BURNING FLINT HILLS 269

LITERATURE CITED rainfall by prairie grasses, weeds, range sites to grazing treatment. ALDOUS,A. E. 1934. Effects of burn- and certain crop plants. Ecol. Ecol. Monog. 29: 171-186. ing on Kansas bluestem pastures. Monog. 10: 243-277. HOPKINS, H., F. W. ALBERTSONAND Kans. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 38. 65 p. DYKSTERHUIS,E. J. 1949. Condition A. RIEGEL. 1948. Some effects of ANDERSON,KLING L. 1942. A com- and management of range land burning upon a prairie in west parison of line transects and per- based on quantitative ecology. J. central Kansas. Kans. Acad. Sci. manent quadrats in evaluating Range Manage. 2: 104-115. Trans. 51: 131-141. ELWELL, H. M., H. A. DANIEL AND composition and density of pasture LAUNCHBAUGH,J. L. 1964. Effects of F. A. FENTON. 1941. The effects of vegetation on the tall prairie grass early spring burning_ on yields of type. J. Amer. Sot. Agron. 34: 805- burning pasture and woodland native vegetation. J. Range Man- 822. vegetation. Okla. Agr. Expt. Sta. age. 17: 5-6. Bull. 247. 14 p. ANDERSON,KLINC L. AND C. L. FLY. HANKS, R. J. ANDKLING L. ANDERSON. MCMURPHY,W. E. AND KLING L. AN- 1955. Vegetation-soil relationships 1957. Pasture burning and moisture DERSON.1963. Burning bluestem in Flint Hills bluestem pastures. conservation. J. Soil and Water range-Forage yields. Kans. Acad. J. Range Manage. 8: 163-169. Conserv. 12: 228-229. Sci. Trans. 66: 49-51. BIEBER,G. L. ANDKLING L. ANDERSON. HENSEL,R. L. 1923. Effect of burning SMITH, E. F., K. L. ANDERSON,F. W. 1961. Soil moisture in bluestem on vegetation in Kansas pastures. BORENAND C. L. DRAKE. 1963. Dif- grassland following burning. J. J. Agr. Res. 23:641-647. ferent methods of managing blue- Soil and Water Conserv. 16: 186- HERBEL,C. H. AND KLING L. ANDER- stem pastures. Livestock Feeder’s 187. SON. 1959. Response of True Prairie Day Progress Report. Kans. Agr. CLARK, 0. R. 1940. Interception of vegetation on major Flint Hills Expt. Sta. Bull. 460:27-60.

sources. The objectives of this paper are to describe the tradi- Grazing Conditions in Masailand’ tional grazing practices, efforts GEOFFREY M. 0. MALOIY and HAROLD F. HEADY to improve livestock and range, Division of Animal Science, University of British Co- and to suggest a program for im- lumbia, Vancouver, B.C., and School of Forestry, Uni- provement. versity of California, Berkeley, respectively. The Landscape. - Although Highlight maize, and sugarcane are grown rainfall records are scanty, pre- cipitation in Kenya Masailand on small areas at Loitokitok on Brief descriptions of landscape, probably averages between 10 herding methods, forage values, live- the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, stock numbers, efforts to control and 40 inches per year (Table grazing, and livestock-game relation- at Ngong near , and at 1). The eastern side is the drier ships are presented as background Syabei, north of Narok. Migrant part with the major rainfall in for a suggested range development program in this part of East Africa. herds of livestock and wild game two seasons, November-Decem- prevail throughout the region ber and March-May. The west- Before the coming of Europe- and constitute the major re- ern region is characterized by ans, the Masai with their herds of cattle, sheep, goats, and don- keys roamed the open grasslands from Lake Rudolf in the north to central Tanganyika. Today, Masai herdsmen occupy the southern region of Kenya and adjacent parts of Tanganyika. The Kenya part of Masailand to which this paper is restricted covers an area of 15,296 square miles (Fig. 1) . Tsetse flies, tick- born diseases, and barren condi- tions reduce the usable area to about 11,000 square miles. Coffee, pyrethrum, beans,

1 Thanks are extended to Mr. R. W. Lewis, Assistant Director, Dept. Veterinary Services, Ngong, Kenya, for data on livestock numbers and to the Kenya Government Informa- tion Services which supplied the FIGURE 1. Kenya Masailand showing location of grazing schemes, farming areas, and phbtograph. game reserves in 1959. 270 MALOIY AND HEADY

Table 1. Inches of precipiiafion in the District during fhe lasf drought year and fhe following year.

