mean Gender Bonus Gap: 67.11% Median Gender Bonus Gap: 1.65%

With the exception of the lowest paying quartile, the results for Hachette UK Ltd and Hachette UK group were quite alike. Women dominated all paying quartiles in both divisions, but Hachette UK Ltd had a lowest paying quartile that was more than ⅘ female. What made the gender pay gap so wide for Hachette UK Ltd was that with each quartile, the organisation grew increasingly more male. So while men only made up approximately 17% of the lowest paying quartile, the made up around 43% of the highest. Another way to look at it is the fact that the number of women decreased the further up the salary ladder. The Hachette UK Group was not as drastic in regards to the increasing number of men in more senior roles. To begin with, the lowest paying quartile were almost equal in the division of men and women. The lower middle quartile was increasingly more female, while the upper middle quartile had a small increase of male employees.

16 Both Hachette UK Ltd and Hachette UK Group had a very large mean gender bonus gap, 79.54% and 67.11% respectively. While the median gender bonus gap for Hachette UK Ltd is still very wide at 62.64%, Hachette UK Group’s median gender bonus gap is only a 1.65%. This reflect the fact that the paying quartiles are not evenly divided between men and women.

Macmillan Publishing International Ltd Macmillan had nine books on the 2017 bestseller list. Macmillan Publishing is a global trade book publishing company, and has publishing houses and imprints all over the world. They are a UK based publisher, comprised by Pan Macmillan and Priddy books, which are their consumer publishing businesses, and MDL, which is their distribution business. Resources such as HR, Finance and Legal teams are shared. All in all, Macmillan has 565 employees (Macmillan GPG). The results from the gender pay gap reports are as follows:

Mean Gender Pay Gap: -2% Median Gender Pay Gap: -34% Mean Gender Bonus Gap: 57% Median Gender Bonus Gap: -515%

Out of the 565 employees of Macmillan Publishing, 64% were women. Interestingly, the only paying quartile that was not dominated by women is the lowest pay level. Here, men made up 54% of the lowest paid employees. Macmillan publishers claimed in their report that the high number of men in the lowest paying quartile were due to the fact that more men work in distribution, which is where the majority of lower paying roles are (Macmillan GPG). In 2017, 82% of both men and women received bonuses. The explanation for this was the fact that a “one off” bonus was paid within a division where the majority of the staff were male. In addition to this, 53% of the leaders at Macmillan are men. As bonuses are higher for more senior staff, the combination of a high number of male executives, as well as the one off

17 bonus to the predominantly male division, meant that the gender bonus gap was as high as 57%. Having said that, the median gender pay gap was -515% which reflects on the high number of female employees across all quartiles.

HarperCollins UK HarperCollins had two books on the 2017 bestseller list. The company prides itself of being one of the world’s foremost book publishers. In 1990, Williams Collins & Sons merged with Harper & Row. This merger was the beginning of HarperCollins, one of “the big five”. According to their website, HarperCollins have in total around 900 employees in London, Glasgow and Honley. Divided into quartiles, the business is divided like this:

Mean Gender Pay Gap: 16.06% Median Gender Pay Gap: 10.41% Mean Gender Bonus Gap: 46.95% Median Gender Bonus Gap: 14.07%

As is visible in the above chart, women dominated all paying quartiles at HarperCollins. At a 10.41% median gender pay gap, HarperCollins was well below the UK average at 18.4%. As previously mentioned, women made up the majority of employees across all levels. With the exception of an increase of women from the lower quartile to the lower middle quartile, the number of female employees decreased the higher up the salary ladder. So while the number of male employees increased with 7% between the lowest and highest paid quartile, the number of female employees decreased with 7%. HarperCollins had a wide mean gender bonus gap at 46.95%. Their median gender bonus gap is much lower, but is still in favour of male employees.

Bloomsbury Publishing Plc Bloomsbury is an independent global publisher. It was the only independent publisher on the list that had enough employees to be required to report on their gender pay gap. The

18 organisation was established in London, 1986, and now has companies in London, Oxford, Sydney, New York and Delhi. All in all, they are estimated to have 627 employees (Wealth Manager). Broken down into quartiles, Bloomsbury’s gender division is as follows:

Mean Gender Pay Gap: 23.3% Median Gender Pay Gap: 17.2% Mean Gender Bonus Gap: 51% Median Gender Bonus Gap: 46%

Bloomsbury Plc was one of the five researched publishers that had the largest gender pay gap. The lowest paying quartile was extreme in the way that not even 17% of the employees were male. Women dominated all paying quartiles at Bloomsbury. The decrease of female employees the further up the salary scale was very apparent, and the number of women in senior roles were 25% less than in the entry level roles. In addition to the large gap in pay, the mean and median bonus gaps were substantial too. In 2017, 16 percent of Bloomsbury’s male employees were rewarded with bonuses, while only 8.6% of the female staff had the same reward. In their report, Bloomsbury claimed that this, as well as the gender pay gap, was due to the large number of men in senior roles. It was also disclosed in their report that three of their four statutory board executive directors were men.

