First Children's Encyclopedia

Home , Agra (beetle), Doug Allan, Egg fossil, Gaucho, Giraffe (chess), Regina (snake)

First Children’s Encyclopedia

First reference for young readers and writers

First Children’s Encyclopedia

A DORLING KINDERSLEY BOOK Contents LONDON, NEW YORK, MELBOURNE, MUNICH, and DELHI Editors Penny Smith, Lorrie Mack, Caroline Stamps, Lee Wilson Project Art Editor Mary Sandberg Designers Laura Roberts-Jensen, Lauren Rosier Our world Publishing Manager Bridget Giles 6–7 Our world Art Director Rachael Foster 8–9 The Arctic Production Editor Siu Chan 10–11 Canada and Alaska Jacket Designers Natalie Godwin, 12–13 United States of America Laura Roberts-Jensen 14–15 Mexico and Central America 16–17 South America Contents first published in various titles of the DK First Reference series (Illustrated Atlas, Encyclopedia, Human Body Encyclopedia, Science 18–19 Africa Encyclopedia, Animal Encyclopedia, Nature Encyclopedia, Dinosaur 20–21 Scandinavia Encyclopedia, Space Encyclopedia) in Great Britain between 22–23 UK and Ireland 2002 and 2008 by Dorling Kindersley. This edition first published in Great Britain in 2010 by 24–25 The Low Countries Dorling Kindersley Limited, 80 Strand, London, WC2R 0RL 26–27 France Copyright © 2010 Dorling Kindersley Limited 28–29 Germany and the Alps A Penguin Company 30–31 Spain and Portugal 32–33 Italy 2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1 176265 – 11/09 34–35 Central Eastern Europe 36–37 Eastern Europe All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any 38–39 Southeast Europe means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, 40–41 Russia and Central Asia without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. 42–43 Middle East A CIP catalogue record for this book 44–45 Southern Asia is available from the British Library. 46–47 Southeast Asia ISBN 978-1-40535-273-4 48–49 China and neighbours Colour reproduction by MDP, UK 50–51 Japan Printed and bound by Toppan, China 52–53 Australia Discover more at 54–55 New Zealand and the Pacific www.dk.com 56–57 Antarctica 58–59 Flags of the world

People and society 60–61 World of people 62–63 Religious lands 64–65 Religious life 66–67 Writing and printing 68–69 Art and architecture 70–71 Music 72–73 Theatre and dance 74–75 Clothes and fashion 76–77 Sport and leisure 78–79 Working people

2 History of people 148–149 How plants work 226–227 Changing states 80–81 World of history 150–151 Fungi 228–229 Amazing atoms 82–83 Early people 152–153 Micro life 230–231 Molecules 84–85 Ancient Egypt 154–155 Food chains 232–233 Reactions and 86–87 Ancient Greece changes 88–89 The Romans Ecosystems and habitats 234–235 What is energy? 90–91 The Vikings 156–157 Ecosystems 236–237 Electricity 92–93 Aztecs, Incas, and 158–159 Polar regions 238–239 Light Mayas 160–161 Deciduous forests 240–241 Sound 94–95 Knights and castles 162–163 Rainforests 242–243 Forces and motion 96–97 20th century 164–165 A sea of grass 244–245 Machines 166–167 Life in a meadow Human body 168–169 At the water hole Planet Earth 98–99 Your amazing body 170–171 Desert regions 246–247 Our planet 100–101 What makes you 172–173 Life in thin air 248–249 Earth’s structure you? 174–175 Cool caves 250–251 Rocks and 102–103 Building blocks 176–177 The flowing current minerals 104–105 Organizing the 178–179 Still waters 252–253 Shaping the land body 180–181 Survival in the sea 254–255 Soil 106–107 Bones and muscles 256–257 Resources in the 108–109 Brain and senses Age of the dinosaurs ground 110–111 Breathing 182–183 Age of the 258–259 Fresh and salt 112–113 All about skin dinosaurs water 114–115 Body defences 184–185 What is a 260–261 The water cycle 116–117 Eating and dinosaur? 262–263 The atmosphere digestion 186–187 A hip question 264–265 Weather 118–119 Making a baby 188–189 Find a friend 266–267 The energy crisis 120–121 Amazing facts 190–191 Eggstraordinary about YOU! eggs The universe 192–193 Sauropods 268–269 What is space? The living world 194–195 Cretaceous cows 270–271 Where does space 122–123 The living world 196–197 Horns and frills begin? 124–125 What is an animal? 198–199 T. Rex 272–273 Our place in space 126–127 Types of animal 200–201 Big and bold 274–275 The Milky Way 128–129 The world of 202–203 Meet the raptors 276–277 Rockets mammals 204–205 Monsters of the 278–279 Moon journey 130–131 Marsupials deep 280–281 Men on the moon 132–133 Water mammals 206–207 How was it made? 282–283 Space shuttle 134–135 The world of birds 208–209 What happened? 284–285 Working in space 136–137 The world of 210–211 Living dinosaurs 286–287 Exploring Mars reptiles 288–289 The Sun 138–139 The world of Science and technology 290–291 A star is born amphibians 212–213 What is science? 292–293 The Big Bang 140–141 The world of 214–217 Advances in science insects 218–219 Being a scientist Reference section 142–143 The world of 220–221 Science and 294–297 Glossary non-insects everyday life 298–303 Index 144–145 The world of fish 222–223 All living things 304 Acknowledgements 146–147 What is a plant? 224–225 Properties of matter 3 Introduction The First Children’s Encyclopedia is divided into Using this book ten colour-coded chapters so you can see what you are In these pages you can find a country looking for at a glance: and discover its major features, look at Our world culture and history, and observe wildlife People and society and ecosystems. You can also explore the History of people world of science – from how technology Human body works to what’s going on inside the The living world Ecosystems and habitats human body. Enjoy a thrilling journey! Age of the dinosaurs

Science and technology What’s what on a page? Planet Earth The pages have special features The universe

that show you how to get your hands The Curiosity quiz will get on as much information as possible! you searching through each section to find the pictures. Look out for these:

The living world The living world Curiosity quiz The living world Look through The Insects such as living world pages and Our amazing world is filled with millions butterflies are Snake invertebrates. see if you can identify of species, or types, of living thing. They the pictures below. can be as big as an elephant or so Plants small you have to look through Plants cannot move Spider around like animals. To Dragonfly a microscope to see them. survive and grow, they Animals Micro-organisms have to make their own Micro-organisms are very food. In turn, plants The animal kingdom is tiny – they are made up provide food for many made up of vertebrates of a single cell. This amoeba is animals and fungi. (animals with a backbone) magnified more and invertebrates (animals than 100 times. Signs of life without a backbone). Living things share some characteristics. They all

Mammals, birds, Sunflower need food and oxygen. They reptiles, amphibians, also grow, reproduce, and Coral reef and fish are vertebrates. adapt to their environment.

Fungi Tree frog Fungi (like toadstools, mushrooms, and moulds) Deer are neither plants nor animals, but they’re more like plants than animals.

Fungi

Become an expert 126-127 Types of animals 148-149 How

plants work 122 species. animal all of cent per 97 up make they – Invertebrates 123 Which group of animals has the most members?

Become an expert tells you where to look for more information on related subjects. 4 There is a question at the bottom of each page.

5 Check here for the answer.

or wonderful facts. wonderful or

chapter it’s in. it’s chapter packed with extra weird weird extra with packed

show you which which you show Weird or what? or Weird are are

what?” tip. what?”

colour coded colour to to

Every page is is page Every Then look at a “Weird or or “Weird a at look Then

something surprising? surprising? something

Why is there no blue sky on the moon? the on sky blue no there is Why

281 Because the moon has no atmosphere. 280

Want to know know to Want

pebbles and rocks. and pebbles

helped to keep it stable. it keep to helped

dust, strewn with with strewn dust, Pacific Ocean. A ringed float float ringed A Ocean. Pacific

talcum-powder-like talcum-powder-like atmosphere and landed in the the in landed and atmosphere

W consisted of a fine, fine, a of consisted

module. This fell through the the through fell This module.

Earth. He said it it said He Earth. command command the in Earth

Apollo 11 Apollo

as like nothing on on nothing like as The astronauts returned to to returned astronauts The

a r

the moon’s surface surface moon’s the Splashdown d h

w described Aldrin Buzz

r mph). (13.5

speed of 22 km/h km/h 22 of speed What was it like? it was What

reached a top top a reached

One lunar rover rover lunar One

and taking pictures. pictures. taking and

setting up experiments, experiments, up setting

rock and soil samples, samples, soil and rock

the the , collecting collecting , Eagle

was spent outside outside spent was moon when the astronauts left. astronauts the when moon

2.5 hours of this this of hours 2.5

to Earth. to the lander. These were left on the the on left were These lander. the

send pictures pictures send on the moon. About About moon. the on

astronauts to explore away from from away explore to astronauts

astronauts to to astronauts

the the . Eagle spent almost 22 hours hours 22 almost spent

a lunar rover, which allowed the the allowed which rover, lunar a

allowed the the allowed

nicknamed nicknamed

antennae antennae Armstrong and Aldrin Aldrin and Armstrong

each carried a small electric car, car, electric small a carried each

module was was module

This dish dish This

The lunar lunar The What did they do? they did What missions missions later Three Apollo

We have transport! have We

than 500K. than

now store more more store now

Armstrong

calculators can can calculators

Neil Neil 71K of memory. Some Some memory. of 71K

had just just had on Apollo 11 Apollo

module computer computer module

command and service modules. service and command

The lunar lunar The a glance. a

W ?

Mike Collins, remained in orbit with the the with orbit in remained Collins, Mike

from Earth. from

a i

o r

moon looks looks moon

chapter at at chapter joined by Buzz Aldrin. A third astronaut, astronaut, third A Aldrin. Buzz by joined their helmets. helmets. their

bigger than the the than bigger

use radio equipment in in equipment radio use

person to walk on the surface of the moon. He was was He moon. the of surface the on walk to person

looked four times times four looked

through. Lunar astronauts astronauts Lunar through. identifies each each identifies

moon’s horizon – it it – horizon moon’s

On 20 July 1969, Neil Armstrong became the first first the became Armstrong Neil 1969, July 20 On sound has nothing to travel travel to nothing has sound

Earth rising over the the over rising Earth

There’s no air in space, so so space, in air no There’s

Colour coding coding Colour Men on the moon the on Men

the astronauts saw saw astronauts the

How did they talk? they did How

Instead of the moon rising, rising, moon the of Instead

Here comes Earth comes Here

The universe The Men on the moon the on Men

of each page. each of

Is a diamond harder than quartz? than harder diamond a Is

224

225 Yes, a diamond is the hardest mineral of all. It will scratch quartz.

at the bottom bottom the at

slowly because it is sticky. is it because slowly

such as salt in water. in salt as such

But don’t try this at home! at this try don’t But

Hot lava from a volcano flows flows volcano a from lava Hot

a substance will dissolve, dissolve, will substance a

block the heat of a flame. flame. a of heat the block

questions questions are are is how well well how is Solubility on their “stickiness”, or viscosity. viscosity. or “stickiness”, their on

aerogel can completely completely can aerogel

easily than others. It depends depends It others. than easily

insulators. For example, example, For insulators.

Some liquids flow more more flow liquids Some

Quick quiz quiz Quick a material can be bent. be can material a

These are known as as known are These

at your fingertips. your at A smooth flow smooth A

is how easily easily how is Flexibility

through some materials. materials. some through

Heat cannot easily pass pass easily cannot Heat

light pass through it. through pass light

facts: quick information information quick facts:

A good insulator good A

well a material will let let will material a well

out his scale. his out

is how how is Transparency

This is how Mohs worked worked Mohs how is This

Buttons contain mini mini contain

about a subject. a about than another if it scratches it. it. scratches it if another than Water reflects well. reflects Water

a material reflects light. light. reflects material a

hardness. A pebble is harder harder is pebble A hardness.

Syrup sinks below water. below sinks Syrup

is how well well how is Reflectivity Reflectivity

and put them in order of of order in them put and

water, but floats on syrup. syrup. on floats but water, information information

An onion sinks through oil and and oil through sinks onion An

different pebbles pebbles different

substance will catch fire. catch will substance

Collect some some Collect

easily and quickly a a quickly and easily through oil but floats on water. on floats but oil through

show you you show

A plastic building brick sinks sinks brick building plastic A

is how how is Flammability

n n

d o s

stretch without breaking. without stretch

Photographs Photographs of a lower density. lower a of

mineral

for yourself. for

much a material can can material a much

Softest Softest

sink through liquids liquids through sink

is how how is Tensile strength Tensile of a higher density and and density higher a of

and try an experiment experiment an try and

liquids float on liquids liquids on float liquids without breaking. without

Talc

Calcite

a solid can be shaped shaped be can solid a

density. Objects and and Objects density.

1 1

Gypsum

3 3

is how well well how is Malleability

2 2

an object is called its its called is object an

how to get stuck in in stuck get to how

Fluorite

in a certain volume of of volume certain a in Feldspar Quartz Topaz

4 4 or heat travel through it. through travel heat or

6 6 7 7 8 8

The amount of matter matter of amount The Apatite

a material lets electricity electricity lets material a

Hands on on Hands tells you you tells

5 5

is how well well how is Conductivity as the ability to float. to ability the as Diamond

are. Many materials are graded on this scale. this on graded are materials Many are.

10 10

some properties, such such properties, some

scale of ten minerals to compare how hard they they hard how compare to minerals ten of scale

It’s easy to learn about about learn to easy It’s

a solid can be reshaped. be can solid a Corundum A scientist called Friedrich Mohs created a a created Mohs Friedrich called scientist A

Does it float? it Does

9 9 is how well well how is Plasticity

Hardness

mineral. Gas particles Gas

the hardest hardest the

a liquid becomes a solid. a becomes liquid a designed to crack rather than break. than rather crack to designed Oil floats on water. on floats Oil Diamond is is Diamond

temperature at which which at temperature A cork floats on oil. oil. on floats cork A

the particles closer together. closer particles the

pushed out of shape. Safety glass is is glass Safety shape. of out pushed

is the the is Freezing point Freezing apart. A bicycle pump pushes pushes pump bicycle A apart.

very brittle and will break when when break will and brittle very because its particles are far far are particles its because

of features are called “properties”. called are features of

Gas can be compressed compressed be can Gas

Some materials, such as glass, are are glass, as such materials, Some

before becoming a gas. a becoming before

Foot pump Foot

hottest a liquid can get get can liquid a hottest Brittleness others are transparent. These kinds kinds These transparent. are others

pump up a tyre. a up pump

“Hands on” tip. on” “Hands is the the is Boiling point point Boiling

happens when you you when happens

Some materials are colourful, while while colourful, are materials Some

properties of matter. of properties

space. This is what what is This space.

brittle, while others are flexible. flexible. are others while brittle,

There are many different different many are There into the same same the into

Then look at a a at look Then

squeezing more more squeezing

Some materials are hard and and hard are materials Some What they are... they What compressed, by by compressed,

Properties of matter of Properties squashed, or or squashed,

something for yourself? yourself? for something Gases can be be can Gases

glass

Compressibility Safety Safety

Materials science Materials Properties of matter of Properties Want to try try to Want

n d o

s about a subject. a about

information information

Text Text gives you you gives Using this book this Using Our world Our world Land covers a third of planet Earth, and water and ice cover the rest. We divide the land into seven main chunks called North continents. The sea is America divided into five major Atlantic areas called oceans. Pacific Ocean Ocean

Inside the Earth South The core of the Earth is made America of metal – solid in the middle and molten all around it. We live on a thin, solid crust, a bit like the crust of a pie.

Where people live This picture of Earth at night was taken by a satellite in space. The bright bits are made by lights on the surface. They show where the world’s big cities and towns are. 6 How long would a trip around the Equator take at walking speed? Arctic Ocean Our world

Europe Asia

Pacific Africa Ocean

Equator

The Equator is an imaginary line Indian around the middle of the world. Ocean Australia

n Ocean runs outher all th he S e w tica. T ay around Antarc Southern Ocean Can you find...

The smallest continent? The continent of Australia is Antarctica also the world’s biggest island.

Seven continents The most crowded continent? About 3,500 North America, South America, Europe, million people live in Asia. Asia, Africa, Australia, and Antarctica are The biggest ocean? The Earth’s continents. Sometimes people call Pacific Ocean is as big as all

Europe and Asia one continent (Eurasia). other oceans put together. About a year (without stopping for a rest). a for stopping (without year a About 7 The Arctic

An imaginary line called The Arctic the Arctic Circle marks the outer edge of the Arctic region. SA) At the top of the world is the North (U a sk Pole, and around this is an area la Prudhoe Bay called the Arctic. The Arctic is mostly A Sea rt ocean. In its centre is a gigantic lump fo u a of floating ice that never completely e B melts. Further out are the northern tips of the continents and the huge island of Greenland.

Moose Arctic people Queen Arctic tern Elizabeth Arctic people live in the icy lands a Islands around the Arctic Ocean. The d a

weather is too cold for growing n

a Ellesm

crops, so Arctic people get all their ere I C sla food from animals. They survive nd by fishing, herding reindeer, and Ptarmigan Qaanaaq hunting seals and whales.

G r e e Polar bear n l a n d

8 Who was the first person to reach the North Pole? The Arctic

The Arctic tern catches small fish and shrimps by swooping Chukchi across the surface of the sea. Sea

Walrus R u A Seal s s r i c Pole to pole a t i n c The Arctic tern spends most of its life flying. Arctic Laptev F C e i It breeds in the Arctic Sea r Ocean d c during the northern l e e summer. Then it flies r all the way to the a Antarctic, where it t i stays during the o southern summer. n

Arctic wolf Noril’sk The North Pole Kara Keeping warm Sea Arctic animals Franz have to endure Josef N bitterly cold o Land v a weather. Walruses Musk ox y a have a layer of Z e m blubber (fat) to keep ly Svalbard a them warm. Polar bears and reindeer Reindeer have thick coats of fur. nd Sea Barents nla Iceberg ee Sea Gr Killer whale Murmansk

Tromsø

Norwegian Sea An American called Robert Peary, in 1909. in Peary, Robert called American An 9 The Americas Canada and Alaska Ellesmere Canada is the second-largest country in the Island world, and Alaska is the largest of all the US states. Despite their huge size, both places have

small populations because much of the land Queen Elizabeth is covered in thick forest Islands Caribou Banks or frozen for most Oil drilling of the year. Island t ai Prudhoe tr Bay Victoria Island S g Huskies in r pulling sled e B ea S Alaska (USA) Musk ox g Great Bear rin Mount McKinley Be (Denali) Ma Lake cke 6,194m (20,320ft) nz C Yukon ie Anchorage M Northwest Territories Territory o u Yellowknife Walrus n Valdez t Whitehorse a i n Moose s

Fur seal Mountie Juneau (policeman) British Saskatchewan Columbia Grizzly Salmon bear R o c k y The Trans-Alaskan Pipeline M P Totem pole Alberta The USA’s largest oil-drilling area is a o u c n t in Alaska. A huge overground pipeline, a i Edmonton i n s 1,287 km (800 miles) long, carries the oil f Timber i Regina from Prudhoe Bay to the port of Valdez. c Vancouver O Island Vancouver Calgary

c Victoria e Canadian

n Calgary skyline USA 10 What is the tallest mountain in North America, at 6,194 m (20,320 ft) high? Canada and Alaska N Industries E Here are some of the main industries in the region.

Timber from trees is used W as building material or for S making furniture.

Oil is used to make fuels Hooded seal like petrol, and chemicals such as plastics.

Baffin Island Wheat is grown in the centre of Canada on prairies, which are huge, flat fields.

Metals such as zinc, Right whales aluminium, gold, and silver Iqaluit (whale watching is are mined in Canada. a popular activity) Inuit Canada goose children Nunavut Black bear Newfoundland anada and Labrador Newfoundland dog

u d St. John’s s o n B a y Beluga whale and calf Mining Gannet Prince Québec Edward Island New Charlottetown n Brunswick Nova Scotia ea Halifax c Québec Fredericton Maple leaf O Beaver ic Montreal t Manitoba Ontario Snowboarding CN Tower, n OTTAWA a Lake Toronto l Winnipeg rio Supe r Lake t uron A

M Lake Ontario H Toronto L

i c a Niagara Falls h k e i e ri prairies g E a ke n La

Harbour porpoises Mount McKinley (Denali). McKinley Mount 11 The Americas United States of America

The United States Technology industry of America is an Seattle

Olympia enormous country Grizzly bear (brown bear) C Washington made up of 50 states. o lu Bison issou mb M ri There are mountains, ia River Helena Salem Montana R Mount Rushmore deserts, forests, o National Memorial c Oregon k wetlands, and Boise y Skiing in the

Idaho Rockies vast plains in M o u the USA. Golden Gate n Gr t a Wyoming Bridge ea i n

t s L S a a

l P k t Cheyenne Carson City e

a Mountain lion Salt Lake City Wheat c California harvesting i San Francisco Nevada Denver f Utah i c Colorado

O c e

n Hollywood Hills e Monument Valley v

Los Angeles i

R Santa Fe Death Valley Road National Monument o Arizona New Mexico d a runner One of the USA’s 50 states r o S n l o n o r a Hawaii is a group of eight volcanic o Phoenix islands in the Pacific Ocean. C t Kauai This state is called Hawaii. D e s e r Niihau Honolulu Oahu Socorro space telescope Molokai Gila monster Lanai Maui R N i o

G r a n d e Hawaii W Mount Kilauea, on the main island of Hawaii, is the world’s E most active volcano.

S Mexico 12 Which is the only US state not shown on this map? United States of America

This map shows 48 of the 50 states Canada of the USA. The other two states are thousands of kilometres away. Alaska is northwest of Canada, and Hawaii is in the middle of the Pacific Ocean.

Blueberries uperior e S Augusta k Vermont New a Hampshire Maine Bismarck L Minnesota La R k i North e v e H io r r Dakota a n u t Wisconsin r n Boston a o O Massachusetts g n e i k Rhode h a Pierre c L i New York Island

M Connecticut

G South Dairy farming e Michigan Statue of Liberty

k ie a r r Detroit E

Dakota L e New York e k Iowa La Pennsylvania New a Harrisburg Jersey Chicago Ohio t Nebraska Delaware Indiana Maryland

Lincoln WASHINGTON DC

West Raccoon Sears Tower, Chicago s American football Virginia n i Illinois River a Virginia Topeka io The Capitol building, Oh t St. Louis n Washington, DC n Missouri u a

o e American c P Kansas Kentucky M Raleigh bald eagle O l n a i a North Carolina Tennessee h c i c i n t l a South

s a n Oklahoma i p Arkansas p p p Carolina a City i Country music s r A l “Tornado Alley” s e Mississippi Little Rock i v Atlanta t s i

R Oklahoma i Alabama

Georgia

Dallas Montgomery Kennedy Space Center

Paddle steamer Tallahassee Oil wells Texas Louisiana Baton Rouge Florida New Orleans

The Evergla Jazz music de s Dolphin- watching Cowboy Miami exico f M f o American alligator ul

G Alaska (see page 10-11). page (see Alaska 13 The Americas N Prickly Sonoran pear cactus Tijuana Desert B U S A a j W E a G u C l f

a o Rio Grand l f e i f C Cattle S o a r li n f o S S Armadillo i r i i a n e e ia r r r r a a

M M a a

d d r r Monterrey G

e Monarch e u Boojum Los Mochis O butterflies

tree c O l

c f

r i d i e e Atlante o

n n f

t statue t La Paz Brown a Mariachi M l a at Tula pelican l

i Grey Mexico c whale P Agave o a c i fi c Guadalajara O MEXICO CITY c Veracruz ean Mexico and Catedral Metropolitana Central America Acapulco Mexico and Central America form a Did you know? natural bridge linking the USA to Coffee beans and bananas are Costa Rica’s South America. The north of Mexico most important crops.

is dry and dusty. As you travel south, Chocolate was first made in Mexico, from the the weather gets rainier and the land seeds of the cacao tree. becomes greener, with lush rainforests Sugar cane from Central covering mountains and volcanoes. America and the Caribbean is used to make sugar. 14 How do spider monkeys use their tails? Mexico and Central America

West Indies Bahamas To the east of Central America is a NASSAU A chain of tropical islands called the t la West Indies. The weather here is HAVANA nt ic warm all year, but hurricanes Oc Cuba ean can strike in summer. Palm tree Pineapples L e G Dominican s s r e e a Haiti Republic r t e SAN JUAN A r PORT-AU-PRINCE Puerto Rico n SANTO Jamaica A (USA) t n t DOMINGO i KINGSTON i l l l e s l e

Dominica s C Frigate a St Lucia ri bb e Barbados an Yacht Sea Trinidad PORT-OF-SPAIN and Tobago

Flamingos

Chichén Itzá

Coral reef

Olmec Green turtle head Belize Macaw BELMOPAN

Grapefruit d u r a la o n s Panama Canal ema H The man-made Panama Canal at Shrimp u TEGUCIGALPA links the Atlantic and Pacific G Oceans. About 12,000 ships GUATEMALA CITY S a l v a Bananas l d o pass through it every year, E r ands on SAN SALVADOR i c a r a g making it one of the world’s H N u a busiest waterways. MANAGUA Lake Cut the leafy icaragua N Spider monkey top off a pineapple t a R Panama Canal C o s i c a and plant it in a pot of soil. If SAN JOSÉ P PANAMA CITY you keep it in a greenhouse, a n a it will grow into a m a pineapple plant.

Toucan As hooks to hang from branches. from hang to hooks As 15 The Americas Bananas part of it! South American walk across just the take you a month to Earth’s middle. It would Brazil nuts Brazil Belém imaginary line around the The Equator is an

Equator walkabout Equator walkabout

) e c

CAYENNE n

a a

r a

i h

F c

n u (

r G F

PARAMARIBO m

r Capybara u S GEORGETOWN Brazil

y a n a u

G o z

i R Manaus Jaguar Angel Falls

Parakeet

CARACAS Equator

O o r c i n o Amazon Rainforest Bolivia Venezuela LA PAZ

Machu Picchu e ak L ca ica Tit Cartagena Agrias butterfly

s Arica n Colombia i BOGOTÁ t a Peru n o u Arequipa South America A vast chain of mountains runs the length this continent. On its western side is the world’s driest desert. On the east is biggest rainforest. Condor s M n d e

QUITO A LIMA Ecuador ean c Oc Pacifi 16 What is the highest mountain in the Andes? South America

E Salvador

N Oil rig S

football

n W a

The world’s highest capital? La Paz, Bolivia, is 3,632 m (11,916 ft) above sea level. The world’s highest waterfall? Angel Falls in Venezuela measures 979 m (3,212 ft) from top to bottom. The world’s driest town? Arica in Chile’s Atacama Desert has an annual rainfall of zero! e

Rio de Janeiro

BRASÍLIA

Brasília Cathedral Brasília c

Can you find... t

São Paulo n

t A turtle Green Sugar Loaf Mountain Gaucho

y a

u ASUNCIÓN

g MONTEVIDEO a

a Uruguay

Pampas Pampas grass BUENOS AIRES s

Llama Bolivian Indian

a p Bahía Blanca

m Cape Horn The southern tip of South America is called Cape Horn. The seas around it are so stormy that hundreds of ships have been shipwrecked there.

a s

u P

o Argentina

a s

i d

n t r

n A D

Magellan penguins

a o

m r a Aconcagua

a o

A a

t H

Chile P e

SANTIAGO C Valparaíso Sheep farming

Mackerel Aconcagua, which is 6,960 m (22,834 ft) high. ft) (22,834 m 6,960 is which Aconcagua, 17 18 Africa Africa Africa is a vast, sun-baked continent, famous for its amazing wildlife. In the north and south are hot deserts. Between the deserts are swampy rainforests and grasslands full of wild animals.

How long isAfrica from northto south? Ait Benhaddou mud N n fortress, Morocco a M e ALGIERS TUNIS ed c G it u er O RABAT s l f ra untain o ne Mo f S an c s i S S W E la r t e u i t Tunisia e a A TRIPOLI e t z

n Al ’Aziziyah C CAIRO a a Morocco Algeria n l Bedouin a l t LAAYOUNE r a weaver Libya S h a S a Erg Tifernine R A iv n e r Pyramids r e N i t A l s haggar e e M Egypt R W Tuareg nomads oun tains Aswan e Mauritania d Sahara Desert NOUAKCHOTT Niger Nubian S Mali e Asia Peanuts Ostriches Desert a Senegal River N DAKAR ig e Cheetah Eritrea r Nile Gambia Bambara La KHARTOUM ASMERA village Sahel ke Chad felucca C Guinea- Burkina NIAMEY h boat y Bissau BAMAKO a e d l l Guinea Benin NDJAMENA

Ghana Djibouti Togo Sudan a V orn of Sierra Hippopotamus H ABUJA t Ivory f frica Leone i ADDIS ABABA A Coast Nigeria R

Liberia Central t a Ethiopia e Cocoa bean African Rep. r Cameroon BANGUI Lion G YAOUNDÉ alia Africa MOGADISHU

ANTANANARIVO Lemur

Dhow sailing boat Dhow l

n Som Som

n Madagascar

u Chameleon

Mount Kilimanjaro Mount Kilimanjaro 5,895 m (19,341 ft) i b

a z

i o t M NAIROBI

Tea e Elephant

DODOMA g Kenya

a i

e e r

Madagascar The island of Madagascar is home to tree-dwelling animals called lemurs. They have faces like cats but bodies like monkeys. k r Tanzania

o Malawi

t e ey l l Mozambique

L c ft Va i S at Ri e MAPUTO V Gr Uganda Uganda

v Swaziland

i KAMPALA

LUSAKA

z Masai herder Masai herder t e r

Zimbabwe PRETORIA HARARE

Lesotho b e

m Rwanda Burundi

Z D

Ndeble house

r a

Zambia Zambia h

Diamond mine

Zebra Zebra

o Falls Victoria a

Botswana Botswana K

Cape Town South Africa of Congo r Lowland gorilla

v Dem. Rep.

Bananas i R and Tin copper mining Springbok Angola KINSHASA

WINDHOEK

s e r t Congo Congo m i b D e N a Namibia Cape of Cape of Giraffe Giraffe Hornbill O c e a n Good Hope t i c Gabon

LUANDA n t l a

Oil rig A Equatorial Guinea The highest point in Africa? Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania is 5,895 m (19,341 ft) tall. One of the world’s highest sand dunes? Erg Tifernine in the Sahara is 400 m (1,300 ft) tall. The hottest place on Earth? Al ’Aziziyah, in Libya, has had temperatures of 58ºC (136.4ºF).

Savanna wildlife Savanna Much of Africa is covered by a type of grassland called savanna. Huge herds of grazing animals live on the savanna, as well lions, hyenas, and cheetahs.

Can you find... The Suez Canal This canal is a man-made waterway that runs from the Red Sea to Mediterranean. It provides a short cut for ships travelling from Europe to Asia. About 8,000 km (5,000 miles). (5,000 km 8,000 About 19 Europe a t i o n e d e r n F s i a u s R mill Paper Sauna Wolf

Sami man with reindeer

i k

o j i

a K

C i

n R

Oulu

h a

a i

t n

e t

f N

O f

t Lapland

r A Lynx Grey seal Grey Mining Tromsø Sweden

Fishing trawler

n u

o e

l j

Puffin t

V Wolverine

a i

n d N

n Vatnajokull (Ice sheet) a

a e

e O

r Geyser c

G i

Church of Church Hallingrimur n

t A Iceland Iceland is a volcanic island in the far north Atlantic Ocean. It has hundreds of hot springs and geysers. REYKJAVÍK Scandinavia The northernmost part of Europe is Scandinavia – a region of dense pine forests, snowy mountains, and craggy coastlines.

20 Which Scandinavian warriors raided Europe in 800–1050 CE?

Scandinavia

Rainbow trout Rainbow l

Cathedral, Cathedral, Helsinki l

u G HELSINKI Finland

The Øresund Bridge The Øresund The Øresund Bridge links Copenhagen in Denmark to Malmö in Sweden. There are three parts to the bridge – an underground tunnel, an artificial island, and a bridge over the sea. Together, they are 16 km (10 miles) long.

Åland Islands

Gotland

a E

STOCKHOLM e

Rune stone t

Öland S

l N a

City Hall, Stockholm

t Swedish glass

t Bornholm

e W

Golden eagle ä k V

k V

a Cross-country Cross-country skiing L Malmö COPENHAGEN Little Mermaid statue, Copenhagen

Gothenburg

o j

Stave church Stave F

s Dairy farming O OSLO 2,469 m (8,100 ft) Mount Galdh ø piggen Norway

Pig farming

Faeroe Islands Faeroe These islands are part of Denmark. They lie halfway between Iceland and Scotland.

Denmark

j in Sculptures Oslo Vigeland Park,

r a

r Lego r

d e

r o S

j g

o h

F F Tórshavn

j n t

a o

F Stavanger Bergen a

e N

d n r

r k a g o

o Herring

N o H B

S The Vikings. The 21 Europe Islands Shetland North Sea Aberdeen Newcastle upon Tyne Angel of the North Loch Ness Monster Islands Orkney

s Bagpiper

n n

Thurso

i a

n Edinburgh

M G

r e v Red deer i h R rt Fo Edinburgh Edinburgh Castle Ben Nevis 1,343 m (4,406 ft)

Scotland

Glasgow

b Mull

e Skye

Highland cow H

r Giant’s Causeway e

t Belfast u O Ireland Northern Northern Ireland

UK and The United Kingdom is made up of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Ireland is a separate country. Most of the people in UK and Ireland speak English as their main language. Family The Royal England and Scotland had separate royal families until 1603, when they joined together to form the United Kingdom. Queen Elizabeth II is the current Head of State.

22 What is the name of the Queen’s official residence in London? UK and Ireland Yacht Dover North Sea oil rig Broads Norfolk Norfolk Eurotunnel Eurotunnel to France Cambridge

Big Ben

e Kingston upon Hull n

LONDON n

Brighton

a h

s Middlesbrough

e C

m a

h France Royal Pavillion Royal s T s n e t i i England r n h l

n Oxford e g e v i g P i

R n

f E

Birmingham o

Football e

s r

I v

Lake Lake S

Manchester e

District

Blackpool Tower v

i R Stonehenge Crufts dog show

s Bill Portland lighthouse i n i

n t n

u a

i o

o r Liverpool

C Exeter

w a

Douglas Cardiff

M o

l Wales

s I S Exmoor Irish Sea Sheep Eden Project Dartmoor The Eden Project, Cornwall The Eden Project, These giant greenhouses are home to lots of plants from different areas of the world. People can visit here to learn how important nature is to the future of the planet. Guinness Surfing DUBLIN End y

E Land’s

s N I

S Ireland Cork Blarney Castle

W Galway Galway Galway Cathedral

Jaunting car Buckingham Palace. Buckingham 23 Europe Cattle Cyclist Avocet Horses Germany

Ice skating s

Netherlands e n d i

n h

a R

l e

r r s e

I e

e e

z i

m Arnhem

n R

s s

d s

Flevoland

a t

s Windmills

W Clogs W Eindhoven Barge Cheese porters Tulips Antwerp Cathedral

Tern

AMSTERDAM

a Rotterdam

r o

THE HAGUE Antwerp N Cubic Houses Fishing Herring

E Dams to stop sea floods from Bruges

N Hall Bruges Town

S Ostend The Low Countries Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg are called the Low Countries because they are so flat. They also sometimes called Benelux – the first letters of BElgium, NEtherlands and LUXembourg.

24 What is another name for the Netherlands? 25 Holland. built onmarshy land. crooked because theyare one isunique,andmanyare hundreds ofyearsago.Each by richspicemerchants Amsterdam werebuilt lining thecanalsof The tallhouses Amsterdam France making Lace Chocolates BRUSSELS Beer Belgium The Atomium Charleroi

Wild boar R

e Crystal

Luxembourg s LUXEMBOURG

A e r d A

e Liege n r n d e e Deer s n F o n

Vianden castle r e e s s t Did youknow..?

workmen 600yearsago. first inventedbyDutch Wooden clogswere keep thelanddrained. Netherlands’ coasthelpto 900 windmillsalongthe the EuropeanParliament. European Unionandhomeof Europe. Itisthecentreof Brussels isthecapitalof The Low Countries Low The Europe nel han France English C France is the biggest country in western Europe. Its capital Mont St-Michel Bayeux Tapestry is the city of Paris, site of Breton woman the Eiffel Tower. France Le Mans N Rennes race track is famous for its scenic

countryside, which W Le Mans Standing Stones is dotted with sleepy (Carnac) villages and fairytale E castles called châteaux. S

Mackerel Mont St-Michel Beef cattle n

A towering abbey sits on the a e island of Mont St-Michel off c

O the north coast of France. At c low tide, people can walk i Brandy t across the sand to get to n Mont St-Michel. a Bordeaux tl A

Ba y o y Cave Paintings f Bisca at Lascaux Wine

Biarritz

Toulouse Aeroplane manufacturing P y r e n e e s

26 Where in France would you find pink flamingos and wild horses? Calais France B e l g Lille i The Channel u Pollock Tunnel m

Riv er Se in e

World War I Memorial Eiffel Tower (Vimy)

PARIS Germany France Boules

oire r L s ve Champagne Nancy n Ri i a Chapel of t Strasbourg n Notre Dame u o Château de Du Haut M

s Chambord e g s o

V Mustard Dijon

Cycling s in ta n u o M ra u Garlic J Massif Central Corsica This French island is in Edible Lyon snails Mont Blanc the Mediterranean Sea 4,807 m e (15,771 ft) n next to Italy (see page 32). ô

R It has a beautiful rocky

r s e p l coast with lots of beaches. iv s R A i n Rocquefort t a Skiing n cheese u Bastia o Napoleon M e s n n Sunflowers v e C é Montpellier Camar gu Casinos e Ajaccio Tourism Tourism Marseille Nice Cannes Toulon Monaco

Camargue horses The marshes of the Camargue. the of marshes The 27 Europe

E S

N Poland Berlin Wall A long wall used to divide the city of Berlin into communist and western halves. In 1989 the people of Berlin tore the wall down and reunited the city.

R d

i O v

e r Rügen BERLIN Dresden Palace Stork industry Zwinger Chemical Gate Leipzig Brandenburg Brandenburg e b l E Halle

Red deer

Lake Müritz Lake r e iv R

Fehmarn

n sheep

l cars Volkswagen

Heidschnuke Heidschnuke

e i K Kiel

e b E l Wheat r Hanover e v i

R Hamburg Bremen Germany

Beef cattle

a Cologne Cathedral

Container ship e

S e hin

h er

t iv

R Cologne r o Düsseldorf

Germany and the Alps The north of Germany is low and flat, but the land gradually rises towards the south. Switzerland and Austria lie in the heart of the Alps – Europe’s tallest and most spectacular mountains. N

28 Which composer was born in Salzburg, Austria, in 1756?

Germany and the Alps

d e i

s u e Spanish riding school N VIENNA

climbing Graz

Mountain

e p v l

R A

Czech Czech n

a i Snow

Republic r

Linz

Austria t boarding

s u Mozart

t A s e

r Salzburg o F

goat e

n s

p a s

i e Chamois

l k m

m a

e A L

e i Oktoberfest

h h o n

B C

a i

Munich r a

Innsbruck n v a a i

g B t Nuremberg

n s e

n Marmot

i i

e b

r r u n

u o M a

h F r

e D

T i r

R e

v Zugspitze 2,962 m (9,718 ft) i

R s

p l Castle Liechtenstein

Davos

A e c Ulm

Cheese n n

ta VADUZ

a s i

Neuschwanstein Neuschwanstein n

b o

a C

w e p

k l

Mercedes S

Stuttgart a Frankfurt

s A

Alpine horn

r Zurich

o s

Heidelberg F

h w

Mannheim

Swiss army knife

Wine r

S e

l v i R

n ô

Frankfurt Frankfurt skyline

Matterhorn 4,478 m (14,692 ft)

BERN h

Freiburg r

v i Bonn Chocolate R Switzerland Geneva

France Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Amadeus Wolfgang 29 Europe Spain and Portugal Mountain bike Spain and Portugal are in the sunny southwest corner of Europe. Rain Santiago Together they make up a region León called the Iberian Peninsula.

Santiago Cathedral Azores Dolphin These Portuguese

n Coal mine islands are in the Ponta Delgada a Oporto Atlantic, about a third e c Salamanca of the way to the USA. O Clay cockerel c i (symbol of t Portugal) n Grapes a Madeira l t Coimbra The Portuguese island A Windmills of Madeira is famous River for making a rich type of wine Funchal also called Madeira. Portugal Badajoz Belem Tower LISBON Sheep Canary Islands These seven Spanish islands are off the Packing fish Flamenco Lanzarote west coast of Africa. dancer River

Santa Cruz Fuerteventura La Palma de Tenerife Seville A l g a r v e Tenerife Lagos Faro Gran Canaria Tourists

tic Lynx ae Banana plantations B

Crayfish Wind surfing Gibraltar (UK)

Which is the rainiest city in Spain? Spain and Portugal France

Guggenheim Museum Bilbao Andorra B a s q u e Mountain ANDORRA C o u n t r y goat P y r e n e e s LA VELLA N I b Wild boar e r Skiing i a n

M Barcelona Valladolid o R u ive n r Ebro E Spain t W a i n Rioja wine s Sagrada Familia Cathedral, Barcelona S s Roman aqueduct n d Sardines l a Minorca I s MADRID Mahón i c Tagus r Majorca a e Palma Bull-fighting Paella l a B ea Valencia S n Royal Palace Ibiza a e Albacete Ibiza n Oranges Formentera ra iter Alicante Med n c a l a B

a alquivir Andalusian horse t uad s G o C a Guitar Cartagena u s i a l n d Olives Majorca A and oil Granada The Spanish ns tai island of Majorca oun M is one of Europe’s top Malaga tourist destinations. a d e l S o l Its rugged coast has lots o s t C of picturesque beaches.