Location Year Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Total

Kajiado 1960 0.55 0.06 2.55 3.93 0.85 0.06 0.19 0.00 0.13 0.73 1.08 0.88 11.01 1961 0.16 0.33 0.06 4.55 1.39 0.56 0.04 0.05 0.37 2.10 12.11 13.71 35.43 Loitokitok 1960 5.51 0.56 4.77 5.51 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.74 3.34 5.16 25.59 1961 1.06 5.88 1.92 4.74 0.31 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.26 6.72 14.62 5.41 40.92 more rain which begins in No- complete description of range raiding tribes and carnivorous vember and lasts until May conditions has been published by animals. African cattle, when (Griffiths and Gwynne, 1963). Heady (1960). left unherded in fenced areas, Yearly differences are great and Herding Methods.-The Masai take a year or more to break a serious drought occurred be- herds follow grass and water ac- their habit of being close to- tween 1959 and late 1961. West- cording to seasonal availability. gether at all times. ern Masailand is generally above Each Masai family builds a cir- When grass or water become 5,000 feet elevation while most cular corral or boma of thorny scanty, people and animals move of the eastern part lies between branches from acacia trees and to new locations. Movements 2,000 and 4,000 feet. Topographic locates his huts around the inner are normally coordinated be- features include vast areas of perimeter. During the day the tween higher and lower eleva- gently rolling plains and striking herds are taken to water or to tions in the wet and dry seasons. terrain such as the Rift Valley, grass where they are allowed to When the family leaves for new Mount Kilimanjaro on the south, graze, always in close formation. pastures, a boma may be burned, the Mau and Enkurman Escarp- At night they return to the either by accident or to rid the ments to the north, and recently bomas. Close herding and con- location of parasites and patho- formed volcanic cones. Vegeta- centrated trampling near the genie disease-causing agents. tion is grassland with brush and bomas results in a network of Forage Values. - Abundance trees of various densities, and oc- trails and denudation of the land of poor condition livestock sug- casional dense forests in riverine even though the landscape is gests that East African forages. situations or on other favorable relatively level. Cattle are nor- may be low in nutritive values. sites. The grassland is frequently mally taken to greater distances Chemical analyses and digesti- burned (Glover and Gwynne, than flocks of sheep or goats. bility trials partly substantiate 1961) where overgrazing has not Herding and enclosing became this conclusion for animals on “fireproofed” it by removing traditional and must still be used dry coarse grass. However, high herbaceous fuel (Fig. 2). A more as protective measures against crude protein values of browse and green plants indicate that poor condition in animals is more likely due to lack of carbohy- drates and total digestible nutri- ents than to low crude protein percentage in the forage (Heady, 1960). Estimates of nutritive values (Glover and Dougall, 1961) showed that pasture for- ages containing 11 to 14 percent crude protein were most effi- cient for milk production. As milk is one of the most important food items for the Masai, man- agement of their ranges should aim for both high quality and quantity forage. French (1956) found that wa- tering cattle once every three days, as done by Masai herds- men during the dry season, in- FIGURE 2. Masai cattle grazing in the dry season on overused range in the Rift Valley. stead of daily, reduced the intake Sound grazing management and nutrient supplementation are topics still unknown to of crude protein and starch the average Masai livestock raiser. equivalent as well as water. KENYA MASAILAND 271