Comparative analysis In order to better understand the results of the five publishing houses’ gender pay gap reports, the lowest and the highest paying quartle, across publishing houses, will be presented in two separate drafts. This is to get a better overview of how the gender division of the five publishing houses are alike, and where the results might differ.

19 Lower and Lower Middle Quartile The gender pay gap reports published by Penguin Random House UK, Hachette UK, Macmillan Publishers, HarperCollins and Bloomsbury Publishing Plc showed the following results in regards to their lower paying quartile:

According to Publisher Weekly’s article, the job titles that are most likely to be represented in ​ ​ this quartile are entry level jobs, assistant jobs and, to some extent, editorial jobs (Publishers Weekly Salary Survey). There were three organisations that had a lowest paying quartile that was predominately female: Hachette UK, HarperCollins and Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. According to Hirdman’s theories on the separation of gender, men and women are viewed as better suited for different parts of, for example, an organisation. In the publishing industry, this gender hierarchy takes one of its more prominent forms in the fact that women are more likely to be hired into entry level positions. So the idea of a gender hierarchy within a company becomes very relevant. According to Bloomsbury Plc’s gender pay gap report, “[i]n common with much of the publishing industry, starter roles at Bloomsbury are primarily filled by female employees” (Bloomsbury GPG). One can ask oneself why this is the case. The different distinctions between gender segregations are sometimes not very straight forward, and vertical, horizontal and hierarchical segregation have evolved over time. Vertical segregation was discussed as early as in 1979. At that time it was mostly discussed in terms of specific professions. A term that is highly associated with gender segregation is sticky floors. According to Jennifer Laabs, the term was coined in 1992 by Catherine Berheide. Bertheide claimed that women who were met by the glass ceiling effect were lucky since there are so many professional women who are “mired in .... the sticky floor.” (Laabs).

20 In the publishing industry, sticky floors become very evident when looking at the advancement of women from the lowest quartile. The problem does not lie in the fact that there is a majority of women in the lower paying jobs. What distinguishes publishing’s sticky floors is the fact that female employees are not climbing up the career ladder in the same extent as their male colleagues are. It seems as if publishing is an industry that you work your way up in. Although different divisions within the profession, like editorial, production, marketing and technology, might be more, or less for that matter, employed by of men or women, the results of the gender pay gap report make it seem as if men are not, in the same extent as women, hired into entry level positions in publishing. Lorber claims that women as a group has been made to be subordinate to men as a group (33). This opinion and normativisation has become so natural that it is sometimes not even questioned. However, in an occupation that is so predominantly female, the fact that the profession has a lower quartile that reflects this might not be so strange. Two out of the five publishing houses’ had lower quartiles that stood out with a more gender equal lowest quartile. Penguin Random House UK and Macmillan Publishers had lowest quartiles that were slightly male dominated. In one way these two publishing houses go against Hirdman’s theories about gender hierarchy. Firstly, the division of men and women in the lowest quartiles of the two was fairly equal, which does not correlate with Hirdman’s ideas about the seperation of gender. Here, men and women seem to be almost equal. Secondly, the fact that the male employees were larger in number means that Hirdman’s theories about men being the dominant sex was not applicable in this example. To put this into perspective, one has to take a look on what happens when we move up one step on the hierarchy ladder.