Jet ski Santiago. 31 Europe Italian lakes There are 23 lakes in the lake district northern Italy. Lake Garda is the biggest, and a popular place to sail and windsurf. Venetian Venetian gondola

Skier e

Venice

i San Marino m

Tagliatelli Tagliatelli carbonara

o l

o o P

D r e iv R Lake Garda Lake Ferrari Bologna Florence s Mountain goat Florence Florence Cathedral Milan Moped

Pisa l

Leaning Tower of Pisa Wine A Turin Fishing boat Tuna Italy Italy is shaped like a boot, with the top in the Alps mountains and toe swimming in the Mediterranean Sea. The Apennine mountains run like a bone down the leg.

32 How many islands make up Malta? Italy Crab E Wine Octopus

N Taranto

S Oranges

Sheep W olive oil olive Olives and Olives Almonds Pescara Italy s Cast of a body at Pompeii i n e n n Squid e Pompeii Messina p Mount Vesuvius A Noto Cathedral Amalfi Pizza Scuba diving Naples Syracuse City Vatican Vatican Mount Etna ROME VALLETTA The Colosseum (Rome) Palermo Agrigento Malta Sicily

a e

Lemons S

Temple of Castor Temple and Pollux

Sardines n

Can you find... Europe’s largest volcano? Mount Etna in Sicily is also Europe’s most active volcano. The world’s most wonky tower? The Leaning Tower of Pisa is a campanile, or bell tower. Where the first pizza was made? A baker in Naples invented the pizza in 1800s. ea an Mediterr Tourism Cagliari Sardinia Wild boar Wild

Amalfi Three: Malta, Gozo, and Comino. and Gozo, Malta, Three: 33 Europe Sugar beet Lublin

Market Square, Square, Market Warsaw iver

R Vist

Canoeing ula s bison

Skiing

e k

European European

a Kielce

M Wheat WARSAW Krakow

Chemical industry a

Lodz e Torun

S Gingerbread

c Cattle farms

Gdansk t

Poland l

Potato farming Potato a

r B de O

Poznan r e v Ri Pig farms Koszalin Wroclaw Mining

Windmills

b l

r e v i Szczecin Hradec kralove R

Ship building y

PRAGUE

n a

Plzen

r Charles Bridge e

Karlovy Vary The Polish town of Torun is well-known for its gingerbread . Budapest is split by the Danube. Buda is on one bank, Pest on the other. The snow-white Lipizzaner horse is bred in Slovenia. G Central Eastern Europe These countries were under communist rule until the 1990s. Today they are modern nations with thriving industries. Traditional farming continues in the rural areas. Did you know?

34 What ingredient makes Hungarian goulash spicy?

Central Eastern Europe

n a

Spissky Hrad castle Spissky Hrad

o R Nyiregyhaza Debrecen Parliament, Parliament, Budapest Tokay wine

n i

n Szeged

Eger High Tatra Mountains High Tatra This mountain range lies in Poland and Slovakia, forms part of the Carpathian Mountains. The tallest peak is 2,655 m (8,710 ft) high.

r t

Horses

e b

h u n a

Slovakia v

H R

BUDAPEST Goulash Pecs Osijek Dubrovnik Painted Painted Easter eggs Wooden house Wooden BRATISLAVA Gyor Hungary Brno Split Dalmatian ZAGREB

Skoda s Croatia

Wine l p c A r i a a e n S D i c ti LJUBLJANA ia

a d i A Czech Republic

Tourism r t

Rijeka

Slovenia s

u A N

S and foal Pilsner lager Lipizzaner mare Lipizzaner mare

W Paprika. 35

Europe

r e

a i s s u R Vitsyebsk Pigs Polatsk Hill of Crosses This sacred site in Lithuania is visited by lots of pilgrims every year. They leave crosses on the hill to show their devotion to Christianity. MINSK Flax Lake Lake Peipus Latvian costume TALLINN Belarus Bobsleigh The centre The centre of Europe Golden eagle Estonia Bauska VILNIUS Latvia Sugar beet RIGA Lithuania Trakai Castle Trakai Hill of Crosses

Liepaja

Amber jewellery

Cruise ship a

c i

t l a Eastern Europe The countries of eastern Europe lie between the Baltic Sea and Black Sea. They were part of the Soviet Union, but became independent states in 1991. B Poland

36 What are the Baltic States? Eastern Europe

E Donets’k Coal mining

S N

Kerch

Sunflowers a

Kharkiv e S W Dnipropetrovs’k

White geese r e

p Crimea ie n D

Yalta r e

v i

R Wheat Swallow’s Swallow’s Nest Castle St Andrew’s Church St Andrew’s Black sea tourism Chernihiv

Homyel

KIEV

Odesa l Wooden church Wooden Mushroom Mushroom picking B Gymnastic school Chornobyl CHISINAU a Mammoth fossils

s e

o Moldovian Wooden gateway

h s

r d

a l M o

Ukraine

t e

Potatoes p

r P Mink Ukranian folk dancers Ukranian Chernivtsi

a L’viv n i ia h s n t in a a a Ukraine’s oldest creatures? Mammoths walked the Earth 25,000 years ago. The plant used to make linen? Flax is a major crop of Belarus. Its fibres are made into linen clothes. Europe’s largest marshland? The Pripet Marshes cover 270,000 square kilometres (104,000 sq miles). p t r n u a o m

M o

Can you find... Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania – the countries bordering the Baltic Sea. Baltic the bordering countries the – Lithuania and Latvia, Estonia, 37 Europe

B l a c k S e a

b e u n

a D

r e

v i R Varna Burgas Bran Castle, Bran Transylvania Natural yoghurt Natural Wolf Ruse a i n s BUCHAREST u n t M o n h i a a t r p C a Kazanluk Roses Folk dancers Folk at Kazanluk of Roses Festival

s Alexander Nevsky Cathedral

l Pleven Sibiu

n Palace Parliament

a v

SOFIA l

Wild boar Wild Satu Mare

y s Bulgaria

Romania

n Goats

r T Timisoara SKOPJE PRISTINA Grapes BELGRADE Traditional Traditional Serbian costume Macedonia Serbia (disputed) Kosovo TIRANA s Oranges Serbian Raznijei Kebab l p A c PODGORICA r i SARAJEVO a i n D Montenegro

Banja Luka a e S

Mostar c t i Southeast Europe The mighty River Danube winds its way across southeast Europe, forming a natural border between Romania and Bulgaria. Further south are the scattered ruins of the cities Ancient Greece. Bosnia and Bosnia and Herzegovina Statue in Liberation Sarajevo Square, a r i A d 38 What is Greece’s most important crop? Southeast Europe

S Rhodes Turkey

W Sponge Lesbos Chíos

Bouzouki s

e Dolphins d a l a c Iráklion e y S C Knossos Palace

n Crete e a A e g ATHENS a e S

Salonica Ceremonial soldier Ceremonial Athens from n

Olive oil Olive a e se n ne a Greece s n n o r i p r Parthenon o a l e t e t n Patras P i o u d Bitola M d u s e Greek coffee Greek i n M

P church Greek

o n h

Greek vase Greek o l n a i i a k h n a a p Z e

b C l

Old-fashioned Watermelon Sailing ship sponge? bathroom sponges are the skeletons of dead sea creatures. A Yoghurt? People in Bulgaria eat lots of yoghurt because they think it helps them live longer. Greek coffee? people make coffee by boiling ground in a tiny pan of water until it foams. Octopus

Chios Island in the Aegean Sea Can you find... Olives. 39 Russia and Central Asia Russia and Central Asia The Russian Federation spans two continents: Europe and Asia. To its southwest are the Barents Sea eight independent countries of Icebreaker Murmansk Harp seal Central Asia and Caucasia. ship

Kara Sea Kaliningrad St Petersburg Pskov Novgorod Kirov ballet St Basil’s Cathedral, Vorkuta Noril’sk Moscow b O MOSCOW r e v s i n Kirov R i i b a S t n u o M l Ri B a l Russian dolls r ve a a Chess c lg U r o O k V ver b Ri S Ural’sk Magnitogorsk e a Elk

GeorgiaC Orsk Omsk Russian a u Groznyy Baykonur Novosibirsk c a Sturgeon Space Centre s fish caviar u ASTANA Wheat T’BILISI s Se Baykonur Armenia al a Zhezkazgan YEREVAN r A Azerbaijan Kazakhstan BAKU U z b e k Ba ke lkh Caspian i a ash s L t Sea a y l K u m T u K y z r k n e s e r t m Cotton D BISHKEK e Almaty ASHGABAT n TASHKENT Gur-Emir Mausoleum, i Iran s Samarqand Kyrgyzstan Samarqand t a n DUSHANBE Tajikistan Afghanistan 40 Which animal do Nenet people herd? Russia and Central Asia

Arctic Ocean

Pevek

Brent geese

Walkabout Walrus Russia is the world’s Reindeer widest country. It would take more than two months Nenet people

R Yakut people to cross if you walked non-

K i

a e stop from west to east. r m

L c e h n a Verkhoyansk a t k a

P Salmon Magadan e Wolf n in su l Brown bear Okhotsk a e r i Yakutsk S a e a

of N Ok ho ts Diamonds k

Timber Mining W E Federation Bratsk Trans-Siberian railway S l Khabarovsk a ik a Irkutsk B Lake Did you know? Siberian tiger Caviar from the Caspian Freshwater seal China Sea is so expensive it is Vladivostok known as “black gold”.

Lake Baikal is the world’s deepest, and largest, freshwater lake. A shrinking sea The Aral Sea, between Verkhoyansk is the Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, world’s coldest town. In is shrinking. The water is being winter the temperature used on Uzbekistan’s cotton falls to -68˚C (-90˚F).

fields, stranding fishing boats. Reindeer. 41 Asia

Istanbul

Middle East M

This part of the world is hot and e ANKARA d Blue Mosque i dry, with large deserts. Three of the t e Turkey world’s great religions began here. r ra n Mecca ea NICOSIA n Cyprus The holiest place for S a Muslim is the Ka’ba, e a Sculpted a cube-shaped shrine menorah in in Mecca. Muslims Jerusalem face the Ka’ba when they pray and try to visit it at least once in their lifetime. World’s first skyscrapers Fruits of the desert The people of Yemen started building mud-brick Farmers can grow crops skyscrapers thousands of years ago. The ground only in the wettest parts floors are used for animals or for storing goods. of the Middle East. Families live in the upper floors. Figs are soft, sticky fruits that can be dried to make them last longer.

Olive trees are grown for their fruit, which is pressed to make olive oil.

Dates are the fruit of palm trees, which grow by rivers and in oases.

42 Which country produces 65 per cent of the world’s hazelnuts? Middle East Black Sea C a Whirling s dervish dancer p i Mount Ararat a 5,165 m n

(16,945 ft) S e a Head of Zeus

Syria TEHRAN

BEIRUT n Olives Turquoise o n Figs a b Iran e DAMASCUS L BAGHDAD Chador, traditional dress for women AMMAN n Iraq a Iranian food – chicken kebab JERUSALEM d r l e o J a Marsh Arab reed house r

I Kuwait KUWAIT CITY T Falconry h e Ancient city Gu Persepolis palace of Petra lf MANAMA Bahrain Oman Desert oasis Qatar ABU DHABI DOHA Gulf of Oman Red Sea RIYADH Oil Mecca United MUSCAT Saudi Arabia Arab Emirates

A s e r t Mecca r a b i a n d e Oil refinery Coral reefs grow along the coast of the Red Sea, where the water is warm and clear. Camels Oman

N Desert oryx Yemen Oil tanker Frankincense tree W SANA E A a rabian Se

S Turkey. 43 Asia Imphal Tea picking Tea Chittagong DHAKA Bangladesh

s Kolkata (Calcutta) e g n a G

r e iv

Elephants on parade During the festival of Puram in southern India, 101 elephants march through the town of Trichur in a grand parade. R Sacred cow Sacred River dolphin River Agra NEW DELHI Snow leopard Snow

Delhi

Rickshaw m

Golden Temple

v i

R Taj Mahal Taj India Multan Camel market ISLAMABAD KABUL Surat Lapis lazuli Decorated Decorated lorry Quetta Dancer Hyderabad Tomb of Tomb Muhammad Ali Jinnah Herat Karachi Afghanistan Pakistan Southern Asia Southern Asia is colourful and crowded. India is the biggest country in region, with a population of more than billion. Green turtles Green

44 When Hindus die, where are their ashes scattered? Southern Asia and coconut Coconut tree Coconut tree l a Nicobar Islands (India)

g Andaman Islands (India)

n E

Fishing boat

N y

a grow crops like rice. monsoon, helps farmers B rainy season, called the Cuttack pours down for weeks. This

The Monsoon Southern Asia is normally hot and dry, but every summer it W Mullet Common lobster Raipur Tiger Vijayawada Thresher shark Thresher Tea leaves Tea Chennai (Madras) Jaffna Kandy Nagpur Sri Lanka COLOMBO Kathkali Dancer Kathkali Snake charmer Snake Trichur Indian elephant Calicut Mumbai (Bombay)

Sea an bi a r A Indian dancer? Classical Lapis lazuli? This precious stone was once used to make brilliant, sky-blue paint. An dancers use movements of their bodies to tell ancient stories. Ganges river dolphin? This dolphin is almost blind and finds its way in muddy water by sound. Tuna fish Tuna

Can you find... In the River Ganges. River the In 45 Asia Southeast China

Elephant Asia Burma (Myanmar) Southeast Asia is hot and rainy all year HANOI Laos round. There are NAY PYI TAW Rubies Thai VIENTIANE V thousands of islands, dancer i Rangoon n d e and many are covered i l a t h a n with steamy rainforests T a Sampan boat m BANGKOK a Sea and towering volcanoes. Angkor Wat Chin Cambodia th Tapir ou PHNOM PENH S Ho Chi Minh Floating market Pearls The city of Bangkok is riddled with canals. Traders Orchid sell their goods from boats Omar Ali Saifuddin and shoppers paddle by to Mosque look for bargains. Petronas Towers Brunei KUALA BANDAR SERI BEGAWAN LUMPUR M Tiger PUTRAJAYA a l a y s i a Sumatra Singapore

Padang Orang-utan o I e r n B o n Coconut

Rafflesia d (giant flower) o JAKARTA

Java

Shadow puppets

46 What is the largest lizard in the world? Southeast Asia Can you find... A very rare kind of ape? N Orang-utans live only in Borneo and Sumatra.

An animal with tusks that grow through its face? The babirusa is a kind of pig. W E

The world’s largest flower? Rafflesia grows to nearly a metre (3 feet) wide. S

Planting rice

MANILA

Philippines Vinta boats Cebu Water buffalo cean c O Davao fi ci Rice paddies Pa The wet climate is ideal for growing ea rice. Farmers plant it in flooded fields es S Tuna eb el called paddies, which are sometimes C built like steps in the sides of hills.

oluccas Babirusa M

l e b e s Jayapura C e Nutmeg N e w G u i n e a Conch shell Ambon P Toraja house a a p u a N e w s i n e Asmat G u i a warrior n e

DILI PORT MORESBY

East Timor Mangoes

Komodo dragon The Komodo dragon. It can grow to 3 m (10 ft) long. ft) (10 m 3 to grow can It dragon. Komodo The 47 Asia China and neighbours Over 1 billion people live in China N – that’s one-fifth of the world’s people. Next door, Mongolia has the fewest people for its size. W E Altay Terracotta Army Mongolian This army of statues in S ger (house) Xi’an was made more than Yining 2,000 years ago to guard the Bactrian tomb of Qin Shi Huang, Urumqi camel China’s first emperor. Turpan Hami The statues were rediscovered in 1974. Kashi Chinese opera Ibex Chinese opera has lots of singing, acting, and acrobatics. Make-up is K2 8,611 m (28,250 ft) used to show the type of character being played. Tibet Yak H Potala i m Palace a Bhairabnath l a Temple y a s Lhasa KATHMANDU Can you find... Mount Everest 8,850 m N (29,035 ft) THIMPU e p The world’s tallest a l B h u t a n mountain? Mount Everest is 8,850 metres (29,035 ft) tall.

The world’s most crowded place? Hong Kong has 6,000 people per square kilometre (16,500 per square mile). China’s hottest place? Turpan has recorded temperatures of up to 47°C (117°F). 48 What is the world’s second tallest mountain? n China and neighbours i o a t e r R u s s i a n F e d

Harbin

Snow sculptures at the Mongolia Harbin Ice Festival ULAN BATOR Jilin

Shenyang North Korea Dinosaur fossils PYONGYANG Temple of Heaven SEOUL Gobi Desert Dalian BEIJING South Korea Seoul Olympic a Qingdao Stadium re t Great Wall of China o i K ra St r e iv R a w n China ello hi Y East C Lanzhou Shanghai ea Tibetan Xi’an S monk e z t g Tea plantation n Hanzhou a Y Wuhan r Rive

Junk (fishing boat) Chengdu Changsha China porcelain Silk moth Fuzhou Taipei Hong Kong business district and Exhibition Centre Taiwan

Electronic Red panda goods

Hong Kong Kunming Giant panda

Nanning

ina S h Ch ea Hainan ut

So K2 in the Himalayas. It is 8,611 metres (28,250 ft) tall. ft) (28,250 metres 8,611 is It Himalayas. the in K2 49

Asia

)

e n

d a

l e

s F

l i

r s

u u

R K

(

N Japanese crane W Sushi

Apples

i a

Steller’s Steller’s sea eagle o Hokkaido

u O Aomori Sapporo Honshu Cups for rice wine

Pollock

Snow monkey Snow

)

(

e S Japan and ice festival Snow An ice festival takes place every February in the town of Sapporo. People carve towers of ice into temples, sculptures, or replicas of famous buildings. Japan is made up of four large islands and several thousand small ones. Most of the country is mountainous. The biggest cities are near the coast, where land is flat.

50 How many people live in Tokyo? Japan

Ogasawara Islands Robot dog Volcano Islands robot pets. televisions, and as computer games, electronic goods, such Toys and gadgets Toys Japan makes lots of

s and Kabuki theatre Kabuki Isl Izu

TOKYO

Nagoya Nagoya Castle Pearl in shell Pearl e

protects them from falling during earthquakes.

f i

Mount Fuji 3,776 m (12,388 ft) Mount Fuji c

Nagoya a

Osaka P

Kyoto s

Bullet train

t skyline Tokyo The capital city Tokyo is crowded and lively. Its skyscrapers are designed to sway slightly, which n

Geishas

u k

Ishigaki

g u Shikoku

Matsuyama castle

h C Hiroshima Iriomote shrine Shinto Oki Islands Bonsai tree Kyushu Yonaguni

Sumo wrestlers

Pottery

a Sakishima Islands These small tropical islands lie far to the south of the rest of Japan. e

Iki a n

Fukuoka i

h s

a l

t I

Nagasaki u

y a

E u

Octopus y

R Okinawa About 12 million. 12 About 51 Australia and the Pacific Australia Darwin Australia is the world’s smallest Saltwater crocodile continent, but it is a huge country. Most Australians live on the coast, Boomerang far from the vast, dusty deserts Broome that make up the outback. T a n a m i Dingo D e s e r t G r e a t S Port Hedland a n d y Northern D e s Poisonous animals e r t Territory More poisonous animals live in Australia than Emu in any other country. Iron ore

The male platypus has a poisonous spur on Road train M u s g r a v e each of its back ankles. Camel Western A box jellyfish’s sting Australia G r e a t V i c t o r i a causes terrible pain that D e s e r t South lasts for weeks and can kill. Australia Geraldton Kalgoorlie Taipans are the world’s deadliest snakes. A bite Perth can kill in 30 minutes. skyline Perth alian Big Fremantle Kangaroo tr h Sea snake venom can us t kill a child, but bites from A these shy snakes are rare. Esperance t a Great white e shark Cone shells are sea snails Albany r with deadly stings. The G venom causes suffocation. N Funnel-web spiders have poisonous fangs. One bite can be fatal.

The tiny blue-ringed W E octopus can paralyse and kill a person with its bite. S 52 What is a coral reef made from? Australia Aboriginal paintings Coral reef The Great Barrier Reef G stretches for 2,000 km C ulf o arp f (1,200 miles) along entaria Cape York Queensland’s coast. Peninsula Many brightly coloured Cairns fish live on the reef.

Tennant Creek G Cattle farms rea Townsville t The Devils Ba Marbles r Mount Isa G r r Mackay ie e r a R Flying doctor t Rainbow lorikeet e D e Queensland f i v Rockhampton Alice Springs i d

i S i m p s o n D e s e n r t g Uluru (Ayers Rock) Sheep stations R e s a n g R a n Koala g La e Brisbane ke

E Pineapple farms

y Banana plantations

Opals r e

Coober Pedy Sydney Opera Broken Funnel-web House Hill spider

Port Augusta New South Sydney Whyalla Wales Wollongong Kookaburra M Wagga Wagga Adelaide u Port Lincoln rra y River CANBERRA Kangaroo Australian Island Victoria Capital Territory Melbourne Mount Gambier Tram Bass Strait

Tasmanian devil Tasmania

Hobart

Sailing The skeletons of tiny sea creatures. sea tiny of skeletons The 53 Australia and the Pacific New Zealand and the Pacific Hundreds of islands are scattered across the Pacific Ocean. Two of Extreme sports New Zealand is the world capital for the biggest form the mountainous extreme sports. Bungee jumping, sky diving, country of New Zealand. and white-water rafting are all popular.

Maori war dance Most people in New Zealand are European, but about one in ten are Maoris – New Zealand’s native people. On special occasions, Maoris paint their faces and perform a war dance called a haka.

Sheep shearing

Moving house Earthquakes are common in New Zealand, so people live in wooden houses for safety. When people move home, they can carry their house away on a lorry. Kiwi South Island Aoraki (Mt. Cook) 3,744 m (12,283 ft) l p s Christchurch A r n Takahe e h t w u o Rugby e S N Queenstown

Dunedin Bungee jumping Royal albatross

Sheep

Oysters 54 What’s unusual about New Zealand’s kiwi birds? New Zealand and Pacific N

Red snapper W E

Auckland S

Pohuto geyser Pacific Ocean Maori carving Kiwi fruit

n North Island Coconut palms Parliament buildings a Forests of coconut palms

(Wellington) l grow along the beaches

C a of the Pacific islands.

o Islanders climb these tall o e k trees to gather the coconuts.

WELLINGTON S Z t r a i t Pacific islands Northern Mariana Islands (USA) Marshall About 5 million people live Islands Guam (USA) among the tropical islands of the central Pacific.

Palau Sperm Micronesia whale Papua New Nauru Guinea Kiribati Solomon Tuvalu Islands Tokelau (NZ) Wallis & American Samoa Samoa Pacific Futuna (France) (USA) islanders fish from Cook Islands Vanuatu Tonga small wooden Niue (NZ) canoes. (NZ) New Fiji French Caledonia Polynesia

(France) (France) They can’t fly. can’t They 55 Antarctica an Oce rn Antarctica he ut The world’s coldest continent is So Antarctica, which is covered in ice. In winter it doubles in size

as the sea freezes around it. A n W Sea t eddell a r c Halley Research t South polar skua Station (UK) i c P e n i n s u l a Ronne Ice Adélie penguins Shelf Penguins Lots of sea animals live around Antarctica’s coast. s w E l l o r t h Penguins are clumsy on land but L a n d superb swimmers underwater.

A signpost in Antarctica shows how far away the rest of the world is.

Emperor penguins Krill

Blue whale

A S n Ice-breaker o t a u r t c t Scott and the Antarctic h i c e C The British explorer Robert Scott rn i r O c l e was one of the first people to reach cea the South Pole, in 1912. He died of n cold and hunger on the way home. 56 Who was the first person to reach the South Pole? Antarctica Right whale Antarctic science S ou The only people who th live in Antarctica are er scientists. Some use D r o n n i n n g huge balloons to a u d L a O M n d c Weather Molodezhnaya Station e study the climate a balloon. (Russian Federation) n on Antarctica.

Adélie penguins Survey plane Antarctica P r i n c e s E l i z a b e s t h Amundsen-Scott L a Life in the freezer Station (USA), South n d Pole Antarctica is so cold that

T SOUTH POLE it freezes your breath into r a icicles around your mouth. n s People have to a n Snow mobile cover up in t a Elephant seal r lots of very c t Vostok Station i c M (Russian Federation) warm o u clothes. n t a Ro i Casey Station ss Ic n Icicles e s (Australia) She from lf breath. McMurdo Station (USA) Ross S ea Sno-cat

Dumont d’Urville Station (France) Snow petrel

Killer whale The Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen, in 1911. in Amundsen, Roald explorer Norwegian The 57 Flags of the world Flags of the world

NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA

Canada United States Mexico Guatemala Belize Honduras El Salvador Nicaragua of America

St Kitts and Nevis Dominica St Lucia St Vincent and Barbados Grenada Trinidad and Tobago Venezuela The Grenadines AFRICA

Argentina Paraguay Uruguay Morocco Algeria Tunisia Libya Egypt

Guinea-Bissau Guinea Sierra Leone Liberia Ivory Coast Burkina Ghana Togo

Sao Tome and Principe Gabon Congo Democratic Uganda Rwanda Burundi Kenya Republic of Congo EUROPE

Swaziland South Africa Lesotho Madagascar Comoros Cape Verde Iceland Norway

France Monaco Germany Austria Switzerland Liechtenstein Spain Andorra Portugal

Ukraine Moldova Poland Czech Republic Slovakia Hungary Slovenia Croatia RUSSIA AND CENTRAL ASIA

Cyprus Russian Federation Georgia Azerbaijan Armenia Kazakhstan Uzbekistan Turkmenistan

Iraq Kuwait Saudi Arabia Bahrain Qatar United Arab Oman Yemen Emirates

Vietnam Cambodia Philippines Malaysia Singapore Brunei Indonesia East Timor AUSTRALIA AND THE PACIFIC

Maldives Mauritius Seychelles Australia New Zealand Palau Micronesia Marshall Islands

58 Which is the only country that doesn’t have a rectangular flag? Flags of the world

The world. Each has its own f re are 195 countries in the lag.

Costa Rica Panama Bahamas Cuba Jamaica Haiti Dominican Republic Antigua & Barbuda

Colombia Guyana Surinam Ecuador Peru Brazil Bolivia Chile

Mauritania Mali Niger Chad Sudan Eritrea Senegal Gambia

Benin Nigeria Cameroon Central African Ethiopia Djibouti Somalia Equatorial Guinea Republic

Tanzania Angola Zambia Malawi Mozambique Namibia Botswana Zimbabwe

Sweden Finland Denmark United Kingdom Ireland Netherlands Belgium Luxembourg

Italy San Marino Vatican City Malta Estonia Latvia Lithuania Belarus

Romania Bosnia & Herzegovina Montenegro Kosovo Serbia Bulgaria Macedonia Albania Greece (disputed) ASIA

Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan Turkey Iran Lebanon Syria Israel Jordan

Afghanistan Pakistan India Bangladesh Sri Lanka Burma (Myanmar) Laos Thailand

Papua New Guinea Mongolia China Nepal Bhutan North Korea South Korea Taiwan Japan

Nauru Kiribati Solomon Islands Tuvalu Samoa Vanuatu Fiji Tonga Nepal. 59 People and society World of people More than six billion people live in the world. These people have different customs, languages, beliefs, and lifestyles.

Language and people One in every five people in the world lives in China. The most widely spoken language is Mandarin Chinese, which has almost

one billion speakers. This girl is dressed up for May Day – a festival that is Culture celebrated in some parts People enjoy many of Europe. different kinds of art and culture.

Writing is used to record information, news, views, stories, and history.

Theatre entertains audiences with acting, dance, and costume. May Day marks Painting is a way of the first day of expressing feelings and spring, after the ideas through pictures. long, cold months of winter.

Fashion is different all over the world, and is changing all the time.

Music styles can be classical or popular, traditional or modern. 60 Which is the second most spoken language in the world? World of people At work Curiosity quiz All over the world, people Look through the People work to earn a living. What job would you and Society pages and like to do? You could see if you can identify be an astronaut or the picture clues below. a teacher, a farmer or a computer programmer. At play Having time for leisure and play is very important. Some people like watching or playing sport. Like these children, you might enjoy playing games with friends.

Celebrations Important times in people’s lives are celebrated with special feasts and festivals. These are times for people to enjoy themselves and to share their religious beliefs.

At some festivals in India, people exchange gifts of sweets, like these. Become an expert 6-7 Our world 80-81 World of

history Spanish. 61 People and society Religious lands Many people follow a religion. A religion is a set of beliefs and a way of worship. The main religions today are Hinduism, Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and Sikhism.

Hinduism Sacred symbols Hinduism began in India about Each of these symbols 4,000 years ago. has a special meaning. Hindus believe in a spirit called Hinduism: the “Aum” symbol represents the Brahman (God). first sound of creation. They also worship many gods and Judaism: the Star of goddesses, who David reminds Jews of represent different a great Jewish king. parts of Brahman. Buddhism: the wheel Hindus bathing represents eight points of in the holy River Rosary the Buddha’s teaching. Ganges, in India Christianity: the cross The Church reminds Christians of of the Holy Jesus’ death on a cross. Sepulchre, in Jerusalem Islam: the star and crescent moon appear on many Islamic flags.

Sikhism: the khanda symbol reminds Sikhs of God and of God’s power. Christianity Christians follow the teachings of a man called Jesus Christ who lived about 2,000 years ago. They believe that Jesus was the son of God, who died to save them from sin. 62 What is the Christian holy book called? Religious lands Islam This building is a Buddhist People who follow Islam are called monastery in Muslims. They believe in Allah Thailand. (God), who guides them through their lives. The holy book of Islam is called the Qur’an (Koran). It contains the teachings of a prophet called Mohammed.

Mecca (Makkah) Western is a holy city Wall for Muslims.

The Western Wall (Wailing Wall), in Jerusalem, is a holy place for Jews.

Buddhism Buddhists follow the teachings of the Buddha. He was an Statues of the Judaism Indian prince who lived Buddha often Judaism is the religion of the Jews. Menorah show him Their holy book is called the (Jewish about 2,500 years ago. He meditating candlestick) showed people how to live (thinking Torah. It tells the story of the good, happy lives, full of peace. deeply). Jewish people and their special relationship with God. Become

an expert The Golden Temple in Amritsar, India, 68-69 Art and is the holiest of architecture all Sikh shrines. 84-85 Ancient Egypt 90-91 The Vikings Sikhism The Sikh religion was started by a teacher called Guru Nanak. Sikhs worship in a building called a gurdwara. Their holy book

is the Guru Granth Sahib. The Bible. The 63 People and society Religious life People honour their God or gods by following their teaching. They may come together for worship and celebrate special events with feasts and festivals.

Islam Statue of Muslims (followers of the Buddha Islam) must pray five times a day: at dawn, midday, mid-afternoon, sunset, and night-time. Muslims follow a set of special prayer positions.

Buddhism Buddhists do not worship a god, but honour the life and teachings of the Buddha. In the temple, they offer flowers, candles, and incense to the Buddha, to show their respect.

In some Buddhist countries, boys spend time as monks. 64 What is a mosque? Religious life

In a synagogue, Jews listen Judaism Turban to readings from the Torah, their holy book. Jewish people meet to worship and pray in a special building called a synagogue. A man or woman called a rabbi leads the worship. Small sword

Steel bangle

Torah scroll Silver pointer Sikhism This is Ganesha, the elephant-headed god. Many Sikh men wear five things to show Hinduism their faith. These are Hindus worship the gods uncut hair (often kept and goddesses in their homes tidy in a turban), a and in mandirs (temples). The wooden comb, a small god Ganesha is said to bring sword, a steel bangle, good luck and success. and white undershorts. en are acti Joseph ildr ng ou Christianity e ch t th hes f the first Chris e Christmas is a joyful festival T ry o tmas when Christians remember sto Three kings . how Jesus was born. There are services in church, and people celebrate by exchanging cards and gifts. Jesus

Jesus was born in a stable in Bethlehem. Three kings brought

presents for him. Mary A building where Muslims worship Allah (God). Allah worship Muslims where building A 65 People and society Writing and printing People began to write things down about 5,500 years ago. Before this, they told stories and passed news on by word of mouth. Today, writing is all around you.

The Quill pens in a pot of alphabet ink with a scroll made from papyrus reeds Fountain pens are filled with ink. Paper and pens The paper you use today comes Signs and from trees. Long ago, people made symbols paper from reeds or animal Sometimes, signs and skins. The first pens were symbols are used to pieces of reeds, write letters and words, dipped in soot or even secret codes. or ink. Pictograms are pictures used for writing. This old Chinese word means “to sell”. Writing machines The first typewriters were Hieroglyphs were used invented about 200 years ago. by the ancient Egyptians. This one stands for “chick”. They made writing much quicker. Today, word processors, like this Runes were Viking symbols laptop computer, are used instead. that were carved on stone or wood. This is the “M” sound.

Music symbols like these are used to write down musical sounds (notes).

Morse code changes the alphabet into dot and dash signals for sending messages. Early typewriter Laptop computer 66 What is a typeface? Writing and printing Printing books At first, books were written out by hand. This Become took a long time and was very costly. Printing an expert presses, like the one 84-85 Ancient shown here, were first An old wooden Egypt used about 600 years printing press 90-91 ago. Printing books The Vikings by machine was

much quicker T

and cheaper. i

e m

The different parts t s a

of the machine were

c i

worked by hand. n

o n

e s

o w

s t

p s

a p

p r

i e n r

s t e . d

Printing the news The first, hand-written newspapers date from Roman times. They told people about battles and gladiator contests. Today, giant rotary presses are used to print millions of books, newspapers, and magazines every day. One rotary press can print more Every day, newspapers tell us than 75,000 what is happening in the world. newspapers

in one hour. A style of letters...... used in printing. in used ... letters... of style A 67 People and society Art and architecture Since ancient times, artists have painted pictures and used stone and wood to make sculptures. Architects plan the world’s buildings.

Cave painting Church art Prehistoric artists The Italian artist painted pictures of Michelangelo painted figures and animals on scenes from the Bible on cave walls. This cave the ceiling and walls of Modern sculpture art is from the USA. the Sistine Chapel in Modern British artist Rome, Italy. Henry Moore used e y bold shapes to create tur a itec w . this interesting – and Arch e s “touchable” – giant e th ok can chang lo stone sculpture. ity Skyscraper a whole c Singapore skyline

68 When was the Sydney Opera House opened? Art and architecture Architecture Making art Every building you see has been planned by an People use different types architect. Styles of architecture have changed of art to capture a scene over thousands of years. Buildings are designed or express their ideas. for living, working, worship, or simply for fun. Here are a few of them.

Castles were built Drawing a quick “sketch” to defend people in pencil is a way for artists from attack. This to plan a colour painting. castle is in Spain. Painting in colour is often done on a canvas using watercolour or oil paints.

Sculpture is the skill of making artistic shapes out The Taj Mahal of stone, wood, or metal. The beautiful Taj Mahal in Photography is a very India was built as a tomb accurate way of showing for the emperor’s wife. It is how people and places look. made from white marble set with coloured stones. Graphic design is a way of combining pictures and words in imaginative ways.

An opera house Modern skyscrapers The Opera House in Sydney, make Australia, is a modern building. up the Singapore Its wing-like roof makes it easy skyline. to identify. It was designed to look like the sails of boats in the nearby harbour.

Become an expert 86-87 Ancient Greece

88-89 The Romans In 1973. In 69 People and society Music What is your favourite song or tune? Do you like classical, jazz, folk, rock, or pop music? If you play a musical instrument, you can make music of your own.

Conductor An orchestra Some musicians perform together in a group called an orchestra. There are about 90 musicians in a symphony orchestra. The conductor keeps them in time. Orchestras usually play classical music.

Drums and cymbals are percussion instruments.

Cymbal Musical instruments In an orchestra, there are Drum four kinds of instruments – brass, woodwind, percussion, and strings. Each instrument makes its own individual sound. The different sounds blend together.

Flute

70 What sort of instrument is a xylophone? Music Recording music Mixing desk In a recording studio, each voice or instrument can be recorded on its own. These are called tracks. The knobs on the mixing desk control Engineers mix the tracks together. the volume and tone of each track. Types of music Many different kinds of music are played Vinyl CDs all over the world. Madonna is record one of the most successful pop Early music was probably singers of played on instruments all time. made from animal bones. Tape Opera is a play set to Madonna Music can be recorded in many ways: music in which the on computers, MP3 players, CDs, performers sing their lines. vinyl records, and tapes.

Jazz musicians make up Many rock and pop some or all of the music musicians play music as they play it. on electric guitars.

Rock music, or rock and roll, has punchy lyrics Pop concerts (words) and a strong beat. Watching your Pop is short for popular favourite pop music. It has catchy tunes star perform live on stage and is good for dancing to. can be thrilling. Many people work behind the Cello scenes to make the show French horn run smoothly.

Han ds on

Would you like to be a pop star? Try writing your own pop song. Start by writing a poem, then make up a tune to go with it.

Piano keyboard A percussion instrument. percussion A 71 People and society Theatre and dance Theatre began thousands of years ago in ancient Greece. Actors and dancers put on shows to entertain and inform people.

Actors use their body, Actors and acting as well as the words, to create a character and Putting on a play is a long task. perform the scenes. First, the playwright writes the play. Then actors bring the story and the characters in the play to life. They also have to remember their words!

These actors are playing two characters called Romeo and Juliet.

Musical theatre Going to the theatre to see a musical is a special treat.

Costumes help Musicals are an exciting to show when mixture of acting, dancing, and where the play’s action and song. This is a scene is happening. from the musical “Oliver!”.

Who wrote the play “Romeo and Juliet”? Theatre and dance Forms of dance There are many different types and styles of dance from all over the world. Tap dancers Japanese theatre wear metal- These actors are performing an ancient type capped shoes to of Japanese play, called Kabuki. They wear make “tap” sounds. beautiful costumes and mix acting, singing, Ballet is a graceful type of dance, set to dancing, and music to put on a dazzling show. music, that tells a tale.

Indian dance Country and folk Dancing is a way of telling dances from around the world are lively and fun. a story or showing a feeling using movement and music. Flamenco is a dramatic This type of dancing, from Spanish dance set to the India, is made up of special sound of clicking castanets. movements and expressions. Jazz dance uses the rhythm and beat of jazz music to create an exciting dance. Puppet shows Puppet shows are a very old type of theatre. These glove puppets are simple to work. A hand inside makes the puppet move. One Punch finger works the puppet’s Become head, while two other an expert fingers work the arms. 70-71 Music 86-87 Ancient Judy Greece

Punch and Judy are famous

puppets from Britain. William Shakespeare. William People and society Clothes and fashion What are you wearing today? A Types of fabric

T-shirt? Trousers? Trainers? Clothes Cotton is made of fibres from the cotton plant. The can make you look good. They may fabric is usually woven. also have a special job to do. Silk is a thin, soft fabric made from threads spun by silkworms.

Leather is made from the skins of animals such as cows.

Wool is made from the hair of sheep. It is often knitted to make clothes.

Nylon and other artificial fabrics are made from chemicals.

This Vietnamese This boy is wearing Indian casual clothes. girl is wearing a sari.

A raincoat, Wellington boots, and umbrella are This French girl wears a useful when it rains. top and skirt for school. What do you wear? What you wear depends on where you live and what you are doing. People wear different clothes for keeping warm, staying cool, for playing sport, and for going to school. 74 What is a beret (“ber-reh”)? Clothes and fashion Fashion shows Some people design clothes to look stylish or unusual. They are called fashion designers. They put on fashion shows where models show off their clothes.

Uniforms Some people have to wear special clothes for work. These are called uniforms. This fire-fighter’s uniform protects Clothes for the cold against heat and flames. Do In cold climates, clothes you wear a uniform at school? were traditionally made from animal fur and This Masai girl from Tanzania is skins. Today, synthetic wearing her colourful national dress. (artificial) fabrics are often used instead. Children from the Arctic This beautiful need thick, fur-lined outfit is the clothes for warmth. national dress This girl is wearing a of a hill tribe kimono, the national from Vietnam. dress of Japan.

National dress A country’s traditional clothes are called its national dress. In many countries, people only wear their national dress for festivals or other

special occasions. A round, flat type of hat. of type flat round, A 75 People and society

Sport and leisure Football (also called soccer) is the most popular sport in the world. What do you do in your spare time? Do you enjoy a favourite sport? Or do you have fun with toys or play computer games?

Spectator sports A spectator sport is a sport that people like to watch. Football, rugby, American football, baseball, and golf are all spectator sports. Team sports All of these spectator sports are played by two teams of players. Sn Snowboarders o wear warm, w baggy clothes. Baseball: teams score b runs by batting. Fielders o a wear a catching glove. rd e rs Basketball: points are d scored by throwing the ball o into a raised hoop (basket). a m Plastic clips a attach the Football: each team tries z boot to the to kick or head the ball i snowboard. n into the other team’s net. g sp in Ice hockey: teams score s goals by hitting a puck Outdoor sports an Snowboarding, rock climbing, d with flat sticks. canoeing, skiing, and sailing are outdoor ju mp Rugby: teams score “tries” sports. You need special equipment and s. by carrying the oval ball clothes to do outdoor sports safely. along the pitch. 76 Which games are played with cues on a table? Sport and leisure A control pad for a games console A small, motorized toy model boat

Toys and games Children play with toys such Computer games as dolls, construction sets, and You play computer model vehicles. A game is often games on a games console played against one or more attached to a television, opponents – and can on a hand-held console, be challenging, as or on a personal computer. You play chess well as fun. What is your favourite with pieces on computer game? a board.