While these are obvious advan- water, and fluctuating diseases. ited livestock numbers and sea- tages for survival in a severe Large areas are denuded because sonally rotated grazing must be climate, development of water of higher stocking rates, and continued. However, they can and its proper management will other locations show signs of be successful only if the Masai promote improved animal nutri- progressive deterioration in will impose the necessary regu- tion. quality and quantity of grass lations upon themselves. Livestock Numbers. - In 1957 cover. However, abundant grass Although a few ranches have the 68,000 Kenya Masai owned is still present on a large portion been established under private l,OOO,OOOcattle, 460,000 sheep and of Kenya Masailand, especially Masai ownership, especially in 200,000 goats (Table 2). These in the years of favorable rain- the Kajiado District, organized fall. Brush invasion and thick- ranching has developed slowly. Table 2. Pre- and post-drought live- ening of brush cover have con- The Masai fear that ranch estab- sfock numbers (thousands) in Ke’n- tributed to irregular distribution lishment is more for the purpose ya Masailand by Disfrici. of grazing pressure and to de- of land grabbing than for effi- Cat- teriorating range conditions. cient land management. Much District Year tle Sheep Goats Water developments in the past basic ecology is yet to be learned Kajiado 1957 550 60 100 have done little to solve the dis- before blocks of 10,000 or more 1961 250 50 100 tribution problem of uneven acres can be adequately de- Narok 1957 450 400 100 grazing because livestock limita- marked and practices recom- 1961 400 400 100 tions were not imposed. There- mended for range improvement fore, new areas of range deterio- and settlement schemes. Failures are probably close to the highest ration rapidly developed around of original schemes also indicate numbers ever attained in the the new water supplies. that the people must be con- region. War and raiding are Grazing Schemes and Ranches. vinced of the values to be re- largely eliminated. Annual pre- -The Kenya Veterinary Depart- ceived in changing their tradi- cipitation was reasonably good ment, in cooperation with the tional systems and taught to use for several years prior to 1959, Masai African District Councils the new techniques. and effective work had been and the Department of Agricul- Livestock-Game Relationships. done to control livestock dis- ture, established several grazing -Recent investigations on game eases. The Veterinary Depart- schemes beginning about 1956. populations, bioenergetics a n d ment had reduced mortality The schemes included boundary growth, efficiency of range utili- rates due to Rinderpest, Con- establishment, development of zation, and carcass yield suggest tagious Pleuro-Pneumonia, and water with wells and dams, that in the semi-arid Savannah certain protozoa and tick-born brush control in a few places, grasslands, the potential produc- diseases. Failure of the Masai to and controlled grazing. Grazing tive capacity of indigenous fauna accept a regular destocking pro- control included efforts to set is higher than that of domestic gram also contributed to the allowable numbers of animals, animals. A mixed population of gradual increase in numbers. prevent trespassing, and rota- wild herbivores has been shown Although counts were not tional use of land on a seasonal to utilize a much greater range made after the drought, Payne basis. Previous to 1960, progress of grass species than cattle, sheep and Hutchison (1963) suggest was apparent in range improve- or goats. Some game animals that 300,000 cattle died during ment and well-being of the ani- have been found to be superior 1960-1961 in the Kajiado District. mals. to domestic livestock in the con-’ This amounted to 7 million dol- A severe drought between 1959 version of rough fodder into edi- lars worth of livestock and was and 1961 and a gradual slip of ble animal protein, but not in a severe blow to the District’s discipline at the same time re- the conversion to animal fat. economy. The catastrophe ri- sulted in failure of the schemes. Concentrations of herded stock valed the historic Rinderpest Ranges were overgrazed and do more damage than their wild outbreak of 1890. concentrated trampling around game counterparts, although Previous to the drought there water developments resulted in damage by game has appeared in was one stock unit (5 goats or accelerated erosion. The schemes some places. These points and sheep equivalent to 1 cow) for were not at fault, but they were the need for game preservation approximately 9 acres. This fig- abused by the Masai who took have resulted in the suggestion ure, as an average for the whole the opportunity to increase the that game cropping is a desirable Masailand, has general descrip- number of cattle rather than to practice for Kenya Masailand, tive value only. Stocking rates increase growth and production especially where tsetse fly in- vary widely because of irregular from fewer animals in better festations prevent livestock graz- climate, unequal distribution of condition. The principles of lim- ing (Pereira, 1961). 272 MALOIY AND HEADY