21 Publisher Weekly’s article from 2017 on gender pay gap claims that job titles that are likely to end up in the lower middle quartile are some junior manager roles and production and operation positions. Here, there were only two publishing houses where the number of women increased as we take a look one step up the wage ladder: Macmillan and Penguin Random House. So the two publishing houses that had a lowest quartile that was predominantly male were the only two publishing houses where more women than men seem to be promoted between the lowest and lower middle quartiles. Hachette UK, HarperCollins and Bloomsbury Plc all saw a decline of women between the two paying levels. Hirdman claims that the men has a freedom that women do not acquire. Contrary to the social norms for men, women have been expected to, for example, want families and the time off work to have one (Hirdman 55). Out of the five publishing houses, three stated that one of the reasons to the gender pay gap within their company were due to the fact that many women, often in lower or lower middle quartiles, were working part-time. One of the reasons for this was parental leave. HarperCollins mentioned in their report that out of all their female employees, 20.5% were working part-time. This, in relation to the 2% of the male force that was working part-time, definitely had an affect on their gender pay gap results. According to Louise Dalingwater, childcare and parental leave are big issues in the UK, and the “motherhood gap” means that women often choose family-friendly work (236). The shortage of affordable childcare options has resulted in substantially higher numbers of part-time workers in Britain than in many other developed nations (Dalingwater 237). As the publishing industry has so many female workers, this is due to influence the results of the gender pay gap reports for the five publishing houses. In 2016, a survey carried out by the Office for National Statistics found that, in the UK, women were more likely to work part-time than men, with a difference of 41% for women and 12% for men (Gender Pay Differences). This shows that there is a vertical segregation between men and women in publishing. As men are more likely to have higher wages than women, issues with affordable childcare has resulted in a reinforced normative view of the man as the breadwinner. According to Robert Blackburn, this will, in turn, make women dependent on men since their earnings are lower, which further strengthens the patriarchy (520). This correlates to

22 Hirdman’s theories on the gendered roles in our society. As lower paying jobs are deemed to be of less importance than higher paying jobs, these are mostly occupied by women (33). HarperCollins mentioned in their report that they are supportive of part-time workers across all quartiles, regardless of which quartile they are in. They disclose that, at the time of the report, out of 50 of their highest paid employees, one man and ten women were working part-time. Penguin Random House’s report also mentioned part-time employees, and claimed that out of the 12% that were currently working part-time or flexible hours, 87% were women. 12% of all Hachette UK’s staff were working part time. Out of those, 89% were women. Macmillan Publishing and Bloomsbury Plc did not mention anything about part-time workers in their reports. The fact that the lowest paying quartiles were so predominantly female had a great impact on the results on the five publishers’ gender pay gap reports. Especially since there was a much higher percentage of men in the upper paying quartiles.

Upper Middle and Upper Quartile The gender pay gap reports published by Penguin Random House UK, Hachette UK, Macmillan Publishers, HarperCollins and Bloomsbury Publishing Plc showed the following results in regards to their upper middle and upper paying quartile:

23

Already in the upper middle paying quartile there was a decreasing number of female employees in all but one publishing organisation. Salaries that are most likely to end up in the upper middle quartile are those earned by men and women with sales and marketing positions, as well as directorial positions (Publishers Weekly Salary Survey). Within Penguin Random House, who had up until now had an increase of women for each step up the wage ladder, it was now possible to see a decline of female workers. So while there seems to exist ​ ​ sticky floors that keep women in publishing from being promoted into more senior roles, another barrier operates in the middle and upper quartiles: glass ceilings. As previously mentioned, the term “glass ceiling” is used to describe an invisible barrier that stops women from advancing to the highest levels of employment within an occupation. Women who find themselves barricaded by glass ceilings are often already in a middle management job, but are unable to advance further. Let us assume that, in the publishing industry, middle management jobs are in the upper middle quartile. Here, there was still a majority of female employees across all five publishing houses. Regardless of the fact that for each advancement of employment level within Hachette UK, HarperCollins and Bloomsbury, there had been a decreasing number of women, women still dominated the upper middle paying quartiles. There was only one publishing organisation that still saw an increase of female employees between the lower middle and upper middle quartile: Macmillan Publishing. The top paying jobs in publishing are most likely positions like senior managers, publishers and executive roles (Publisher Weekly Salary Survey). In their 2018 report, the number of female ​ ​ ​ employees increased with 19% between the two quartiles. Said publishing house was also the