Individual sports In these sports, people play on their own Playing against an opponent. Doll cards

Tennis: players hit a ball with rackets. They must keep the ball in the court.

Swimming: swimmers race each other up and down a pool.

Golf: players hit a ball around a course, using as few shots as they can.

Running: runners race against each other on Going to the movies a track or on roads. When new films are made, they are Table tennis: players hit first shown on large screens at cinemas. a ball with small bats. The Today, many films are made using

game is played on a table. animation and special effects. Snooker, pool, and billiards. and pool, Snooker, 77 People and society Working people What do you want to be when you grow up? All over the world, people do different kinds of work to earn the money to buy their food, clothes, and homes.

Astronauts Astronauts are people who work in space. Some fly spacecraft. Others do science experiments in space. The astronauts in this picture are working inside a Space Shuttle.

Market sellers There are markets selling food and other goods in almost every town and city. This man is selling fruit and vegetables from his market stall in Cairo, Egypt.

78 What do you call someone who writes books to earn a living? Working people

This vet is giving a cat a health check.

Farmers The farmer’s Vets All over the world, farmers grow plough is If your pet is ill, you take it to the vet. Vets being pulled crops and raise animals. They grow by an ox. look after sick and injured animals. Some food for themselves and to sell at vets treat small animals, such as cats and market. This farmer is ploughing dogs. Others work with farm or zoo animals. his rice field in Thailand. Teachers This teacher is helping some Who is your favourite teacher? children to At school, teachers help you to learn to read. learn science, languages, and These other subjects. Teachers engineers are have to go to college to making a part for learn how to teach you! a power station.

Teacher

Pupils

Engineers Engineers are people who design or make such things as cars, aeroplanes, machines, and buildings. To be an engineer, you need to be good at

science and mathematics. An author. An 79 History of people The mummy mask of the Egyptian king, World of history Tutankhamun History tells us the story of how Decorative people lived in the past. From the blue stones called lapis things they left behind, we can lazuli find out about their homes, food,

clothes, work, and beliefs. Solid gold

Early people Powerful kings About 10,000 years ago, groups of Many great civilizations people began to settle down in certain were ruled by powerful kings. places. They started to farm the land In ancient Egypt, the kings were called pharaohs. They and to raise animals for food. P eo were so important Early farmers cut down the p that people ripe wheat stalks with a le

sickle made from a sharp le worshipped flint stone set in a a wooden handle. r them as gods. n t

f o r

f o o d .

Spanish galleon 80 Where did the Aztecs and Incas live? World of history Greeks and Romans Curiosity quiz About 2,500 years ago, Look through the History ancient Greek culture . of People pages and see e flourished. Then the Romans c if you can identify the a grew in strength and ruled p picture clues below. s over a great empire from g n Rome in present-day Italy. i r

p o

The ancient Acropolis in Athens, Greece w

Explorers N For centuries, people have travelled far and wide across the world. They went in search of new lands, goods to trade, and adventures.

The first Space Shuttle flight was made in 1981 with a Shuttle called Columbia.

20th century Become The 20th century saw many new an expert inventions and 66-67 Writing discoveries being and printing made. People flew 280-281 Men on in space for the These coins were made by first time, and even the moon European explorers using the gold

they discovered on their travels. walked on the Moon. In Central and South America. South and Central In 81 History of people From apes to human beings Early people Our oldest ancestors looked like apes. The first human beings lived Homo Slowly, they became about two million years ago. habilis skull more human-like We do not know exactly and began to walk what they looked like, but upright on two legs. we do know how they lived.

Neanderthal skull Cave shelters Early people used caves like these as shelters. Inside, the caves were safe and warm. Sometimes, people painted the walls with pictures Modern of the animals they hunted. human skull

Flint A flint hand blade axe from The first farmers Egypt. Fire Until 10,000 years ago, people had to travel in search of food. Then they began to grow crops and keep animals for meat and milk. These people were the first Tools and fire farmers. We take fire and tools for granted, but early people had to learn how to make and use them. The first tools were stone hand axes, made about 600,000 years ago.

This woman is grinding grain between two stones to make flour for bread. 82 How did early people start fires? Early people The first cities Early inventions When people started growing their food, they Here are some of the were able to settle in one everyday things that place. They began to build early people used. houses, villages, and cities. One of the first cities was Dogs were first used Jericho in Jordan. for hunting about 10,000 years ago.

The first metal tools Hunters and gatherers were made from copper Early people hunted woolly mammoths, cave about 10,000 years ago. bears, reindeer, and other animals for food. The first clay pots for They also collected fruit, nuts, and roots, storing water were made and caught fish. about 7,000 years ago. Become an expert 92-93 Aztecs, Incas, and

The meat from Mayas a mammoth was enough to feed a family for a whole year. Hunters killed the mammoth with wooden spears.

M h d u a a n m n t m g in e g ot ro w h us a w s o

rk! By rubbing two sticks or striking two stones together. stones two striking or sticks two rubbing By 83 History of people Ancient Egypt The ancient Egyptians lived by the banks of the River Nile about 3,500 years ago. Their powerful rulers were called pharaohs. The pyramids The ancient Egyptians

Beautifully believed in life after death. decorated mummy The pharaohs built magnificent tombs for themselves, called pyramids.

Mummy Building skills of a cat Egyptian builders did not have modern tools and machines to help them. The workers carried huge stone blocks into place, or

sent them on barges These men are carrying stone blocks for along the river. building, as the ancient Egyptians did.

Mummification nds When an important Ha on person died, the body Try writing was “mummified”. out a message Some of the inside using only Egyptian parts were removed. hieroglyphics. You could also make up your own Then the body was set of hieroglyphic treated with chemicals symbols. and wrapped in bandages. 84 Why did the Egyptians mummify their dead? Ancient Egypt The Nile floods Hieroglyphics Each year, the River Nile flooded and spread rich, The Egyptians used black soil on its banks. picture writing called Farmers grew crops in the hieroglyphics. Symbols, soil and used the river such as those below, stood water to water their fields. for letters and sounds.

A funeral barge

Nile barges The River Nile were important in Egypt res out across th for transport. ta e d Hieroglyphic sound chart s ese ll r ti t. s x ah b c, k d n i h p

S ee, y f g h s u

e kh m p t n

e r s t oo, u, w

T The Sphinx A huge stone statue, called the Sphinx, guards the pyramids at Giza. It has the body of a lion and a human head, which was modelled on the pharaoh’s The great Sphinx guards own features. the pyramid of a pharaoh

called Khafra. To keep the body whole for the next life. next the for whole body the keep To 85 History of people Ancient Greece About 2,500 years ago, Greece was made up of powerful “city-states”, such as Athens and Sparta, which fought wars against each other.

Greek buildings The ancient Greeks built beautiful temples where they worshipped their gods. This temple in Athens was built to honour the goddess Athena.

Greek theatre Going to the theatre was very popular in ancient Greece. The Greeks wrote many plays, including tragedies and comedies. People watched their favourite plays in large outdoor theatres, like the one above. 86 Where were the first Olympic Games held? Ancient Greece The Trojan War Greek mythology During a long war with The Greeks told many the city of Troy, the stories about their gods Greeks gave the Trojans and goddesses. a huge wooden horse Zeus was king of the gods as a gift. But the horse and chief of the 12 gods who was full of soldiers, lived on Mount Olympus. who attacked the Athena was goddess of Trojans as they slept. war, wisdom, and Athens. She helped heroes in battle. Helmet with nose s Poseidon was the brother protector o T c ld h of Zeus and Hades and god a i es of the seas and earthquakes. ll er e ed s h we Aphrodite was goddess of op re love and beauty. She loved lites. Ares, the god of war. Hades was god of the Underworld – the home of the dead in Greek legends.

Strong, bronze Shield metal armour protected the body. Warriors Each city had Some shields were decorated an army, and with crests. war was part of daily life. Soldiers had to buy their own These leg weapons and armour, guards are called greaves. so they often came

from rich families. In Olympia, Greece. Olympia, In 87 History of people The city of Rome The city of Rome is still a The Romans busy place, just as it was in ancient times. If you visit Ancient Rome began as a group Rome today, you can see of small villages along the River the ruins of the Forum, the Colosseum, and many other Tiber in Italy. It soon grew into splendid Roman buildings. a great and powerful city that ruled a mighty empire.

The Forum

Gladiators The Colosseum was a huge building in Rome where people went to watch wild beast shows and gladiator fights. Gladiators often fought to the death.

Gladiators were armed with nets and spears, or small shields and swords.

50,000 people could sit and watch the fights in the arena.

Lions and other wild animals were killed during the shows. What was a Roman villa? The Romans Latin language Famous Romans The Romans spoke a language called Latin. Roman children Below, you can read learnt to write Latin by scratching about some of the most out letters on wooden boards that famous Romans of all. were covered in wax. This inscription is Spartacus was a slave written in Latin. who led an army of slaves against the Romans. The Roman Empire Asia Julius Caesar was a The Romans conquered Rome great general who ruled Europe a vast empire. They Rome. He was murdered. built this wall between Augustus was the first Roman emperor. After his Scotland and England death, he was made a god. to protect the boundary Africa of their empire. The purple area on this map shows the size Ovid was a Roman poet. of the Roman Empire in about 300 CE . He wrote many poems Hadrian’s Wall about myths and legends.

Hadrian toured the empire and built walls and forts to guard it.

The Roman army A soldier’s sandals The Romans had the best army in the world. Their soldiers conquered many countries and

guarded the A standard empire. The (army flag) soldiers often had to march long distances. Roman roads In peacetime, Roman soldiers were kept busy building roads. Roads were important for moving the army around the empire. Roman roads were usually very straight.

Some are still used today. A large house in the countryside. the in house large A 89 History of people The Vikings Mast The Vikings lived more than 1,000 years ago. Their home The sail was made from wool or linen. was in Scandinavia, in northern Europe, but they are famous for their long sea journeys to distant lands.

Viking travellers The Vikings were daring sailors and Longships explorers. They made fierce raids on the Viking boats countries of western Europe. They went were called in search of trade and new lands to live in – even as far away as North America. longships. They Ropes were built from Scandinavia wood, and were fast and strong Atlantic Ocean enough to cover Europe vast distances. North America

The Vikings reached North America in about the year 1000 CE.

A longship carried about 80 Vikings, who rowed and sailed the ship. 90 What is the Viking alphabet called? The Vikings Warrior duty Being a brave warrior was very important to the Vikings. They could be called up to fight at any moment, so they always dressed Viking homes ready for battle. Viking families lived in houses made from wood, stone, or turf. A hole was left in the roof to let out Iron and smoke from the cooking fire. People sat on stools or wood spear benches around the fire and slept on raised beds.

Viking warriors A small statue carried wooden Helmet with of a Viking god shields and wore noseguard called Frey armour made Story-telling from leather or Chain-mail To entertain each chain mail. shirt other, the Vikings told long stories about their heroes, gods, and great warriors. The stories were called sagas.

Padded leather tunic Runes The Vikings carved poems and inscriptions using symbols called runes. Each rune was made of straight lines, so it was easy to carve them on wood or stone.

Swords and spears were used for Round fighting. wooden shield

Iron Long sword woollen socks

Goat-skin shoes It is called “Futhark” (“foo-thark”). “Futhark” called is It 91 History of people Aztecs, Incas, and Mayas Three great civilizations grew up in the ancient Americas. They were called the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas. These people built great cities and

temples to their gods. Aztecs Mayas Aztec Where did they live? warrior In headdress The Aztecs and Mayas ruled c a s large parts of Mexico and Central America. The Inca Empire stretched along the west coast of South America.

Aztec temple Aztec temples looked like pyramids, with steps leading to a shrine on top. Here, the Aztecs killed people and offered their hearts to the god of the Sun.

This is Chicomecoatl, the Aztec goddess of maize.

Gods and farming The Aztecs prayed to the gods to make their crops grow. Most important was maize (corn). It was ground into flour for making flat breads called tortillas. 92 How were the Incas like the ancient Egyptians? Aztecs, Incas, and Mayas Spanish Spanish invasion galleon Inca gold In the 16th century, Spanish explorers came to the Americas. The Incas made objects Their arrival meant the end of from gold. The Spanish the Aztec, Maya, and Inca greed for gold led to the empires. Many people were end of the Inca empire. killed and their cities destroyed. Llamas were important to the Incas. They were used for wool and for transport.

Gold armbands may have been worn by the Mayan cities bravest Inca warriors. The Maya built great Statues of Inca gods were made from gold to show cities, filled with honour towards them. magnificent stone temples, palaces, and squares. This is the Hand s on Temple of the Great Jaguar in the Mayan Make an city of Tikal. Aztec headdress. Cut a Tikal is in Guatemala, South America. strip of card to go round your head and stick on Inca farmers card feathers. Paint it This is the Inca city of Machu Picchu, and tape the ends high in the Andes mountains in Peru. together. Farmers grew crops in level fields cut into the mountainside. Maize, legumes (beans), and squash were their main crops.

Ruins of Machu Picchu’s buildings can still be

seen in Peru today. They made mummies. made They 93 History of people Types of castle The first castles were Knights and castles made from wood, but stone was stronger. Even for brave knights in the middle ages, attacking a castle was dangerous. French chateaux were magnificent royal homes, Thick walls kept them out, and the castle with moats and towers. archers had their bows and arrows ready. Norman keeps were stone towers, surrounded by thick castle walls. Castle design Japanese castles were Massive walls and towers made castles built by warrior lords and had decorative roofs. almost impossible for enemy soldiers to attack. Many castles were built on The Red Fort in India hills, so they were difficult to reach. Battlements was a palace with stone walls 30 m (100 ft) tall.

Hands on Thick Tower walls Make a knight’s shield from a big piece of coloured card. Decorate the shield with your own coat of arms, cut out of silver paper.

Jousting In peacetime, knights fought practice battles, called jousts, to train for war. They used poles (lances) to knock each other off their horses.

94 What was chain mail? Knights and castles Helmet Buffalo Samurai warriors wore Knights horns armour made from coated wood or plates Knights were soldiers who fought of metal laced together. on horseback. They wore heavy armour made from iron and were armed with axes, swords, and spears. A knight used his sword to stab between the gaps in an enemy’s armour.

Samurai warriors In Japan, knights were Leg called samurai. They guard (greave) were warriors who fought for a powerful Spur lord and followed a Samurai strict code of honour. Leather leg sword protector

Archers fired arrows through slits in the walls.

Lance Each knight had his own pattern, called his coat of arms.

Shield

Portcullis

Moat Armour made from small loops of metal. metal. of loops small from made Armour 95 History of people

British air force symbol 20th century The 20th century was the time from 1901 to 2000. In the 20th century there were many events, inventions, and discoveries that changed people’s lives for ever.

Nuclear power The first nuclear power station was opened in 1954. Today, there

A British fighter aircraft are about 400 of them in the from World War II world. These power stations make dangerous waste. Some people think they should be closed down. World wars There were two terrible world wars during the 20th century. World War I lasted from 1914 to 1918. Nearly three-quarters of France’s World War II lasted from electricity is made at nuclear power 1939 to 1945. Millions of stations. This one is on the River Seine. soldiers and civilians ick This is Sirius, a ship died in these wars. Th armo owned and used by the otects t ur Greenpeace organization. pr he t The tracks stop the an heavy tank sinking k. into mud. Tank

96 Who was the first person to go into space? And when? 20th century Pop music Advances The Beatles were one of the most successful pop groups Advances made in the of all time. In the 1960s, 20th century have made millions of people bought many people’s lives easier. their records. Performances on television also helped to Mobile telephones boost their fame. The Beatles and the Internet make split up in 1970. it easy to keep in touch.

The Beatles playing live on television in New Medical advances help York, USA Man on the Moon us to fight diseases and recover from injuries. In 1969, astronauts visited the Moon for the first time. People all around Buzz Inventions such as the jet the world watched on television as Aldrin engine have made the astronauts stepped onto the travel fast and cheap. Moon’s grey, dusty surface. Sport became extremely popular, and many sports people became very famous. Buzz Aldrin was the Scientific discoveries, second man such as DNA, helped Space on the Moon. suit medicine and technology.

The environment Some people began to worry about the damage that humans are doing to the environment. They formed organizations such as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth.

Nelson Mandela Technology There were many important Many new types political changes during the of technology were 20th century. Nelson Mandela developed in the 20th century. fought against an unfair Microchips were invented in political system in South the 1950s. They are used in Africa. He became president computers, televisions, stereos,

of South Africa in 1994. and many other machines. A Russian cosmonaut (astronaut) called Yuri Gagarin in 1961. in Gagarin Yuri called (astronaut) cosmonaut Russian A 97 Human body Your amazing body Become The greatest machine you’ll ever own is an expert. your body. It’s more complicated 106-107 Bones than any computer, it and muscles lasts for a lifetime, and 116-117 Eating and digestion it’s yours for free.

Body parts Your body is made up of hundreds of different Hair parts. You probably know the names of the bits you Forehead s r Inside your body a can see, but there are E Eyebrows Doctors can see many more hidden inside your body deep inside you. with special cameras. s k Nose Eyes e X-ray cameras take e

C pictures of hard body

Lips parts like bones. Other cameras, called scanners, T eeth can see soft body parts.

ers s g d in n a F Two of everything H Body parts often come W r in pairs. You have ists two feet, two eyes, two ears, two lungs, and so on. This means you have a handy spare in case one of them gets damaged. A chest X-ray shows the bones in your chest. The white shape in the middle is the heart. 98 What do we call the study of the human body? Your amazing body Water, water Curiosity quiz Your body is mostly water – it makes up Take a look at the about two-thirds of pages in this section your weight. and see if you can find these pictures.

The ingredients Your body is made of just a few simple chemicals, plus water.

Carbon is what diamonds and coal are made of. A fifth of you is carbon.

Iron makes your blood red. You have enough to make one small iron nail.

Phosphorus is in the tips of matches, as well as your bones and teeth.

Robot Sodium and chlorine make salt. Blood is one- third as salty as sea water. No substitute The human body is too Potassium is used in complicated for robots to some types of soap. It’s copy. Robots can copy the also in your body fluids. way we walk, but they Nitrogen is important in can’t think or feel like we do. muscles. It’s also the main ingredient in air.

Chimps have Compared to chimps, Being human hands like ours. our bodies look almost Although we look different from hairless. animals, our bodies are similar Chimpanzee on the inside. Our closest animal relatives are

chimpanzees. Anatomy. 99 Human body What makes you you? All human bodies work the same way, but everyone is different. Nobody looks, sounds, or thinks exactly like you. You’re different because of the way your genes and experience shape you as you grow up.

Fair skin

Green eyes

Curly hair

Black hair

Unique The shape of your face, the colour of your hair, and many other things make you unique – Freckles different from everyone else. 100 How many genes are there in each cell in the human body? What makes you you? In the genes Genes are instructions that build your body and tell it how to work. Your genes control many of the things that make you unique, like the colour of your eyes or how tall you’ll be.

There ’s e n This girl has a gene that allows nds o Ha on u her to roll up her tongue. The g boy doesn’t have the gene, DNA h so he can’t do it. Look in a

Your genes DNA insid mirror and see if you e y can roll your tongue. Don’t are stored in ou a chemical called to cheat by squeezing it with DNA, which looks like a s your lips. Test your tr e family to see who twisted ladder with four t different types of rung. ch has the gene. to The rungs make up a the Su four-letter alphabet that n spells out your genes, a like letters in a book. nd DNA can back 40 split and 0 copy itself. tim e s.

Learning to ride a bike changes your brain and your body.

Changing body Genes don’t control everything – experience In the family also shapes you. Your genes came from your parents. If you exercise a Half come from your mother and lot, for instance, half come from your father. If your body gets you look like your parents, it’s stronger.

because you share the same genes. About 30,000 specific genes. specific 30,000 About 101 Human body Building blocks Every part of your body is made of tiny building blocks called cells, which fit together like bricks in a wall. Cells are so small that hundreds could fit on the point of a pin.

The nucleus DNA is controls the rest stored in of the cell. the cell The inside of nucleus. a cell is packed with a kind of living jelly called A cytoplasm. N The skin on your D fingertips is made of lots of small ridges.

Inside a cell In the middle of a cell is its control centre – the nucleus. The nucleus sends instructions to the rest of the cell, telling the cell what chemicals to make.

Before a cell divides, the nucleus splits to make two nuclei.

The outer skin, or membrane, stops things leaking out. Tiny generators provide cells with power. Making new cells A cell makes new cells by dividing. The two new cells are half the size, but they soon grow back. Millions of The new cells pull apart and separate, but they your cells die every second, but millions usually stay close of others divide to replace them. neighbours. 102 How many cells are there in the human body? Building blocks

How big are cells? than 2000 More dea Cells are too small to see with the d s kin naked eye, but scientists can ce ll s photograph them through fe ll powerful microscopes. o ff y The cells on your skin o u are about a hundredth w of a millimetre wide. h i l e

e .

The cells on the surface of your skin are tough A microscope can and flat. They overlap to zoom in to see the form a layer of armour that tiny, flaky cells on the protects the softer cells below. ridges of your fingerprint.

Cells make tissue Your body contains hundreds of different types of cells that do different jobs. Cells of Fat cells are Many blood cells Nerve cells are Bone cells make bubble shaped. are red. They thin and wiry. your bones hard. the same type usually They store fat carry oxygen They carry They live in tiny group together to form under your skin. around the body. electrical signals. holes in bones. tissue. Fat, muscle, bone, and nerves are types of tissue. Blood

is a liquid tissue. About 100 trillion. 100 About 103 Human body Systems Organizing Organs and tissues work in teams to carry out the body major tasks, like Your cells and tissues are transporting blood organized into larger body or processing food. These teams are parts called organs. In turn, called systems. your organs work together The heart is the to form body systems. largest organ in the blood system. It pumps blood around Kidney the body. Heart

Brain

The tubes that carry blood away from the Organs heart are called arteries (shown An organ is a body part that in red). does a specific job. Your heart’s The tubes that job, for instance is to pump carry blood back to the heart are called blood. Kidneys clean blood. veins (shown in blue).

Heart and blood Organ transplant Your heart, blood, and If a vital organ stops working, doctors blood vessels make up may replace it with an organ from another the blood system. It person. This is called a transplant. transports vital supplies around your body. 104 Which body system makes your stomach rumble? Organizing the body Muscles Other systems Your muscle system is made of tissues that move parts Some of your other of your body by pulling important systems on them or squeezing are shown in this list. them. Your biggest muscles all pull Muscles change Breathing system: the on bones. the position of your main organs are your skeleton by pulling lungs, which take in air. different bones. Your fingers are moved by Hormone system: this muscles in your arm. uses powerful chemicals to control your body and mood. The most powerful muscles are Skin, hair, and nails: in your legs. these form your body’s protective covering.

Immune system: this seeks and destroys germs that get into your body.

Urinary system: this Skeleton cleans blood and gets rid of waste chemicals. Bones and joints make Reproductive system: up the skeletal these are the organs that system, an make babies. inner frame that supports Digestive system the body. Your digestive A quarter of your bones are organs break in your feet. down food to Nerves provide your Your nervous system carries body with energy electrical signals around and raw materials. your body. You need this system to see, Your mouth is the first Signals shoot hear, think, part of the digestive along nerves to system. muscles, and react. telling them when to pull. A long, twisting tube makes up your intestines, where Senses, such as digested food is touch, rely on absorbed. nerve cells that send signals to your brain. Your brain is the nervous system’s

control centre. The digestive system. digestive The 105 Human body Bones and muscles Skull You would be like a lump of jelly without your skeleton – a frame of bones

that holds you up and protects Ribcage your internal organs.

Backbone Bending backbone Your backbone contains 24 small The wrist is bones called made up of vertebrae. They eight small move almost bones. every time The vertebrae in your back allow you you do. to twist and bend. Cranium

Head case The bones that make up your The hip is a ball and socket skull join after you are born. joint, allowing the The skull has two parts – legs to move around. the lower jaw and cranium. Only your jaw can move.

Bone marrow Lower jaw supplies your body with red blood cells. The honeycomb structure of some bone makes it weigh less than if it were solid. Both the knee and elbow are hinged joints that only move in one direction.

Brilliant bone Ribcage Bones have a Snake ribcages A ribcage has clever structure that can run almost long, curved bones makes them light but the entire length of that protect vital strong. They can heal their bodies. organs such as the themselves if broken. heart and lungs. 106 How many bones does an adult human have? Bones and muscles Bending bits Muscle magic Different kinds of joints Muscles are rubbery, all over your body keep stretchy straps. The pectoralis Biceps and muscle moves triceps bend you moving. You can control your arm at the and straighten some of your muscles, shoulder. your arm. Thumbs have joints that like the muscles in your allow them to rotate, which fingers cannot do. arms and legs. Others, such as your heart and Ankles contain different joints for up-and-down bladder, operate without and side-to-side movement. you having to think Wrists have a joint that about it. allows them to turn but not go all the way round.

Neck bones feature a pivot joint that allows your head to turn.

The tibialis Making faces muscle bends Muscles in your face are your foot. attached to skin as well as bone. They allow you to Pulling pairs make all kinds of expressions Muscles can pull to show how you are feeling. but they can’t push. They work in pairs that pull in opposite directions.

The biceps contract to pull the forearm up.

The triceps relax and stretch when

the biceps contract. There are 206 bones in an adult skeleton. adult an in bones 206 are There 107 Human body

You use your brain to think. Brain and senses Your brain is the part of your body that makes you think, feel, and remember. It makes sure that the . rest of you works properly. ts.. ar t p Your brain en er Your brain is hidden iff D inside your head. It looks a little bit like a soft, wrinkly lump of greyish-pink

Your hard, bony skull protects blancmange, A bundle of your brain from damage. nerves runs or jelly. down your back, inside Nerves your backbone. Your brain is linked to your body by fibres called nerves. Nerves carry messages from your body to your brain, and back again. Your brain weighs about the same as 12 apples.

If you prick your Reflex actions finger, your brain makes you feel pain. If you accidentally prick your finger on a rose thorn, your brain quickly makes you pull your hand away. This fast reaction is called a reflex action. 108 Do clever people have bigger brains? Brain and senses Your eyes see Eyes and seeing Your senses the pictures, then your Your eyes have special nerves You know what is happening brain tells that pick up light. They send you what around you by seeing, they are. messages to your brain, telling hearing, smelling, tasting, you what you are looking at. and touching things. These Your ears pick are called your senses. up loud and soft sounds.

do dif fer Ears and hearing en Your ears catch sounds and send t j them deep inside your head. ob s. Nerves send messages about the sounds to your brain.

Nose and smelling Nerves inside your nose tell you what you are smelling. Some things, such as this rose, smell nice. Other things smell terrible!

Tongue and tasting You taste with your tongue. It is covered with tiny bumps, called taste buds, which pick up tastes from your food.

Skin and touch Nerves in your skin tell you if things feel hard, soft, hot, or cold. They also warn you of danger by making Brown Grapes Spaghetti you feel pain. sugar

Can you tell what you are

touching, without looking? No. Everyone’s brain is about the same size. same the about is brain Everyone’s No. 109 Human body Breathing We have to breathe all the time in order to supply our bodies with oxygen and

to get rid of carbon This flap shuts when you eat dioxide. We use our so food can’t go down your lungs to do this. windpipe.

Prepare the air You breathe in through your The air travels down Before the air reaches your lungs it nose or mouth. your windpipe. travels through your mouth and

nose and then goes down your Each lung is a windpipe. It gets warm and spongy maze of tunnels. damp on its journey.

When you breathe in, your lungs stretch out and take in lots of air.

diaphragm The is e a trampoli In and out lik ne. Your ribs and diaphragm help you to When you breathe breathe. Your lungs fill with air when out your lungs you raise your ribcage, then empty out squash down forcing The muscle under your all the air out. lungs is called the when you lower it. A muscle called the diaphragm.It moves diaphragm helps you do this. up and down as you breathe. 110 How many breaths do you take in a day? Breathing A helping hand Some newborn babies No lungs have trouble breathing. They are put into an Not every animal has enclosed cradle called lungs. There are other an incubator. Extra ways animals breathe. oxygen is pumped into the incubator for them.

The view from the bottom of your windpipe. Windpipe Air from your mouth and nose enters your windpipe, which goes down your throat into your chest. Then it splits into two passages – one for each lung. Frogs can absorb oxygen The alveoli are surrounded by tiny through their skin – even blood capillaries to underwater. take the oxygen round the body.

Insects such as caterpillars breathe through body openings called spiracles.

Air sacs Your lungs are full of tunnels ending in tiny air sacs called Many sea creatures such as alveoli. Here, oxygen from the sharks breathe through gills. air passes into your blood. Your blood carries oxygen around

every part of your body. About 23,000. About 111 Human body All about skin Skin covers your whole body. It protects you from germs, water, and sunshine, and helps keep your body at the right temperature.

The skin on your eyelids is the thinnest Two layers on your body. Your skin has two main layers. The top one – the one you can see – is called the epidermis. Underneath is the dermis, where there are nerves and blood vessels.

Waterproof seal There are flat cells on the surface of your Skin stops water getting into your skin. These are made body when you have a shower or S from a tough material k called keratin. When the go for a swim. It also stops fluids in cells die, they dry out and escaping from inside you. i flake off. s a Magnified skin flakes so Skin cells lower down rt replace the dead ones o that flake off. f st r e House dust tc Heavy load h Dust is mostly y n Skin is the made of dead o heaviest single o skin. Dust mites v n i e part of your feed on this skin. k r s body. It can c They live in

o t weigh as much beds, pillows, s a e

as a bag of t and carpets. k

. c shopping. i

h Dust mites aren’t t

really this big! They’re e so small you can’t see

h them. 112 T How many dead-skin flakes fall off every day? All about skin

Sweat

Sweat pore

Sweat gland

If you uncurled a sweat gland, it could be over a metre (3 ft) long.

Skin colour The colour of your skin is affected by a substance called melanin. The more melanin you have, the darker you will be. When you are outside in the sun, your body produces extra melanin to protect your skin. This melanin makes your skin darker and you get a suntan. les the so of is on yo dy u bo r ur o f y e e t .

Cooling down When sweat dries on your skin, it helps to cool you down. Sweat comes from Soggy skin coiled tubes under the When you soak in water for a long surface. It gets out time, the top layer of your skin gets through tiny holes

waterlogged and wrinkly. called pores. About ten million. ten About 113 Human body aliv of s a a ts) da in y p . (2

r spit by Saved t i

from glands above tears, which come your eyes. Tears washed away by contain the chemical

1 on your eyes are

lysozyme, which kills

Germs that land t The liquid in your mouth

is called saliva. As well as helping you digest food, saliva protects your mouth, tongue, and teeth from attack by bacteria. bacteria by making Poison tears Poison u

them burst open. o

u o Y Earwax flows flows Earwax out of slowly your ears all the time, flushing out dirt and germs. Sticky business Germs get into your lungs when you breathe in. They get trapped in a sticky liquid called mucus, which lines your airways. Tiny beating hairs continually push the mucus up to your throat be swallowed. Body defences Although you can’t see them, germs are always landing on your body and trying to get inside it. Your body has lots of clever ways of keeping them out.

114 Which is your largest defensive organ? Body defences your stomach make acid, which kills germs you’ve Glands inside Acid attack swallowed. Your digestive system then breaks down the germs along with your food. Yuk! The feeling of disgust protects you from germs. Anything that smells revolting or looks horrible is probably full of germs. Disgust stops you from touching it. Become and digestion an expert Eating 116-117 Eating

110-111 Breathing Slimy guts The inside of your intestines are covered with slimy mucus, which stops germs from getting into your blood. Your large intestine also contains millions of “friendly” bacteria, which prevent other germs from growing. Your skin. Your 115 Human body is energy? Become All 222-223 All living things an expert What 234-235 What

your stomach. . .. in your throat and into Teeth y Tongue d

your food goes down a tube o b r to swallow. When you swallow, u o to break food down and makes it easy Mouth In your mouth, your teeth chop up and chew your food. Your spit helps y h g u o r h t

s l e v a r t

d o o f

r u o Y blood. This is called digestion. Stomach Your stomach is like a stretchy bag that fills with food. Inside, your food is churned up and mixed with stomach juices. They break your food down into a thick soup-like mixture. Eating and digestion Your body needs food to keep it working. But before it can use the food, breaks it into tiny pieces, which seep your This tube diagram is not This tube diagram the same shape as tubes inside your body. This photograph of This photograph part of the stomach taken lining was a microscope. through Why does your stomach rumble? Eating and digestion Intestines blood. Your blood takes the nutrients around your body. through the walls of Next, your food goes into long tubes called You get rid You of waste water and solid waste when you go to the toilet. (goodness) in the food the intestines into your your intestines. It seeps Small intestine This intestine is called your “small” intestine because it is narrow. In fact, it is as long a bus! Stomach Small intestine out as solid waste. Intestine Getting rid of waste Getting rid of waste Any waste food travels into your large intestine. from your small intestine It is stored there until you go to the toilet and push it Large Large intestine in fruit and in wholemeal Your small and Your intestines are large coiled up inside your abdomen. . s in butter and cheese e b Vitamins vegetables keep your body working properly. Fibre bread keeps your digestive system working. Fat gives you energy. Too much fat is bad for you. A meal takes one to A meal takes to pass all days three your through the way system. digestive u t

d n a s e ip p such as of s rie in milk helps se g a Protein ...alon Carbohydrates pasta, rice, and bread give you lots of energy. you to grow and repair your body. Your mouth, Your stomach, and intestines are called your system. digestive

A balanced diet You need to eat a mixture of foods to keep you strong and healthy. This is called a balanced diet. Because of air mixed up with your food. your with up mixed air of Because 117 Human body Making a baby You need a mother and a father to make a baby. The mother’s body does most of the work, but the father also has an important job – his sperm joins with the mother’s egg and a new The first cells After 36 hours, the cell has life begins... divided and made an exact copy of itself. These are the first two cells of a baby.

Eggs are the biggest cells in the human body. But they are still very small – ten would fit across a pinhead.

Sperm are amazing viewed under a microscope. They look like tiny tadpoles. You can see their tails wriggling as they swim.

By the time the baby is born, Sperm race the fertilized cell Millions of sperm swim towards will have become the egg cell. Only one sperm can join with the egg to make a new cell. 100 trillion cells. 118 What is another name for the uterus? Making a baby

Divide again The future you At three days You don’t grow much in Each cell is unique to The cells have carried on the first few days. The two you. Cells are full of dividing. There are now 16 cells cells divide to make four, instructions about what and they are almost ready to then eight, and so on. you will look like. plant themselves in the uterus.

Where it all happens The sperm fertilizes the egg in a tunnel, called a The cells start dividing as they move down the fallopian tube. The fertilized egg moves down fallopian tube towards the the tunnel towards the mother’s uterus. uterus. The journey takes about five days. Millions of sperm from the father travel up here towards the egg.

This is the mother’s ovary. It releases one egg every month.

This is the uterus. It Arriving in the uterus is about the size of a pear and has The ball of cells plants muscular walls. itself in the wall of the uterus. In this warm, dark place the baby will spend the next 40 weeks growing

and developing. The womb. The 119 Human body Amazing facts about YOU! Skeleton Brain and nerves Breathing and bones Your brain is the Lungs take air into Without a body’s control centre. your body so that skeleton to hold Signals zoom to and life-giving oxygen can you up, you’d from the brain enter your blood. collapse on the along your nerves. The inside of your ground like a lungs is as big as a Nerves carry signals third of a tennis court. heap of jelly. at up to 400 kph (250 mph). The fastest recorded Your smallest bone is the sneeze reached 167 kph Your brain is made of stapes in your ear, which (104 mph). is smaller than a rice grain. about 100 billion tiny cells called neurons. In one day you breathe in Weight for weight, bones enough air to fill 33,000 are stronger than steel The left side of your brain drink cans. or concrete. controls the right side of your body and vice versa. A baby has more than 300 bones but adults Skin, nails, and hair have only 206. The human eye can see a candle flame at night from The tough, protective 1.6 km (1 mile) away. surface of your body When you’re bored, the is almost entirely dead. Muscles and pupils in your eyes get movement smaller. Every four years you Muscles move your shed your own body weight in dead skin. body by pulling bones. Heart and blood You use hundreds of You have about 5 million Your heart pumps hairs, but only 100,000 them when you walk. blood around your are on your head. Every hair in your body body. It works nonstop has a tiny muscle that can pull it upright. without getting tired. The thickest skin on your body is on the Your strongest muscle is Your smallest blood soles of your the masseter (jaw muscle), vessels are ten times feet. which closes your mouth. thinner than a hair.

You use more muscles Your body contains when you frown than enough blood vessels to when you smile. circle the world twice. 120 Amazing facts Fighting disease Digestive Urinary system Germs are always trying system Urine gets rid of to get inside you, but Digestion turns chemicals that your your body fights back. food into simple body doesn’t need. chemicals You will make enough Many germs are not that your urine in your lifetime harmful, but some cause to fill 500 baths. illness, and even death. body can make into Bacteria are so small Asparagus can turn your that a thousand could new cells or urine green. Blackberries fit on the head of a pin. use for fuel. can turn it red.

The world’s most common disease is The food you eat in the common cold. a year weighs as Reproduction much as a car. The reproductive organs Cancer happens when your own cells multiply You make enough spit create new people from out of control. in your lifetime to fill two swimming pools. tiny specks of matter.

When you recover from Your digestive glands The most babies born to one an infectious disease, your start working as soon mother was 69. Most were body becomes immune to it. as you smell or see food. twins, triplets, or quads.

Your tongue senses five The first quintuplets tastes: salty, sweet, sour, known to have survived bitter, and savoury. infancy were born in 1934.

The smell of poo comes from a chemical called skatole. Growth As you grow you slowly Each hair on your head grows for about 3 or 4 change into an adult, years and then falls out. A new one grows in but it takes a long time! its place. The fastest-growing part of a baby’s body is its head.

A girl is about three- quarters of her adult height at 7 years old.

A boy is about three- quarters of his adult height at 9 years old. 121 The living world The living world Our amazing world is filled with millions of species, or types, of living thing. They can be as big as an elephant or so small you have to look through Spider a microscope to see them. Dragonfly Micro-organisms Animals Micro-organisms are very The animal kingdom is tiny – they are made up made up of vertebrates of a single cell. This amoeba is (animals with a backbone) magnified more and invertebrates (animals than 100 times. without a backbone).

Mammals, birds, Sunflower reptiles, amphibians, Coral reef and fish are vertebrates.

Deer

122 Which group of animals has the most members? The living world Curiosity quiz Look through The Insects such as living world pages and butterflies are Snake invertebrates. see if you can identify the pictures below. Plants Plants cannot move around like animals. To survive and grow, they have to make their own food. In turn, plants provide food for many animals and fungi.

Signs of life Living things share some characteristics. They all need food and oxygen. They also grow, reproduce, and adapt to their environment.

Fungi Tree frog Fungi (like toadstools, mushrooms, and moulds) are neither plants nor animals, but they’re more like plants than animals.

Fungi

Become an expert 126-127 Types of animals 148-149 How

plants work Invertebrates – they make up 97 per cent of all animal species. animal all of cent per 97 up make they – Invertebrates 123 The living world What is an animal? A key definition of an animal, as opposed to a plant, is that most animals can move voluntarily. Animals must also eat other living things to survive. Let’s take a look at some of the things animals do.

Food is fuel All animals have to find and eat food to survive. Carnivores are animals that Bald eagle eat meat. Herbivores eat mainly plants. Omnivores are creatures that eat Getting around both plants and meat. Many animals have Squirrels eat seeds, muscles, which allow nuts, fruit, and fungi. them to move in a variety of ways.

Flying: birds fly by What a nerve! flapping wings or gliding on currents of hot air. Animals have nerves, which carry Swimming: animals information from their like fish swim by moving sense organs. Most their bodies and fins. animals have Slithering: some snakes brains to wriggle, others raise and monitor this flatten their bodies. information. The nerves also carry Walking and running: orders from the many animals walk and run using legs. brain to the organs and muscles – such as Reaching: sea anemones instructions to stay still, reach out their tentacles attack, or run away! to sting prey.

124 How many species of animal are there on Earth? What is an animal? Do animals talk? Many animals are able to communicate with each other.

Pythons can go without food for months after one BIG meal! Making babies Most animals reproduce when a female egg is fertilized by a male sperm. Some animals give birth to Most beetles will send “messages” to other babies, while others lay eggs. beetles using special chemicals.

Birds lay hard-shelled eggs, which hatch into chicks or ducklings.

Baby birds have to break out of the egg on their own. Honey bees communicate constantly. They give directions with a special dance. Giraffes have seven vertebrae in their neck – the same as most other mammals. They are just much longer. Monkeys scream at each other to

sound an alarm. Nobody knows the exact answer, but about 1.8 million have been identified. been have million 1.8 about but answer, exact the knows Nobody 125 The living world Types of animals There are so many different types, or species, of animals that Lizard scientists put them in groups Tortoise so it’s easier to study them. Mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish are vertebrates. Creepy-crawlies Reptiles Most reptiles have dry, are invertebrates. scaly skin. They mainly live on land. Nearly all reptiles lay eggs, but some give birth to babies.

Mammals Mammals usually have live babies, which feed on their mother’s milk when they’re born. Mammals often have fur on their bodies. Humans Zebra are mammals.

Wolf

Deer fawn

Lion cub Mouse 126 What is the only mammal that can fly? Types of animals Birds Spineless creatures Animals without All birds have wings, backbones are called and most (but not all) invertebrates. There can fly. They have are several types of feathers and a beak. invertebrates. Parrot Baby birds hatch from eggs. Insects, spiders, and crustaceans are part of the largest animal group.

Snails and slugs are part of an invertebrate group called gastropods.

Worms have long, soft bodies and no legs. They like damp areas.