The feasibility of large-scale tation, water resources, nutri- livestock must be returned to game cropping in Masailand is tional requirements of animals, the owners of the animals or questionable. Problems of har- diseases, and many other items handled for them through the vesting, transportation of game in the soil-plant-animal complex. Masai District Councils. The de- meat, and sale of game meat Effective educational and ex- velopment program should be have not been solved in Kenya’s tension programs are necessary supported by the livestock own- developing economy where few to develop an awareness of the ers and by government or coun- facilities exist. If game meat values and need for quality pro- cil subsidy. were to replace meat from do- duction. Finally, government 5. The development scheme mestic animals, fewer domestic must lend its support through should initiate private or coop- animals would be slaughtered. programs that raise the standard erative land holdings among the Their reproductive rate would of living and level of hygiene, Masai, and regulate livestock probably remain the same, and hasten economic stability, and management and marketing in it would result in further over- promote agricultural develop- order to enhance chances of suc- grazing and continued destruc- ment throughout the country. cess. tion of habitat for both domestic Range and pasture developments 6. Livestock production should animals and wild game. The in Masailand are parts of the evolve toward a commercial en- problem is compounded by tribal over-all agricultural improve- terprise based on year-long, wet tradition and attitudes toward ment in Kenya, and are interde- and dry season, balance of feed domestic animals. The number pendent with economic develop- needs and supply. Small, well- of domestic animals a man owns ment throughout the country. managed areas can be the edu- is a form of status symbol and The immensity of the problem cational tools which promote he is reluctant to see these ani- and scarcity of trained personnel economic development as well as mals killed even if they are no suggest that the best chances for the proving ground for the man- longer serving a useful purpose. success lie in concentrated effort agement practices. In addition, the tribal traditions on small areas rather than dif- 7. While these suggestions are of the Masai place restrictions on fused work throughout the re- not new, past failures indicate the amount of game meat which gion. Therefore, the following that considerably greater efforts may be utilized for food. Thus, seems to be a reasonable ap- need to be made in coordinating the most important livestock- proach: all economic aspects of rangeland game problems are sociological 1. By ecological survey, one or management. and educational in nature. These more areas of not less than lO,- are followed closely by technical 000 acres and preferably up to LITERATURE CITED problems of management and 50,000 acres should be selected FRENCH,M. H. 1956. The effect of in- marketing, and by scientific for development with full coop- frequent water intake on consump- problems of improving the nutri- tion and digestibility of hay by eration of the Masai concerned. Zebu cattle. Emp. J. Expt. Agr. tional quality of the forage crops 2. Range improvements such 24: 128-136. and genetic strains of the pres- as pasture boundaries, water de- GLOVER, J. ANDH. W. DOUGALL.1961. ent livestock breeds. velopment , brush control, dip Milk production from pasture. J. tanks and spray pumps for ecto- Agr. Sci. 56: 261-264. A Suggested Management Program parasite control, and tsetse fly GLOVER,P. E. AND M. D. GWYNNE. Any range development must control should be established to 1961.The destruction of Masailand. New Scientist (London) 2 (249) : be aimed at the twin problems of increase forage production and 450-453. balancing range feed production to obtain even distribution of GRIFFITHS,J. F. ANDM. D. GWYNNE. with needs and obtaining even animals. 1963. The climate of Kenya Masai- distribution of grazing pressure 3. In order to ensure even land. East African Agr. and For. J. over the whole area. In order to growth of animals, and to pre- 28: l-6. solve these problems, s e v e r al vent drastic loss of condition HEADY,H. F. 1960. Range manage- factors must be attacked at the during the dry season, attempts ment in East Africa. Kenya Dept. Agr. and East African Agr. and same time. Success will depend should be made to produce and For. Res. Org. 125 p. upon sound biological recom- conserve fodder. PAYNE,W. J. A. ANDH. G. HUTCHISON. mendations, willingness on the 4. Control of livestock num- 1963. Water metabolism of cattle part of the Masai to change their bers and intensity of forage use in East Africa. J. Agr. Sci. 61: 255- traditional animal husbandry are absolutely essential, other- 266. practices, and development of an wise improvements will be de- PEREIRA,H. C. 1961. Conference on land management problems in enlarged market for the prod- stroyed or reduced in effective- areas containing game, Lake Man- ucts. This program demands ad- ness. Any proceeds from a de- yara, Tanganyika: Part I. East ditional knowledge of soil, vege- stocking program and selling of African Agr. and For. J. 27: 40-46.