24 organisation with the highest percentage of female staff in the top quartile, 65%. This resulted in women earning slightly more than men, with a mean gender pay gap on -2%. The median gender pay gap was quite high in favour of women at -34%. In addition to having a majority of senior female staff in the upper quartile, they also prided themselves on having an upper management that was gender equal. At the time of the report, 47% of Macmillan’s executive employees were female (Macmillan GPG). Macmillan also saw a massive median gender bonus gap in favour of women: 515%. In a way, this means that Hirdman’s theories about a gender divisions do not exactly correlate to the publishing industry. At least not to Macmillan. Many questions can be asked as to what the reasons are for such a disproportionate amount of men in the most senior roles in the publishing business, but it seems to be nearly ​ impossible to answer them. Questions like “are men being over-promoted”, “is there subconscious bias” and “is someone protecting the interests of male staff” are not being answered by these reports. The guidelines for the gender pay gap reports are relatively loose, and their limitation results in a lot of assumptions having to be made. An article in the bookseller describes the publishing industry’s gender pay reports as lacking in detail and nuance (Paying a Price). If one were to only view and discuss the top paying quartile of the publishing industry it would seem as if the publishing industry is very much in the forefront of reaching gender equality. All five researched publishing organisations had a majority of female employees in their top paying quartiles. However, while the results in regards to the lower paying quartile were quite drastically female dominated, the gender division for all publishing houses on the ​ upper quartiles were more equal. Hachette UK, who was the publishing house with the largest gender pay gap, revealed in their report that six out of their eleven operation divisions heads within the publishing group were female (Hachette UK GPG). Bloomsbury, who also had one of the largest gender pay gaps out of the five, disclosed that four out of seven division heads within the company were women, as were most of their senior managers (Bloomsbury GPG). In their report, HarperCollins mentioned that their absolutely highest paid employees were divided 50/50 between men and women. Penguin Random House, too, had “strong female representation in [their] leadership team [44% in the reporting period]” (Penguin Random House GPG).

25 Not all, but some of the publishing organisations this essay has researched, disclosed what their boards looked like at the time of the report. Out of the twelve members on Hachette UK’s main board, only 4 were female. One out of six on the executive board was female (Hachette UK GPG). Bloomsbury Plc’s gender pay gap report stated that three out of four statutory Plc Board Directors are men. Bloomsbury Plc did not mention strategies on making their board more gender equal. They did however claim that they want to enable both men and women to reach their full potential. Hachette UK also aim to have a senior leadership and executive staff that is 50% female in the next five years. Macmillan publishers had an executive team that was 53% male and 47% female. Penguin Random House also had a strongly gender equal leadership team, with a 50/50 division. Seeing as Penguin Random House has reached gender equality in their leadership roles, they claim to want to work towards a more gender balanced representation in the other quartiles. HarperCollins had a 50/50 Executive Committee. It might be that the issue with the publishing business is not the fact that there is a female heavy lowest quartile and middle management. The problem is that although UK publishing is estimated to be 69% female, this percentage is not represented in senior management and executive roles. In their book Breaking the Glass Ceiling: Can Women ​ Reach the Top of America’s Largest Corporations, Ann Morrison, Randall White and Ellen ​ Van Velsor found that women who have managed to break through the glass ceiling is faced with another barrier: a glass wall. This phenomenon is described as “[a] tradition of stereotype that separates [women] from the top executive level. This wall keeps women out of the inner sanctum of senior management, the core of business leaders who wield the greatest power” (14). In the publishing industry, this is visible by the fact that all five researched publishing houses have male chief executives.

Discussion Why is the Gender Pay Gap Act so important? Hirdman speaks of the power of separation. For many years, there has been a socially constructed normative perspective on society, that has influenced all arenas of society, workplace included. By falling into the rules and boundaries society has set up for us, and maintaining it, we enable it to continue. Additionally, by upholding a lack of pay transparency, what inevitably happens is that

26 discrimination is enabled and masked. The fact of the matter is that seeing men and masculinity as the norm is not an innate behaviour, but a social construction. Being forced into acknowledging and discussing wages and gender inequality, not only within the publishing business, but in society as a whole, might be the only solution to change into a more equal people It is possible that the new transparency of conscious and subconscious gender segregation will allow questions to be asked both by people in a position of making decisions about pay, as well as people affected by said decisions. This would mean that, instead of finding ourselves in the situation we are in, we could challenge and change it. Considering Hirmans theories about a social construction, is seems as if the normative views of men and women are so deeply integrated in our societies, that many people are unaware of gender bias in hiring processes and negotiations of salaries. What becomes important to remember after these firsts steps towards gender and pay transparency, is to not settle. Although the Gender Pay Gap legislation is important to the quest of reaching gender equality, more needs to be done. One of the biggest issues with the gender pay gap reports are that the companies do not have to disclose any wages. There is still a lack of transparency in regards to pay in the UK publishing business. According to Publisher Weekly’s 2017 survey on pay in the publishing industry, women and men in editorial were estimated to have a median annual income of $58 000 and $57 000, respectively. Men in operation- and production roles were estimated to have a median annual income of $77 000, while women only had $60 000 (Publishers Weekly Salary Survey). The article also disclose that, across job functions, men earned approximately $28 000 more than women. Such pay transparency is more difficult to find on the UK market. Within the publishing industry, the upper paying quartile is almost perfectly gender equal. However, what makes the publishing industry unequal in regards to gender is the fact that considering how much of the industry is female, the majority of the upper quartile should reflect that. It is safe to assume that somewhere along the line, women stop being promoted while their male colleagues are not. As well as the mandatory pay disclosure, starting 2018, other measures have been made to reduce the gender pay gap in the UK. For example, schemes to better support part-time working, flexible working and parental leave. This is not only true for the publishing industry, but there are schemes to increase the number of women in science, technology, engineering and maths careers, and the promotion of women on boards