Ostriches can run fast Jellyfish, starfish, and but can’t fly. sponges are invertebrates that live in water. Amphibians Octopus and squid live Amphibians live both in the sea. They have in water and on land. eight arms. They usually have Frog slimy skin. Baby amphibians hatch Butterfly from jelly-like eggs. Salamander

Fish Ladybird Fish need to live in water. They breathe through Insects gills, and most There are more types of insect are covered in on Earth than any other scales. Fish use animal. Insects can live almost anywhere. They have six legs their fins to move and bodies with three sections.

through water. The bat. The 127 The living world The world of mammals Mammals include animals such as the whale, the kangaroo, and you and me! We all have fur, we are warm blooded, and we feed new babies with our milk. Mammal babies Most mammal females give birth to live babies, rather than laying eggs. The baby grows inside

Gorilla the mother’s skeleton body until it is born.

The skeleton Feeding babies Mammals may All female mammals produce look very different, milk from their bodies that but stripped back they feed to their babies; this to the bone we all feeding is called suckling. have the basic bony The milk is rich skeleton. Scientists and helps call us vertebrates the babies – animals with to grow. a backbone. Become an expert 130-131 Marsupials 132-133 Water mammals This baby gorilla is a member of the Within the primate family. mammal group Baby there are many gorilla different families. 128 How many mammal families are there?

129 There are about 4,500 different types of mammal in the world.

of marbles. of are useful for burrowing. for useful are

feet like spades, which which spades, like feet are soft and the size size the and soft are

the mole has has mole the Moles: lay eggs. Platypus eggs eggs Platypus eggs. lay

duck-billed platypus, that that platypus, duck-billed

tails to swim with. swim to tails

few species, including this this including species, few

have flippers and strong strong and flippers have

babies, but there are a a are there but babies, sea mammals mammals sea Dolphins:

animals give birth to live live to birth give animals

it has wings. has it It is usually true that that true usually is It

mammal that can fly – – fly can that mammal

The odd one out one odd The

the bat is the only only the is bat the Bats:

long legs to run with. run to legs long

such as the cat, have have cat, the as such all over its body. its over all

some mammals, mammals, some Cats: Cats:

bear has thick fur fur thick bear has

The polar polar The

suit their lifestyles. their suit

different shapes that that shapes different

Mammals are many many are Mammals

Getting around Getting

bear bear

Polar Polar

on its body. its on

it does have hair hair have does it

not look hairy but but hairy look not

in the snow. the in This elephant may may elephant This

as a polar bear bear polar a as

is the same temperature temperature same the is

An elephant in the hot jungle jungle hot the in elephant An warm.

keep their temperature level. level. temperature their keep keep them them keep Elephant

and cool down their bodies to to bodies their down cool and are hairy to to hairy are

which means they can warm up up warm can they means which bodies. They They bodies.

Mammals are warm blooded, blooded, warm are Mammals all over their their over all

Warm blood Warm called fur, fur, called

hair, often often hair,

others – and most have have most and – others

some are much hairier than than hairier much are some

All mammals are hairy – – hairy are mammals All

Hairy beasts Hairy

blooded and have thick fur. thick have and blooded

regions because they are warm warm are they because regions

Polar bears can live in chilly Arctic Arctic chilly in live can bears Polar The world of mammals of world The The living world More marsupials Marsupials Apart from a few that A marsupial is a mammal live in South America, almost all marsupials with a pocket come from Australasia. called a pouch They vary a lot in looks.

for carrying Dorian’s tree its babies in. kangaroo: this small kangaroo can climb trees. Koala Numbat: this marsupial Koalas look like little bears. has the most teeth of any They live in Australia and mammal. It has 52. are the only animal that eats eucalyptus leaves. They are so Rabbit-eared hard to digest that koalas spend bandicoot: is a 19 hours of the day sleeping burrower with big ears. to let their tummies settle. Little devil The Tasmanian devil is not much bigger than a small dog but is very aggressive. It is the biggest meat- eating marsupial and has When the baby koala such powerful jaws that gets too big for the pouch, it clings to its it can eat an entire mother’s back instead. animal – bones ont legs and all! s fr ar o' e ro ga an A k

Bouncing marsupials Kangaroos cannot walk. Become Instead they have enormous an expert back legs that they use to jump everywhere. They 52-53 Australia can move very fast just 128-129 The world by leaping. of mammals

130 Which are bigger, wallabies or kangaroos? Marsupials

Supermum! Opossums live in the Americas. Unusually for marsupials, the mother has no pouch. Instead her babies cling to her. Sometimes one mother can have up to 20 Opossums are babies at one time! very good tree climbers. This joey is definitely big enough to climb out In the pouch of its pouch. Most marsupials have pouches. When the babies are born, they are as small as beans and wriggle straight into the pouch. They do most of their growing there, instead of in their mother’s tummy.

Little joey Kangaroo and wallaby babies are commonly known as joeys. They spend several months in the mother’s pouch, and even when they are big enough to walk, they sometimes jump back in for safety. used w ot he ce n n un they bo

Their huge tails help to balance them when

they run. Kangaroos look like wallabies, but they are bigger. are they but wallabies, like look Kangaroos 131 The living world Water mammals Not all mammals live on land – some live in water. Unlike fish, however, water mammals have to go to the surface to breathe. Seals Seals, which include sea lions and walruses, have flippers instead of arms and legs, which make them very good at swimming but not good at walking.

Underwater lives Seals spend most of their Sea lions can walk more easily than lives in water, but return other seals because to land to have babies. their flippers are They have a thick layer able to move in several directions. of fat, called blubber, which keeps them warm. Sea lion

Seals are often very playful in the water.

132 What noise do seals make? Water mammals Otters Otters are small mammals that have webbed feet to help them swim. The river otter lives along river banks and spends its day swimming to catch food.

Otters of the sea The sea otter is the smallest sea mammal. Sea cows It has luxurious, thick fur that keeps it very Manatees are often called warm. It rarely comes to land, and even sleeps sea cows because they are in the water. When it nods off, it wraps itself so big and they “graze”, up in kelp plants to stop it from drifting away! like cows, on river-bed plants. They spend all their Walruses use their noses, lives underwater, and like pigs, to root around even give birth there. the sea floor for food, such as crabs or sea urchins. Walruses Walruses are huge sea mammals that have massive, blubbery bodies and very wrinkly skin. They heave themselves out of the water to rest and breed.

In the pink Walruses are normally greyish-brown in colour. But when they sunbathe, they blush pink because their blood rushes Walrus

to the surface of their skin to cool them. Seals bark like dogs! like bark Seals The living world

Birds spend much The world of birds of their time looking after, or preening, their feathers to keep them Only a few animals in the world are in good condition. able to fly – insects, bats, and birds. But none of them is more powerful or skilled than the bird.

Feathers are made up of tiny hair-like Feathered friends barbs that all mesh Birds are the only creatures together. that have feathers. They use them to fly and to keep warm. Some birds use brightly coloured feathers for display.

A rigid “backbone” or quill runs through the centre of the wing feathers to strengthen them for flying.

Feathers Different feathers have different jobs on a bird.

Outer wing: strong feathers to provide power in flight.

Inner wing: Birds’ feet are smooth and flat designed for to help flight. different purposes, such as climbing, clutching berries, Tail feather: long or holding on and thin for steering and to branches. balancing during flight.

Body feather: soft and downy to keep a bird warm. Some have exotic colours. 134 What is the world’s smallest bird? The world of birds Flight

A bird can fly because it has wings and There are two methods a very light skeleton – many of the bones of flying; flapping, like this red-tailed minla, are hollow. Birds have short and and gliding. compact bodies that make them neat fliers too.

Red-tailed minla By flapping its wings up and down, the bird remains in the air.

Travelling birds About one-third of birds spend summer in one place then when the winter sets in they fly thousands of miles to a warmer spot. Often they go to exactly the same places year after year.

Feet Bills Communication All birds have good hearing The shape of birds’ The shape and size of a so they can respond to songs feet vary depending bird’s bill, or beak, can from other members of their on where they live. show what they eat. family. Birds are well known for their tunes, and some, Eagle foot: birds of prey Duck: wide and flat to like this parrot, have sharp talons to kill tear plants and filter and grip animals. food underwater. even speak.

Perching foot: songbirds Woodpecker: long have three toes in front and and hard to chisel into one behind for perching. wood and pick out insects.

Webbed foot: waterfowl Chaffinch: short and have webbed feet to help cone-shaped, ideal for them to paddle on water. cracking seeds.

Ostrich foot: two thick Heron: toes help this flightless long, ideal to stab

bird to run very fast. fish underwater. The smallest bird in the world is the bee hummingbird. bee the is world the in bird smallest The 135 The living world The world of reptiles Reptiles are egg-laying Eating habits animals that have a tough Reptiles are meat eaters, with skin covered in scales. They the exception of tortoises, which move too slowly to live on land and in water. catch fast-moving prey. Reptiles can eat huge Lizards, such as this The reptile groups meals, then gecko, can eat half their go without There are four main food for days. own weight in insects groups of reptiles: in one night.

The tortoise family: Most reptiles, swing their these reptiles all have bodies from a shell over their body. All reptiles side to side shed their when walking. skin from Snakes and lizards: time to time. the majority of reptiles Flying gecko fall into this group. Hot and cold The crocodile family: Reptiles have scales, this group are the giants of the reptile world. which can control how much water they lose Tuataras: these reptiles through their skin. This are very rare and look means they can live in a bit like lizards. dry places. They are cold blooded, however, so rely on the climate to keep their temperature in check.

European eyed lizard

Reptile babies Nearly all reptiles lay eggs, which hatch into miniature versions of their parents. A few, such as this slow worm, however, give birth to live young. This lizard, which lives in the desert, 136 basks on rocks to warm up its body. What is the longest snake in the world? The world of reptiles Tuataras live in Living fossils burrows and hunt at night. They can Tuataras are the only survivors live for 100 years. of a group of reptiles that lived with the dinosaurs millions of years ago. Today they live on a group of islands off New Zealand.

Scaly skin Reptile relatives A reptile’s skin is covered The reptiles of today are with scales made of the last living relatives of keratin, like your nails. dinosaurs and look very similar to their ancient Tortoise: the shell ancestors. You can see of a tortoise has lots of similarities between the large, hard scales on it. Tyrannosaurus rex and Lizard: Lizards’ scales this lizard. have stretchy skin between them. Tyrannosaurus rex Crocodile: these scales are strengthened in between by bony plates.

Snake: the skin on snakes has overlapping scales for extra protection. Become an expert Collared 138-139 The world lizard of amphibians 144-145 The world

of fish The reticulated python can reach lengths of 10 m (33 ft). (33 m 10 of lengths reach can python reticulated The 137 The living world The world of amphibians Amphibians are different Amphibian family from reptiles in that they There are three groups have smooth skin with no in the amphibian family. scales. They are born in Frogs and toads: these amphibians have no tail water then live on land and big back legs.

or in water when Newts and salamanders: Fire these lizard-shaped animals salamander they grow up. live on land or in water. Amazing skin Caecilians: these worm-like creatures Most adult amphibians, such as this have no legs. salamander, can breathe through their skin as well as their lungs.

In order for the skin to Frog breathe it has to be kept moist, which is why most amphibians like to live near water. s Some frog live in water...

Become an expert 142-143 The world of non-insects Colourful creatures 144-145 The world Many amphibians are incredibly of fish colourful creatures. Some are spotted, others are striped and some are just very bright. 138 What is the world’s most poisonous frog? The world of amphibians A choice of home Frogs and toads can live both on land and in water. Some even live in trees.

Land frogs tend to Water living be more rounded in shape than Some salamanders water frogs. spend the whole of their lives underwater. This cave salamander does not have any lungs; it breathes through its skin only. It is almost completely blind.

he t in e v s! li e o e t tr r ll fe a re t s p of rog s er f top ...oth Caecilians Legless caecilians are rarely seen by humans because they live either under water or under ground. They have a pointed head, which they use as a shovel.

If an animal is poisonous like this tomato frog, it is often a very bright colour that warns predators.

Common Travelling parents newt Each spring salamanders, newts, frogs, and toads lay their eggs in ponds or streams. Some travel

5 km (3 miles) to get there. The most poisonous frog is the bright-yellow poison-dart frog. poison-dart bright-yellow the is frog poisonous most The 139 The living world The world of insects

A huge majority of creepy crawlies are Remember, insects have insects. In fact there are more types of 3 + 3. Three pairs of legs and three insect in the world than any other body parts. animal. They are absolutely

everywhere. Some are almost too small Most insects have two pairs to see and others are surprisingly large. of wings. Beetle

When a pile What is an insect? of dung You can tell if a creepy appears in Africa, dung crawly is an insect because beetles are on insects always have six the scene in legs. They also have three minutes. body parts – a head, a The beetles roll thorax, and an abdomen. perfect balls of dung in which they lay a single egg. When the egg hatches, the larva eats the dung.

Nature’s recycling service Although many people dislike insects and they can be pests, they are also essential to our world. In fact we could not live without them. For instance, these dung beetles do a very good job cleaning Dung up dung. beetles

140 Apart from honey, what else does a bee produce that we can use? The world of insects Useful insects Pest control Here are some other Sometimes insects, such as ways that insects aphids, eat huge amounts of are useful to us. our crops. The best way to get

Red food dye: this food rid of them is to introduce colouring is made from another insect that likes the bodies of scale insects. to eat them. Ladybirds Silk: believe it or not, the are often used for silk you wear is made by silk-moth caterpillars! aphid pest control. Aphid Honey: if there were Introducing insects that no bees in the world, eat other insects is called we would have no honey. biological pest control.

Food: to some people, such as the Australian aborigines, grubs are a meal. Ladybird

As old as an insect Aphids We know that breed so quickly that it insects were around is difficult to 40 million years ago control them. because some were trapped in a tree resin called amber, which Become hardened back then an expert and preserved them. 142-143 The world of non-insects 152-153 Micro

life

and their poison is used as medicine. as used is poison their and Bees produce wax wax produce Bees 141 The living world The world of non-insects There are many creepy crawlies scuttling around our planet that are not insects. Some live on land, others live in fresh water or the sea. They come in all sorts of weird and wonderful shapes.

The worm family Arachnids Segmented worms like earthworms are simple Spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites belong animals that have a to a land-dwelling family called arachnids. head at one end, a tail All arachnids have eight legs and two at the other, and lots of body parts. segmented body parts Tarantula in between. They live on land or in water.

Despite their reputation, most spiders are harmless to humans.

A tarantula has hairs on its legs that can cause bad irritation. When the spider is annoyed, it flicks them out at the enemy.

142 How big can spiders grow? The world of non-insects Odd sea creatures Molluscs Slugs, snails, squids, Snail The sea contains some and oysters, are very strange animals molluscs. Some live indeed. Here are a few: on land and some live in water.

Sponge: these animals were once thought to be plants.

Starfish: most starfish have five arms to crawl Snails are across the sea floor. found on land and in the sea. Anemone: these The octopus, which is also flower-like sea animals a mollusc, is a have no brains. very intelligent creature. Centipede

Centipedes have Centipede one pair of legs on each segment and Millipede millipedes have Centipedes and millipedes two pairs on each. If you try counting the legs on an insect and you find there are too Crustaceans many, the chances are you have Most crustaceans, such as lobsters, crabs, and found a centipede or millipede. shrimps, live in water. Only the woodlouse They have lots and lots of legs. lives on land. They often have a shell and their eyes are on stalks.

Lobster Some spiders can grow as big as dinner plates! dinner as big as grow can spiders Some 143 The living world Types of fish The world of fish There are over 24,000 types of fish, which Fish have been around for 400 million fall into three groups. years! They live in seas, rivers, and Bony fish: 95% of the fish lakes. Wherever you find water, in the world are bony fish you can bet there are plenty with hard skeletons. Cartilaginous fish: rays, of fish swimming around. skates, and sharks make up this group. Pyjama cardinalfish Jawless fish: only hagfish and lampreys Bony fish have a skeleton with fall into this small group. a skull, ribs, and a backbone. Fish skin, made up of scales, is The gills lie slimy to let them behind the eyes. slip through water easily.

Fish have fins Gills that keep them upright when Like other they swim. The tail of a fish sweeps animals, fish from side to side to push the fish forwards. need to take in oxygen in order to live. But, unlike us, they can breathe underwater using

Mudskipper their gills. Fish gulp in water and their gills filter the oxygen out of it.

Fish out of water Mudskippers are one of the only fish that can survive out of water. They have special gills that take oxygen from air or water. They skip along mudflats using their fins as elbows. 144 Which fish is the slowcoach of the sea? The world of fish The art of swimming Many fish swim like snakes slide – they wriggle in an ‘s’ shape. Their whole bodies move from side to side and their tails flick to push them forwards. Their fins help to Scales steer them. Most fish are covered in hundreds of scales that overlap like roof tiles. Tiny animals can get under the scales and harm them, so fish let other creatures give them a regular clean. Some fish can turn on their sides Mandarin Colours can and roll right over. fish be used for A few can even camouflage swim upside-down! or to attract a mate.

Colour Fish come in all colours and patterns. Carp Freshwater fish and those living in cooler waters tend to be duller in colour. Tropical fish are sometimes incredibly bright and beautiful.

Eels are found in fresh water Living together and sea water. Fish sometimes swim in huge groups called schools. When so many swim together they look like one big fish so they are less Fishy features likely to be attacked. Most fish look like the pyjama cardinalfish on the left. Some however have a different appearance. This eel looks more like a snake with fins.

Unlike a snake it has sharp teeth. The seahorse is the slowest fish that lives in the sea. the in lives that fish slowest the is seahorse The 145 The living world What is a plant? Plants make their own food from the Sun’s rays. Most have leaves that reach outwards to capture sunlight, and roots that dig deep for nutrients Seaweed and stability. Seaweed looks like a plant, but is an algae. Plant parts It doesn’t have roots, so it has to stick to rocks There are loads of different or float with the tide. plants, but most are made of the same vital parts – The petals attract insects and birds roots, stems, leaves, that collect pollen.

and flowers. The stamen and carpels form the Stems reproductive organs Stems support the leaves of a plant. and flowers and allow Flowers water and food to flow Flowers are key to plant from the roots to the leaves. reproduction. They make pollen and develop seeds and fruit. Roots Leaves These are the foundations These are the work factories of the plant. They dig of the plant and capture the deep into the dirt giving Sun’s energy. stability, as well as sucking up nutrients. or w ird hat We ?

The Venus flytrap doesn’t Water lily just get its energy from The water lily’s flat leaves the Sun. It also lures and float on the pond surface, feeds on unsuspecting as its roots sink into the insects. Yum! pond bed.

146 What plant has the largest leaves? What is a plant? Types of plants Have a look around you. Not all plants are the same. But some plants are more similar than others.

Fern leaves unfurl Most conifer as they grow. trees keep their Ferns leaves all year round. Ferns love damp and shady areas. They have prong-like leaves and spread using spores.

The sequoia is the largest tree Moss Conifers in the world. Mosses love Conifer trees grow cones moisture and grow that store their seeds. in clumps. They Most conifers have don’t have roots needle-shaped leaves. or grow flowers. There are about You can 12,000 species of moss. identify a tree by the shape Flowering plants of its leaves. This is the biggest group of plants.

They produce flowers, fruits and Maple leaf

seeds, which mainly grow in Ash leaf seasonal cycles. Scarlet Rainforest oak leaf These warm and wet forests are home to nearly half the world’s plant species.

Deciduous Deciduous plants

shed their leaves Ash leaf to save food and

survive drier seasons. The raffia palm has leaves that grow up to 24 metres (79 feet) long. feet) (79 metres 24 to up grow that leaves has palm raffia The 147 The living world

The Sun’s energy is trapped in the How plants work leaves, and helps make food. Plants have an amazing system for making and transporting Cross-section through a food to all their leaf vein different parts. Photosynthesis The green pigment chlorophyll traps sunlight in the leaves. The Sun’s energy is then used

to change water and Food is moved from leaves to roots and growing tips, carbon dioxide into sugar. along a set of tubes called A waste product of phloem vessels. photosynthesis is oxygen, which animals need to survive. Some water evaporates through tiny holes called stomata in the surface of the leaf. This process is called transpiration.

Tiny tubes called xylem vessels carry water up the stem from the roots to the leaves.

Cross-section through a Veins carry water stem around the leaf.

. d n ou gr e Ro th ots s m uck water up fro 148 Are plants the only organism to use photosynthesis? How plants work New growth Plants use sugar and starch Desert plants as fuel. The fuel is transported Plants that live in dry to cells where it is burnt to areas such as deserts have release energy, which is used to save their water. Many to grow new cells and repair have leaves that are thick old ones. and covered in wax to stop transpiration. Cacti have spines rather than leaves Wilting leaves and thick stems in which On warm, sunny days, plants they can store water. lose lots of water from their leaves. If they lose too much their leaves collapse. This is called wilting. If plants don’t get enough water their leaves will shrivel and die.

Fruit acts as a store of sugar and water.

Storing food Spare food is stored for future use. Plants such as hyacinths store food in the base of their leaves. This makes the leaves Carrot plants Bulb swell and form a bulb. The store food in bulb survives the winter and their roots. in spring it sprouts new leaves.

Hands on

Place a stem of celery in a glass of water coloured with a few drops of food colouring. After two hours, cut across the stem. You will see tiny dots of colour showing the tubes

that carry the water. No, many bacteria also make food by photosynthesis. by food make also bacteria many No, 149 The living world Fungi Bread mould Mushrooms, toadstools, yeasts, and moulds are all kinds of fungi. Fungi are neither animals nor plants. They

feed on living or dead animals or Warm, moist bread plants, and absorb their nutrients. Moulds Moulds are microscopic fungi Mushrooms which grow in long strands called “hyphae”. They feed Many fungi are hidden in the on dead organic matter – like Gills soil, or inside food sources like our food – by making it rot. trees. They only become Stem visible when they grow mushrooms. Mushrooms scatter spores, which will grow into new fungi. The gills release spores into the air. Athlete’s foot Picking wild mushrooms Athlete’s foot is a disease Many wild mushrooms are not only edible, but caused by ringworm fungi delicious. However others are highly poisonous! growing on human feet. It

Harmful mushrooms are often called toadstools. Fly agaric makes the skin between your They sometimes use bright colours to warn mushroom toes turn red and flaky. animals not to eat them.

Wood blewit mushroom

Jelly antler fungus

Penny bun mushroom

150 How big is the world’s largest fungus? Fungi Penicillin In 1928, Sir Alexander Penicillin on Fleming made an important a petri dish discovery. He realised that the mould Penicillium notatum makes a chemical that kills bacteria. That chemical, called penicillin, is The bacteria have retreated used today as a medicine to from the treat many illnesses. penicillin, leaving a clear ring. Sir Alexander Fleming (1881–1955) Uses of fungi Truffles Fungi have many uses in Truffles are strong- the home and in industry. smelling fungi that grow underground. They are a Medicine: Fungi can be delicacy used in cookery. used to cure many diseases that were once fatal. Truffle hunters use pigs and dogs to sniff them out. Wine: Yeast turns grape White truffle juice into wine by changing sugar into alcohol. Yeast Yeast are microscopic, Cheese: Blue cheeses are single-celled fungi. When made with a mould called Penicillium roquefortii. they feed, they turn sugar into carbon-dioxide gas Soy sauce: This is made by and alcohol. Yeast plays adding fungi and yeast to an important part in soy beans and roasted wheat. Black bread-making. As it releases perigord Pesticide: Fungi can be an truffle gas, it makes bread rise. environmentally friendly way of killing insects or Shaggy parasol weeds. mushroom Shaggy cap Common mushroom chantarelle Chicken of the

mushroom woods fungus A mushroom under the Malheur National Forest, USA, covers 8.9 square kilometres. square 8.9 covers USA, Forest, National Malheur the under mushroom A 151 The living world Micro life Petri dish Most living things are made up of just one cell,

and are too small to see. Each spot on this petri dish is To study them we must a colony made up of thousands use powerful microscopes. of bacteria.

Bacteria

Bacteria are single-celled Whip-like structures push the bacterium life forms. They are found along. They spin BBacteriala colonies in the ocean, in the air, and round like screws. even in our bodies. They can reproduce very quickly by Model of a bacterium splitting in two. Some bacteria

can make energy from ThinThThi hairs attach ththee bacterium to sunlight. However, most feed a surface. on dead plants and animals.

Harmful bacteria The cell is full of a Some bacteria can cause jelly-like substance that helps it to serious illnesses such as work and grow. cholera and tetanus. Good TheTThhe bacterium’s DNDNA code is held sanitation and antibiotic in the nucleus. drugs help fight diseases caused by harmful bacteria. The cell wallll holdshhooldlds the bacteriumum together andd protects it.

Good bacteria Some bacteria are helpful to humans. Bacteria in our guts protect us from

Bacteria may be shaped like illnesses. Other bacteria are rods, spirals, or spheres. used to make foods such as yoghurt and cheese. 152 How many copies can a single bacterium make of itself in 24 hours? Micro life Protective Model of a virus prpproteinro coat Viruses Viruses are many times smaller than bacteria. They are shaped like spheres or rods. Viruses are not really alive, because they are not made of cells. They only become active when they invade a cell. They copy themselves by taking over the cell and turning it into a virus factory.

Plant viruses Plant viruses can change the way DNADN or that plants develop. For example, RNRNA strand one virus affects the pigment in tulips’ petals. It stops the pigment from working in Vaccinations some places. This Vaccinations can help to makes the petals protect people from harmful look stripey. diseases. A person is injected with a weakened form of a A virus has made virus or bacterium. This helps light patches the immune system defend appear on itself against the real thing. these leaves.

The streaked patterns on this tulip are caused Harmful viruses by a virus. Viruses can cause different illnesses. Protists Chickenpox is easy to Protists are another catch. The main symptom kind of single-celled is spots that itch. life form. They are very varied. Some Rabies is a fatal virus protists are similar that is common in animals to fungi, animals, or such as dogs. plants. Some protists Colds are viruses and can group together into bring on a sore throat, colonies.

runny nose, and cough. It can make 4,000 million million million copies. million million million 4,000 make can It 153 The living world Food chains Everything in the living world needs food to survive. And everything must feed on something else. This is

called a food chain. Decomposers Each species is At the start and end part of several of every food chain there are decomposers, different food such as earthworms, chains. fungi, and dung beetles. They help break down dead animals and plants, releasing the nutrients back into the soil.

Producers Plants such as acacia trees or grasses get their energy from the Sun and nutrients from the soil. They are known as producers.

Herbivores Herbivores such as impala or zebra eat the plants. They do not eat meat.

154 What carnivorous plant can catch and eat mice and rats? Food chains Scavengers Sea food Dead meat, known as carrion, The further you go up the is eaten by scavengers such chain, the fewer animals there as hyenas, vultures, and bald are. So in the sea, there are eagles. These creatures rarely countless plankton, fewer fish, kill for food – they find animals just a few seals, and even that have already died and fewer polar bears. eat other animals’ leftovers.

Carnivores Polar bear Carnivores only eat meat. On the African plains, carnivores include lions, leopards, and cheetahs.

Seal

Fish

Zooplankton

Phytoplankton Some species of pitcher plant found in the Philippines. the in found plant pitcher of species Some 155 Ecosystems and habitats Ecosystems All over the world, living things exist in distinct kinds of places called ecosystems. Each has its own climate, soil, and complex community of plants and animals. Oceans and deserts have their own ecosystems. Natural variety There are different ecosystems all over the world, and the animals and plants in each one are adapted to its conditions.

Forests Wherever there is enough rain, forests grow, and they provide homes for a huge range of plants and animals.

Oceans Homes sweet homes More than 70 per cent of the One ecosystem contains a Earth’s surface is covered by number of habitats. A habitat is ocean, which contains many the natural home of a particular different habitats. plant or animal. A tree, or even a leaf, can be Rivers and lakes a habitat. Freshwater ecosystems exist in pools, lakes, rivers, and streams. They are found over most of the world’s land surface.

Polar and tundra Trees offer shelter for The freezing polar lands are at the animals, and food in far north and south of Earth, in the the form of leaves and berries. Arctic and Antarctic. At the edges farthest away from the poles, they merge into warmer tundra areas. 156 Are there any types of forest ecosystems other than tropical rainforests? Ecosystems Mountains Curiosity quiz Climate conditions change as you go up a mountain, Look through the so different ecosystems can Ecosystems and habitats exist here. pages and see if you can find the pictures below. Seashores Seashore ecosystems are half land and half sea. They change as the tide comes in and out.

Grasslands Humans evolved in grassland habitats, and today, the largest and fastest land animals live here.

Deserts They can be hot or cold, but deserts are always dry, with little rain. Only a few animals and plants survive here.

Living together A group of living things Ferns grow and absorb nutrients in a habitat is called a from the soil. community. Each one contains plants, animals, and other organisms that all rely on each other.

Snails feed on the leaves of plants, and provide food for other animals. Become an expert 154-155 Food Frogspawn Rotting leaves Frogs, which chains hatches into and wood are eat insects, 222-223 tadpoles. Some home to fungi live both on All living of these are and small land and in things eaten by other animals, such as the water.

water creatures. beetles and slugs. Yes, deciduous woodlands and cold coniferous forests. coniferous cold and woodlands deciduous Yes, 157 Ecosystems and habitats Polar regions Polar regions are often dark, blasted by freezing winds, and they receive little rain. Only the toughest can survive.

Polar bears have thick blubber under their skin to help keep Let’s stay warm the cold out. Penguins huddle together to stay warm. The adults Polar bear and chicks on the outside of the huddle aren’t so well protected from the cold, so they take turns standing in the middle. Polar giants Large animals lose heat more slowly than small ones, so many Arctic animals are big. A male polar bear can be 2.5 m (8 ft) long

and weigh 800 kg (0.8 ton). To survive blizzards, musk oxen simply sit down and wait, using Although their fur is as little energy as possible. white, polar bears have black skin.

A walking coat Musk oxen may look like cattle, but they are The musk ox looks like a small, shaggy-haired buffalo. actually goats! Its coat, said to be eight times warmer than sheep’s wool, is made of coarse hairs as long as your arm. 158 What is the world’s largest bear? Polar regions One big cover up Many polar animals have thick coats. The snowy owl has feathers on its body that grow long enough to cover its legs and its bill.

Snowy owl A fine fur coat The Arctic fox’s luxurious fur even covers the soles of its feet. This fox is dark in the summer, and white in the winter. In the summer it is very busy, collecting and storing food for the winter. Cushion growth It’s not just animals that need to wrap up warm – plants do too. Purple saxifrage has lots of tiny, overlapping leaves that completely cover the short stems.

The snowy owl’s talons Purple saxifrage is one of the first Arctic plants are perfectly shaped for to flower when the snow melts in June. gripping a lemming. P olar dark regions are Become for ut half the year, b an expert many vive. 8-9 The Arctic animals sur 56-57 Antarctica 170-171 Desert Lemmings cope with the cold by staying in regions tunnels below the snow, where they hunt for plant roots to nibble. If they emerge, they may

well be caught by a passing snowy owl. The polar bear. polar The 159 Ecosystems and habitats Deciduous forests Deciduous trees lose their leaves in winter. These trees need weather patterns that are neither too hot nor too cold, and with seasons.

Layer on layer Deciduous forests have two or three layers: a canopy (treetops), sometimes a layer of shrubs, and then the low- lying plants such as mosses, ferns, and spring flowers.

If conditions are Springing to life right, mosses will grow on the A forest appears to sleep north side of a forest tree. in winter, but in spring it bursts into life. Buds open and ferns spread out to soak up the light.

Land of plenty A forest floor is littered with dead leaves and wood, and there are often plenty of nuts and berries – it’s a perfect hunting ground for squirrels.

The grey squirrel will collect and store acorns and other seeds.

160 Why do squirrels have bushy tails? Deciduous forests Links in a chain Autumn colours Food chains connect a In the growing season, deciduous leaves species with what it eats. appear green because of a chemical called Leaves act like solar panels to gather sunlight chlorophyll. In autumn, to make food. the leaves turn yellow, brown, or red as the Caterpillars – and many chlorophyll is destroyed. other insects – chew on leaves. That’s their food. Woodpeckers have thick skulls to protect against the shock as they Birds hunt caterpillars, hammer into wood. especially in spring when Maple leaf they have chicks to feed.

Foxes prey on birds, small mammals, and A leaf is a tree's food Woodpecker other creatures. factory. In autumn, it begins to shut down. Making an entrance Woodpeckers use their beaks to dig out grubs and to make nest holes. They have amazingly long tongues to probe and seek out insects.

Trees as homes Woodpeckers take two to three When mature, weeks to dig out a nest hole, a fern bud unrolls and into which the female lays the leaflets several eggs. The hole is

open out. usually in a dead tree. A squirrel’s tail helps it to balance as it leaps from tree to tree. to tree from leaps it as balance to it helps tail squirrel’s A Ecosystems and habitats Bursting with life Rainforests Tropical rainforests cover just 7% of Earth’s Tropical rainforests are rich land, yet contain over habitats for a huge variety of half of the world’s species.

Parakeet plants and animals. Enter a hot, Beetles One scientist found damp, and shady world. 18,000 species of beetles in one small area of rainforest. Time for the umbrella A rainforest is warm and sticky, with Trees A football pitch- sized patch of rainforest frequent downpours. The trees take up may contain 300 trees. much of the rain, but water vapour soon evaporates from their leaves, Queen Alexandra Orchids New orchids filling the air with moisture. birdwing butterfly are continually being (female) discovered in rainforests.

Birds The Amazon alone contains a third of Earth’s 9,000 known bird species.

Orang-utan

Slipper orchid 162 Where do most of a rainforest’s animals live? Rainforests Emergents are the Who lives there? high tree tops that Rainforest layers poke out above All sorts of everything else. A rainforest is like animals make a block of the rainforest The canopy is flats, with their home. made up from the majority of different the tree tops. It is a forest’s residents at leaky roof. different layers. The understorey is made up of There are four short trees, shade-loving main levels. plants, and lianas. Bushbaby The forest floor is a thick carpet of dead leaves, ferns, and the buttresses of tree roots. Bushbabies venture out at night. Their Cloud forest huge eyes help them In mountainous see in the dark. areas, rainforests may be so high that These frogs eat poisonous insects, then store the Blue poison they’re cloaked in poison in their skin. dart frog Their colourful patterns clouds. The heavy let other animals moisture encourages know that they are lush plant growth. dangerous to eat.

Eastern Yellow-banded rosella poison dart frog

Moth orchid

Constrictors Become don’t have fangs an expert or poison, so they kill prey 156-157 Ecosystems by squeezing 160-161 Deciduous it to death. forest

Boa constrictor Most of a rainforest’s animals (excluding worms in the leaf litter) live in the canopy. the in live litter) leaf the in worms (excluding animals rainforest’s a of Most 163 Ecosystems and habitats

Grass is A sea of grass resistant to being trampled Most plants grow from the top, but by hooves. grass grows from the bottom. This

means it can grow back if it’s eaten, Grass or if it is flattened by being trampled. clump

Grass shedding seed The cycle of life Grass seed Tropical grasslands have wet and dry Grass plants use the seasons. In the dry season, the grass wind to spread their turns straw-coloured and dies. With the pollen (the fine dust rainy season, it springs back to life. that passes from male flowers to female flowers) and their seeds.

In summer, clouds of grass pollen give some people hay fever.

Cheetah

164 How old are the baobab trees in Africa? A sea of grass The grass we eat Spring flowers Grass doesn’t just provide While tropical food for animals, it grasslands burst provides food for us. In into life in the fact, most people’s main rainy season, northern grasslands food comes from grasses. burst to life in the spring. The fields Sugar is produced from sugar cane, a giant often contain tropical grass. colourful flowers. Texas bluebonnet Maize is used for all Goosegrass seed sorts of food products, including tortillas. Grass attack Wheat is used for flour Walk through grass and to make bread and cakes, and for pasta. you may find seeds clinging to your clothes. Rice is a major food in Asia, and is eaten around Some seeds cling on the world. with tiny hooks that

Rye is mixed with wheat work like Velcro. to make a heavy flour Grassland trees often that is used for bread. Giraffe have flat bottoms, where animals have grazed. Acacia tree

Baobab trees In Africa, the baobab tree survives the blistering heat of the dry season by swelling and storing water

in its trunk. Some of them have been growing there for 3,000 years. 3,000 for there growing been have them of Some 165 Ecosystems and habitats Weeds and wildflowers Life in a meadow Wildflowers are pretty, In summer, a healthy grass meadow is but some spread so rapidly they can be like a jungle in miniature. It is packed troublesome to farmers. with different plants and animals.

Ragwort is immensely Hidden away poisonous to horses, ponies, A meadow may be donkeys, and cattle. inhabited by moles – almost blind Thistle fruits have parachutes. The seeds may creatures that be carried far and wide. remain below the ground. Daisies hug the ground and do well in short grass. European – such as on a lawn. mole Under the surface Cowslip is found in clearings and at the edge of woodland Moles are capable miners, tunnelling as well as in meadows. long passages through the soil and Musk mallow produces producing tell-tale mounds of earth. pretty flowers from June Campion to September. flower Lady’s bedstraw produces tiny, star- Watch out! shaped flowers. Crab spiders are Field scabious can powerful enough produce some 2,000 seeds to catch bees and per plant. butterflies. They hide among the flowers, Clover is useful to farmers pouncing when prey comes close. as it helps fertilize the soil. Crab It is part of the pea family. spider nd s o Dandelion heads are full Ha n of tiny petals, each of Make yourself which turns into a seed. a miniature meadow Wood cranesbill is a inside a jar. Sprinkle a few woodland flower, but seeds onto damp soil. Put the jar grows in hay meadows. on a windowsill, keep it watered, and watch as Buttercup flowers produce the seeds grow. 30 seeds, so a large plant may have 22,000 seeds. 166 How long can a slow worm live: one, five, or 50 years? Dandelion Life in a meadow seeds From flower to seed Dandelions are frequently seen in meadows, as they have a way of spreading their seeds The flower is ready that is incredibly successful. to be pollinated by an insect. Each seed has a parachute, to carry it far away.

A breeze lifts the parachutes. They may travel far.

The petals have died and the parachutes are forming. Bubble blower Harvest Froghopper nymphs create damp Tiny monkeys mouse bubbles of sticky fluid to stop Harvest mice climb through themselves from drying out. the stems as ably as A harvest mouse The bubble also protects the weighs no more nymphs from being eaten. monkeys climb through than a teaspoonful of sugar. trees. They build tennis ball-sized nests.

Slow but steady The slow worm is not actually a worm – it’s a type There are many different types of of lizard, but it has no legs! snails and a meadow This one is hunting for a is a good place to find a selection. tasty worm or a snail.

Slow

worm It can live for more than 50 years. 50 than more for live can It Ecosystems and habitats At the water hole Meet my companion During the dry season in the Large animals often appear at a water hole savanna, the only reliable place to with accompanying find water is at a water hole. It can oxpeckers. These birds help the animal keep be a busy place. insects at bay, picking off ticks and leeches. That’s better! When a warthog takes a bath, it ends up dirtier than ever. The mud helps it to cool down and may Impala As well as insect help get rid of fleas control, oxpeckers and other nasty clean up any wounds the host insects that infect the animal may have. animal’s skin.

Red-billed oxpecker

Guinea fowl

Why are water holes such busy places? At the water hole

Water birds Birds are often seen wading in waterholes, looking for fish and frogs. There are many different types, and a few are shown here.

Yellow-billed storks stir Saddle-billed storks are the water with a foot to the largest storks, with a disturb fish and frogs. wingspan of 2.7 m (9 ft). Stuck in the mud Crowned cranes are Wattled cranes surround the only cranes able their large nests with Some water holes dry up in to perch in trees. moat-like water channels. the dry season. The African lungfish buries itself in a sticky A never-ending thirst bag of slime and hibernates until the rains come back. Animals visit a water hole frequently, especially elephants. Elephants have er hole is wat a co to drink about 200 litres A ol place. (53 gallons) a day.

African elephant

Impala

Become an expert 154-155 Food chains 164-165 A sea

of grass In the dry season, a water hole may provide the only water for miles around. miles for water only the provide may hole water a season, dry the In 169 Ecosystems and habitats

Desert regions Sahara Gobi Desert Desert

Deserts are Earth’s driest places, Sonoran Desert with hardly any rainfall. Many Atacama Desert Kalahari Great Sandy of them are boiling hot – but Desert Desert deserts can also be very cold Antarctica places, such as Antarctica. Deserts of the world Weird weather A quarter of our world is made During the day, many up of hot deserts, the biggest deserts are scorchingly hot. At one being the Sahara Desert night, they can get incredibly cold. They often have huge in northern Africa. sandstorms – or snow storms.

Grey-banded king snake

Animals survivors Few plants can survive in the desert and so many animals are meat eaters. Many deserts are also so hot that a large number of animals retreat underground during the day, hunting at night. How tall is the tallest cactus on record? Desert regions

Desert records Coldest desert: Animal survivors Antarctica is the coldest Hot and cold deserts (and driest) desert. Desert animals have had are full of extremes, to develop ways to keep Hottest desert: the cool and watered. so they hold quite a Sahara Desert is the few impressive records. hottest in the world. Tiger salamander Rainfall: a desert must Biggest hot desert: have less than 2.5 cm the Sahara Desert covers (10 in) of rain per year. one third of Africa.

Driest hot desert: Some cacti have is the Atacama Desert spines instead in South America. of leaves, some have hairs. Spines protect the cactus from being eaten Night hunters by animals. During the day, salamanders hide Cactus in deep underground burrows. They come out at night and feed on worms, insects, or other salamanders.

A camel’s hump contains fat that con be broken down to releases water.