27 (Dalingwater 234). Reports from the Commission of Gender at London School of Economics suggests that a way to ensure a greater gender balance in, for example, boardrooms is to introduce gender quotas. They claim that this would allow women to be considered for ​ recruitment and promotions where merit is equal. Whether or not this is needed in the publishing industry can be discussed. Looking at the five publishing houses’ gender pay gap reports, there already seems to be a gender equality in most boardrooms and executive committees. Today, there seems to be differences of opinion on how to reach gender equality in pay and employment level. One hope is that mandatory gender pay gap reports will “automatically result in actions to close any gaps that may exist” (Dalingwater 243), as seems to be the UK government’s belief. In other words, self-regulation. Another strategy is hoping there is a leadership within each company that sees the importance of a gender equal senior management. And thirdly, there are mandatory actions. The Fawcett Society, UK’s leading charity campaigning for gender equality, claims that the identification of a gender pay gap is not enough to close it. They believe there need to be further actions, such as making up plans and strategies to change. (Dalingwater 243).

Conclusion This essay has discussed the gender pay gap reports of five of the biggest trade publishers in the UK. The aim was to research differences in pay and employment level between male and female staff, to compare the five gender pay gap reports with each other, to identify gender segregation in the UK publishing industry, and to see if “sticky floors” and “glass ceilings” are issues within the profession. This study found that there is a prominent gender pay gap in all but one publishing organisation. When looking at the full entities of all five publishing organisations, all of them had an upper quartile that was dominated by female employees. However, with the exception of Macmillan Publishers, this was not reflected in their gender pay gaps. Men were still paid more than women, and considering the fact that it is a female dominated industry, it has a top-heavy male management. In three out of five publishing organisations women did not seem to climb the career ladder in the same extent as their male colleagues, meaning sticky floors are a real issue in

28 some parts of the UK publishing industry. For each paying quartile, Hachette UK and Bloomsbury Plc had a declining number of female employees. HarperCollins saw a slight increase of female employees between the lowest and lower middle quartile, only for it to turn back to a decreasing number in the next two quartiles. Hirdman’s theories about the separation of gender is sometimes difficult to apply to the publishing industry. While women dominated all of the five publishing organisation’s quartiles, resulting in the fact that they as a group held a clear majority in the lowest paying jobs, they were also highly represented in middle and top management. However, claiming that the reason to why the lowest paying quartile is female dominated is because of the fact that more women than men enter publishing, does not explain why women were not as highly represented in the middle and the upper quartiles. Macmillan Publishing and Penguin Random House had a steady incline of female employees towards the upper quartiles, but in the top quartile of each of the five publishing houses, it was almost gender equal. It is clear that there are barriers, like the glass ceiling, that makes it more difficult for women to advance in their careers, which proves the theory of gender segregations in the publishing industry. As with Wahl’s theories for the engineering industry, three types of gender segregation were prominent in publishing. For example, the overall number of men and women in publishing left women in a great majority. Secondly, men and women in publishing were to some extent distributed over different positions and tasks. Thirdly, there was a gender hierarchy that did not reflect the fact that women, in numbers, dominated the industry. So even though women made up more than 50% of each of the five publishing houses top paying quartile, there was still a lack of gender equality when so many women were not advancing. By offering some transparency as to what the reality of gender equality is like in the publishing industry, the gender pay gap reports seem to be a step in the right direction towards a less gender segregated publishing industry. Although it is impossible to say exactly what the aftermath of these reports will be, they at least seem to have started a discussion. Having said that, there are definite issues and limitations to the reports. One of the biggest issues with the gender pay gap reports are that they do not disclose any wages. Although it is understandable that exact wages can not be discussed, the fact that the pay-range for each quartile is not mentioned makes it impossible to do a detailed investigation. It also makes it

29 difficult to gain full understanding of the results. Had more information been disclosed, it would be easier to understand how the gender pay gap can be as wide as it is. One thing this essay has not been able to answer is what long term results these mandatory pay gap reports will have. It will be interesting to see what this new legislation will mean for gender equality in the publishing business, as well as in our society. To some extent, it seems as if the publishing industry has come quite near gender equality. Having said that, it would be interesting to compare the publishing industry to some other occupations. As this essay has only researched the publishing industry, there is no way of knowing what their results would look in comparison with others. The publishing industry has, nonetheless, a great opportunity to lead the way towards a more gender equal society. As surveys have shown that the profession is so predominantly female, this should be reflected across all paying quartiles. Among the publishers in this essay, Macmillan seems to be one in the forefront of reaching gender equality, an example for the other four publishers, as well as other industries, to follow. Only through the power of transparency and challenge of the system we live in, can we overcome the power of separation.