Camel

Big thirst A camel can survive Plant survivors for about three weeks It is very difficult without water. When for plants to survive it does drink, it without much rainfall. can take in a The cactus is a clever plant huge amount. because it collects water when it

rains and stores it for dry periods.

to 20 m (63 ft) in the Sonoran Desert. Sonoran the in ft) (63 m 20 to One Cardon cactus grew grew cactus Cardon One 171 Ecosystems and habitats Become an expert Life in thin air 156-157 Ecosystems 160-161 Deciduous Walk up a mountain and you’ll find that forests 166-167 Life in the habitat begins to change the higher you a meadow go. It also gets harder to breathe. Mountain zones Alpine zone In cool parts of the world, A temperate mountain mountain peaks have a (a mountain in a cool permanent coating of snow. part of the world) has Nothing grows at this height. distinct zones, each with its own wildlife. Alpine meadows In the spring, as the snow begins to melt, lush meadows A rare sight come alive with flowers. This There are thought to be fewer zone is above the treeline. than 380 wild mountain gorillas. Although they look fearsome, gorillas are peaceful Conifer trees vegetarians. Conifers are adapted to surviving extreme cold. Even Mountain their shape protects against gorilla the weight of the snow.

Deciduous trees Below the conifer trees, where the air gets a little warmer, grow the deciduous trees.

Alpine marmot Time to wake up! Mountain meadows are covered with snow in winter. Some animals, like marmots, survive this period by hibernating in burrows.

172 What is the meaning of the word “alpine”? Life in thin air

Rock gardens Gelada baboons Who needs a tree! When the snow melts Some monkeys prefer in spring, the grassy cliffs to trees! Gelada meadows on high baboons actually sleep mountains are ablaze on cliffs, perched on the with flowers. narrowest ledges.

Mountain daisy These bloom in their thousands across alpine meadows. Ibex Rock spiraea Creamy- white flowers form dense mats over rocky areas.

Thyme Low, thick clumps of miniature thyme make a colourful appearance.

Saxifrage There are many different colours of this hardy plant. This is my home Edelweiss In many Ibex are goats. They places, this plant is now can scramble up the protected: you can’t pick it. steepest slopes and leap Alpine snowbell Tiny bell- about without losing shaped flowers push their their footing. way up in early spring.

Alpine chough

Life in thin air Mountain air is so thin that mountaineers need oxygen tanks, but birds like the chough have no problem breathing it. A chough once accompanied a climbing expedition to the summit

of Mount Everest. Above the treeline and below permanent snow. permanent below and treeline the Above 173 Ecosystems and habitats Cool caves A large cave will take thousands of years to form. From insects to bats, many animals find a cave a good place to live. Stalactite A dripping start Caves are often damp, if not wet. Stalactites form drip by drip as minerals

are deposited by water A stalactite dripping from the roof. forms from the roof down.

Long-eared bat I hear you! Many bats have poor sight, but incredibly good hearing. They hunt by making squeaks and clicks that bounce off prey, telling the bat the prey’s location.

bbed sk Cave We in f spider Feel the way or fl ig Like bats, cave spiders cannot see well. h To compensate, they have a strongly t. developed sense of touch to help them move around – and catch prey.

What’s the name for a person that lives only in caves?

A troglodyte.

Cockroach

they thrive. they

of the habitats in which which in habitats the of

320 million years. Caves are just one one just are Caves years. million 320

racer

Red-tailed Red-tailed having inhabited Earth for more than than more for Earth inhabited having

successful of all living things, things, living all of successful

Cockroaches are among the most most the among are Cockroaches

A success story success A

glide over rocks. over glide

slightly flat belly helps it to to it helps belly flat slightly

winter hibernation. winter

bats, and lizards to eat. Its Its eat. to lizards and bats,

this bat to choose for its its for choose to bat this knows there are tasty frogs, frogs, tasty are there knows

will slip into caves because it it because caves into slip will an ideal place for for place ideal an

This south-east Asian snake snake Asian south-east This A cool cave is is cave cool A

Hunting for a snack a for Hunting Natterer’s bat Natterer’s

Sleep time Sleep

protection from the Sun’s rays. Sun’s the from protection

cold, damp cave. damp cold,

hibernating in a a in hibernating because they need no no need they because

the bat is is bat the

cave crayfish, are white white are crayfish, cave

moisture show show moisture

Drops of of Drops

Many cave dwellers, such as as such dwellers, cave Many

All in white in All Cool caves Cool Ecosystems and habitats The flowing current From foamy white, cascading torrents to slow but ever- moving waters, rivers provide a rich habitat for a wide variety of wildlife.

Caddisfly larva The food chain begins As leaves and dead animals fall into the waters, bacteria multiply. This brings food for aquatic larvae such as the caddisfly. From small beginnings Many rivers start life as fast- flowing streams. It is often a Caddisfly barren beginning, but plants and animals soon thrive. Mosses often grow on riverside rocks and trees and provide Stop that water! shelter for many tiny bugs that Beavers sometimes build dams to Fallen trees can provide need damp conditions. create lakes, slowing the flow of pathways for animals and insects to cross a water and so changing their habitat. fast-flowing stream. They also create lodges to live in.

Beaver

Which is the world’s longest river?

177 The Nile, in Africa, at 6,695 km (4,160 miles).

grab a fish. a grab

25 cm (10 in) to to in) (10 cm 25

will dive to about about to dive will

The kingfisher kingfisher The

European rivers. European

inhabitant of many many of inhabitant

kingfisher is a colourful colourful a is kingfisher

from the water. The The water. the from

dangerous journey. dangerous

snatching small fish fish small snatching

for their spawning grounds. It’s a a It’s grounds. spawning their for

hunting ground, ground, hunting

swim against the current heading heading current the against swim

moving river their their river moving

fish to breathe. Chinook salmon salmon Chinook breathe. to fish

make a slow- a make

captures oxygen, helping helping oxygen, captures

Many birds birds Many

Swift-flowing water water Swift-flowing

Got it! it! Got

Against the flow flow the Against

dagger-like beak. dagger-like

Brown bear Brown in the bird’s bird’s the in

The fish is held held is fish The

of salmon. of

by the presence presence the by

drawn to the river river the to drawn

A brown bear is is bear brown A

Colorado River and the Grand Canyon. Grand the and River Colorado

the earth. A notable example of this is the the is this of example notable A earth. the

Over millions of years, rivers cut channels in in channels cut rivers years, of millions Over

River

The Colorado Colorado The Changing the landscape the Changing The flowing current flowing The Ecosystems and habitats Still waters

Water A freshwater lake is a large body of hyacinth standing water. Lakes support a wide variety of life, especially at their edges.

Just floating around Floating plants such as Plants that float do well in still water, water lettuce provide shade but they can take over. Water hyacinth for a lake’s creatures. looks pretty, but it is a fast-growing weed and can choke other life under a thick mat.

Water Cat in the water lettuce Catfish are named for their barbels, cat-like whiskers that allow them to feel their way in murky water.

Bullhead catfish Some species of catfish can grow to be more than 3 m (10 ft) in length.

Barbels help the fish to seek out prey. In the case of a large catfish, this may be a duck.

Medicinal Horse leech leech Is it a sucker? Paddle in a muddy lake and you may emerge to find a leech on your foot. Some, but not all, leeches suck blood. 178 Which is the world’s largest freshwater lake?

Lake Superior in North America.

27 m (90 ft) in search of food. food. of search in ft) (90 m 27

red-eyed bird can dive to an incredible incredible an to dive can bird red-eyed

Earth some 65 million years ago. This This ago. years million 65 some Earth

The common loon’s ancestors lived on on lived ancestors loon’s common The

A slice of history of slice A

100 kg (220 lbs). (220 kg 100

weighed in at more than than more at in weighed

largest freshwater turtle. Some have have Some turtle. freshwater largest

snapping turtle is the world’s world’s the is turtle snapping

The fearsome looking alligator alligator looking fearsome The

Don’t mess with me! me! with mess Don’t

passing frogs, fish, and insects. and fish, frogs, passing

edge. ke’s la a at plants

prey, lying in wait and nabbing nabbing and wait in lying prey,

frequently seen on the the on seen frequently

Dragonflies are are Dragonflies

Pike are adept at ambushing their their ambushing at adept are Pike

The ambush specialist ambush The

floor and out into the air. the into out and floor

grow up from the lake lake the from up grow

as emergents, they they emergents, as

lake’s edge. Known Known edge. lake’s

form a thick bed at a a at bed thick a form

Bulrushes and reeds often often reeds and Bulrushes

Pike

Life on the edge the on Life

pluck fish from the water. the from fish pluck

or river, and swoop down to to down swoop and river, or

They will nest near a lake lake a near nest will They

continents except Antarctica. Antarctica. except continents

Ospreys are found on all all on found are Ospreys

Attacks from above above from Attacks

attract insects. attract

on spikes and and spikes on

flowers bloom bloom flowers

A bulrush’s bulrush’s A made lake, formed by a dam. dam. a by formed lake, made

natural. A reservoir is a man- a is reservoir A natural. wingtip to wingtip. to wingtip

prey, reaching 1.7 m (5.5 ft) ft) (5.5 m 1.7 reaching prey,

Lakes form in hollows, but not all are are all not but hollows, in form Lakes Ospreys are large birds of of birds large are Ospreys

Is it a lake? a it Is

Still w Still aters Ecosystems and habitats A pufferfish sucks in water to swell The BIG escape! its body. If threatened, a pufferfish may blow itself up with water to stop it being swallowed by a predator, but most predators know to avoid these highly toxic fish.

Jellyfish protect themselves with stinging cells on their tentacles, but these don't stop a turtle!

Pufferfish

Swim for my supper Sea creatures such as the leatherback turtle will travel thousands of miles in search of jellyfish. If the food doesn’t come to you, you have to go and find it!

Become an expert 132-133 The lion's mane Water jellyfish is one mammals of the largest of 144-145 all jellyfish. The world of fish

It's a production line Velvet crab Many sea creatures produce hundreds or even thousands of eggs to ensure some will survive. Turtles will lay 100 eggs at once, while a velvet crab may produce 180,000 eggs! 180 Which of the creatures on this page has the longest history on Earth? Survival in the sea Survival in the sea The ocean can be a dangerous place Blending in and sea creatures have developed Many of the ocean’s a number of clever techniques to inhabitants are masters increase their chances of staying alive. of disguise. On guard! Stonefish have lumpy, Some sea creatures will sting or attack mottled skin that blends perfectly with the sea floor. if threatened. Lionfish spines contain venom that can stop a Pipefish swim upright, fish moving or kill it. Divers are making them almost careful not to touch lionfish. invisible amongst seagrass.

Leopard sharks have a patterning on their skin that helps them to hide.

Lost in the crowd Many fish swim together in shoals. When they all start moving at the same speed and in the same direction to confuse predators, it is

called “schooling”. Jellyfish are survivors. There were jellyfish in the oceans 650 million years ago. years million 650 oceans the in jellyfish were There survivors. are Jellyfish 181 Age of the dinosaurs Age of the dinosaurs Earth has an incredibly long history, as it formed about 4,600 million years ago. Geologists divided the passage of time since then into huge chunks called eras. The dinosaurs lived in the Mesozoic Era.

A question of time Different dinosaurs lived at different times, and many of the best-known dinosaurs never actually met. For example, no T. rex ever tried to kill a Stegosaurus because their existence was separated by about 80 million years.

MESOZOIC ERA

Coelophysis Brachiosaurus Stegosaurus Plateosaurus Eoraptor

Triassic: 248 to 206 million years ago Jurassic: 206 to 144 million years ago 182 How do we know what dinosaurs looked like? Age of the dinosaurs Curiosity quiz

Albertosaurus Look through the Age was a Cretaceous dinosaur. of the dinosaurs pages to identify each of the picture clues below.

The Mesozoic Era This era is divided into three time spans, or periods:

The Cretaceous period was ruled by an amazing variety of dinosaurs.

The Jurassic period saw the emergence of massive plant-eating dinosaurs.

The Triassic period, the oldest, saw the appearance of Earth’s first dinosaurs.

Geological time is always shown with the oldest period at the bottom of the list. It reflects the sequence in which rocks are laid down.

Become Human beings Giganotosaurus (homo sapiens) an expert didn't appear until very recently in 184-185 What is Velociraptor T. rex Earth's history. a dinosaur? 208-209 What happened?

Cretaceous: 144 to 65 million years ago Homo sapiens We know a lot about their size and appearance from fossil evidence. fossil from appearance and size their about lot a know We 183 Age of the dinosaurs What is a dinosaur? Two legs or four? Long tails Scientists believe dinosaurs held Meat-eater or plant- their tails above the ground as eater? What made a there is no evidence of drag marks when trackways have dinosaur? They all been found. had four limbs, though many walked on two. There were a number of other features they had in common. Giganotosaurus

Scaly skin Impressions of dinosaur Meat-eating skin are rare, but dinosaurs were palaeontologists (scientists known as who study fossils) have theropods. found enough to know that dinosaurs had scaly skin, rather like crocodiles today.

Cold-blooded lizards have to warm up in sunlight; they cannot control their temperature.

All dinosaurs lived Were dinosaurs warm-blooded? on land. They could It’s possible that meat-eating dinosaurs not fly or swim. were warm-blooded (like we are), while plant-eating sauropods were cold-blooded. Warm-blooded animals use food as fuel to stay warm. Sauropods were too large to have eaten enough plants to do this. 184 Are dinosaurs lizards? What is a dinosaur?

Giganotosaurus skulls had huge “windows”.

Skull holes Dinosaur skulls had large holes, or “windows”. These made them lighter, which was necessary

as some of the largest skulls Meat-eaters had were almost as long as a car. sharp claws.

Clue in the claws Plant-eaters had blunt Meat-eating dinosaurs were toenails. known as theropods, which means “beast-footed”, because they had sharp, hooked claws on their toes. Plant-eating dinosaurs tended to have blunt hooves or toenails.

Dinosaurs walked Walking tall on upright, Dinosaurs pillar-like legs. walked on Crocodiles stand their toes with their knees Egg layers and elbows with their legs slightly bent. All dinosaurs directly under laid eggs – some Lizards sprawl, their bodies. with their knees in nests, just as birds do today. and elbows held The baby developed in the egg until at right angles it was ready to hatch. About 40 kinds to their bodies.

of dinosaur eggs have been discovered. No. They are related, but the two groups are different. are groups two the but related, are They No. 185 Age of the dinosaurs A hip question Dinosaurs can be split into two groups, according to their hip bones: the saurischians (the lizard-hipped dinosaurs) and the ornithischians (or bird- hipped dinosaurs).

Bird-hipped dinosaurs had a pair of hip bones pointing back.

186 Did T. rex and Triceratops ever meet?

187 Yes. There’s evidence that T. rex preyed on Triceratops.

). (e.g. Iguanodon

two-legged plant-eaters plant-eaters two-legged

danger on two legs. two on danger the the Ornithopods, Ornithopods,

or run away from from away run or

). (e.g. horns or Triceratops

allowing some to walk walk to some allowing heads with bony frills frills bony with heads had

who Marginocephalians, carried well back, back, well carried

their bellies could be be could bellies their

). (e.g. dinosaurs Stegosaurus

footed, armour-plated armour-plated footed,

organs, and meant meant and organs,

the four- the Thyreophorans, Thyreophorans,

room for the digestive digestive the for room

bones allowed more more allowed bones main groups: main

eaters. The swept-back swept-back The eaters. be divided into three three into divided be

These were all plant- all were These Ornithischians can can Ornithischians

Ornithischians Ornithischians I'm in that group! group! that in I'm

will meet on page 50. page on meet will

whom you you whom Diplodocus,

Triceratops small heads and long necks. long and heads small

was the mighty plant-eating plant-eating mighty the was with their their with as Brachiosaurus,

, such such , Sauropodomorphs was lizard-hipped, but so so but lizard-hipped, was rex

lizard-hipped. lizard-hipped. also were

T. T.

as as Dilophosaurus.

meat-eaters, such such meat-eaters,

hipped, but some plant-eaters plant-eaters some but hipped,

the the Theropods,

dinosaurs were lizard- were dinosaurs

All meat-eating meat-eating All

main groups: main

Saurischians Saurischians

divided into two two into divided

Saurischians can be be can Saurischians

T. rex T. I’m in this group! group! this in I’m

you might expect! expect! might you

bird-hipped dinosaurs as as dinosaurs bird-hipped

forwards or down. or forwards

hipped dinosaurs – not not – dinosaurs hipped

that pointed pointed that bones hip

have evolved from lizard- from evolved have pair of of pair a had dinosaurs

Most lizard-hipped lizard-hipped Most scientists believe that birds birds that believe scientists

Strangely enough, enough, Strangely

o w r

A hip question hip A Age of the dinosaurs What did they do? Find a friend Dinosaurs may have used their head crests to show off, Many male animals just like a peacock uses today compete to win its colourful tail feathers.

a mate. Stags crash their Corythosaurus antlers together, while birds display colourful feathers. Scientists Courtship displays tell believe dinosaurs females which males are strong and likely to had to compete in make healthy young. similar ways. Peacock Bone head Pachycephalosaurus Pachycephalosaurus’s head was 80 cm (2.5 ft) long. The dome was made of solid bone as thick as a bowling ball.

Pachycephalosaurus skull Fighting fit This dinosaur had During the breeding season, male bony spikes on its Pachycephalosaurus may have butted head and snout. each other in fights over females. Their backbones were adapted to absorb shock.

188 Where did Pachycephalosaurus live?

189 In the forests of North America.

pouch

Throat Throat

throat pouch. pouch. throat

make noises, a bit like a frog’s frog’s a like bit a noises, make

the outside of this that could be used to to used be could that this of outside the

It may have had an inflatable pouch on on pouch inflatable an had have may It

Crest had a short, solid crest. crest. solid short, a had Brachylophosaurus

Talk like a frog a like Talk

Brachylophosaurus

Parasaurolophus

suggesting they made different sounds. different made they suggesting

Other hadrosaurs had different-shaped crests, crests, different-shaped had hadrosaurs Other

skull

Hypacrosaurus Hypacrosaurus Lambeosaurus skull

Parasaurolophus

cows

Cretaceous Cretaceous

by blowing air through its crest. crest. its through air blowing by

194-195 194-195

a hadrosaur, may have done this this done have may hadrosaur, a

an expert expert an Crest did. they suspect we but Parasaurolophus,

Become Become

Nobody knows if dinosaurs made sounds, sounds, made dinosaurs if knows Nobody

Did they talk? they Did Find a friend a Find Age of the dinosaurs Eggstraordinary eggs Scientists have been lucky enough to find lots of fossilized dinosaur eggs, and even nests. There is a huge variety of sizes and shapes, from small, circular eggs that would fit into the palm of your hand to The largest? eggs the size of cannonballs. This massive egg was found in China and is thought to have been laid by a Therizinosaur. There were larger eggs – the largest was laid by a dinosaur called Macroelongatoolithus.

This dinosaur egg fossil is from Mongolia. A muddy home Some eggs were laid in mud, which proved a perfect base for fossilization. These are Maiasaura eggs from Montana, USA.

Shaped like an egg? Some dinosaur eggs were round, but others were elongated, rather like a loaf of bread.

Oviraptor nest from This is a hen’s egg: it China, showing the shows just how large the eggs laid in a spiral Therizinosaur egg was. pattern. Each egg is approximately 16 cm (6 in) long. 190 Were dinosaur egg shells soft and leathery like those of snakes? Eggstraordinary eggs I’m making a break for it! Fossilized A tiny dinosaur hatchling breaks out of its egg dinosaur egg casing. While some dinosaurs were probably ready to look after themselves after hatching, others would have depended on parental help for food and protection.

This is a model of a Parasaurolophus hatchling.

Oviraptor

Egg care? Egg Did dinosaurs sit on their eggs, like birds today? Some did; this Oviraptor died and was fossilized sitting on her eggs some 80 million years ago.

Become an expert 206-207 How Oviraptor was it made?

Nest is dug out of sand or earth. Bringing it back to life This model recreates the fossilized scene above, showing the Oviraptor shielding her eggs. Oviraptors had curious-looking beaked snouts. They may have raided other nests for

food for themselves and their young. No. They had hard, brittle shells, like the eggs of birds. of eggs the like shells, brittle hard, had They No. 191 Age of the dinosaurs Sauropods Around the world Sauropods have Sauropods were the heaviest, longest, been found all and tallest animals ever to walk on over the world. land. They were herbivores, and Mamenchisaurus grew to would have had to graze continually. 22 m (72 ft) in length in Jurassic China. Tiny-brained eating machines Camarasaurus Diplodocus skull Sauropods had tiny heads compared reached a monstrous 23 m (75 ft) in to their bodies. Peg-shaped Jurassic North America. teeth were used to pull up vegetation. Barapasaurus grew to lengths of 18 m (59 ft) and roamed Jurassic India.

Vulcanodon was just 6.5 m (21 ft) when it prowled Peg-shaped Jurassic Zimbabwe. teeth.

lodocu Look at the size of it! Dip s’s nec k an Imagine a dinosaur that was d as long as a tennis court – an tai l m Diplodocus ad adult was! e up most of its length. Gizzard

Diplodocus skeleton

Adult human skeleton

Stones in the gut Gizzard Like other sauropods, stones Diplodocus swallowed stones to help break down tough plant fibres.

192 How many neck vertebrae does the Diplodocus have? Sauropods It’s like a giraffe! Brachiosaurus had longer forelimbs than hind limbs so its back sloped down to its hindquarters – rather like a giraffe. But Brachiosaurus could reach two or three times higher than a giraffe.

Up high Brachiosaurus nibbled leaves at the tops of trees. Its long neck may have developed so Brachiosaurus could feed where other plant-eaters could not reach.

Sauropods had long tails that helped to

balance their bodies. Fifteen. 193 Age of the dinosaurs All sorts of crests Cretaceous cows Those striking crests came in all sorts of Hadrosaurs were basically the cows different shapes. of the Cretaceous. They would have been a familiar sight in the forests and Corythosaurus had a plate-like crest. swamps of North America.

Tsintaosaurus’ crest may have been covered in Hadrosaurs had stiff Male hadrosaurs brightly coloured skin. tails. It is unlikely these probably had were swung from side larger crests to side. than the females. Lambeosaurus had a helmet-like crest.

Parasaurolophus

What a sight! Hadrosaurs are known for having some of the strangest heads of all dinosaurs; many of them had a crest.

Become an expert 188-189 Find a friend 196-197 Horns and frills

194 Can you think of any crested animals today? Cretaceous cows A hadrosaur had more than 1,000 What did they eat? teeth (though not all were in use at One hadrosaur fossil contained the same time!). the remains of its last meal: bark, pine cones, conifer needles, and branches. Did they This tough have beaks? plant matter That duck-like beak contained is particularly tightly packed hard to digest. rows of teeth to grind vegetation. Corythosaurus

Fossilized hadrosaur teeth Chew and move on A hadrosaur such as Corythosaurus would have roamed in huge herds, grazing on leaves, pine

needles, and ferns. A number of lizards and birds have crests. have birds and lizards of number A 195 Age of the dinosaurs

Horns and frills Built like a rhinoceros, Triceratops is one of the best-known of all dinosaurs. It belongs to a group known as the “horned face” dinosaurs or ceratopsians.

ty hef ne s o er! at’ eat Th nt- pla

Three-horned face Triceratops was one of the largest of all the horned faces, reaching about 10 m (33 ft) in length when fully grown.

196 What does the name Triceratops mean? Horns and frills Other ceratopsians There were a number of different dinosaurs with horns and frills.

Protoceratops, which had a head frill but lacked a horn.

Styracosaurus, or “spiked lizard”, had a fancy, horned frill.

Pentaceratops had an enormous neck frill and three long horns. Sheep of the Gobi Protoceratops roamed the Gobi Desert in Asia rather as sheep roam today. In fact, they were about the size of sheep.

Like all the horn-face dinosaurs, Protoceratops lt. had a parrot-like beak. du n a ow gr lly fu o t

ps to ra ce Fully to developed That’s not a fighter skull ro Protoceratops lacked P any protection. Its y b small size would a One big dinosaur graveyard have made it the b ideal prey for m The Gobi Desert is littered with the o a number of r remains of Protoceratops, and they F meat-eaters. show all stages of growth.

Hatchling “Three-horned face”. “Three-horned 197 Age of the dinosaurs

T. rex’s eyeballs were the size of T. rex a clenched fist. The mighty T. rex roamed North America in the last couple of million years that dinosaurs ruled the planet. Titanic teeth T. rex had awesome curved teeth, each as long as a human hand. Altogether it had 58 of these pointed weapons.

r? ge en cav s r o T. rex preyed on r plant-eaters such e as Triceratops. t

u T. rex walked on H its powerful hind limbs. When teeth broke, new ones grew to replace them.

Was it a killer? We don’t really know if T. rex was a hunter or a scavenger. It may have attacked and killed, or it may have picked at dead or dying dinosaurs. It may have done both. 198 T. rex is short for Tyrannosaurus rex. What does it mean? T. rex Lighten up With its massive 1.5 m (5 ft) long skull, this beast could swallow small dinosaurs whole! Spaces between the skull bones made it lighter.

A T. rex had tiny serrations on its teeth. Its bite would have torn into a victim’s flesh.

Guanlong was just 1.1 m (3.6 ft) tall, but most of that was tail and neck!

My ancestor One of the oldest members of the tyrannosaur family was recently found in China. Guanlong prowled Earth some 100 million years before T. rex. What a whopper! Meet Sue, the world’s largest and most complete T. rex skeleton. She was sold to an American museum in 1991 for a jaw- dropping GB £5.3 million (US $8 million).

Nose to tail, Sue measures 12.8 m

(42 ft).

means “King of the tyrant lizards”. tyrant the of “King means Tyrannosaurus rex Tyrannosaurus 199 Age of the dinosaurs Big and bold Giganotosaurus means “giant southern reptile”, and this dinosaur was big; in fact it may have been larger than It’s a new find! T. rex. However, the two never met Giganotosaurus bones were first unearthed in Argentina in the as Giganotosaurus was roaming some early 1990s, but no complete 10 million years before T. rex! skeleton has ever been found.

Giganotosaurus would have had a keen sense of smell or rd wha and excellent ei t eyesight. W ?

It’s difficult to imagine just how big and heavy a fully grown Giganotosaurus really was. It’s thought to have been as heavy as about 125 adult humans. That’s a lot of people!

Where did Giganotosaurus live? Big and bold Let’s get it! A huge sauropod, Argentinosaurus, Giganotosaurus Become lived alongside . It’s an expert thought this monster may have reached 43 m (140 ft) in length. So one 13.5 m 182-183 Age of (45 ft) long Giganotosaurus couldn’t the dinosaurs 192-193 Sauropods have brought it down, but these 198-199 T. rex predators may have hunted in packs.

Argentinosaurus

Awesome arms Giganotosaurus had larger and more powerful forearms than T. rex, and they were three- fingered. They would have been used to grasp prey and food.

That’s some tooth! Giganotosaurus had large, serrated teeth for stabbing and gripping prey, and for slashing through the meat. The largest teeth were about 20 cm (8 in)

in length. In the warm swamps of Cretaceous Argentina. Cretaceous of swamps warm the In 201 Age of the dinosaurs Meet the raptors Aggressive and speedy, Velociraptor was a formidable Bambiraptor predator in late Cretaceous Asia. Although small, it was armed with razor-sharp teeth and terrifying dagger-like claws.

The narrow Velociraptor jaws contained about 80 The feathers would have been sharp teeth. used for warmth, not flight.

A feathered dinosaur? Deinonychus Experts believe that Some dinosaur fossils have been Deinonychus was found with traces of a feather- one of the more intelligent dinosaurs. like covering, and it’s thought that Velociraptor may have had feathers, though no Velociraptor Scientists now suspect fossil has been found with them. Deinonychus was feathered, but the theory is so new that The killer claw most models are naked. Deinonychus also had a vicious killer claw on each of its hind legs. It held this off the ground but could slash it at victims.

Deinonychus foot fossil

202 What does the name Velociraptor mean? Meet the raptors Deinonychus This skeleton has been mounted ou kn to show Deinonychus leaping d y ow towards a victim, claws ready. Di ? Velociraptor and Deinonychus belong to a group called the dromaeosaurids. Jump Scientists believe these killing and grab machines were related to the birds alive today. Velociraptor and its relations, such as the larger Deinonychus, probably hunted in packs and jumped onto the back of their prey, all Deinonychus had a lightweight four limbs body and long extended. hind legs.

Deino nyc “terri hu ble s m cl e aw an

”. s “Speedy thief.” Scientists believe it may have reached 65 km/h (40 mph). (40 km/h 65 reached have may it believe Scientists thief.” “Speedy 203 Age of the dinosaurs Monsters of the deep . There may have been no marine y d dinosaurs, but a frightening o b

s variety of toothed giant reptiles t Ichthyosaurus i

ruled the seas while the a

dinosaurs ruled the land. n

Elasmosaurus s

Elasmosaurus was a air-breathing, just w like whales today. Swim away... k Ichthyosaurs had c An Ichthyosaurus large eyes. e

moves swiftly to s

avoid being eaten. The swimming ichthyosaurs, including Ichthyosaurus itself, were perfectly suited for chasing fast-moving prey, such as squid. However, they were vulnerable to attack from larger marine reptiles. ...from danger! Watch out! A Liopleurodon is attacking the ichthyosaurs from behind. Perhaps the largest sea-based predator of all time, Liopleurodon was a short-necked plesiosaur.

204 What did Liopleurodon eat?

205 Anything it could catch, including pterosaurs who flew too close to the water’s surface.

. rex T. those of of those

were twice as long as as long as twice were

The dagger-like teeth teeth dagger-like The

Liopleurodon

millions of years ago! years of millions

reached 25 m (80 ft). (80 m 25 reached

there when the sea receded receded sea the when there

may have have may Liopleurodon

is a plesiosaur that was trapped trapped was that plesiosaur a is

Lock Ness, a Scottish Lake, Lake, Scottish a Ness, Lock

think the “monster” in in “monster” the think

Some people Some

t i

w o

too are great survivors. great are too

fossil form, showing they they showing form, fossil

are also present in in present also are Snails Snails

by fossil evidence. evidence. fossil by

for ichthyosaurs, shown shown ichthyosaurs, for

were on the menu menu the on were Squid Squid

Cretaceous period. Cretaceous

ancestors date back to the the to back date ancestors

’s ’s The great white shark white great

(46 ft) in length. length. in ft) (46

survive since the dinosaurs. the since survive

It grew up to 14 m m 14 to up grew It

but they have managed to to managed have they but

through the water. water. the through

are fragile animals, animals, fragile are Corals Corals

propelled it easily easily it propelled

paddle-shaped limbs limbs paddle-shaped million years. million

around for about 400 400 about for around long-necked. Its four four Its long-necked.

have been been have Jellyfish

a plesiosaur, but it was was it but plesiosaur, a

was also also was Elasmosaurus

What’s that? that? What’s been familiar to us. to familiar been

the Earth’s seas would have have would seas Earth’s the

Many Mesozoic occupants of of occupants Mesozoic Many

I recognize that! recognize I Monsters of the deep the of Monsters Age of the dinosaurs How was it made? Fossils may form when animal or plant matter is buried soon after death under mud or sand. However, that’s just the beginning of a process that takes millions of years.

70 million years ago Five years later 50 million years ago A T. rex has died and is The creature’s soft flesh has A sea has now spread over washed downstream. It rests slowly rotted away, leaving the area once occupied by the on layers of soft mud and is the bones. Over time these river. Heavy pressure is slowly rapidly buried. begin to move apart. turning the sand to sandstone.

206 Can you name some of the things that fossilize?

207 Fossils include bones, teeth, footprints, and skin impressions. Plants also fossilize.

end up in a museum. a in up end extreme weather. weather. extreme

by one. The skeleton may may skeleton The one. by a fossilized bone. fossilized a they are being worn down by by down worn being are they

bones will be removed one one removed be will bones they see the exposed tip of of tip exposed the see they , but gradually gradually but , fossilized T. rex T.

. The The . the of rest the investigate further when when further investigate ranges rising above the the above rising ranges T. rex T.

hard at work, uncovering uncovering work, at hard now a desert. Two walkers walkers Two desert. a now years has seen mountain mountain seen has years

Palaeontologists are now now are Palaeontologists The area around the fossil is is fossil the around area The The passing of millions of of millions of passing The

Today Last year Last Two million years ago years million Two How was it made? it was How Age of the dinosaurs What happened? Sixty-five million years ago the Who died? dinosaurs died out, along with the The extinction saw the pterosaurs and the plesiosaurs. It loss of huge numbers of animals, including: was a mass extinction, but what

was the cause? Many believe it Pterosaurs, which had once filled the skies with was the result of a meteorite. their airborne acrobatics.

Dinosaurs, which had evolved into a huge What changed? variety of types. Scientists now believe a massive meteorite Huge reptiles, hit Earth, creating a dust cloud of noxious which disappeared fumes that screened out the Sun from the oceans. and changed the climate.

The rock would have hit Earth’s crust with terrific force, sending shock waves around the world.

It was a big one! In the early 1990s, geologists found the remains of a massive crater in Mexico. It was 180 km (112 miles) wide. They believe it was caused by a meteorite smashing into Earth 65 million years ago.

208 How big were the animals that survived the extinction?

209 No land animal heavier than a large dog survived.

lethal dust. lethal

up clouds of of clouds up

volcano sends sends volcano

An exploding exploding An

. c s o n n o i d i t

o n m o i b t i n a

a h

a n e v e e

x w

n a

c m

o n

h v

, l

c o

a n

i m

diameter.

(6 miles) in in miles) (6

was 10 km km 10 was

Mexican crater crater Mexican

created the the created

The rock that that rock The

That’s two major events around the same time. same the around events major two That’s

the Sun’s light – just like the effect of the meteorite. meteorite. the of effect the like just – light Sun’s the

sent up clouds of ash and dust that would have blocked blocked have would that dust and ash of clouds up sent

in what is now western India. This activity would have have would activity This India. western now is what in

The meteorite hit at a time of immense volcanic activity activity volcanic immense of time a at hit meteorite The

Was that all? all? that Was What happened? What Age of the dinosaurs Living dinosaurs You may think that reptiles are closely related to dinosaurs, but dinosaurs may have more in common with birds!

A hidden link?

The link between dinosaurs and birds is a Caudipteryx would not have puzzle. Caudipteryx appears to have been a been able to combination of bird fly as its wings were too small. and dinosaur.

The first bird? Fossilized Archaeopteryx The earliest- known bird is Archaeopteryx, which first appeared in the Jurassic period. It had the toothed head, clawed fingers, and long bony tail of a dinosaur, but it also Archaeopteryx had feathers. means “ancient wing”.

210 What size do you think Archaeopteryx reached?

211 It was small: about the size of a pigeon.

model is based on feathered fossils found in China. China. in found fossils feathered on based is model

and each discovery helps our understanding. This This understanding. our helps discovery each and

More and more “dino-birds” are being discovered, discovered, being are “dino-birds” more and More

Pieces of a puzzle puzzle a of Pieces

Sinosauropteryx

the size of a turkey. turkey. a of size the

was about about was Caudipteryx

dinosaur flew. dinosaur

though, that any any that though,

It does seem unlikely, unlikely, seem does It

between dinosaurs and birds. birds. and dinosaurs between

discussing the possible link link possible the discussing

had feathers, experts are still still are experts feathers, had

Although some dinosaurs dinosaurs some Although

o n u

clamber through trees. trees. through clamber

hands. It also had teeth. had also It hands.

in the adult, but the chicks use them to to them use chicks the but adult, the in

had clawed clawed had Caudipteryx

the end of each wing. These are not used used not are These wing. each of end the

insulation from cold. from insulation

Hoatzin chicks have two tiny claws at at claws tiny two have chicks Hoatzin

Feathers provide good good provide Feathers

Some modern birds have clawed wings. wings. clawed have birds modern Some

We have claws claws have We

Cretaceous creature. Cretaceous

was a a was Caudipteryx

same purpose. purpose. same

dinosaurs for the the for dinosaurs

evolved on some some on evolved

and they may have have may they and

temperature changes, changes, temperature

America.

from water and from from and water from

of South South of

in parts parts in Feathers protect birds birds protect Feathers

are found found are

Why feathers? feathers? Why Hoatzin Hoatzin Living dinosaurs Living Science and technology What is science? Science is the search for truth and From atoms to space knowledge. It holds the key to Scientists study a huge understanding life, the Universe… variety of things, from and almost everything! the tiniest atoms that make up everything Scientists divide science around us to the into different areas. mysteries of space.

Everything you see is made up of microscopic atoms.

Life science Physical science How do living things survive This science looks at and grow, where do they live, energy and forces. There what do they eat, and how do are different types of their bodies work? Life science energy, including light, seeks to answer such questions heat, and sound. Forces about the living world, from The scientific are the things that hold study of plants microscopic bacteria to plants is called botany. everything in place in and animals – including you! our world. Without the force of gravity, for We have learned how to send example, you would fly energy to where it is needed. off into space!

Planet Earth

Life science studies the living world around us.

212 What is the study of animals called? What is science? Curiosity quiz Look through the Planet Earth pages and see if you can identify each of the picture clues below.

Earth and space science Earth is a dot in a vast Universe filled with planets and moons, stars and galaxies. As far as we know, Earth is special because it is the only place that supports life. Earth and space science is the study of the structure of our planet – and everything that exists beyond it. The scientific study of volcanoes is called volcanology. Materials science Our Universe is filled with atoms and elements, molecules, mixtures, and compounds. Materials science is the study of these things, how they behave, how we use them, and how they

One branch of science studies react with one how materials can change. another. Become an expert 6-7 Our world 272-273 Our place Pictures of Earth from in space space help scientists

understand Earth better. Zoology. 213 Science and technology Advances in science Science begins with problems. The world’s great Stories suggest scientists were all thinkers who wanted to solve Newton discovered gravity with life’s problems. This need for understanding has an apple. produced many great inventions and discoveries.

Johannes Gutenberg (1400–1468) Gutenberg played a key role in printing. Experts believe he invented metal-type printing in Europe. Newton found that Gutenberg’s press was quick, accurate, and hard- white light was made wearing, compared to up of seven colours. earlier woodblock printing. Isaac Newton (1642–1727) Newton investigated forces and light. He realized there must be a force that keeps the planets in orbit around the Sun. Today we know this as gravity. Newton also discovered that white light

Gutenberg’s first printed book is made up of all the colours of was the Bible in 1455. the rainbow.

1400 1500 1600

Wooden replica of da Vinci’s Ornithopter. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) Galileo proved that the Earth moves around the Sun by looking at the Solar System through a telescope. A few wise thinkers had always Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) suspected the truth, but Leonardo was a painter and inventor. most people at the time He drew plans for helicopters, believed that our aeroplanes, and parachutes. Earth was the centre Unfortunately, the technology of everything.

of the time was not good enough Replica of a 17th-century to build any that worked. telescope 214 Who invented the bifocal lens? Advances in science ou kn d y ow Di ? Inventions More than 2,000 years Inventions and A kite helped ago, Greek thinker Aristotle discoveries have changed Benjamin Franklin recommended that people learn about the course of our history. lightning and look at nature, and carry electricity. out experiments to Wheel (3,500 BCE) The first test ideas. known wheel was used in Benjamin Franklin Mesopotamia. (1706–1790) Paper (50 BCE) This was American scientist Benjamin invented in China, but kept Franklin experimented with secret for many years. lightning and electricity. Louis Pasteur His work in the 1700s laid Compass (1190) The (1822–1895) magnetic compass was the foundations for today’s Best known first used by the Chinese. electrical world. for discovering pasteurization Parachute (1783) The first (a process that one flew centuries after Leonardo made his drawings. uses heat to destroy bacteria in food, particularly milk), Steam train (1829) The Pasteur also discovered that earliest successful model some diseases were caused reached 48 kph (30 mph). by germs. He encouraged Colour photo (1861) hospitals to be very clean First produced by physicist Franklin risked his life flying a kite in a storm. to stop germs spreading. James Clerk Maxwell.

1700 1800

William Herschel Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1738–1822) (1845–1923) Herschel is well Röntgen discovered known for his work electromagnetic rays in astronomy (he (known today as x-rays) first identified the on November 8th, 1895. planet Uranus). His important He also discovered discovery earned infrared radiation him the first – this technology is used today for Nobel Prize in wireless communications, night vision, Physics in 1901. weather forecasting, and astronomy. X-rays allow doctors to

look inside the human body. Benjamin Franklin. Benjamin 215 Science and technology

Orange juice is a Movie projectors good source of developed quickly after Karl Landsteiner vitamin C. Edison’s early work. (1868–1943) Austrian-born physiologist Landsteiner discovered that human blood can be

Early movie divided into four main projector groups – A, B, AB, and O. This laid the foundation of modern blood groupings. Albert Szent-Györgyi (1893–1986) The Hungarian scientist Albert Szent-Györgyi is best known for detecting vitamin C. He also pioneered research into how muscles move and work. He won the Noble Prize for physiology and Thomas Edison (1847–1931) medicine in 1937. Thomas Alva Edison produced more than 1,000 You inherit your inventions, including long- blood type from your parents. lasting light bulbs, batteries, Blood transfusions play and movie projectors. an important part in Red blood cells modern medicine.

1800 1850

Earthquakes Charles Richter (1900–1985) Albert destroy homes Einstein and office Richter developed a way (1879–1955) buildings. to measure the power of German-born earthquakes. He worked physicist Albert on his scale with Einstein’s famous fellow physicist equation E=mc2 Beno Gutenberg. explained how Einstein’s energy, mass, equation and time are all related. It A “great” helped scientists understand earthquake (8–9.9 how the Universe works. on the Richter scale) strikes on average Epicentre once a year. 216 Who invented frozen food? Advances in science Alan Turing (1912–1954) Modern inventions During the Second World Today’s computers Imagine the world War, Alan Turing, a are lightweight and brilliant mathematician, portable – early without these fantastic helped develop code- models filled whole rooms. inventions: breaking machines that eventually led Antibiotics The first to the invention of antibiotic, penicillin, was modern computers. discovered accidentally.