30 References Printed: Bettio, Francesca and Alinia Verashchagina. Gender Segregation in the Labour Market: Root ​ Causes, Implications and Policy Responses in the EU. Office for Official Publications ​ of the European Union, 2009. Dalingwater, Louise. “Gender Inequalities in Britain.” Inequalities in the UK: New ​ Discourses, Evolutions and Actions, Emerald Group Publishing, 2017, pp. 232–250. ​ Hirdman, Yvonne. “Genussystemet - Reflexioner Kring Kvinnors Sociala Underordning.” Genushistoria: En Historiografisk Exposé, Studentlitteratur AB, 2004, pp. 49–63. ​ Morrison, Ann M., et al. Breaking the Glass Ceiling: Can Women Reach the Top of Americas ​ Largest Corporations? Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., 1994. ​ Rubin, Gayle. “The Traffic in Women: Notes on the "Political Economy" of Sex.” Monthly ​ Review (1975). ​ Wahl, Anna. Könsstrukturer i Organisationer . Studentlitteratur, 2004. ​

Not Printed: Amundsdotter, Eva. Att framkalla och förändra ordningen: aktionsorienterad genusforskning för jämställda organisationer. Luleå : Avdelningen för genus och innovation, Luleå tekniska universitet, 2009. Doctoral thesis / Luleå University of Technology: 2009. EBSCOhost, ludwig.lub.lu.se/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com.ludwig.lub.lu.se/login.aspx?dir ect=true&db=cat01310a&AN=lovisa.001885513&site=eds-live&scope=site. BBC News. “David Cameron Sets out Plans to Tackle Gender Pay Gap.” BBC, 14 July 2015, www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-33515629. ​ ​ Blackburn, Robert M., et al. “Explaining Gender Segregation.” Freshwater Biology, ​ ​ Wiley/Blackwell (10.1111), 15 Dec. 2003, onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1080/0007131022000021461/full. “Bloomsbury Publishing GPG.” Bloomsbury, ​ ​ www.bloomsbury-ir.co.uk/archives/governance/Bloomsbury_Gender_Pay_Gap_2017 .pdf. Accessed 23 August. ​ “Bloomsbury Publishing PLC.” Citywire Money, ​ ​

31 citywire.co.uk/wealth_manager/share-prices-and-performance/share-factsheet.aspx?In strumentID=407. Booth, Alison L., et al. “A Sticky Floors Model of Promotion, Pay, and Gender.” European ​ Economic Review, vol. 47, no. 2, 2003, pp. 295–322., ​ doi:10.1016/s0014-2921(01)00197-0. “Bookcareers.com Salary Survey Results 2017.” Bookcareers, ​ ​ www.bookcareers.com/salary-survey-2/bookcareers-com-salary-survey-results-2017/. Confronting Gender Inequality. ​ www.lse.ac.uk/gender/assets/documents/research/gender-inequality-and-power-comm ission/Confronting-Gender-Inequality-blue.pdf. “Gender Pay Gap Reporting Guidance.” GOV.UK, ​ ​ www.gov.uk/guidance/gender-pay-gap-reporting-guidance. ​ "Glass Ceiling." Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 23 Aug. 2018. "Gender equality" OED Online, Oxford University Press, June 2018, ​ ​ www.oed.com/view/Entry/77468. Accessed 23 August 2018. “Gender Pay Differences.” Office for National Statistics, ​ ​ www.ons.gov.uk/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghou rs/bulletins/annualsurveyofhoursandearnings/2016provisionalresults. "Glass ceiling" OED Online, Oxford University Press, June 2018, ​ ​ www.oed.com/view/Entry/78752. ​ Accessed 23 August 2018. “Hachette UK GPG.” Hachette UK, www.hachette.co.uk/assets/HachetteGroup/Hachette UK ​ ​ Gender Pay Gap Report.pdf. Accessed 23 August 2018. “HarperCollins Publishers” www.harpercollins.co.uk/corporate/about-us/. “HarperCollins GPG.” HarperCollins, ​ ​ d2aa8wn3bug3i3.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2018/03/21115831/GPG- Report-HC-21-March-2018.pdf. Accessed 23 August 2018. Henthorne, Tom. Approaching the Hunger Games Trilogy: A Literary and Cultural Analysis. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2012. Print. Jones, Philip. “Do Mind the Gap.” The Bookseller, The Bookseller, 23 Mar. 2018, ​ ​ www.thebookseller.com/blogs/do-mind-gap-755461. ​ Laabs, Jennifer J. 1993. “First Person: The Sticky Floor Beneath the Glass Ceiling”