The English used the Cars Some of the early Enigma machine to models were driven by break German codes coal or wood-fired engines. during World War II (sometimes known Nuclear power is as WWII). efficient, but some people think it could harm us. Computers (1941) Plastics technology is The first computers Mobile phones (1980s) used to make many of were huge machines. Developed from the two- the things in your home. They couldn’t cope with way radios of the 40s complicated tasks, Compact disks are small and 50s, the first mobiles and light, and they store but worked on only were large and heavy, lots of information. one thing at a time. weighing about 35 kg (77 lbs) – the same as Energy-efficient light Mobile phone a 10-year-old child. bulbs help save energy in your home.

1900

DNA discovered (1953) The internet (1990s) The identification of DNA With its roots in the (which holds information 1960s, the Internet in human cells) led to DNA (short for International profiling, a huge help to Network) became public the police – criminals can during the mid 90s, and now be identified by a is now used for fun and single hair or spot of blood. education by about 1.5 billion people. Nuclear bombs (1945) Sometimes science creates monsters, Before DNA profiling, police identified like the bombs the USA dropped on criminals by their fingerprints. This Japan in WWII. They killed nearly system was developed in the 1890s.

300,000 people and ended the war. Clarence Birdseye, in 1924. in Birdseye, Clarence 217 Science and technology Being a scientist Experiments can involve toxic fumes or chemicals that Scientists study the world around might explode, so scientists us. They look for gaps in our wear protective goggles. knowledge and try to find the answers. Not all scientists study the same things – they specialize in different areas.

Testing, testing Scientists explore their ideas and theories using tests called experiments. In this book, there are lots of “hands-on” Mixing it up experiments you can do to Experimenting with chemicals and try things out their reactions can produce some for yourself. mixed results. Some mixtures can be dangerous, while others can be the answer the scientists are after.

218 How much bigger do things look through a microscope? Being a scientist Types of scientist A closer look Hooke’s microscope During the Almost everything in 17th century, the world is the subject the microscope of study by a scientific was developed specialist. by Dutchman Anton van Leeuwenhoek and Zoologists study animals refined by Robert Hooke of all kinds, except for in England. Early models human beings. revealed the tiny organisms in Biologists are interested water, while modern versions in everything about life can look inside a single cell. and living organisms.

Paleontologists know about fossils, and try to learn from them.

Botanists learn about the world of plants, plant types, and plant groups.

Chemists study elements and chemicals, and they help make new substances.

Astronomers are experts Inside view on space, the planets, the When you go to hospital, stars, and the Universe. the doctor may send you for a body scan. Using Entomologists are a special kind of zoologist a powerful machine, who learn about insects. the medical team can see what’s going on inside you. Geologists find out about our Earth, particularly s by studying rocks. Hand on Archaeologists are Fill a cup interested in the remains or vase with of past peoples and lives. water, and add a few Ecologists study the drops of food colouring. Plants take up food relationship between living Cut the end off the stem and water from the soil things and their environment. and transport it up the of a flower and put the stem. Experiments allow flower in the water. scientists to observe Oceanographers know and theorize how things all about ocean life and

work and why. landscapes. Some microscopes can magnify up to 1,000 times! 1,000 to up magnify can microscopes Some 219 Science and technology Science and everyday life Science is not just used by Teflon Iron experts working in laboratories. Invented in 1938, Teflon It is part of all our lives. From was used in space suits. In everyday life it stops brushing your teeth to setting stuff sticking your alarm, science is with you to hot surfaces. all day, every day. Teflon pan

Electricity Plastic fantastic Electricity lights up the Look around you and you will see world and gives us the dozens of things made of plastic. energy to cook, travel, From containers to toys, work, and play. plastic is a versatile and hard-wearing

Cities at night are bright material. Some places, lit up by office, Plastic plastics can house, and street lights. building blocks now be recycled.

Plastic medicine bottles

220 What was the first satellite in space? Science and everyday life

Surgeons get a helping hand from computers.

Satellite orbiting the earth

Masks, aprons, and Communications In the best of health gloves help doctors keep operation rooms Satellites orbit the Earth, Long ago, people relied on herbs to free from infection. beaming back all sorts of produce cures for disease. Thanks information. They send TV to modern science, many illnesses signals, supply weather that were once untreatable can information, and help us gaze into space. now be cured or prevented. Clothing technology Advances in sports clothing From here to there technology have impacted Science and technology make on everyday clothes. it much easier to get around. Breathable fabric, stretchy Trains, planes, and cars spandex, and thermal make the world a smaller underwear were developed place and allow us to visit from specialized sports and exotic destinations. They leisure clothes. are also useful for getting to school on time. eeding bullet train...? As fast as a sp Bullet trains in Japan travel up to 300 kph (186 mph). Become an expert 236-237 Electricity

244-245 Machines Sputnik 1. It was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. in Union Soviet the by launched was It 1. Sputnik 221 Science and technology when they die. will release more carbon breathe out. Their bodies and release it when they

Carbon cycle Green plants take in the gas carbon dioxide from the air and use it to make food, converting it into things such as carbohydrates. Animals take in some of the carbon when they eat plants.

Animals Animals such as these sheep contribute to the carbon cycle by eating, breathing, and dropping waste. They take in carbon in the plants they eat,

I N O O

X B I R D A E C CARBON Animals breathe out carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

OXYGEN

Animals eat plants and take in some carbon.

A E

D I

B R A C An animal’s An animal’s also droppings contribute to the carbon cycle. All living things Every living thing contains carbon. Human beings take in carbon through carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in food, and release it as carbon dioxide gas when breathing out. It is also released from dead matter, sometimes quite soon, sometimes millions of years later in fuels like oil and coal. 222 In particular circumstances, carbon forms a hard crystal. What is its name?

I S N O

G P

M All living things O C E D Plants and animals die and their bodies decay. Fossil fuels Fossil Sometimes the remains of organisms are exposed to extreme pressure and heat. Over millions of years, they turn into carbon-rich fuels, like coal and oil.

Waste disposal Waste When animals die, their bodies break down and decompose.

S O

O C E D

G IN OS MP DECO

Digesters Decomposition in the soil is helped along by the endless action of worms and bacteria. These animals are an important part of the carbon cycle. Waste fertiliser Waste Part of you might once have been part of a dinosaur. Why? Because like all living things, dinosaurs produced waste and their waste became a part of the never-ending carbon cycle. A diamond. A 223 Science and technology Properties of matter What they are... Some materials are hard and There are many different brittle, while others are flexible. properties of matter. Some materials are colourful, while Boiling point is the hottest a liquid can get others are transparent. These kinds before becoming a gas. of features are called “properties”. Freezing point is the temperature at which A cork floats on oil. a liquid becomes a solid. Oil floats on water.

Plasticity is how well Does it float? a solid can be reshaped. It’s easy to learn about some properties, such Conductivity is how well as the ability to float. a material lets electricity The amount of matter or heat travel through it. in a certain volume of an object is called its Malleability is how well a solid can be shaped density. Objects and without breaking. liquids float on liquids of a higher density and Tensile strength is how sink through liquids much a material can stretch without breaking. of a lower density.

Flammability is how A plastic building brick sinks easily and quickly a through oil but floats on water. substance will catch fire. An onion sinks through oil and water, but floats on syrup. Reflectivity is how well Syrup sinks below water. a material reflects light. Water reflects well.

Transparency is how well a material will let A good insulator light pass through it. Heat cannot easily pass through some materials. Flexibility is how easily These are known as a material can be bent. insulators. For example, aerogel can completely Solubility is how well block the heat of a flame. a substance will dissolve, such as salt in water. But don’t try this at home! 224 Is a diamond harder than quartz? Properties of matter Safety Compressibility glass Gases can be squashed, or compressed, by squeezing more into the same space. This is what happens when you pump up a tyre. Brittleness Foot pump Some materials, such as glass, are Gas can be compressed very brittle and will break when because its particles are far apart. A bicycle pump pushes pushed out of shape. Safety glass is the particles closer together. designed to crack rather than break. Diamond is the hardest Hardness Gas particles mineral. 9 A scientist called Friedrich Mohs created a Corundum scale of ten minerals to compare how hard they are. Many materials are graded on this scale. 10 Diamond 5 Apatite 6 7 8 4 Feldspar Quartz Topaz Fluorite 2 1 Gypsum 3 Talc Calcite

Softest mineral Hands on Collect some different pebbles and put them in order of hardness. A pebble is harder than another if it scratches it. This is how Mohs worked out his scale.

A smooth flow Some liquids flow more easily than others. It depends on their “stickiness”, or viscosity. Hot lava from a volcano flows

slowly because it is sticky. Yes, a diamond is the hardest mineral of all. It will scratch quartz. quartz. scratch will It all. of mineral hardest the is diamond a Yes, 225 Science and technology Changing states When solids get hot enough, they melt and become liquids. When liquids get Liquid metal cold enough, they freeze and become Every substance melts and boils at a particular solid. This is called changing states and temperature (its melting it happens to all kinds of substances. and boiling points). Most metals are solid at everyday Changing states of water temperatures because they Water exists as a solid, liquid, or gas. You can find have a high melting point. But mercury has such a low all three forms of water in your home. They are ice, melting point that it is liquid water, and steam (water vapour). even at room temperature.

Condensation As water vapour in the air is cooled, it changes into liquid water. This is called condensation. You can see it on the outside of a cold bottle.

When water vapour in the air touches a cold bottle, it condenses into tiny drops of liquid. Ice is solid water. It forms When ice is warmed, it melts As water is heated, bubbles when liquid is cooled until and becomes liquid and of steam form. They rise to it freezes. Each piece of ice takes on the shape of the the surface and burst, so has a definite shape. container holding it. steam escapes into the air.

Rivers of iron Iron must be heated in a furnace to make it melt. Molten iron is so hot it glows white. It is poured into a mould and left to harden to make solid iron objects. 226 Why does chocolate become soft and gooey in your mouth? Changing states Washing dries faster on a hot day, when heat turns water into vapour very quickly.

Evaporating In the open air, water slowly turns into vapour – this is called evaporation. Wet clothes dry on a line because the water they hold evaporates.

zen Melting . fro fru chocolate .. it m in m s m id M e

Become Freezing Melting an expert... Icicles are spikes of ice When you don’t eat your 230-231 Molecules that form when dripping ice cream quickly enough, 232-233 water freezes. You often it melts and changes from a Reactions see them on trees in solid to a liquid! Chocolate and changes winter. If water keeps melts too, and makes dripping down and your hands all sticky. freezing, the icicle will Most solids will melt if the

get longer and longer. temperature is high enough. Because the warmth of your mouth makes it melt. it makes mouth your of warmth the Because 227 Science and technology e a th tom of s Amazing atoms u le around c If you could keep smashing z th u iz e n an object into smaller and h

smaller bits, you would s n

eventually break it down o r

into bits that can’t get any e

l smaller – atoms. Atoms are E tiny particles that make up everything around us.

Inside an atom

Inside an atom are three tiny types N e

of particle: protons, neutrons, and r o

electrons. Protons and neutrons n Proton make up the atom’s nucleus (core). n o r

The electrons are outside this. e l E

Oxygen atom

A water molecule has Hydrogen atom two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Au Hydrogen atom GOLD Golden number Molecules 79 The number of protons Substances are made from in an atom is called its atomic number. The little groups of atoms called atomic number of molecules. The molecules in gold is 79. This water have three atoms. means that each gold atom has 79 protons.

228 How many atoms are there in a drop of water? Amazing atoms

Sunflower oil comes from the seeds that grow in the middle of a sunflower.

Oxygen atom Big molecules In natural substances like vegetable oil, the atoms are often joined in chains to make very large molecules. The molecules in sunflower oil contain 50 atoms each.

Hydrogen atom Carbon atom

The explosion d or wh of a nuclear eir at bomb can create W ? a spectacular

“mushroom An atom is mostly cloud”. empty space. If an atom were the size of a sports stadium, the nucleus would be the size of a marble in the middle.

The mighty atom When the nucleus of an atom is split, it releases a huge amount of energy. Nuclear bombs use this “atomic energy” to create huge explosions. Nuclear power stations

use the energy to produce electricity. There are about 5 sextillion (5,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000). sextillion 5 about are There 229 Science and technology Molecules In most materials, atoms are joined Frozen solid Cold molecules move slowly, in tiny groups called molecules. The allowing them to pack together shapes of molecules and the way more easily. When water freezes, the molecules line up in they pack together can help explain neat rows, forming ice crystals. how different materials behave.

Steaming ahead

Molecules are always jiggling about. When Snow may look they get hot, they move further and faster. like white powder, but if you look When water heats up, the molecules may closely you can start moving so fast that they escape into see thousands of the air as water vapour. tiny crystals as clear as glass.

Clouds appear when water vapour cools down and becomes liquid again. The grey mist is made of millions of tiny liquid droplets.

Melt: As a solid heats up, its molecules move faster until they break free from each other and move separately, turning the solid into a liquid. Liquid

Solidify: As a liquid cools, its molecules lose energy and move Solid more slowly. Eventually they start sticking together, turning the liquid into a solid.

If a liquid is poured into a jar or bottle, it takes the shape of its container and stays in place. 230 Are diamonds impossible to destroy? Molecules Diamond is made into jewels that are almost indestructible.

Diamond molecule Diamond is the hardest natural substance known. Its hardness comes from the way the carbon atoms in each diamond are arranged. Each atom is joined by strong bonds to four neighbouring atoms.

Each group of five atoms in a diamond forms a pyramid shape. This shape makes diamond amazingly strong.

Become Graphite molecule Each carbon an expert Graphite, like diamond, atom in graphite is also made of carbon is joined to only 224-225 Properties three neighbours. atoms, but the atoms are The atoms form of matter arranged in a different layers that slip over 226-227 Changing way, making graphite each other, making graphite soft. states very soft. Graphite is used to make the soft lead in pencils.

Evaporate: As a liquid heats up, its molecules speed up until they move fast enough to float away as gas.

Gas

Condense: When gas molecules lose energy and slow down, they stick together and form liquid.

A gas can fill any container it’s put in. If there’s no lid to seal the container, the gas will

escape into the air. No, you can burn them. burn can you No, 231 Science and technology Reactions and changes When the atoms in molecules rearrange to form new kinds of molecules, we say a chemical reaction has taken place. Chemical reactions often lead to a dramatic change.

Melting is not a chemical reaction. Chemical change Physical change Fire is caused by a chemical Not all dramatic changes are caused by reaction. When wood burns, the chemical reactions. When ice lollies melt, atoms in wood are rearranged the atoms in the water molecules do not to form new kinds of molecules. get rearranged into new molecules – This process releases they remain water molecules. Melting is energy as light and simply a physical change.

heat, producing Burning is a chemical glowing flames. reaction.

Escaping energy Chemical reactions can release energy as heat and light. A sparkler contains chemicals that release a lot of energy as light to create a dazzling shower of sparks. 232 What chemical reaction makes silver objects slowly turn grey and dull? Reactions and changes Speeding up reactions Cooking makes carrots softer because the heat causes a chemical reaction. Chopping carrots into small bits speeds up the reaction because it increases the area of contact between the carrots and the hot water.

Sliced carrots cook faster than whole carrots.

Glow in the dark Light sticks glow in the dark thanks to a chemical reaction that releases energy as light. You can slow down this reaction by putting a light stick in a fridge, which makes it last longer.

Soda volcano nds o If you drop mints into Ha n a bottle of fizzy drink, Ask an adult to the drink turns to foam boil some red and explodes out in an cabbage and save the instant. This is a physical coloured water. Let the water change rather than a cool. Then add acid (vinegar) or chemical reaction. The alkali (bicarbonate of soda) and rough surface of the mints watch for a spectacular helps gas, dissolved in the change of colour! drink, to turn into bubbles much more quickly than it

normally would. Tarnishing. It happens when silver atoms react with oxygen atoms in air. in atoms oxygen with react atoms silver when happens It Tarnishing. 233 Science and technology Sources of energy What is energy? Energy comes from lots of different sources. Energy is what makes everything Wind drives wind turbines, happen. Your body needs energy which convert movement so that you can move, grow, and energy into electricity. keep warm. We also need energy Geothermal energy is heat from deep to power our cars, light our homes, underground.

and do thousands of other jobs. Plants can be burnt to provide energy for cooking, heating, and lighting. Sunshine We get nearly all our energy from Waves can be used to the Sun. Plants absorb the energy in make small amounts sunlight and store it as chemical energy. of electricity. The stored energy enters our bodies as Dams harness the energy food and is released inside our body’s in rivers flowing downhill cells. All animals and plants obtain to make electricity. their energy from the Sun this way. The Sun’s energy can be captured by solar panels to make electricity.

Only a tiny fraction Fossil fuels such as oil are of the Sun’s energy used to power cars and to reaches Earth. make electricity.

A bow stores energy by bending. When you let go, the bow springs back into shape and releases the stored energy. Stored energy An object can store energy and release it later. When you wind up a clockwork toy, energy is stored in a spring. A bow and arrow uses stored energy to shoot the arrow. Stored energy is also called potential energy because it has the potential to make things happen. 234 Is energy destroyed when we use it? What is energy? Movement energy Rollercoasters start from the Chain reactions top of a hill, where their Changing energy from one height gives them a lot of potential energy. As type to another is called they move downhill, “energy conversion”. the potential The steps can be linked energy turns into to make an energy chain. movement energy (kinetic energy), Coal contains making them go chemical energy. faster and faster.

Burning coal produces heat energy, which is used Nuclear energy to boil water. Boiling water Matter is made up of tiny creates steam. particles called atoms. The centre of an atom, called a nucleus, stores huge amounts of energy. Moving steam is a form of This nuclear energy is kinetic (motion) used in power stations to energy, which make electricity. operates turbines.

The kinetic energy produced by the moving turbines creates Electrical energy electricity. Lightning is caused by electrical energy in a storm cloud. The electrical energy turns into the heat and light energy of lightning and Electrical energy used by television sets the sound energy changes into light, sound, and heat energy.

of thunder. Energy cannot be destroyed. It turns into another form of energy when it’s used. it’s when energy of form another into turns It destroyed. be cannot Energy 235 Science and technology Electricity Have you ever thought about what powers your television, your computer, or the lights in your bedroom? A flow of electricity makes all these things work. Power supply Electricity travels to your home along wires above and sometimes below the ground. The wires above the ground hang on metal towers called pylons.

Making electricity Electricity is a form of energy. It can be made using any source of Everyday electricity energy, such as coal, gas, oil, wind, We use electricity in or sunlight. On a wind farm, wind all sorts of ways in turbines use the energy of moving air to create electricity. our everyday lives.

Heating: electricity heats up household appliances such as irons and cookers.

Lighting: electricity lights up our homes, schools, offices, and streets.

Communication: electricity can power telephones and computers.

Transport: electricity is used to power certain vehicles, such as trams. 236 What’s the name of a small object that can store electricity? Electricity Circuits of power An electric circuit is a loop that electricity can travel around. An electric current moves through the wires in this circuit, and lights up the bulb. Electrical cables Electrical cables are made of metal and plastic. Electricity flows through the metal (which is Circuits usually include an called a conductor). The plastic energy source (battery) (which is called an insulator) and load (lamp). stops electricity escaping.

Hands on

Rub a party balloon up and Lightning strikes down on your clothes. The When electricity builds balloon will now stick to the up in one place it is wall. This is because rubbing it gives the balloon an called static electricity. electric charge. A bolt of lightning is a huge spark of static electricity in the sky.

High voltage Electricity can be very dangerous. This triangle Food battery is an international Food that contains water and weak warning symbol. It acid will conduct electricity. In a food means “Caution: risk battery, a chemical reaction between of electric shock”. the metal and the acid in the food

creates an electric current. A battery. A 237 Science and technology Light Light is a form of energy that our eyes can detect. It comes in all the colours of the rainbow, but when the colours are mixed together, light is white. Where does light come from? Fireflies Light comes from inside Some animals create their own atoms. When an atom light. Fireflies have tails that flash a yellowish-green colour needs to lose energy, it at night to attract mates. spits out the energy as a particle of light. Using light The light of a flame is caused by We can use light for a chemical reaction that releases energy stored in the burning wax. many different things.

CDs and DVDs store Casting shadows digital information that Light can only travel can be read by laser beam. in straight lines. If Cameras capture light in something blocks its a split second to create path, it casts a shadow photographs. – a dark area that the light cannot reach. Telescopes magnify the light from distant stars and planets so we can see them.

Mirrors reflect light so we can see images of ourselves.

Periscopes bend light so we can see around corners.

Torches shine a beam of light to help us see in the dark. 238 What’s the fastest thing in the Universe? Light

Bright Dark

Light enters your eyes through your pupils (the black circles in the middle). Pupils can change size. When it’s dark they get bigger to let more light in, and when it’s bright they shrink so you don’t get dazzled.

How your eye works The human eye works like a camera. The front parts of the eye focus light rays just as a camera lens does. The focused rays form an upside-down image in the back of your eyeball. 3. An image forms on Light beams the back of the eye. Unless it enters your Light-sensing cells send 1. Light rays the image to the brain. eyes, light is invisible. from the tree The beam of light Tree enter your eye. from a lighthouse can only be seen from the

Lens side if it catches mist Cornea or dust in the air, 2. The cornea (front of eye) and causing some of the lens focus the rays. 4. The brain turns light rays to bounce the image the right way up. off towards you. Lighthouse beams sweep round in circles Reflecting light Convex mirrors bulge and can be seen from outwards. They make far out at sea. things look smaller When light hits a but let you see a mirror, it bounces wider area. straight back off. Concave mirrors If you look into a bulge inwards. They make things look mirror, you see this bigger but show a bounced light as smaller area.

a reflection. Light. It travels at a thousand millions kph (620,000,000 mph). (620,000,000 kph millions thousand a at travels It Light. 239 Science and technology Measuring sound Sound Loudness is measured in decibels. Every sound starts with a vibration, Rustling leaves make a like the quivering of a guitar string. sound of only 10 decibels. The vibration squeezes and stretches Whispering measures the air between the vibrating object about 20 decibels. and your ear. This is a sound wave. City traffic reaches approximately 85 decibels. Hands on

When you blow Drums make a sound of across a bottle, around 105 decibels. the air inside vibrates. Small air spaces vibrate more quickly than large spaces, making higher Road-drills measure about 110 decibels. notes. So partly empty bottles produce lower notes than fuller ones. A lion’s roar has been recorded at 114 decibels. Silent space Sound can travel through Fireworks can measure solids, liquids, and gases, 120 decibels or more. but it can’t travel where there is no matter. There is no sound in space because Jet engines sometimes hit there is 140 decibels. no air.

Sound waves travel through air like a wave along a coiled spring.

How hearing works When a sound reaches your ears, it makes your eardrums vibrate. The vibrations are passed to your inner ear through tiny bones. From here, nerves send messages to your brain that allow you to recognize the sound. 240 Do all animals hear the same sounds? Sound Speeding sound All sounds travel at the same speed, but they travel more quickly through solids and liquids than through gases. Supersonic jets fly faster than the speed of sound, so they can pass over you before you hear their sound.

When a supersonic jet breaks the speed of sound, it catches up with the sound waves in front of it and squashes them. As the air is squashed, it produces a sound called a “sonic boom”.

The echo effect Some animals use sound to communicate or to hunt. Dolphins “talk” by making clicks, barks and other sounds that other dolphins recognize. They also use clicks to find food – the sound bounces back off objects as an echo, so the dolphin can establish their shape and position. This is called echolocation.

When sounds bounce back, the dolphin can tell if the object is a yummy fish or

another dolphin! No – dogs can hear higher notes than people, and squid can’t hear at all. at hear can’t squid and people, than notes higher hear can dogs – No 241 Science and technology Forces and motion It can be difficult to make an object move, The football would stay still but once it is moving, it will go on moving if the footballer didn’t kick it. until something stops it. Force is needed to start something moving, make it move faster, and make it stop.

Newton’s laws of motion In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton worked out three important rules that explain how forces make things move. They have become the foundation of physics and Newton’s first law work for just about everything, from An object stays still if it isn’t being footballs to frogs. pushed or pulled by a force, or it keeps moving in a straight line at a constant speed.

Forces make things accelerate. The force is created by the cyclist’s powerful legs. Newton’s second law The bigger the force and the lighter the object, Newton’s third law the greater the acceleration. A professional Every action has an equal and opposite cyclist with a lightweight bike will accelerate reaction. The leaf moves away as the faster than a normal person cycling to work. frog leaps in the opposite direction.

242 How fast can a skydiver fall? Forces and motion Speed and velocity Speed is different to velocity. How quick you are going is easy to work out – divide how far you travel by the time it takes. Your velocity is how fast you travel in a particular direction. Changing direction without slowing reduces your velocity, but your speed stays the same.

two hour iles) in s, 50 m m ( h (25 mph). k 0 kp 80 s 4 e d i riv ee Accelerating is fun, but in science d sp it can be confusing. This is because ou ur acceleration doesn’t just mean speeding y yo up. It is any change in velocity. So, it If is also used to describe slowing down and changing direction.

The golf ball will carry on rolling until friction, gravity, and air resistance slow it down.

Rescue helicopters balance forces so LIFT they can hover above the waves. Inertia When things are standing still or moving, they are quite happy to continue with what they are DRAG/ doing. This stubbornness is called inertia – it is FRICTION the object’s resistance to change. Become an expert Balanced forces THRUST Forces act on objects all 234-235 What the time. Opposing forces is energy? can be balanced out. When 244-245 Machines this happens the object won’t GRAVITY

be pushed in any direction. The maxium velocity of falling through air is 200 kph (124 mph). (124 kph 200 is air through falling of velocity maxium The 243 Science and technology

Effort required to push down is Load needed here. Machines Machines make tasks easier. They reduce the effort you need to move Fulcrum something, or the time it takes. They Levers A lever is a bar that swivels work either by spreading the load, on a fixed point or fulcrum or by concentrating your efforts. and makes it easier to move a load. When you move your end further (the effort), the load at the other end moves a short way powerfully.

One type of lever works like a see-saw with the fulcrum between the load and the effort.

Another type places the load between the fulcrum and the effort (as on a wheelbarrow). Wheel and axle Axle A third type of lever, shown by An axle goes through the centre of a wheel. tongs, places the effort between Together they work as a simple rotating the fulcrum and the load. machine that makes it easier to move something from one place to another.

Hands on Try walking straight up a hill and then zig-zag your way up. Gears The winding path works like a Gears are wheels with teeth that simple machine. It increases the interlock so that one wheel turns The pedal turns distance you walk, but another. They increase speed or force. a wheel, which decreases the effort turns a smaller Gears on a bicycle affect how much you wheel at a you use. must turn the pedal to spin the wheel. greater speed. 244 Name six simple machines. Machines It takes just one man to pull a stone up the slope, but four men are needed to lift Wedge a stone straight up. An axe blade is an efficient but simple machine that increases force. When it hits the wood, the wedge forces Inclined plane the wood to split It is easier to push or pull something up a slope than apart between lift it straight up. A slope, or inclined plane, therefore its fibres. increases force. In ancient Egypt, stones were dragged up slopes to build the pyramids.

The screw turns around a greater distance than it moves into the cork, so it moves into the cork with more force than is used to turn it. Pulley A pulley makes it easier to lift something straight up. It consists of a piece of rope wound around The crane lifts up heavy loads a wheel. One end of the rope is with a system attached to the load and force is of pulleys. applied to the other end to pull up the load. When a pulley has more than one wheel the pulling force is increased.

Screw A screw is a machine. It is really an inclined plane, or slope, going round and up. A corkscrew uses a screw. It is easier to twist the point of a screw into a cork than

to push a spike straight in. Lever, wheel and axle, gear, wedge, inclined plane, and pulley. and plane, inclined wedge, gear, axle, and wheel Lever, 245 Planet Earth

The Earth’s The Earth’s axis goes ax North is Our planet through Pole .. its poles. . The Earth is the planet where we all live. It is a huge ball of hot, liquid rock with a solid surface called the crust. Planet Earth travels in space.

Spinning Earth The Earth slowly spins around once a day. The line it spins around is called the Earth’s axis. At the ends of the axis are the Earth’s poles.

.. . i s t ilt South ed Pole The Earth’s surface to Earth as one side. There are seven huge pieces a magnet of land on the Earth’s surface. Have you ever used a They are called continents. They compass to find your way? It works because the Earth cover about one-third of the acts as if it has a giant surface. Oceans cover the rest. bar magnet in the middle.

246 Which is the biggest ocean on the Earth? Our planet What’s it made of? Curiosity quiz The Earth is made up Look through the Planet of an outer thin crust. Earth pages and see if Under this is molten you can identify each of rock. In the middle the picture clues below. is a solid core.

The crust The Earth’s crust is cracked into lots of huge pieces called plates. The cracks are called fault lines.

The San Andreas fault, California, USA

Mountains and valleys Most mountains are made when rocks are pushed upwards by movements of the Earth’s crust. Blowing winds, flowing rivers, and glaciers wear away the mountains.

Sedona, Arizona, south-western USA Become an expert 6-7 Our world 272-273 Our place

in space The Pacific Ocean. It covers nearly half of the Earth’s surface. Earth’s the of half nearly covers It Ocean. Pacific The 247 Planet Earth Earth’s structure Earth is the only planet in the Solar Seen from space, Earth is a mass System that can support life, because of blue oceans and swirling clouds. it’s just the right distance from the Sun. Our amazing world is a huge ball of liquid rock with a solid surface.

Inside the Earth Crust If you could cut the Earth open, you’d see it’s made up of layers. The thin top layer, where we live, is called the crust. Core Outer Underneath is a layer of syrup-like rock core called the mantle, then an outer core of molten (liquid) iron and nickel. At the Mantle centre is a solid iron-and-nickel core.

Life-support systems Earth’s atmosphere and its surface water play an important role in supporting life. They help keep our planet at just the right temperature by absorbing the Sun’s heat and moving it around the world.

248 What is the world’s tallest mountain range? Earth’s structure Volcanoes Volcanoes are openings in the Earth’s crust. Sometimes magma (melted rock) from just beneath the crust bursts through these openings as a Making mountains volcanic eruption. The Himalayas started to form Lots of ash and dust 50 million years ago, when two shoot out too. moving plates collided. The mountains are still growing!

Earthquakes often occur along the San Drifting continents Fault lines Andreas Fault. The world hasn’t always Earthquakes happen looked like it does now. when “plates” rub Millions of years ago, all the against each other. land was joined together. Slowly, it broke up and the continents drifted apart.

Cracked crust 200 million years ago 135 million years ago 10 million years ago Earth’s top layer is made up of giant pieces called “plates”. San These fit together a Andreas bit like a jigsaw, but Fault they’re constantly moving. Volcanoes and earthquakes often happen in the weak spots where plates move Active

against each other. volcanoes The Himalayas. The 249 Planet Earth Rocks and minerals The Earth’s crust is made up of different rocks. Some Gabbro is a Serpentine is rock that is used White mica is a mineral a mineral that to make kitchen that you can find in some of these are hard but others stone carvers surfaces and kinds of toothpaste. use to create floors. are soft and crumbly. They works of art. are formed in different ways.

What is a rock? Fossils in stones A rock is formed from minerals. Fossils are the remains Most rocks are made up of different or imprints of plants minerals, but some contain just one. and animals that died millions of years ago, There are three main types of rock: preserved in stone. igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

The rock cycle Igneous rock Over millions of years, the Igneous rocks are made rocks in the Earth’s crust when hot molten magma can gradually change from from the Earth’s interior cools and solidifies. Some one type into another. They harden underground like are transformed by wind, granite. Some erupt first water, pressure, and heat. as lava in a volcano.

Sedimentary rock Metamorphic rock Wind and water Sometimes rocks wear rocks away. are crushed Small pieces, called underground, or sediments, wash into scorched by hot the sea. These settle magma. Then they into layers, which may be transformed pack together to form into new rocks such as sedimentary rocks, such as marble, slate, and gneiss. limestone and sandstone. 250 Which type of rock floats on water? Rock and minerals What is a mineral? A mineral is a solid that occurs naturally. It is made up of chemicals and has a crystal structure. Minerals are everywhere you look. We use minerals to build cars and computers, fertilize soil, and to clean our teeth. Rock salt is a mineral that is spread on roads in icy weather. It makes the ice melt. Minerals in your Feldspar home Mineral mixtures is uused for glazing Granite rock is ceramics. Halite Salt is the mineral made up of different halite. We add it to our Mica is coloured minerals. The grgroundo up food for flavour. black mineral is mica, and used the pink is feldspar, in paint. Quartz from sand is used to make the silicon chips in and the grey mineral Quartz calculators and computers. is quartz. cancan also occur as the gemstone Kaolinite is used to make Crystals amethyst. crockery. It is also used to make paper look glossy. Minerals usually form crystals. Crystals have a number of flat Illite is a clay mineral and is used in terracotta surfaces. The largest crystals Quartz pots and bricks. stalactites form when minerals in magma or form in caves over thousands Mica is used to make trapped liquids cool very slowly. of years. glittery paint and nail polish.

Graphite is the “lead” in pencils. It is also used in bicycle brakes.

Rhodochrosite is a rose-coloured gemstone used

in jewellery. Pumice is filled with air bubbles, so some pieces can float. can pieces some so bubbles, air with filled is Pumice 251 Planet Earth Shaping the land The surface of our planet never stops changing. Over millions of years, land is slowly worn away by wind, rain, and rivers. Floods, volcanoes, and earthquakes can change the shape of the land in just a few hours. River power The Grand Canyon formed over millions of years as the Colorado River slowly wore ever deeper into the rock.

Going underground Caves form when rain seeps underground and eats away at soft rock such as limestone. Coastal shapes Powerful waves shape the coastlines around the world’s oceans.

Bays form where waves wear into areas of softer rock along the coast.

Headlands are areas of harder rock that have not been worn away. Glaciers at work Sea arches form when waves open up cracks Glaciers are huge rivers of ice in headlands. that flow slowly off snowcapped mountains. Broken rock sticks to Sea stacks are pillars of the bottom of the glacier, which rock left in the sea after then wears away the land like an arch collapses. sandpaper, carving out a deep, U-shaped valley. 252 What is the most active volcano on Earth? Shaping the land New islands Floods Some volcanoes Heavy rain makes are hidden under rivers overflow, the sea. When they causing floods. erupt, they can give Floods have birth to whole new enormous power islands, like Surtsey and can wreck in Iceland (left). buildings and Surtsey burst out re-shape the land. of the sea in 1963. Before flood After flood

Hills of sand In deserts, winds blow sand into hills called dunes. In Worn by wind some deserts the dunes Strong winds can stretch for hundreds lift sand off the of miles, forming a ground and blast it “sand sea”. hard against rocks. The rock is worn

into strange shapes. Mount Kilauea in Hawaii. in Kilauea Mount 253 Planet Earth

Humus Soil Layers in soil Soil is the thin layer of loose Soil builds up in material on the land. Soil layers over many years. Plant roots contains minerals, air, water, grow in the topsoil, and decaying organic matter. which is generally Topsoil the richest in plant Healthy humus food. The lower Humus is a dark, Subsoil layers are rocky. rich substance Plant roots do made up of rotting not reach this far plants and animals Regolith down in the soil. (called “organic

matter”). It contains Bedrock lots of nutrients, which plants need to grow.

Life underground Soil is home to thousands of animals, including slugs, ants, beetles, and spiders. Larger animals that spend time underground, such as moles, mix up humus and minerals as they burrow through the soil.

254 What is a scientist who studies soil called? Soil Sizing up soil Soil erosion When soil is farmed Different types of too much, its nutrients soil have different get used up. The topsoil sized particles. blows or washes away. Not many plants can Sandy soils contain survive in these areas particles about 2 mm without the rich topsoil. (0.08 in) across. ps keep Clay soils have very hing hel soil fe small particles. Water loug rtil collects between them. P e.

Loamy soils have a Ploughing breaks up soil mixture of small and to stop it getting hard large particles. and solid. This helps crops grow more easily.

Hands on Important earthworms Half fill a jar Earthworms help to make fertile soil. with soil and top it up Their burrows let air into the soil, and with water. Put on the lid create pathways for water to move around and shake. Leave for a more easily. Earthworms also help the remains day. The soil should of plants and animals to decompose. This separate into layers. releases important nutrients into the soil.

Earthworm waste is good for soil too! A pedologist. A 255 Planet Earth

Resources in the ground Rig Sea level

The ground holds many useful things, People drill holes to from fuels like coal and oil, to drinking extract oil and gas water, and building materials. These from deep under the valuable items are known as resources sea floor. and we have dug, drilled, and searched for them for many years. Finding fuels Oil and gas are often found in pockets deep underground. Sometimes, these are even below the seabed. Coal develops closer to the surface in layers called seams.

Deep drilling Oil rigs far out at sea use huge drills to extract the liquid oil from the ground. Coal is solid and is dug out in mines or pits. In hot water Water in the ground can get very hot near volcanoes. In Iceland, they use this naturally hot water to heat houses or make steam to turn electricity generators.

256 Which underground resource are plastics made from? Resources in the ground Getting gas Making glass Gas is only found in certain Glass is made by melting places. To get it to where it is together sand, soda ash, and needed, it is fed through very ground limestone. People blow long pipes, or changed into or machine press the red-hot liquid and put in special ships. mineral mixture into different shapes that set hard and clear as the glass cools.

Glass bottles are shaped from molten glass. Metal variety Extracting metals Different metal resources Most metals are found underground as minerals have different uses. in rocks called ores. Giant Aluminium is a soft machines dig up the ore. The metal used to make cans, metal is extracted, or taken aircraft, and car bodies. out, from the ore using heat. Gold is rare and looks attractive, so it is often used to make jewellery.

Iron is strong. It is used to make steel for ships, buildings, and pylons.

Copper conducts electricity and is used to make electrical wires.

Creating concrete Concrete is an important building material. It is a mixture of sand, gravel, cement, and water. All these ingredients are

found in the ground. Oil. 257 Planet Earth Fresh and salt water Earth is often called the blue planet Freshwater sources because 75 per cent of its surface is People get fresh water covered in water. Most of the Earth’s from different sources water is salt water in the oceans. on Earth’s surface, including rivers, streams, Less than one per cent of all the lakes, and reservoirs. water on Earth is fresh. Rivers and streams flow from mountains down to The hydrosphere the oceans. The hydrosphere is the Lakes are natural dips in the Earth where name for all the water water collects.

on Earth. It includes Reservoirs are man-made oceans, rivers, and lakes that are built to lakes. It also includes store water. water that is frozen, such as icebergs. Trapped in ice Less than 33 per cent of fresh water is usable by humans. The rest is frozen in glaciers or icebergs (below), or as huge sheets of ice at the North and South poles.

Water for life All animals – and most other living things – must have water to survive. In mammals, including humans, water is part of the blood and of organs such as the skin and brain. There is water in every cell in your body!

258 How much of your body is water? Fresh and salt water

Salty seas The world’s oceans are salty The Dead Sea contains so much salt because they contain a lot of that people can just dissolved chemicals that scientists float on the surface. call salts. Drinking water also contains salts, but only in small amounts, so you can’t taste them.

Hands on

Surviving in salt water Put an egg in a glass of Countless animals live in water. water. The egg will sink. They don’t drink, but take water Start stirring in salt until into their bodies in other ways. the egg rises. The egg will Fish often absorb water as it eventually float because washes in and out of their gills. salt water is denser than Salt-water fish absorb only fresh water. a little of the salt.

Estuary life An estuary is the wide part of a river where it nears the sea. When the tide comes in, salt water flows into the estuary. When the tide goes out, the estuary contains mostly fresh water from the river or stream that flows into it. Mangrove trees like these are

able to live in the changing estuary water. Your body is approximately 66 per cent water. cent per 66 approximately is body Your 259 Planet Earth The water cycle Water is constantly on the move, between oceans, land, air, and rivers. This movement is called the water cycle.

Water falls Sun as rain from When this water clouds. vapour floats high in the sky, it condenses and forms clouds.

Water heated When rain by the Sun falls, it collects evaporates. It in rivers and changes from streams. liquid to vapour.

Groundwater

Water from rivers Sea and streams flows into the sea. Natural recycling The water cycle is the journey water makes as it moves from the air to the land, into the seas, and back into the air again.

On the dry side Moisture-laden sea air has to rise when it hits a coastal mountain. Since air cools as it rises, all the moisture condenses into rain. So, on the other side of the mountain, no rain falls – this area is called a rainshadow. 260 What is electricity generated by running water called? The water cycle Groundwater In the water cycle, some water seeps underground, where it collects in rocks Using water and sometimes forms Fresh water is pools in caves. Some trapped in reservoirs groundwater is pumped and then piped to up and used for drinking homes, businesses, or irrigation. and farms. When you turn on a tap, the water that comes out has been on a long journey!

Saving water There is a limited amount of fresh water on Earth. If we want to make sure there’s enough to go Damp ground around, it’s important Wetlands form on land in areas where fresh water that everyone uses less. does not drain away. They provide a home for many water-loving plants, birds, animals, and fish. Turn off taps when you finish brushing your teeth Drought or washing. When very little rain falls, experts Flush the toilet only when call this a drought. necessary. Some toilets have two flush controls. Droughts do not occur only in Don’t run the dishwasher deserts – any area when it’s half empty that gets much less – wait until it’s full. rain than usual is Take a shower instead said to be suffering of a bath. Showering uses

from drought. much less water. Hydroelectricity. 261 Planet Earth The atmosphere Planet Earth is wrapped in a thin layer of air called the atmosphere. Without this protective blanket of gases, life on Earth could not exist. Shimmering particles The atmosphere is mainly Gases in air made up of gases, but it Air is a mixture of different gases, including also contains tiny particles nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. Oxygen of dust, pollen, and water is vital for plants and animals as it allows them droplets. All particles can cause a haze in the air when to breathe. Carbon dioxide is vital for plants. the Sun shines through them. They absorb it from the air and use the carbon atoms to help build new leaves and stems.