32 (Interview with Catherine White Berheide). Personnel Journal 72,5: 35-39. Lorber, Judith. Paradoxes of Gender. Yale University Press, 1995. ​ ​ “Macmillan GPG.” Macmillan, ​ ​ www.macmillandistribution.co.uk/uploadedFiles/Footer/MPIL Gender Pay Report 2018 27 March Final.pdf. Merritt, Stephanie. “Women Write Literary Fiction's Big Hitters. So Where Are Their Prizes? Stephanie Merritt.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 22 Jan. 2018, ​ ​ www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/jan/22/women-literary-fiction-prizes-mar garet-atwood-booker. Morgan, Mary S. (2015) “Glass ceilings and sticky floors: drawing new ontologies. Economic History Working Papers”London School of Economics and Political Science, Economic History Department, London, UK, 2015. “Pan Macmillan”, www.panmacmillan.com/about. ​ ​ Participation, Expert. “Equality Act 2010.” Legislation.gov.uk, Queen's Printer of Acts of ​ ​ Parliament, www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15/contents. ​ ​ “Paying a Price.” The Bookseller, The Bookseller, 6 Apr. 2018, ​ ​ www.thebookseller.com/blogs/paying-price-764286. “Penguin Random House” ​ ​ www.penguinrandomhouse.co.uk/about-us/company-history/overview/. ​ ​ “Penguin Random House GPG.” Penguin Random House, ​ ​ www.penguinrandomhouse.co.uk/content/dam/prh-corporate/penguin-random-house/ corporate/Others/Gender-Pay-Gap-Report-2017.pdf. Accessed 23 August. ​ Petersen, Trond, and Ishak Saporta. “The Opportunity Structure for Discrimination.” American Journal of Sociology, vol. 109, no. 4, 2004, pp. 852–901. JSTOR, JSTOR, ​ ​ ​ www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/378536. ​ Reskin, Barbara. “Sex Segregation in the Workplace: Trends, Explanations, and Remedies.” Annual Review of Sociology, 1993, pp. 241–271. ​ “The Equality Act 2010 (Gender Pay Gap Information) Regulations 2017.” Legislation.gov.uk, Queen's Printer of Acts of Parliament, ​ www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2017/9780111152010. “The Publishers Weekly Salary Survey 2017.” PublishersWeekly.com, ​ ​

33 www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/publisher-news/article/75298 -the-pw-publishing-industry-salary-survey-2017.html. Weinberg, Dana B. and Adam Kapelner. "Comparing Gender Discrimination and Inequality in Indie and Traditional Publishing." Plos ONE, vol. 13, no. 4, 09 Apr. 2018, pp. 1-20. ​ ​ EBSCOhost, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0195298. ​ ​