The greenhouse effect If there was no atmosphere, the Sun’s warming rays would bounce off Earth and disappear into space. From space, the atmosphere looks like But the atmosphere traps a blue haze over Earth. some of the heat, making Earth warm enough for us to survive.

Protective layer A gas called ozone in the atmosphere protects Earth from harmful rays in sunlight. Above Antarctica there is an area of the ozone layer that is much thinner than anywhere else. This “ozone hole” was caused by chemical pollution.

262 How far up from the ground does space officially begin? The atmosphere

Layers of the atmosphere 500 km (310 miles) The atmosphere is made up of layers, each with a different name. The bottom layer is the

troposphere, where clouds form Satellite and planes fly. Above this, the Into thin air air gets thinner and thinner as Like everything else, air is the atmosphere merges into space. pulled by gravity. Most air molecules are pulled close to Light spectacular the ground, where the air is Space shuttle thick and easy to breathe. Sunlight can create Higher up, air is so thin that dazzling effects as it climbers need oxygen tanks. strikes the atmosphere

and is scattered by air, THERMOSPHERE water, and dust.

Rainbows form when water Northern lights droplets reflect sunlight and split it into different colours.

The sky looks blue on clear days because air molecules scatter blue light the most.

At sunset and sunrise, dust 85 km (53 miles) and hazy cloud in the air Shooting stars turn the sky orange and red.

Moving water

The atmosphere is always swirling around, MESOSPHERE creating winds. The winds push on the oceans, 50 km causing the water to swirl too. These swirling (31 miles) currents carry warmth around the planet.

Weather balloon STRATOSPHERE 10 km (6 miles)

Jumbo jet

TROPOSPHERE 100 km (62 miles). (62 km 100 263 Planet Earth

Kites stay high in the air Weather by catching the wind. Is it sunny or rainy? Is there snow on the ground or a thunderstorm brewing? People are always interested in the weather because it affects what we do and what we wear.

Weather words Predicting the weather Here are some main Weather forecasters look at pictures beamed back from features of the weather. weather satellites. Computers then help forecasters work Sunshine gives us heat and light. It warms the out what the weather is air and dries the land. going to be like over the next few days. Clouds are made from tiny water droplets. Dark clouds mean rain is coming. Rainy days Hailstones are balls Rain clouds form when of ice that grow inside thunderclouds. warm, moist air rises upwards and then Wind is air moving around. Winds can be a cools. Droplets of water light breeze or a strong gale. join together until they

Rain is drops of water become so heavy that that fall from clouds. Rain they fall. Rain clouds is very good for plant life. look dark because Snow is made from tiny sunlight cannot shine bits of ice. It falls instead of rain when it is very cold. through the droplets.

264 Which is bigger: a tornado or a hurricane? Weather Wildfires Long periods of hot or dry weather can make plants dry out so much that they catch fire easily when struck by lightning. This can lead to a raging wildfire that burns down whole forests.

Stormy weather Lightning strikes when electricity builds up in clouds. The electricity is created when ice The brightest bolts of lightning travel crystals in the clouds rub against upwards from the each other. A bolt of lightning ground to the clouds. heats the air around it so quickly that the air explodes, creating the rumbling noise we call thunder.

Winds on the move Wind is moving air. Warm air rises and cool air sinks. This movement is what makes the wind blow.

Twisters Tornadoes (twisters) are whirling funnels d or wh eir at of wind that form W ?

beneath massive In certain conditions thunderclouds. hailstones can grow to be The fierce wind enormous. The biggest ever can do enormous hailstone weighed damage, and the 1 kg (2 lb) and was funnel can suck over 40 cm (16 in) up debris like a across! gigantic vacuum

cleaner. A hurricane is thousands of times bigger than a tornado. a than bigger times of thousands is hurricane A 265 Planet Earth

Nuclear power stations generate energy by The energy crisis splitting atoms. People around the world use energy for many different purposes – from powering cars, to heating homes. Most of this energy comes from burning coal, oil, and natural gas (fossil fuels). But these fuels won’t last forever, and their fumes are Alternative energy damaging the atmosphere. We need to find sources of energy other than fossil fuels Global warming – sources that cause less Burning fossil fuels fills the air with greenhouse pollution and will not run out. Nuclear power is one gases, which trap some of the Sun’s heat in option. Others possibilities the atmosphere. If Earth becomes too warm, include energy from deserts will spread, icebergs will melt, and sunlight, wind, and waves. sea levels will rise.

Greenhouse gases trap heat, although some escapes back into the Heat from the Sun atmosphere. enters through the atmosphere.

The wind provides a limitless supply of non-polluting energy. However, wind turbines are large and can be costly to set up.

266 What are fossil fuels made of? The energy crisis Cleaner cars Ordinary petrol cars use a lot of Making a difference oil, and produce There are lots of small harmful fumes. things we can all do to Now car makers save energy. are looking for alternatives to petrol. To recharge an Start growing your own electric car, you vegetables and fruit, even Electric cars do not give off any just plug it in. if they’re only in pots. kind of fumes. Hydrogen engines When planning a burn hydrogen gas, and only holiday, remember that trains, boats, and cars use give off water. less energy than aeroplanes. Instead of buying new Rising energy needs clothes, swap with a friend As the world’s or buy them second-hand. population grows, we Eat local food that hasn’t are using more and travelled miles, because more energy. But to transporting food costs energy. stop global warming, we may have to Don’t throw away glass, reduce the amount of plastics, metal, or paper – reuse or recycle them. energy we all use. Take your own bags when you go shopping. Making plastic bags takes energy. Energy-saving homes Don’t leave your TV or This house saves energy DVD on standby – this by using solar panels and wastes lots of electricity. wind turbines to generate its own non-polluting Hang your laundry electricity. The walls outside to dry. Don’t waste are thick, so that less electricity running a dryer. energy is needed to Ask your parents about heat the house. insulating the roof to prevent heat from escaping.

If you get cold, put on a To reduce the energy used in jumper instead of turning manufacturing, it’s a good idea

to use recycled building materials. up your heating. The remains of plants and animals that lived millions of years ago. years of millions lived that animals and plants of remains The 267 The universe What is space? Space holds many secrets. It contains places where human beings can be stretched into spaghetti shapes, or boiled, or frozen solid: that’s why astronauts wear protective clothing in space. Welcome to a mysterious – and endlessly fascinating – world. What is space? Is that space? When people think of On a cloudless night, you space, they think of: can see thousands of stars. Space is the name we give Weightlessness to the huge empty areas in – everything floats as if there’s no gravity. between the atmospheres of stars and planets. Nothingness – vast areas of space are Apart from the odd rock, completely empty. space is sprinkled only Stars – every star is a with dust and gas. burning ball of gas. Our Sun is a star.

Astronauts – people who explore the world beyond our Earth.

Rockets and satellites – are what scientists use to explore space. Too big to imagine Astronomers measure distance Silence – there is no in space in light years. One air in space, so there is absolutely no sound. light year is the distance light travels in one year: that’s 10 million million km A nebula is a cloud (6 million million miles). of dust and gas in space. This is the Helix nebula, about 700 light years away, seen from NASA’s Spitzer Space telescope.

268 How old is the Universe? What is space? Why is space so dark? Curiosity quiz Space is black because there is nothing there Look through The to reflect light. From Universe section and see space, Earth looks if you can identify the lit up because pictures below. light from our Sun reflects off sea, and land, and the particles in our atmosphere.

American astronaut Michael Gernhardt went on four separate space missions, and spent more than 23 hours walking around in space.

Become an expert 274-275 Milky Way

276-277 Rockets Experts believe it’s just under 14 BILLION years old. years BILLION 14 under just it’s believe Experts 269 The universe EXOSPHERE The exosphere is the outer layer of the atmosphere, extending about 10,000 km Where does (6,000 miles) above the ground. From here, lighter gases drift space begin? into space beyond. The thermosphere reaches Earth is cloaked in a way up to more than 700 km (over 400 miles) above Earth. thin layer of gases – the The polar lights (aurora borealis in the north and atmosphere. Outside this aurora australis in the south) glow in the thermosphere. atmosphere is space, where there is no air to breathe, or to allow wings THERMOSPHERE to fly, and where nobody can hear you scream.

Fading away

Our atmosphere does not Most experts agree that space begins at 100 km just end suddenly – it fades (62 miles) above the ground. gradually into space. Past this, our image is not drawn to scale.

View from Mir TROPOSPHERE STRATOSPHERE MESOSPHERE In turn, the mesosphere extends about 85 km Photographed from the American shuttle (53 miles) above the ground. Atlantis, the Russian Mir space station The air is thin here, but it’s still thick enough to slow once orbited above Earth’s atmosphere. meteorites down.

The stratosphere rises about 50 km (31 miles) above the Earth. Planes cruise in the upper troposphere or lower stratosphere, above the clouds.

The troposphere extends between 6 and 20 km (3½–12 miles) above the ground. All our weather takes place in the troposphere. 270 What do we call the mix of gases that makes up our atmosphere? Where does space begin? Space badge The American space agency NASA awards astronaut wings to service personnel and civilians who have flown more than 80 km (50 miles) above the Earth’s surface. Shown here are civilian astronaut wings. If you c ould o drive nly a a ca bout r str an h aight our up, to rea it wo ch sp uld t ace. ake

Gaia, a European satellite due for launch in 2011.

Slipping through air A spacecraft has to be streamlined to move easily and safely through air. Where necessary, an extra part called a fairing is added to achieve this effect – a nose cone is a fairing. Space hat-ellite The parts of a space shuttle Satellites can be any shape at all (the orbiter, fuel tank, and – even hat shaped. They don’t rocket boosters) are streamlined for lift-off. need to be streamlined, because

there’s no air in space. We call it air. it call We 271 The universe Our place in space Earth seems huge to us – after all, it can take you a long time just to travel to school! But Earth is only a very tiny part of space. So where exactly does it Earth looks like a swirly belong in the Universe? blue marble suspended in space.

The Earth and its moon Earth, our home in space, has one natural satellite, our moon. The moon is about

one quarter the size of Earth Jupiter Saturn and, on average, it orbits Earth about 384,000 km Uranus Mercury Venus (240,000 miles) Mars from us. Neptune

This picture shows where the planets are located. Astronauts who None of them, or their have seen Earth orbits, are drawn to scale. from space are struck by its beauty. One described it as looking like a Christmas-tree decoration. The solar system Earth is the third planet from the Sun, at just the right distance from it to support life. The eight planets that orbit the Sun (plus moons, comets, asteroids, meteors, dwarf planets, dust, and gas) make up our solar system. 272 There used to be a ninth planet, Pluto, but this is now classed as a dwarf planet. Our place in space In a spin Our galaxy has long curved arms that spiral out from a central bulge.

The Milky Way

Our Sun The Local Group The Milky Way is one of the largest galaxies in a cluster known as the Local Group. Millions of galaxy clusters make up the Universe. The Milky Way living things. Our solar system is located in ns of a galaxy called the Milky illio s tr Way, a collection of ort pp billions of stars. It su lies on the edge ce pa of one of s in the spiral e om arms. h r u O The universe The Milky Way Our solar system is a tiny – tiny! – part of a gigantic spiral galaxy, the Milky Way. This is made up of billions of stars, which look as if they have been sprinkled thickly onto the night sky.

Scientists think there are about 100,000 million stars in the Milky Way galaxy, but there may be even more.

Why is it milky? Before the invention of telescopes, people could not see the stars very clearly – they Become were blurred together in a hazy white streak. The ancient Greeks called this streak an expert a “river of milk”. This is how our galaxy 272-273 Our place became known as the Milky Way. in space 290-291 A star Milky myths is born Many myths have developed about the formation of the Milky Way.

Native American stories Hindu myth sees the A side view tell of a dog dropping corn milkiness as the speckled The Milky Way, like as he fled across the sky. belly of a dolphin. all spiral galaxies, is Kalahari bushmen say it The ancient Egyptians flat, with a bulge at the was created by hot embers believed the stars were centre, and arms that thrown up from a fire. a pool of cow’s milk. circle outwards.

274 Where are the oldest stars in the Milky Way? The Milky Way

Astronomers think the Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy.

We are here!

It takes light 100,000 years to pass from one edge of the Milky Way

to the other. They lie towards its centre, often in giant balls called globular clusters. globular called balls giant in often centre, its towards lie They 275 The universe A nose cone, or fairing, reduces air resistance Rockets as the rocket takes off. Rockets carry satellites and people into space. A rocket burns fuel to produce a jet of gas. The hot gas expands rapidly and is blasted downwards causing a force (the thrust) to push the rocket up.

Birth of the rocket Launch of the The first liquid-fuelled rocket was Long March 2C launched in 1926 by an American, rocket from the Jiuquan Space Robert Goddard. It reached 12.5 m Centre, China, on (41 ft). The flight lasted 2.5 seconds. August 19, 1983. Its main cargo was a photographic imaging satellite. Vostok 1 spaceship

On return, Yuri Gagarin

First in space parachuted from the was 35.1 m (115 ft) long and 3.3 m (11 ft) wide. ft) (11 m 3.3 and long ft) (115 m 35.1 was The first person in space was Vostok 1 capsule 7 km 2C March Long (just over 4 miles) above the Russian cosmonaut, Yuri the ground. Gagarin. He was sent up in Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961 for a 108-minute flight.

276 How many tests were needed for the engine that powered the first stage of Ariane 5? Rockets Types of rocket There are many different kinds of rocket. Reusable space shuttles To escape Earth’s carry people to and from gravity, a rocket has to reach the space station. just over 11 km (7 miles) per Saturn V were the largest second. This is called the escape rockets ever built. They were velocity. used to launch all the moon landings.

Firework rockets are used for celebrations.

Ariane 5 Military rockets have been used for hundreds of years.

Experimental rockets provide information about fast and high flight.

Some satellites have small rocket engines to position them once they are in orbit.

Regular launches Today, rockets such as Ariane 5 are used to launch satellites into space. A satellite is a rocket’s payload, or cargo, whose size determines whether it is sent up by a small or large rocket.

Biggest and best Ariane 5 launch vehicle. The main The Saturn V were the largest, and most tank contains 25 tonnes (27.5 tons) powerful, rockets ever built. They were used of liquid hydrogen. The tubes on each side are solid fuel boosters that 13 times, between 1968 and 1972, including for supply extra power for lift-off.

the first moon landing. Around 300 tests were done. were tests 300 Around 277 The universe Moon journey During the 1960s there was a race between the USA and the former Soviet Union to put a man on the moon. The USA landed the first man on the moon with Apollo 11 in 1969. 9 Apollo 11 reached the moon because The service module of a huge rocket called Saturn V. 10 Most of Saturn V contained the fuel is ejected before re-entry needed to blast it into space. Three into Earth’s atmosphere. ey back astronauts sat in a tiny capsule at journ the top of the rocket. The 1 Five F1 engines 11 The command blast the Saturn V module is the only rocket into space part of the mission from the Kennedy t to return to Earth. Space Center. ou ey rn jou Earth e 12 Th 3 The command and service Command modules separate from the module rocket and perform a 180° turn. 13

The rocket’s engines The service module 2 contained the power fire to set the craft on and life-support systems. a course to the moon.

What was Apollo 11? Apollo 11 was made up of three modules, or parts: the tiny command module, the service module, and the lunar module. 278 How many astronauts have walked on the moon? Become Moon journey an expert 6 The journey has taken 280-281 Men on the 102 hours, 45 minutes. The moon lunar module is ready to land. 276-277 Rockets, 7 The command 5 The rest of the and service modules rocket is discarded orbit the moon (one while the command, Moon astronaut remains on service, and lunar board) while the lunar modules continue module lands. Two to the moon. astronauts walk on the moon.

8 The lunar module joins the command and service modules so the two lunar astronauts can climb through. The lunar module The command 4 is then abandoned. and service modules reattach to the lunar module, which is still The Eagle has landed connected to the rocket. The lunar module (the part of Apollo 11 that landed) was also known as the Eagle. It touched down on the surface of the moon on 20 July, 1969.

The three astronauts worked and slept in the command module.

Mission commander Neil Armstrong struggled Apollo 11 to find a flat landing site. He succeeded with just

seconds to spare. Twelve 279 The universe Men on the moon On 20 July 1969, Neil Armstrong became the first person to walk on the surface of the moon. He was joined by Buzz Aldrin. A third astronaut, or ird wh Mike Collins, remained in orbit with the e at W ?

The lunar command and service modules. module computer

on Apollo 11 had just

71K of memory. Some

calculators can

now store more than 500K.

The lunar What did they do? module was Armstrong and Aldrin nicknamed the Eagle. spent almost 22 hours on the moon. About 2.5 hours of this was spent outside the Eagle, collecting rock and soil samples, setting up experiments, and taking pictures.

What was it like? Buzz Aldrin described the moon’s surface as like nothing on Earth. He said it consisted of a fine, talcum-powder-like dust, strewn with pebbles and rocks.

280 Why is there no blue sky on the moon? Men on the moon Here comes Earth Instead of the moon rising, the astronauts saw How did they talk? Earth rising over the There’s no air in space, so moon’s horizon – it sound has nothing to travel looked four times through. Lunar astronauts bigger than the use radio equipment in moon looks their helmets. from Earth.

Neil Armstrong

We have transport! Three later Apollo missions This dish each carried a small electric car, antennae a lunar rover, which allowed the allowed the astronauts to explore away from astronauts to send pictures the lander. These were left on the to Earth. moon when the astronauts left.

One lunar rover reached a top speed of 22 km/h (13.5 mph). Splashdown The astronauts returned to Earth in the Apollo 11 command module. This fell through the atmosphere and landed in the Pacific Ocean. A ringed float

helped to keep it stable. Because the moon has no atmosphere. no has moon the Because 281 The universe Ditch the tanks! The rocket boosters are released Space shuttle two minutes after launch. They parachute back to Earth and will A partly reusable craft built be used again. The tank is discarded by the US to send astronauts eight minutes after launch, and into space, the shuttle was breaks up in the atmosphere.

first launched in April 1981. Main (external) fuel tank The orbiter carries between five and seven Which bit is that? crew members. The shuttle has three main components: the orbiter (the plane part, and the only part that goes into orbit), a huge fuel tank, and two rocket boosters.

Heat protection Nearly 25,000 heat- resistant tiles cover the orbiter to protect it from high temperatures on re-entry.

d or wh ir at e ? W Woodpeckers delayed a space shuttle There are two launch in 1995 by pecking rocket boosters, one holes in the fuel tank’s on each side. Once lit, the boosters The orbiter’s insulating foam. Plastic cannot be shut off; engines are used owls are now used they burn until they once the orbiter run out of fuel. to frighten other reaches space. birds away.

282 How long does it take the orbiter to reach space? Space shuttle Pop it in there! The orbiter fleet Each orbiter has a huge payload bay. Five orbiters were built. You could park Two have been lost in a school bus in tragic accidents. this cavity, which holds the satellites, Columbia first flew in experiments, and 1981. It disintegrated on laboratories that re-entry in 2003. need to be taken Challenger was into space. destroyed in 1986, just 73 seconds after launch.

The payload’s doors open Discovery first flew in once the shuttle is in orbit. 1984. It marked the 100th shuttle mission in 2000.

Atlantis first flew in 1985. It has completed more than 25 missions.

Endeavour was built to replace Challenger. It first flew in 1992.

A safe landing Shuttles glide down, belly first. Once the orbiter touches the runway, it releases a 12 m (40 ft) drag chute to slow it down. Space shuttle Endeavour landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California, USA.

The future shuttle NASA are currently working on designs for a new orbiter, Command module the Orion Crew Exploration Service module Vehicle (CEV). It will travel Launcher into space on an Ares 1 rocket launcher, and carry up to six Ares 1 rocket launcher

astronauts on each mission. It takes just over eight minutes. eight over just takes It 283 The universe

The International Space Station (ISS) Working in space seen from the space shuttle Discovery. We have all seen workers on a construction site, hammering and drilling. Imagine a construction site floating in space high above the Earth’s surface. That’s what astronauts have to cope with when they are repairing a satellite, or putting together a space station.

Is it warm Illustration of how a sunrise today? would look from space. In orbit, the strong An astronaut may be sunshine heats outside the space station for hours at a time. This astronauts up. one is working on the Surprisingly, it’s difficult station’s robotic arm. to lose heat in space, so spacesuits have to include

a refrigeration unit! Between 1998 and 2005, more than 60 spacewalks were performed. Each time ands on two astronauts worked on H the International Astronauts say Space Station. that moving their hands in their gloves is difficult. To feel what they mean, put a rubber band around your closed fingers and try to open them. Do this fifteen times.

284 What does EVA stand for? Working in space A piece of history The first ever spacewalk was performed by Soviet astronaut Alexei Leonov on March 18th, 1965. He was soon followed by American Edward White on June 3rd, 1965.

Edward White was the first American to spacewalk.

Alexei Leonov became a celebrity in the Soviet Union and around the world.

Slow down Astronauts have to work slower than construction workers on Earth. If they twist a bolt too quickly, they will send themselves into a spin.

Make it larger Space tools are extra large so that astronauts can grab them in their bulky gloves. They also have to be tied to the astronaut to prevent them

from floating away. ExtraVehicular Activity. It means space walking! space means It Activity. ExtraVehicular 285 The universe Exploring Mars Spacecraft have flown past Mars, orbited it, and landed on its surface. One day, we may even build a base on Mars. It may be cold, barren, and dusty, but it’s full of possibilities.

Why study Mars? Looking at Mars At some point in its history, life may have There have been a number of existed on Mars. Although it’s about half missions to Mars. the size of Earth, it has clouds, weather patterns, and polar icecaps – once it even In 1971, two spacecraft, Mars 2 had active volcanoes. Learning about Mars and Mars 3, got to Mars, but their may help us to understand our own planet. landers failed to operate. In 1976, two spacecraft, the Viking landers, tested for signs of life.

In 1996, Mars Global Surveyor was launched. It completed its first mission, but later lost contact.

In 1997, Pathfinder touched down, releasing a small rover called Sojourner.

In 1999, the Mars Polar Lander proved unsuccessful. On the barren surface of Mars, the robotic Sojourner rover examines a rock later nicknamed “Yogi”. Seeing red The landing craft that visited Mars took lots of pictures of its surface. These show a layer of soil that is rich in iron, which gives Mars its red colour – like rusty iron on Earth. 286 How much did it cost to build, launch, and land the Mars rovers? Exploring Mars What’s happening now? Two rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, have The future on Mars been exploring the Martian surface since 2004. They have sent back a wealth of data about the planet’s surface, including plenty of evidence that there was once water on Mars.

Scientists are always searching for ways to unlock the secrets of the red planet. Among Cameras mounted on the ideas suggested are an aeroplane that masts give scientists panoramic views of could travel across its surface (above left) the Martian surface. and a thermal probe that would penetrate its ice caps (above right).

In order to explore the potential of a colony in space, eight scientists lived in a self- contained dome, Biosphere II, for This image shows a two years during 9 mm (.35 in) hole in the early 1990s. Nasa rover Mars’ surface drilled and Spirit photographed by Spirit. Living on Mars If we do establish a base on Mars, it will The rover is powered by have to be a self-contained structure solar panels. that protects its inhabitants from both the atmosphere and the Sun’s radiation. Below is an artist’s impression of what a Martian

base might look like. Approximately US$ 800 million. 800 US$ Approximately 287 The universe The Sun Our Sun is a star, but it is closer to us than any other star. Like all stars, it is a massive ball of burning gas, fed The Sun is white. Its colour is best by constant explosions. Without it, seen when reflected in water. Never look directly at the Sun. our planet would be lifeless.

Shimmering lights can light up the skies towards the Earth’s polar regions.

Long lived The Sun was born just under five billion years ago. Although it burns four million tonnes (tons) of fuel Solar wind each second, it is so big that The Sun sends out a stream of invisible particles, it will continue to burn for called the solar wind. When these pass Earth’s North another five billion years. and South Poles, they can create stunning colours. Investigating the Sun Various space probes have been designed to study the Sun. Ulysses was launched in A hot spot? 1990 to look at the Sun’s White areas show places polar regions. where the Sun’s surface These hotspots SOHO was launched in temperature is higher are called 1995 to observe the Sun faculae. and solar activity. than elsewhere. Cooler, dark areas, called TRACE was launched in 1998 to study the Sun’s sunspots, sometimes atmosphere. appear on the surface.

288 Does the Sun spin? The Sun

The size of Earth compared to the Sun. h. art h E The Sun is white, but ac false colour images such re as this allow astronomers to to identify different s features on its surface. e ut in m t gh ei t ou b a t a e h ’s n u Solar flares S Blasts of hot gas sometimes flare e h up from the Sun’s surface in t s e huge arcs or loops. They reach Solar flares are k a thousands of kilometres (miles) called prominences. t Most last just a t into space.

few minutes. I Yes, it does. It spins on its axis, like the planets of the solar system. solar the of planets the like axis, its on spins It does. it Yes, 289 The universe Like many space pictures, this image of the Eagle nebula has been A star is born artificially coloured so it can be seen clearly. Clusters of stars are constantly being born from clouds of dust and gas thousands of times the size of our solar system, in a process that can take millions of years.

Born in a cloud Between existing stars, there are patches of dust and gas. Gradually, these draw in more and more dust and gas to form huge clouds called nebulae. Clumps of matter gather together in these clouds.

Hot colours As this matter gets more and more dense, heat builds up to form a young star that fills the surrounding nebulae with light and colour. This spectacular effect (right) was captured by the Spitzer space telescope.

The process of star formation Nebula captured by the Hubble telescope.

With enough matter, this process continues. The star gets denser and hotter. Eventually nuclear fusion begins, releasing huge amounts of heat and light: a star is born.

290 Which star cluster is also called the Seven Sisters? A star is born What’s in a name? Horsehead, Lagoon, Eagle and Cat’s Eye... some of the best- known nebulae have popular names inspired by their shape.

Cat’s Eye nebula

Is that one red? In the same way, lava reveals its temperature Some stars shine red, others shine through its colour. yellow or bluish white. A star’s Here, the yellow lava is colour depends on its temperature. hotter than the red. Red stars are the coolest, while What type of star? blue stars are the hottest. Stars have different characteristics according to the amount of matter involved in their birth. They Our Sun is differ in colour, temperature, a yellow and brightness, and in the dwarf star. length of time they stay alive.

The life of a star The Universe is home to lots of different types of star.

Red dwarfs are smaller than our Sun. They burn fuel slowly, so they live a long time.

Young solar systems Leftover material from a star’s formation can turn into planets.

Blue giants are among the hottest stars, and live for less than 100 million years.

Supergiants are the rarest stars. They have short lives

– under 50 million years. The Pleiades, because you can see seven of its stars without a telescope. a without stars its of seven see can you because Pleiades, The 291 The universe

A Universe is born What was later The Big Bang termed the Big Bang was first Most scientists now believe that proposed by Georges Lemaitre the Universe was born from in 1931. Scientists a hot, dense spot more than believe it was the beginning of 13 billion years ago. They call everything, but this event the Big Bang. Georges don’t know what Lemaitre caused it to happen. As the Universe expands and cools, at 300,000 years, matter as we know it starts to form. The Universe is a thousandth of its size today.

Th e B ig B a n What g : happened? “ a

Space and time d were brought to a y

life from a minute w

speck, which was i t

unbelievably hot and h o

heavy. The energy u t

contained in this y

speck immediately s t

began to spread out, r d

in the form of an y

” ever expanding . fireball.

292 Do you think the Big Bang was an explosion? The Big Bang A long time coming Matter only began to form hundreds At 9 billion years the What’s that? Universe looks much of thousands of years after the Big as it does today, if a Scientists have detected Bang – long after the fireball had little bit smaller. Our a faint radio signal, cooled. The resulting gases would Sun starts to form. form the stars, planets, and galaxies present in any direction that exist today. they look for it in space. They believe it is a faint glow from Stars and galaxies start to form after about the Big Bang’s superhot 300 million years. fireball. It is called The Cosmic Background Radiation.

The Cosmic Background Radiation was discovered by American physicists Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson in the 1960s. No beginning, no end An alternative to the Big Bang, the Steady State Theory claimed there was no beginning or end for or wha the Universe. It’s just t? eird always been there. W The astronomer Few scientists who gave the Big Bang theory now believe in its name didn’t support it. He the Steady State termed it Big Bang as a criticism Theory. and was surprised that the name stuck. He believed in

the Steady State Theory. No – it was more of an event. an of more was it – No 293 Reference section Decomposition The breaking down (decaying) of dead animals Glossary and plants into smaller pieces, and recycling them into nutrients. Acceleration Change of speed – Cell A tiny unit that is the basic speeding up or slowing down. building block of all living things. Dermis The deepest layer of skin, which contains nerves and Alpine Areas on a mountain Chlorophyll The chemical in blood vessels. side that are above the trees but plants that makes them green. It below the permanent snow. is essential for photosynthesis. Diaphragm The muscle under your lungs that moves up and Alveoli Tiny air sacs inside Chromosome A rod-shaped down as you breathe. your lungs. strand containing DNA, found in the nucleus of a cell. Digestion The system that Amphibian An animal that breaks down and absorbs food so can live on land or in water. Civilization The way of life your body can use it for energy of a group of people living in a and to make new cells. Ancestor Someone you are particular area – ancient Greek related to who lived a long civilization, for example. DNA A chemical inside your time ago. body that contains the instructions Condensation Changing from for making living cells. Astronaut A person who a less dense state, such as a gas, is trained to travel into space. into a more solid state, such as Ecosystem A community of a liquid – for example, water plants and animals living and Astronomy The study of vapour condenses into water. interacting with each other and the universe. their immediate environment. Continent A large area of land, Atmosphere The thin layer usually divided into different Epidermis The top layer of of gas that surrounds a planet. countries. Europe is a continent. skin, which you can see.

Bacterium (plural: Decibel The unit of Equator The imaginary line measurement for sound. around the middle of the world. bacteria) A living thing with just one cell. Bacteria are found all over the world – in the oceans, on Deciduous A plant that loses Era A period of time in history. land, in plants, and in our bodies. many or all its leaves in one season each year. Oak and maple trees Estuary The place where a river are deciduous. Carnivore An animal that meets the sea. eats meat. Lions are carnivores.

294 Glossary Evaporation The changing of Galaxy A large rotating system Habitat The natural home of a liquid to a gas. of stars, gas, dust, and empty an animal or plant. space held together by gravity. Evergreen A plant that has Herbivore An animal that leaves on it throughout the year. Gene Part of your DNA, genes eats mainly plants. Giraffes contain chemical information are herbivores. Extinct An animal or plant that that controls the way your body has completely disappeared from develops and works. Genes pass Hibernation When animals our world. from parents to their children. rest through the winter. They normally ﬁnd somewhere warm Fault A place where the Earth’s Germ Tiny living thing (micro- and dry and sleep throughout the crust has cracked and moved. organisms) found everywhere cold season. including inside our bodies. Fertilization The joining of a Bacteria are germs. Some germs Hieroglyphics An ancient male cell and a female cell to start are good, but some are bad and Egyptian method of writing that growing a baby OR improving soil make us ill. uses symbols. by adding nutrients to it. Geyser A naturally occurring Hydrosphere All the water Fossil The remains of a plant hot spring, where occasionally on the Earth’s surface, including or animal that has died and been the water boils and shoots up ice, and water vapour in the preserved in rock. in a big spurt. atmosphere.

Fossil fuels A fuel such as Glacier A huge river of ice. Immune system The cells and coal, oil, or natural gas that tissues in your body that protect was formed underground millions Gladiator In Roman times, a it from infection. If you do get an of years ago from the remains of man trained to ﬁght other men or illness, your immune system often dead plants and animals. wild animals in an arena while creates special defences so you others watched. don’t get the same illness again. Friction A force that makes things slow down. When two solids Gravity The attraction between Inertia The tendency rub against each other, or when a everything in the universe. Gravity everything has to avoid solid moves through liquid or gas, makes the moon rotate around the movement or change. it causes friction. Earth, and the Earth and other planets rotate around the Sun. Infrared radiation Heat energy that is given off by all solids, liquids, and gases.

295 Reference section Insulator Something that does Monsoon A heavy rain- Orbit The path that one not let heat or electricity travel and-wind storm that occurs object makes around another in through it very easily. in southern Asia. space, while under the inﬂuence of gravity. Invertebrate An animal Morse code A system for without a backbone. sending messages using dashes Ore A mineral that contains and dots. a metal. Irrigation Bringing water to land so plants can grow. Mucus A sticky substance inside Ornithischian Bird-hipped your airways that traps germs. dinosaur. Mammal A warm-blooded animal that has fur and feeds its Mummy A dead body that Outback The remote, inland young with its own milk. has been preserved by removing areas of Australia. some of the organs, treating the Mantle A layer of hot, solid rock body with special chemicals, then Pasteurization A process that lies beneath the Earth’s crust wrapping it in long strips of cloth. that uses heat to destroy bacteria and surrounds the Earth’s core. in food. Nucleus Structure inside a cell Marsupial A mammal group in that contains chromosomes and Percussion A type of musical which the female has a pouch for is essential for making proteins. instrument that is hit or shaken its young. to produce a sound. Nutrient A substance taken Melanin A substance that our in by a plant or animal that is Pharaoh A powerful ruler of body produces to protect our skin essential for its growth. ancient Egypt. from the sun. Nymphs Insects that have not Photosynthesis The process Microchip A tiny electronic yet become adults. by which plants use sunlight to device used in computers and make food from water and carbon machines. Omnivore An animal that eats dioxide in the air. both plants and meat. Mineral A solid with a crystal structure that is found in the ground

296 Glossary Planet A large, round object Runes Viking symbols used Transplant When an organ that orbits a star. for writing. is removed from someone’s body because it is not working very well, Population All the people Samurai An ancient and a new one is put in its place. or animals living in an area Japanese warrior. or country. Tropical The area of land and Saurischian Lizard-hipped sea on either side of the Equator. Predator An animal that kills dinosaur. other animals for food. Universe Everything! The Earth, Savanna Tropical grassland moon, Sun, all the planets and Reef A ridge of coral or rock just with a few trees, found in east all the galaxies – even those we above or below the sea’s surface. Africa and northern South haven’t discovered yet. America. Reflex action An automatic Vaccination An injection that movement of your body that you Scavenger An animal that contains a very weak form of the can’t control. rarely kills for food, but eats virus or bacterium that you are animals that have already died being vaccinated against. Religion The belief in, and or been killed. worship of, a God or gods; a set of Vertebrate An animal with beliefs and way of doing things. Space The large, almost a backbone. empty, places beyond the Reproduction The process Earth’s atmosphere. Virus A very tiny infectious by which animals and plants agent that contains DNA and produce young. Spectator A person who grows on living cells. Viruses cause watches an event. disease in plants and animals. Reptile A cold-blooded animal that usually lays eggs. Reptiles Synthetic Made from man- X-ray A photograph that shows have tough, scaly skin. made materials. the inside of your body.

Reservoir A man-made or Transpiration The release of natural lake where water is water vapour from a plant through stored for use. small holes in the leaves.

297 Reference section beetles 125, 140, 154, 162 Belarus 36, 59 Index Belgium 25, 59 Belize 15, 58 acceleration 243, 294 art 68–69 Benin 18, 59 actors 72 arteries 104 Bhutan 48, 59 Afghanistan 44, 59 artists 68 Bible 62, 68, 214 AfricaA 6–7, 18–19 Asia 6–7 Big Bang, the 292–293 air 110, 262 astronauts 78, 97, 269, 278, 280, birds 55, 125, 127, 134–135, 159, Alaska 10–11 281, 284, 285, 294 161, 162, 169, 173, 177, 179 Albania 39, 59 astronomers 219, 268 bladder 107 Albertosaurus 182–183 astronomy 215, 294 blood 103, 104, 111, 112, 117, Algeria 18, 58 Atacama Desert 16–17, 171 120, 216 Allah 63 Atlantic Ocean 6–7 body 98–121 alpine 172, 294 atmosphere 262–263, 266, 270, 294 Bolivia 16, 59 Amazon rainforest 16 atomic number 228 bone marrow 106 amber 141 atoms 212, 228–229, 230, 232, 238 bones 103, 105, 106–107, 120 amoeba 122 Australia 6–7, 52–53, 58, 69 books 67, 78 amphibians 127, 138–139, 294 Austria 29, 58 Bosnia and Herzegovina 38, 59 ancient Americas 92–93 autumn 161 Botswana 19, 59 Ancient Egypt 80, 84–85 axis 246 Brachiosaurus 193 Ancient Greece 72, 86–87 Azores 30 Brahman 62 Ancient Rome 88–89 Aztecs 92–93 brain 105, 108, 120, 124 Andorra 31, 58 Brazil 16, 59 Angola 19, 59 bacteria 115, 121, 149, 151, breathing 105, 110–111, 120 animal communication 125, 135 152–153, 176, 223, 294 Brunei 46, 58 animals 52, 122, 124–125, 126–127, Bahrain 43, 58 Brussels 25 138, 139, 143, 168–169, 170, Bbaobab trees 165 Buddha 62, 63, 64 219, 222 Basque Country 31 Buddhism 62, 63, 64 Antarctica 6–7, 56–57, 156, 170, bats 127, 129, 174, 175 Bulgaria 38, 59 171, 262 batteries 237 Burkina 18, 58 aphids 141 Beatles, the 97 Burma (Myanmar) 46, 59 arachnids 142 beavers 176 Aral Sea 41 bees 125, 141 architecture 68–69 Arctic 8–9, 75, 156, 158, 159 Burundi 19, 58 bushbabies 163 butterﬂies 123, 162