34 Appendix 1

2017 Title Author Parent Company Publisher Imprint 1 5 Ingredients - Quick and Easy Food Jamie Oliver Penguin Random House UK Michael Joseph 2 The Couple Next Door Shari Lapena Penguin Random House UK Transworld Corgi 3 Origin Dan Brown Penguin Random House UK Transworld Bantam Press 4 Night School Lee Child Penguin Random House UK Transworld Bantam Press 5 Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind Yuval Noah Harari Penguin Random House UK Vintage Harvill Secker 6 The Girl on the Train Paula Hawkins Penguin Random House UK Transworld Black Swan 7 The Handmaid's Tale Margaret Atwood Penguin Random House UK Vintage Vintage Classics 8 I See You Clare Mackintosh Hachette UK Little, Brown and Company Sphere Hodder & 9 The Whistler John Grisham Hachette UK Hodder & Stoughton Stoughton Macmillan Publishers 10 Lean in 15: The Shift Plan Joe Wicks International Pan Macmillan Bluebird 11 My Not So Perfect Life Sophie Kinsella Penguin Random House UK Transworld Black Swan Hodder & 12 Small Great Things Jodi Picoult Hachette UK Hodder & Stoughton Stoughton 13 Cartes Postales from Greece Victoria Hislop Hachette UK Headline Headline 14 Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow Yuval Noah Harari Penguin Random House UK Vintage Harvill Secker 15 The Trouble With Goats and Sheep Joanna Cannon HarperCollins Borough Press Borough Press 16 The Essex Serpent Sarah Perry Profile Books Profile Books Profile Books 17 Mary Berry Everyday Mary Berry Penguin Random House UK Ebury BBC Books 18 The Midnight Line Lee Child Penguin Random House UK Transworld Bantam Press Macmillan Publishers 19 Cooking for Family and Friends Joe Wicks International Pan Macmillan Bluebird 20 Darker EL James Penguin Random House UK Cornerstone Arrow 21 Into the Water Paula Hawkins Penguin Random House UK Transworld Doubleday 22 Conclave Robert Harris Penguin Random House UK Penguin Random House UK Arrow Macmillan Publishers 23 The Muse Jessie Burton International Pan Macmillan Picador Elliott & 24 Prisoners of Geography Tim Marshall Elliott & Thompson Elliott & Thompson Thompson 25 Three Sisters, Three Queens Philippa Gregory Simon & Schuster UK Simon & Schuster UK Simon & Schuster Macmillan Publishers 26 Lean in 15: The Sustain Plan Joe Wicks International Pan Macmillan Bluebird 27 Tom Kerridge's Dopamine Diet Tom Kerridge Bloomsbury Publishing Plc Bloomsbury Publishing Plc Absolute Michael Mosley & 28 The Clever Guts Diet Tanya Borowski Short Books Short Books Short Books 29 Only Fools and Stories David Jason Penguin Random House UK Cornerstone Century JK Rowling, John 30 Harry Potter and the Cursed Child Tiffany, Jack Hachette UK Little, Brown and Company Sphere

35 Thorne 31 Rather Be the Devil Ian Rankin Hachette UK The Orion Publishing Group Orion 32 The Power Naomi Alderman Penguin Random House UK Penguin Press Penguin James Honeyborne 33 Blue Planet II & Mark Brownlow Penguin Random House UK Ebury BBC Books Hodder & 34 It Stephen King Hachette UK Hodder & Stoughton Stoughton 35 The Dry Jane Harper Hachette UK Little, Brown and Company Abacus 36 When Breath Becomes Air Paul Kalanithi Penguin Random House UK Vintage The Bodley Head 37 Betrayal Martina Cole Hachette UK Headline Headline 38 At My Table Nigella Lawson Penguin Random House UK Vintage Chatto & Windus Macmillan Publishers 39 Lean in 15: The Shape Plan Joe Wicks International Pan Macmillan Bluebird 40 Out of Bounds Val McDermid Hachette UK Little, Brown and Company Sphere 41 The Wrong Side of Goodbye Michael Connelly Hachette UK The Orion Publishing Group Orion Macmillan Publishers 42 Need You Dead Peter James International Pan Macmillan Pan 43 A Summer at Sea Katie Fforde Penguin Random House UK Cornerstone Arrow 44 The Kept Woman Karin Slaughter Penguin Random House UK Cornerstone Arrow Macmillan Publishers 45 The Olive Tree Lucinda Riley International Pan Macmillan Pan 46 Truly Madly Guilty Liane Moriarty Penguin Random House UK Penguin Press Penguin Macmillan Publishers 47 No Man's Land David Baldacci International Pan Macmillan Pan 48 The Underground Railroad Colson Whitehead Hachette UK Little, Brown and Company Fleet 49 The Keeper of Lost Things Ruth Hogan Hachette UK Hodder & Stoughton Two Roads Macmillan Publishers 50 Miss You Kate Eberlen International Pan Macmillan Pan Hodder & 51 When The Music's Over Peter Robinson Hachette UK Hodder & Stoughton Stoughton 52 Behind Her Eyes Sarah Pinborough HarperCollins HarperCollins Harper 53 This Must Be the Place Maggie O'Farrell Hachette UK Headline Tinder Ask an Astronaut: My Guide to Life in 54 Space Tim Peake Penguin Random House UK Cornerstone Century 55 Swing Time Zadie Smith Penguin Random House UK Penguin Press Penguin 56 The Girls Emma Cline Penguin Random House UK Vintage Vintage 57 After You Jojo Moyes Penguin Random House UK Penguin Press Penguin 58 Apple Tree Yard Louise Doughty Faber & Faber Faber & Faber Faber 59 The 8-Week Blood Sugar Diet Michael Mosley Short Books Short Books Short Books 60 Big Little Lies Liane Moriarty Penguin Random House UK Penguin Press Penguin 61 Hidden Killers Lynda La Plante Simon & Schuster UK Simon & Schuster UK Simon & Schuster

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