cactus (cacti) 149, 170, 171 Arctic animals 9, 159 Cambodia 46, 58 Arctic Ocean 6–7, 8–9 camels 171 Argentina 17, 58, 201 Ccameras 238 Argentinosaurus 201 Cameroon 18, 59 Aristotle 215 camouflage 181 Armenia 40, 58 Canada 10–11, 58 armour 87, 91, 95, 96 Canary Islands 30 298 Index cancer 121 Croatia 35, 58 256, 260 carbohydrates 117, 222 crocodiles 136, 137, 184 electrons 228 carbon 99, 222, 231 crustaceans 127, 143 elephants 44, 129, 169 carbon cycle 222 crystals 251 El Salvador 15, 58 carnivores 124, 155, 294 Czech Republic 34, 58 energy 105, 117, 229, 232, 233, cars 217, 267 234–235, 236, 237, 238–239, castles 69, 94–95 da Vinci, Leonardo 214 240–241, 266 caves 68, 82, 174–175, 252 dance 54, 73 England 23 CDs 71, 217, 238 Dead Sea 259 environment 97, 219 cells 102, 112, 118, 119, 122, 294 Ddecibels 240, 294 Equator 6–7, 16, 294 centipede 143 deciduous 147, 160–161, 172, 294 Equatorial Guinea 18, 59 Central African Republic 18 Democratic Republic of Congo Eritrea 18 Chad 18, 59 19, 58 erosion 252–253, 255 chain mail 91, 94 Denmark 21, 59 Estonia 36, 59 chain reactions 235 density 224 estuary 259, 294 chemical reactions 232–233 deserts 52, 149, 157, 170–171, 197 Ethiopia 18, 59 Chile 15, 59 diamond 224, 225, 230, 231 Europe 6–7, 34–35, 36, 38–39 China 48, 59, 60, 190, 199 diaphragm 110, 294 evaporation 227, 294 chlorophyll 161, 294 digestive system 105, 115, experiments 218 Christianity 36, 62, 65 116–117, 121 explorers 81, 90 Christmas 65 dinosaurs 137, 182–211, 223 eyes 109, 114, 120, 239 civilization 80, 92, 294 disease 121, 150, 151 climate 56 DNA 101, 217, 294 fabric 74, 221 clothes 74–75 dolphins 44, 45, 129 farmers 79, 80, 82, 93 clouds 230, 260, 264 drought 261 fashion 60, 74–75 coal 256 drums 70, 240 Ffats 117, 222 coastlines 252 duck-billed platypus 52, 129 fault 247, 295 cockroaches 175 dust mites 112 feathers 134, 210, 211 DVDs 238 festival 60-61, 64, 65, 75 fingerprints 103, 217 Colombia 16, 59 ears 109, 114, 120 Finland 21, 59 Colorado river 176 Earth 6–7, 213, 246–247, fire 82, 232 common cold 121, 153 248, 249, 250, 262–263, fire-fighter 75 community 157 E 272–273 fireflies 238 compass 215 earthquakes 54, 216, 247, 249 fish 127, 144–145, 155, 160, 169, computers 71, 77, 217 earthworms 154, 255 177, 178, 179, 181 concrete 257 East Timor 47, 58 flags 58–59, 62 condensation 226, 294 echolocation 241 floods 253 Congo 19, 58 ecosystems 156–157, 294 flowers 146, 162, 164, 166, 173 conifers 147, 172 Ecuador 16, 59 flying gecko 136 continents 6–7, 246, 249, 294 Edison, Thomas 216 food 116–117, 121 coral 52, 53, 122, 205 eels 145 food chains 154–155, 161 Cosmic Background Radiation 293 eggs 118, 119, 125, 136, 180 forces 214, 242, 245 Costa Rica 15, 59 Egypt 18, 58, 78 forests 156, 160–161, 162–163 crabs 180 Egyptians 84–85, 274 fossil fuels 222, 223, 234, 266, 295 crayfish 175 Einstein, Albert 216 fossils 190, 191, 195, 206–207, 219, Cretaceous period 183, 194, 201, electric cars 267 250, 295 202, 211 electricity 215, 220, 229, 236–237, France 26–27, 58 299 Reference section Franklin, Benjamin 215 habitat 156, 295 Iran 43, 59 French Guiana 16 Hadrian’s wall 89 Iraq 43, 58 frogs 111, 123, 138, 139, 163 hadrosaur 189, 194, 195 Ireland 22–23, 59 fungi 123, 150–151, 154 hailstonesH 265 iron 99, 226, 257 hair 105, 120, 121 Islam 62, 64 Gabon 19, 58 hardness scale 225 Israel 43, 59 galaxy (galaxies) 273, 274, harvest mouse 167 Italy 32, 59, 68 293, 295 Hawaii 12 Ivory Coast 18, 58 Galileo,G Galilei 214 hearing 109, 240 Gambia 18, 59 heart 104, 107, 120 Japan 50–51, 59, 75, 221 gas 225, 231, 233, 256 heat 224 Japanese theatre 73 gears 244 helicopters 243 jaw 106, 120 genes 100–101, 295 herbivores 124, 154, 192, 295 Jjellyfish 52, 127, 180, 205 Georgia 40–41, 58 Herschel, William 215 Jews 62, 63, 65 Germany 28, 58 hibernation 172, 175, 295 jobs 78, 79 germs 112, 114, 115, 121, 215, 295 hieroglyphics 66, 85, 295 joeys 131 Ghana 18, 58 Himalayas 48, 249 joints 105, 106, 107 Giganotosaurus 183, 184–185, Hindus 44, 62, 274 Jordan 43, 83, 59 200–201 Hoatzin 211 jousting 94 glaciers 247, 252, 258, 295 Honduras 15, 58 Judaism 62, 63, 65 gladiators 88, 295 Hong Kong 48 Jurassic period 183, 210 glands 114, 121 hormones 105 glass 225, 257 Hungary 35, 58 kangeroos 130–131 global warming 267 hurricanes 264, 265 Kazakhstan 40, 58 God 62, 64 hydrosphere 258, 295 Kenya 19, 58 goddesses 62, 64, 65, 87 kidneysK 104 gods 62, 64, 65, 80, 87, 91, 92, 93 Iberian Peninsula 30 kingfisher 177 gold 93, 228, 257 ice 50, 226, 227, 230, 258 knights 94–95 gorillas 128, 172 icebergs 258 koalas 130 Grand Canyon 177, 252 IcelandI 20, 58, 256 Koran see Qur’an grass 164–165 Ichthyosaurus 204 Kosovo 38, 59 grasslands 157, 164 igneous rock 250 Kuwait 43, 58 gravity 212, 214, 295 immune system 105, 153, 295 Kyrgyzstan 40, 59 Great Barrier Reef 53 Incas 92–93 Greece 39, 59, 81 incense 64 ladybirds 141 greenhouse effect 262 incubator 111 lakes 32, 41, 156, greenhouse gases 266 India 44, 45, 59, 62, 63 178–179, 258 Greenland 8 Indian dance 73 Llanguage 60, 89 Greenpeace 96, 97 Indian Ocean 6–7 Laos 46, 59 groundwater 260, 261 Indonesia 46–47, 58 Lapland 20 Guatemala 15, 58, 93 inertia 243, 295 Latvia 36, 59 Guinea 18, 58 infrared radiation 215, 295 lava 250, 291 Guinea Bissau 18, 58 insects 127, 140–141, 161, 167, 219 leaves 148, 161 gurdwara 63 insulators 224, 237, 296 Lebanon 43, 59 Guru Granth Sahib 63 Internet 97, 217 leisure 61, 76–77 Guru Nanak 63 intestines 105, 115, 117 lemmings 159 Guyana 16, 59 inventions 83, 97, 215, 216, 217 Lesotho 19, 58 invertebrates 122, 296 Liberia 18, 58 300 Index Libya 18, 58 melanin 113, 296 nails 105, 120 Liechtenstein 29, 58 mercury 226 Namibia 19 light 214, 238–239 Mesozoic Era 182–183 NASA 271, 283 lighthouse 239 metals 257 Nnebula 268, 290, 291 lightning 235, 237, 265 metamorphic rock 250 Nepal 48, 59 light year 268 meteorite 208 nerves 103, 105, 108, 112, 120, 124 Liopleurodon 204–205 Mexico 14–15, 58, 208 Netherlands 24, 59 liquid 230 Michelangelo 68 neurons 120 liquid metal 226 microchips 97, 296 neutrons 228 Lithuania 36, 59 micro-organisms 122 newspapers 67 lizards 47, 126, 136, 137, 184 microscope 103, 116, 118, 219 Newton, Sir Isaac 214, 242 llamas 93 Middle East 42–43 Newton’s laws of motion 242 Local Group 273 Milky Way 273, 274–275 New Zealand 54–55, 58, 137 Loch Ness 205 millipede 143 Nicaragua 15, 58 longships 90 minerals 251, 296 Niger 18, 59 Low countries 24–25 mirrors 238, 239 Nigeria 18, 59 lungs 110–111, 120 mobile phones 97, 217 North America 6–7, 194 Luxembourg 25, 59 Mohammed 63 Northern Ireland 22 Moldova 37, 58 North Korea 49, 59 Macchu Picchu 93 molecules 228–229, 230–231, 232 North Pole 8–9, 246 Macedonia 38, 59 moles 128, 166, 254 Norway 21, 58 machines 66, 67, 217, Mongolia 49, 59 nuclear bombs 217, 229 M 244–245 monkeys 14, 125, 173 nuclear power 96, 217, 229, 266 Madagascar 19, 58 Monsoon 45, 296 nucleus 102, 229, 296 Madeira 30 Montenegro 38, 59 maize 92, 165 moon 81, 97, 272, 278–279, oceans 6–7, 156, 181, Malawi 19, 59 280–281 219, 263 Malaysia 46, 58 Moore, Henry 68 octopuses 52, 127 Mali 18, 59 Morocco 18 oilO 11, 43, 256 Malta 33, 59 Morse code 66, 296 Olympic Games 86 mammals 126, 128–129, 130–131, mosque 64 Oman 43 132–133, 296 mosses 147, 160, 176 omnivores 124, 296 mammoth 37, 83 moulds 150 opera 48, 71 manatees 133 mountains 11, 16, 19, 28, 29, 32, opossums 131 Mandela, Nelson 97 35, 48, 93, 157, 172, 247, 253 orbiters 282, 283 mandirs 65 Mozambique 19, 59 orchestra 70 mantle 248, 296 mucus 114, 296 ores 257, 296 Maoris 54 mudskipper 144 organs 104, 124 Mars 286–287 mummification 84, 296 otters 133 marsupials 130, 296 mummy 84, 93, Oviraptor 190, 191 Masai 75 muscles 103, 105, 106–107, 120, 124 oxpeckers 168 materials 213, 224 mushrooms 150 ozone layer 262 Mauritania 18, 59 music 60, 66, 69, 70–71, 97 Mayas 92–93 musical instruments 70 May Day 60 musicals 72 meadows 166, 172 musk oxen 158 Mecca (Makkah) 42, 63 Muslims 63, 64 medicine 141, 151 301 Reference section Pacific Islands 55 rabbi 65 sea 6, 56, 133, 144, 155, 157, Pacific Ocean 6–7 rabies 153 180–181, 206, 256, 259, 260 painting 60, 68, 69 rain 260, 264 sea lions 132 PPakistan 44, 59 rainbowR 214, 238 seals 132, 155 Panama 15, 59 rainforest 147, 162–163 seaweed 146 paper 66, 215 recording studio 71 sedimentary rock 250 Papua New Guinea 47, 59 reflex action 108, 297 seeds 164, 165, 167 parachute 215 religion 61, 62–63, 64–65, 297 seeing 109 Paraguay 17, 58 reproduction 105, 118–119, Senegal 18, 59 pasteurization 215, 296 121, 297 senses 105, 108 Pasteur, Louis 215 reptiles 126, 136–137, 208, 297 Serbia 38, 59 penguins 56, 158 reservoirs 179, 297, 258, 259 shadows 238 penicillin 151, 217 resources 256–257 sharks 111, 181, 205 percussion instruments 70, 296 ribcage 106, 110 Sierra Leone 18, 58 periscopes 238 rice 47, 165 Sikhism 62, 65 Peru 16, 59 Richter scale 216 Singapore 69, 58 pesticides 151 River Ganges 45, 62 Sistine Chapel 68 pharaoh 80, 84, 85, 296 River Nile 84, 85 skeletons 105, 106, 120, 128, Philippines 47, 58 rivers 156, 176–177, 247, 258, 260 135, 144 photosynthesis 148, 296 robots 99 skin 102, 103, 105, 109, 112, pictograms 66 rockets 276–277 120, 151 planets 272, 297 rocks 219, 250–251 skull 82, 106, 108 plants 123, 146–147, 148–149, 154, rollercoasters 235 skyscrapers 42, 51, 69 159, 161, 166, 178, 219, 222, 254 Romania 38, 59 Slovakia 34, 58 plastics 217, 220, 256 Romans 66, 81, 88, 89 Slovenia 35, 58 play 72 Royal family 22 slow worm 136, 166,167 ploughing 255 runes 66, 91, 297 slugs 127 Pluto 272 Russian Federation 40–41, 58 smelling 109 Poland 34, 58 Rwanda 19, 58 snails 52, 127, 143, 205 polar bears 129, 155, 158 snakes 52, 125, 136, 137, 175 polar regions 158–159 saga 91 snow 159, 230 Portugal 30, 58 Sahara Desert 18, 170, 171 snowy owl 159 power stations 96 salamanders 138, 139, 171 soccer 76 printing 66–67, 214 Ssaliva 114 soil 223, 254–255 properties of matter 224 Samurai 95, 297 solar system 272, 274 proteins 117, 222 sand dunes 19, 253 solids 226, 230 Protoceratops 197 satellites 220, 221, 264, 271, Somalia 19, 59 protons 228 276, 277 sonic boom 241 pump 225 Saudi Arabia 43, 58 sound 240–241 puppet show 73 savanna 19, 168, 297 South Africa 19, 97, 58 pyramids 84–85 scales 136, 137, 144, 145 Southern Ocean 6–7 Scandinavia 20–21, 90 South Korea 49, 59 Qatar 43, 58 scanners 99, 219 South Pole 56, 246 quartz 224, 225, 251 scavengers 155, 297 Soviet Union 36, 221 Qur’an (Koran) 63 science 212–213, 220 space 263, 268–269, 270–271, Q scientists 212, 218–219, 287 284–285, 297 Scotland 22 spacecraft 271, 286 sculpture 68, 69 space probes 288 302 Index space shuttle 81, 271, 282–283 Thailand 46, 63, 79, 59 Venezuela 16, 58 space stations 270, 284 theatre 60, 72, 86 Venus flytrap 146 spacewalk 284, 285 Tibet 48 vertebrae 106 Spain 30–31, 69 tissue 103, 104 vertebrates 122, 128, 297 sparkler 232 toads 138, 139 Vietnam 46, 75, 58 speed 243 Togo 18, 58 Vikings 90–91 sperm 118, 119, 125 tombs 69, 84 viruses 153, 297 Sphinx 85 tongue 109, 121 vitamins 117, 216 spiders 52, 142, 166, 174 Torah 63, 65 volcanoes 33, 247, 249, 250, spiracles 111 torches 238 253, 256 sponges 39, 127, 143 tornadoes 265 sport 61, 76–77 tortoises 126, 136, 137 Wales 23 squid 127, 205 touching 109 wallabies 131 squirrels 124, 160, 161 trains, bullet 221 walruses 9, 132, 133 Sri Lanka 45, 59 trains, steam 215 Wwarrior 87, 91 stalactites 174, 251 Trans-Alaskan Pipeline 10 warthog 168 starfish 127, 143 transpiration 148, 149, 297 water 99, 224, 227, 228, 256, stars 268, 288, 290–291, 293 transplant 104, 297 258–259 statues 48, 63, 91, 93 trees 42, 160, 162 water cycle 260–261 Steady State Theory 293 Triassic period 183 waterfall 17 stomach 104, 116 Triceratops 187, 196, water hole 168–169 Sudan 18, 59 Trojan War 87 water vapour 226, 230 Suez canal 19 tundra 156 weather 170, 264–265 sugar 14, 165 turbine 296, 297 West Indies 15 Sun 288 Turkey 42, 59 Western Sahara 18 sunflower oil 229 Turkmenistan 40, 58 wetlands 261 sunlight 263 turtle 179, 180 wheat 11, 165 supersonic jets 241 Tyrannosaurus Rex (T. rex) 137, wind 247, 263, 265 Surinam 16, 59 182, 183, 187, 198–199, 206–207 wind turbines 236, 266, 267 Surtsey, Iceland 253 windpipe 110, 111 Swaziland 19, 58 Uganda 19, 58 woodpeckers 135, 161 sweat 113 Ukraine 37, 58 work 61, 78–79 Sweden 20, 59 United Arab Emirates world wars 96, 217 Switzerland 29, 58 U (UAE) 43, 58 worms 127, 142, 223 Sydney Opera House 69 United Kingdom (UK) 22–23, 59 worship 64, 65 symbol 62, 66, 85, 91 United States of America (USA) writing 60, 66–67 synagogue 65 12–13, 58, 69 Syria 43, 59 Universe 213, 216, 238, 291, x-ray 98, 215, 297 292–293, 297 Taj Mahal 69 urinary system 105, 121 Tajikistan 40, 59 Uruguay 17, 58 X Tanzania 19, 75, 59 Uzbekistan 40, 58 yeast 151 TasmanianT devil 130 Yemen 43, 58 tasting 109 vaccinations 153, 297 Teflon 220 valleys 252 Y telescope 214, 238 veins 104 Zambia 19, 59 temple 86, 92, 93 VelociraptorV 183, 202–203 Zimbabwe 19, 59 Terracotta army 48 velocity 243 Z 303 Hasbro International Inc. 77tr; Jonathan Hateley – modelmaker 210r, (tree-kangaroo), 138cra (caecilian), 139crb, 169tr; Hellio & Van Ingen 211fclb; Graham High at Centaur Studios - modelmaker 182br 159br; Burt Jones & Maurine Shimlock 52fclb (snail); Gerard Lacz 133clb; Picture credits Andy Rouse 129fbl (dolphin); Jonathan & Angela Scott 129tl; Norbert Wu The publisher would like to thank the following for their kind permission (brachiosaurus), 183bl (t-rex), 208cra (triceratops); Historiches Museum 133tr; Nokia: 97tr (phone); Photolibrary: Don Farrall/White 265bl; to reproduce their photographs: Der Stadt Wiend, Vienna 71fcl (programme); Jon Hughes/Bedrock Studios Fresh Food Images/Amanda Heywood 40clb, 41fcrb; Gallo Images- (Key: a-above; b-below/bottom; c-centre; f-far; l-left; r-right; t-top) 1cl, 183fbl (gigantosaurus), 200cl; Imperial War Museum, London 217ftl; Index Stock/Alamy 240cb; Michael Jackson 25clb, 29cl (beer); Marwell Anthony Bannister/White 261cl; IFA Animals/IFA-Bilderteam GMBH Action Plus: Glyn Kirk 54crb (rugby player); Aerofilms Ltd: 89fcrb; Zoological Park, Winchester 20cr; Mattel Toys 77c; Judith Miller/Elms 173tc; Paul Kay/OSF 146tr; Oxford Scientific (OSF)/Bert & Babs Wells akg-images: 93tl; Alamy Images: Ablestock 105bl; Arco Images Lesters 121ftl; Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli 33cla; Museum of 130fcra (numbat); Oxford Scientific (OSF)/David B Fleetham 52fclb (sea GmbH/Thielmann, G. 259tc; Blickwinkel/Baesemann 155fcra; Bryan & the Order of St John, London 94clb; NASA 81c, 213r, 242cr, 271bl, 289tc; snake); Oxford Scientific (OSF)/Mike Powles 20cb; Oxford Scientific (OSF) Cherry Alexander Photography 55r; Andrew Butterton 267bl; Rosemary National Maritime Museum, London 49fcrb; National Trust 22fcrb; / Roger Brown 130fcra (bandicoot); Oxford Scientific (OSF)/Thomas Calvert/ImageState 41fcra; Scott Camazine 125fcr, 264c; Nigel Cattlin Natural History Museum, London 16cb, 46fcr (oyster), 49crb, 51cl (oyster), Haider 132l; Photodisc 226bc; Harold Taylor / OSF 155fbr; Photoshot/ 149cla; Croftsphoto 257tc; Phoebe Dunn/Stock Connection Distribution 53fcl (opals), 82fcl, 82ftl, 134bl (tail/body feather), 134clb (inner wing), World Pictures: 20ca, 33br; Rudi Pigneter 46bl; Pictorial Press Ltd: 112cra; eye35.com 239bl; Clynt Garnham 235br; Axel Hess 234b; Marc 134clb (outer wing), 134l, 135fclb (crow foot), 162ca, 185c, 185fcr, 189cla 77crb; Pictures Colour Library: Charles Bowman 20br (geyser); George Hill 253tr; Esa Hiltula 20ftr (sauna); D. Hurst 125br; Images of Africa (parasaurolophus), 211cla (blue feather), 222br, 226tl, 231cr, 251fbr; The Hunter 10fbr (skyline); Edmund Nagele 23fbl; Press Association Images: Photobank/David Keith Jones 255tc; ImageState/Pictor 105tc; Natural History Museum, London 14ca; Odds Farm Park, High Wycombe, Associated Press/John Rasmussen 90; Tony Marshall/Empics Sport 76tr; ImageState/Pictor International 147r, 256bl; Janine Wiedel Photolibrary Bucks 22cr; Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University 202bl, PunchStock: Digital Archive Japan 288ftl; Robert Harding Picture 101tc; Jeff Morgan Tourism and Leisure 196b; Jon Arnold Images Ltd 203tl; Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford 71fcla (panpipes), 82br, Library: 17fcl, 34tr, 44br, 75ca, 118c; Mohamed Amin 63ftr; Charles 37cla; JupiterImages/Comstock Images 105cr (toilet); JupiterImages/ 82cb; Powell-Cotton Museum, Kent 63cl; Luis Rey – modelmaker 183fbl Bowman 24crb, 38tc; Jeremy Bright 62l; V. Englebert 92cr; Alain Evrard Goodshoot 101tr; K-Photos 123c; Paul Andrew Lawrence 265tl; Oleksiy (velociraptor), 202cla, 202ftl; Rough Guides 156cb (river), 185tr; Royal 60l; Robert Francis 93c; Miwako Ikeda/Int’l Stock 68-69b; D. Jacobs Maksymenko 225ftr; The Natural History Museum, London 153bc, British Columbia Museum, Victoria, Canada 37br, 37clb, 81cra, 83cb; 53fcl; Roy Rainford 89cl; Luca Tettoni 64cra; Alison Wright 44bc; 153fbr; Ron Niebrugge 262tr; Edward Parker 260br; Andrew Paterson Saint Bride Printing Library, London 67cla; The Science Museum, London Science Photo Library: 103bc, 150fcr, 262-263, 292tl; Professors P. M. 232crb; Phototake Inc./Peter Treiber 257c; Rolf Richardson 36br; Robert 2bl, 226c, 226cr, 226fcr; Senckenberg Nature Museum, Frankfurt 210bl; Motta, K. R. Porter & P. M. Andrews 115cla; Samuel Ashfield 152tr; Harding Picture Library Ltd/Ken Gillham 36clb; RubberBall Productions Neil Setchfield 12cb (hollywood); St Mungo, Glasgow Museums 63fcr, 65c; Julian Baum 284cr; John Bavosi 108fclb; Biophoto Associates 114fcla; Dr. 104r, 105c, 105cra (boy), 110r; Friedrich Saurer 125tl; Andy Selinger Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm 91fcr; Stephen Oliver 66c, 67bc; Tony Brain 121fcla; BSIP/Chassenet 239ftl, 239tl; BSIP/Dr T. Pichard 155cb; Stock Connection Blue/Tom Brakefield 130-131; Stockfolio 555 University College, London 128fcla; University Museum of Archaeology 117cla; Dr. Jeremy Burgess 219tl; Chris Butler 290cl; China Great Wall 217bl, 229br; Jerome Tisne (RF)/JupiterImages/Pixland 113tl; and Anthropology, Cambridge 93cra (armlets); Wallace Collection 95cla; Industry Corporation 276 (background); Costom Medical Stock Photo Visual&Written SL/Mark Conlin/VWPics 252cb; WoodyStock/McPHoto Barrie Watts 223cl (grass); Weymouth Sea Life Centre 21bc, 52fbl 114tc; Christian Darkin 118tr, 197tr; David A. Hardy, Futures: 50 Years 252-253; Ardea: Piers Cavendish 14cra; Francois Gohier 190br; Stefan (octopus); Paul Wilkinson 217c; Jerry Young 8fcrb, 9c, 15fcl, 38tl, 41cl, In Space 274-275; Martin Dohrn 102fcra; John Durham 151tr; Bernhard Meyers 176bl; Edwin Mickleburgh 57fbr; Pat Morris 139cr; Valerie 52cra (dingo), 156bl, 184c; E & E Picture Library: R. Nathwani 65tr; Edmaier 8cl (background), 9cr (background), 209, 249tl; Eye Of Science Taylor 155fcr, 180clb; Zdenek Tunka 177cb, 177fcla; M. Watson 13clb; ESA: 271crb, 277fcr (satellite); Financial Times: 67cl, 67r; FLPA: Flip De 165cr; Vaughan Fleming 251bl; Mark Garlick 273tr, 290br, 290-291, ArenaPAL: Fritz Curzon 72cb; Atlantide Photo Travel: 88cra; Auto Nooyer/FN/Minden 211ftr, 211tr; Silvestris Fotoservice 162bl; D. P. Wilson 292-293; Adam Gault 153cl; Carlos Goldin 200tr; Steve Gschmeissner Express: 35fclb; Bryan & Cherry Alexander Photography: 10bl, 41ca, 155fcrb; Konrad Wothe/Minden Pictures 173cr, 241b; Getty Images: 36cb 103br, 103cl, 103fbl, 112cl, 116-117b, 148fcra; Adam Hart-Davis 287cr; 159cr; RV0012-13 41fcla; Corbis: 43cr, 49fcr, 270bl, 273br, 281br, 281ca; (bobsleigh), 42cla; AFP 21tr; Altrendo Travel 68ca; Amana Images/Yoshio Gary Hincks 262bl; JPL-CalTech/STSCI/VASSAR/NASA 269fbr; Edward Nogues Alain/Sygma 26fbr; Alan Schein Photography 43fcr; Paul Otsuka 165br; The Bridgeman Art Library/German School 214c; James Kinsman 233r; Ted Kinsman 215bl; Larry Landolfi 268c; G. Brad Lewis tl, Almasy 10crb (logs), 11tr (logs), 19ftl (boat), 38cr, 41fcl, 47ca; James L. Burke/Time Life Pictures 249tr; David Cannon 17fcla; Cousteau Society 225b; David Mack 152bl; J. L. Martra, Publiphoto Diffusion 104bl; Amos 9ftr; Roger Antrobus 87tc; Archivo Iconografico, SA 27c, 82cla; 145cb; Adrian Dennis/AFP 23fcla; Discovery Channel Images/Jeff Foott Maximilian Stock Ltd 79crb; Astrid & Hanns-Frieder Michler 120clb Tony Arruza 12fclb, 23c; Yann Arthus-Bertrand 43clb; Craig Aurness 250-251; Robert Frerck 14tl; Gallo Images/Daryl Balfour 164cr; Iconica/ (skin), 122ca; Mark Miller 153bl, 153br, 153cb, 153cl (background), 43fbr; Hinrich Baesemann/EPA 288cl; Roger Ball 29clb; Anthony Frank Whitney 239; The Image Bank/Alvis Upitis 20ftr (paper mill); The 153cra, 153ftl, 153tl; Allan Morton/Dennis Milon 274cl; Prof. P. Motta/ Bannister/Gallo Images 141r; Dave Bartruff 50bc; Tom Bean 14cla; Image Bank/Antonio M. Rosario 272cr; The Image Bank/Antony Edwards Dept. Of Anatomy/University “La Sapienza”, Rome 114br; Dr. Gopal Annebicque Bernard/Sygma 26tr; Bettmann 22cb, 56cb, 56fbl, 97tc, 22fcra (angel); The Image Bank/Doug Allan 257cla; The Image Bank/Flip Murti 102br; NASA 78cr, 208-209b, 262bc, 283fcr (ss atlantis), 286clb; 279cb, 281clb, 281fcra; Bettmann/Francis G. Mayer 26fcrb; Bettmann/ Chalfant 13c (seers tower); The Image Bank/Frans Lemmens 19c; The National Cancer Institute 110fcla; Dr. Yorgos Nikas 119tc, 119tl, 119tr; Neil Armstrong 280, 280c; Stefano Bianchetti 214cl; Christophe Boisvieux Image Bank/Jeremy Woodhouse 25r; The Image Bank/LWA 269ftr, 273cla; NREL/US Department Of Energy 224br; David Nunuk 269fcra; Laurie 21c; Georgina Bowater 43c; Michael Boys 254cl; Tom Brakefield 15bc, The Image Bank/Philippe Bourseiller 252cla; The Image Bank/Thomas O’Keefe 192fclb; David Parker 198-199; David Parker For ESA/CNES/ 15fbr, 27fbl; Andrew Brown/Ecoscene 253tc; Jan Butchofsky-Houser Schmitt 52c (truck); The Image Bank/Tyler Stableford 243t; David Kjaer ArianeSpace 277crb; Physics Today Collection/American Institute of 37fcra; Car Culture 267tc; Philippe Caron/Sygma 23fbr; Michelle 11fcr; National Geographic/Joel Sartore 233c; National Geographic/Klaus Physics 293cr; Alain Pol, ISM 115bc; Prof. Aaron Polliack 103bl; Philippe Chaplow 30fcrb; L. Clarke 53cb; Lloyd Cluff 248-249; Dean Conger Nigge 200-201 (background); National Geographic/Michael K. Nichols Psaila 217cb; Ria Novosti 276cb, 285cla; Paul Robbens & Gus York 279br; 46fcra, 47fcla; W. Perry Conway 131tl; Richard Cummins 23cra; Barry 172bl; National Geographic/Michael S. Quinton 179crb; Panoramic Images Royal Observatory, Edinburgh/AAO 269fcrb; Friedrich Saurer 280cra, Davies/Eye Ubiquitous 54cr; James Davis/Eye Ubiquitous 39cb, 81fcr, 169fcla (stork); Photodisc 172cb (deciduous); Photodisc/David De Lossy 282bl, 284bl, 293bc; Francoise Sauze 238fclb; Karsten Schneider 263bc; 86cra; Tim Davis/Davis Lynn Wildlife 56cla, 57ca; Michael DeYoung 172c (conifer); Photodisc/Michael Goldman 86crb; Photographer’s Choice/ Victor De Schwanberg 104fcl (heart), 104fcl (kidney); Science Source 158ca, 177ca; Carlos Dominguez 20bc; Laura Doss 100; Robert Dowling Georgette Douwma 122bl; Photographer’s Choice/Marco Simoni 252fclb 151tl; SOHO/ESA/NASA 289; Andrew Syred 103cra, 112bc, 112crb; Sheila 28cr; EPA 263tl; Ric Ergenbright 40fbr; Douglas Faulkner 132-133c; (headland); Redferns/Nicky J. Sims 71cb; Riser/Edwin Remsberg 13fcl; Terry 255fcla (loamy); US Geological Survey 216fbr; D. Van Ravenswaay Sandy Felsenthal 14cr; Ales Fevzer 76l; David Forman/Eye Ubiquitous Riser/Georgette Douwma 145r; Riser/John R. Ramey 21bl; Riser/Philip and 208clb; Detlev Van Ravenswaay 269fcr; Dr. Mark J. Winter 229cr; Sean 10cra (drill), 11tr (drill), 13fclb, 13fclb (drill), 43bc, 44tl; Owen Franken Karen Smith 248bc; Riser/Sightseeing Archive 280br; Riser/Terje Rakke Hunter Photography: 12cl, 31ftl, 32cr (pisa), 33clb (pisa); Shutterstock: 47fclb (house); D. Robert & Lorri Franz 129r; Free Agents Limited/Dallas 21fclb; Robert Harding World Imagery/Chris Rennie 37crb; Guido Alberto Adisa 267c; Alle 126ftl; Andresi 215fcrb (family); Apollofoto 261bc; Matt and John Heaton 29c, 34bc, 35cla, 48bl; Michael Freeman 38ftr, 44fcra, Rossi 32cr; Erik Simonsen 221tr; Stone/AEF - Yves Debay 19cb; Stone/ Apps 252fbl (arch); Andrey Armyagov 217cra (car), 228bl; Orkhan 50c; Fukuhara, Inc./Richard Fukuhara 51fcla; Paul Funston/Gallo Anthony Cassidy 53clb; Stone/Art Wolfe 33clb (etna), 33cr (etna); Stone/ Aslanov 221tl; Lara Barrett 124fbl (anemone); Giovanni Benintende 213t; Images 140cl; Jose Fuste Raga 28bc, 34clb; Colin Garratt/Milepost 92½ Brett Baunton 35tr; Stone/Daryl Balfour 19ftl (mountain); Stone/David Claudio Bertoloni 215fbr; Mircea Bezergheanu 264-2665; Murat Boylu 23tr, 27tl; Raymond Gehman 10-11b; Todd Gipstein 32ca; Philippe Sutherland 40c; Stone/Demetrio Carrasco 261tl; Stone/Frans Lemmens 228bc; Melissa Brandes 250cb; Karel Brož 122br; Buquet 111clb; Michael Giraud/Sygma 18-19t; Darrell Gulin 14c (pelican); Dan Guravich 40fcra; 24cla; Stone/Herb Schmitz 54bl; Stone/Hideo Kurihara 55fcla (geyser); Byrne 220b; William Casey 212fcr; CBPix 259c; Bonita R. Cheshier 230cr; Martin Harvey 131br; Jason Hawkes 23cr; Lindsay Hebberd 73cl; Chris Stone/Janet Gill 23tc (big ben); Stone/Joe Cornish 26cra; Stone/John Chard Stephen Coburn 258-259b; Sahua D 242; Digitalife 212-213b; Pichugin Hellier 42b, 43ftl; John Holmes/Frank Lane Picture Agency 46crb, 47fcla 170-171, 294-295; Stone/Joseph Devenney 15ca; Stone/Keith Wood Dmitry 124-125, 212clb, 224fclb (lake), 253cra, 258-259t; Denis Dryashkin (flower); Jeremy Horner 44ftr, 48fcrb; Scott Houston/Sygma 51tl; Carol 256-257; Stone/Ken Fisher 16c; Stone/Martin Puddy 45r; Stone/Michael 151cr (pills); Neo Edmund 127fcrb (butterfly); Stasys Eidiejus 242tl; Elen Hughes/Gallo Images 140-141b; Peter Johnson 54fbr (albatross), 168l, Kelley 177tl; Stone/Paul Harris 8bc; Stone/Pete Turner 12fcra; Stone/ 226-227 (background); Christopher Ewing 217cr (bulb); ExaMedia 169cla (crane); Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc. 101clb; Ray Juno 29r; Wolfgang Siegfried Eigstler 166-167; Stone/Stephen Frink 13fbr; Stone/Steven Hunt Photography 266tr; Martin Fischer 265r; Flashon Studio 232bl; Mark Kaehler 28fcrb, 41cb, 54crb (birds), 57cb; Steve Kaufman 12fcrb (bird), 180tl; Stone/Tim Flach 111cla; Stone/Will & Deni McIntyre 15fcr; Stephen Gabrenya 148-149cb; Julien Grondin 213c; Jubal Harshaw 148br; Johann 50ca; Layne Kennedy 198fcl; Thom Lang 104cl (brain); Maurizio Lanini Studd/Photographer’s Choice 160cra; Taxi 31cra; Taxi/Brian Kenney Hayman 154tr; Home Studio 230fbr, 231bc; Chris Howey 266l; Eric Isselée 29cra; Alain Le Garsmeur 49ca; Danny Lehman 42ftr; Charles & Josette 189fclb; Taxi/Doug Corrance 22fcra; Taxi/Gary Bell 160l; Taxi/Getty 126br; Jhaz Photography 235bl; Gail Johnson 155ftr; Kameel4u 237clb; Lenars 47br, 89bl; Liu Liqun 49cl; Massimo Listri 28fcra; Yang Liu 49br; Images 12fcrb, 16fcrb; Taxi/Jon Arnold 23cra (royal pavillion); Taxi/ Sebastian Kaulitzki 216cr; Nancy Kennedy 125ftr; Stephan Kerkhofs Craig Lovell 34br, 35bc, 51cl (train); Christophe Loviny 46cra; Renee Michael Freeman 15cl (pyramid); Taxi/Peter Adams 44fcrb; Taxi/Travel 156cb (reef); Tan Kian Khoon 111bl; Tamara Kulikova 265crb; Liga Lynn 41crb; William Manning 13fcla; Dennis Marsico 55fbl; Jim Pix 51fcl (mt fuji); The Image Bank/Jeff Rotman 180-181; V. C. L. 93b; Lauzuma 154-155; Chris LeBoutillier 244cr; Francisco Amaral Leitão McDonald 37bl; Joe McDonald 129bc; Sally A. Morgan/Ecoscene 27tc; Heinrich Van Den Berg 127ca; Zhongda Zhang/IVPP 199c; Tory Gordon- 257br; Luchschen 216clb; Robyn Mackenzie 233tl; Blazej Maksym 217ca; Warren Morgan 54tr; Christopher J. Morris 31cl; David Muench 170c; Harris: 92cb, 92l; Reproduced by permission of the Henry Moore Hougaard Malan 148-149t; Patricia Marroquin 213clb; Martiin || Francesc Muntada 34tc; NASA 272ftr; NASA/EPA 283fcra (ss discovery); Foundation: 68cra; Simon Holland: Simon Holland and Victoria Fluidworkshop 238ftl; Mashe 122fcr; Marek Mnich 233ca; Brett Mulcahy NASA/Roger Ressmeyer 272clb; Anthony Nex 19cra (house); Michael Waddington 73bc; Hutchison Library: Andrew Eames 40cra, 56fcrb; 235tl; Ted Nad 236cra; Karl Naundorf 234crb (pump); Cees Nooij 230l; Nicholson 37c; Richard T. Nowitz 182-183; Diego Lezama Orezzoli Robert Francis 94fcla (japanese castle); Isabella Tree 9clb; Images of Thomas Nord 221b; Aron Ingi Ólason 156bc; Oorka 266crb; Orla 123tc; 16fcra; Photo B. D. V. 75tl; Michael Pole 54fcr; Rick Price 57cla; Louie Africa Photobank: David Keith Jones 19cla; Imagestate: Kord.com/Age Pandapaw 126cl; Anita Patterson Peppers 238tr; Pcross 238bl; Psihoyos 185br, 190cl, 190cr, 191cr, 192-193b, 199tr, 202-203, 207t; Louie Fotostock 51cr; Pictor 15c (flamingos), 33fcl, 44cr, 47cra, 51fbl, 52fcr, PhotoCreate 219cl; Jelena Popic 225ftl; Lee Prince 237cr; Nikita Rogul Psihoyos/Science Faction 190l, 191ftl, 201bl; Carl & Ann Purcell 38crb; 113bl; Pictor/Douglas David Seifert 14fcl; Pictor/Ethel Davies 45fclb; 224fbl (barbed wire); RPixs 244-245; Sandra Rugina 261br (dishwasher); Steve Raymer 36crb; Carmen Redondo 18clb, 35ftl; Roger Ressmeyer Pictor/Randa Bishop 51fcl (geishas); iStockphoto.com: Kelly Cline 226bl; Kirill Savellev 252fbl (stack); Elena Schweitzer 220c; Serp 147fcrb 23ca, 40cb; Reuter Raymond/Sygma 25c; Reuters/Sue Ogrocki 199br; Esemelwe 235crb; Mark Evans 231tr; Filonmar 231br; Sergey Galushko (maple); Elisei Shafer 259b (coral); Igor Smichkov 260l; Carolina K. Smith, Arthur Rothstein 38clb; Charles E. Rotkin 256cl; Galen Rowell 15fcra, 236crb (iron); Péter Gudella 239clb; Michaelangeloboy 227cl; NSPImages M.D. 228cl; Snowleopard1 123cb; Elena Solodovnikova 147cr, 147fbr 16br, 57cl, 57clb, 57fcl, 129cr; Erik Schaffer/Ecoscene 96-97c; Shepard 238br (torch); Jurga R 235cra; Stephen Strathdee 147tr; Sylvanworks (yellow ash); Ng Soo Jiun 147fbl; Specta 127bl; James Steidl 216tl; Sherbell/Saba 57fcra; Paul A. Souders 21bl (sculpture), 52cb, 55fcl, 233clb; Morten Jensen: 69cb; Dr Marcus Junkelmann: 88bl; Kokoro Teekaygee 124tl; Igor Terekhov 220cra; Tramper 254br; Ultimathule 135cr, 164-165; David Stoecklein 29tr; Vince Streano 32tc; Keren Su Dinosaurs: 211br; Lebrecht Music and Arts: Odile Noel 70l (b/ground); 229tc; Robert Paul Van Beets 216br; Vnlit 122fcra; Li Wa 216c; Linda 46ca, 48cla, 49tc; Paul J. Sutton/Duomo 221c; Sygma 253ftl; Liba Taylor Courtesy of Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company, Palmdale: 241t; Webb 214cra; R. T. Wohlstadter 263fcr; Jurgen Ziewe 214fbr, 258br; 35cl; Roger Tidman 18crb, 56cra; David Turnley 41bl; Peter Turnley Lonely Planet Images: Rhonda Gutenberg 38cra; Craig Pershouse 36br Sony Computer Entertainment Europe: 77tl; Still Pictures: 20fcrb; 28cla, 43ca, 97bc; Van Parys/Sygma 25fcla; Vanni Archive 39r; Brian A. (crosses), 36tc; Tony Wheeler 39c; NASA: cl, cra, crb, 268b, 268fcl, 268fcl Biosphoto/Klein J.-L. & Hubert M.-L. 130c; John Cancalosi/Peter Arnold. Vikander 49fcl; Uwe Walz 28ca; Kennan Ward 159tr; Patrick Ward (sun), 268fclb (astronaut), 269clb, 270-271 (b/ground), 276ca, 277ftr Inc. 191tl; Sergio Hanquet 53r; Andreas Riedmiller 29crb; SuperStock: 23fcla (blackpool tower), 54l (background); Karl Weatherly 29tc; Chad (shuttle), 277l, 278tl, 282, 282clb, 283br, 283cl, 283tl, 284tr, 284-285, Age Fotostock 31bl, 218-219b; J. Beck 46cr; J. Silver 189b, 189r; Steve Weckler 165tc; Robert Weight/Ecoscene 56-57tc; K.M. Westermann 18cb; 285bc, 285cr, 285tr, 286cr (mgs), 286cr (viking), 286crb (mpl), 286crb Vidler 51fcl (castle); Warren Photographic: 196t Nik Wheeler 26ftr, 43cla, 43tl; Adam Woolfitt 29tl; Michael S. (sojourner), 286tl, 286-287 (b/ground), 286-287b, 287br, 287cla, 287ftr, All other images © Dorling Kindersley Yamashita 46fcr, 73tl; Jim Zuckerman 26bl, 193tr; Dorling Kindersley: 287tr, 288fbl (soho), 288fbl (trace), 288fclb (ulysses), 291br, 291cb, For further information see: www.dkimages.com The American Museum of Natural History 189cla (hypacrosaurus), 296-297; ESA, H. Weaver (JHU/APL), A. Stern (SwRI), and the HST Pluto 189fcla (lambeosaurus), 197br; Bedrock Studios 182bc (plateosaurus); Companion Search Team 291tr; Finley Holiday Films 13crb; GRIN 97c; Board of Trustees of the Royal Armouries 81fcr (armour) 95ftr, 95tr; HQ-GRIN br; C. Mayhew & R. Simmon (NASA/GSFC), NOAA/NGDC, Robert L. Braun - modelmaker 182fbr (stegosaurus), 187cr DMSP Digital Archive 6bl; MSFC br; Natural Visions: Richard Coomber (dilophosaurus), 187crb (stegosaurus), 197fcla (styracosaurus); The 168cra; The Natural History Museum, London: 188cr, 189cl British Library 60cb (books), 66fcra; The British Museum 44fcr, 81bl, (brachylophosaurus), 191b; naturepl.com: Ingo Arndt 17br; Pete Cairns 81fcrb, 83cra, 84bl, 84l, 85ca, 85cra, 87cra (book), 89tl, 93cr, 93cra; 179tc; Martin Dohrn 16-17cb; Georgette Douwma 145tl; Barry Mansell Centaur Studios – modelmakers 188tr; John Chase/The Museum of 175cla; Vincent Munier 50cla; T. J. Rich 41clb; Anup Shah 19r; Lynn M. London 66bc, 66cra; Conaculta-Inah-Mex/Instituto Nacional De Stone 44cl; NHPA/Photoshot: A.N.T. Photo Library 52fclb (snake), 131c; Antropologia E Historia 14fcr, 15fclb (stone head), 92fbr; Philip Dowell Laurie Campbell 136bl; Bill Coster 41ftl; Andrea Ferrari 194-195; Martin 16cr; Egyptian Museum, Cairo 80tr; Franklin Park Zoo, Boston 128ca; Harvey 168-169; Adrian Hepworth 162-163; Daniel Heuclin 130fcra