The Caucasus , Compiled Duri G Leisure Hours in Your Company ’ S Steam Transport

T H E C A U C A S U S

A ND I T S

P E OP L E ,

W IT H

A B R I E F H I S T O R Y O F T H E I R W R A S ,

A N D

A S KE T C H O F T H E

A C H I E VE M E NTS OF T H E RE NOW NE D C H I E F

S C H A M Y L .

L O U I S M O S E R

L O NDO N DA V ID N U T T 5270 R N D . , , S T A

1 8 5 6 . T R I A R RE A T E E N T REE T . C H DS , G ! U S . W IL LIA M FA N E DE S A LI E S S , ! ,

DIRECTO R OF T H E PENINSULAR A ND O RI EN TA L T M VIG T O M S EA NA A I N CO PANY .

S O U T H A M P 6 T O N , 1 85 .

D R S IR EA ,

I gladly avail myself of your per mission to present to you this little work on n the Caucasus , compiled duri g leisure hours in your Company ’ s Steam Transport

Service , from French , German , and original

Russian sources .

I have been induced to offer it by the interest you are known to take in the ff a airs of the East , and also by the position you hold in the great Company which has taken so prominent a part in furthering

of the objects the Crimean War , and in

1 36 2 8 9 9 iv D E D I CA T I O N . bringing European energy to bear on Asiatic torpor .

The brave and long - continued struggle of n the Caucasian races , agai st an enemy so greatly superior to them in physical force , has enlisted the sympathies of Europe in their favour ; and it seems probable that events now in progress may render it desir able to obtain more accurate information concerning a country and people hitherto so imperfectly known , and , it may be ﬁ added , so dif cult to know well .

My little work can pretend to no merit

of but that authenticity ; but , on this ground , I would fain hope that it may prove of some public service , and that you will accept it as a triﬂin g tribute of esteem and grateful acknowledgment of kindness received from you by ,

Dear Sir ,

Y our most obedient Servant ,

LOUIS M OSE R . THE CA UCA S US AND ITS PEOPLE .

HAPT E C R I .

n f h - T n n S up erb Sce ery o t e Cauca s us . raditio s co n e cte d

i —T he - R — . P S e n . with t lofti est e ak s . id a ge s T he — — Black M o untai n s T he An di sch Ran ge T he Kai — f — t . T he R ve s the C T o s s . he o b n ach i r auca u K u a , — — Te e o etc . T e t t es T he v e e r k , K uma, h ir ribu ari g

i f th C s —I v — h ta on o e s . ts z n T e t auca u ama i g ariety .

n n o e tc . a imal ki gd m ,

IN no region of the earth are the striking

of contrasts scenery , in which nature often seems to delight , more magniﬁcently dis

n in played tha the Caucasus .

From the banks of the Don , and far and wide along the course Of the M an ytch an d

of Kouma , stretches a weary waste barren

B 2 THE CAUCA SU S

o steppe c untry , which gradually loses itself in the inhospitable slopes that bound the

. A Caspian Sea bruptly and unexpectedly ,

e howev r , from this dreary and monotonous

of plain , there arise , ﬁrst a chain hills , and

of then a mighty range mountains , towering

out ever higher and higher, and throwing spurs that Slope into and embosom broad ,

sunny , smiling valleys , while , at the same

e the f ea of tim , lo tiest p ks rise to the height everlasting snow ; where the glaciers only f melt su ﬁciently to feed the torrents , which leap roaring and foaming from cliff and cavern .

This varied and rugged range of moun tain s is covered in many parts with forests f o the most luxuriant vegetation , though , as we have said , its wild , sharp peaks pierce beyond the line of perpetual snow ! it ex

n te ds from the Black Sea to the Caspian , and forms nature ’ s boundary between the two 3 AND ITS P EOPLE . con tinents of Europe and Asia ; and on this f range , with its numerous branches , o fsets

of and headlands , the name the Caucasus has been bestowed . Tradition has chained Prometheus to the

of highest point the Caucasus , and laid the scene of the Golden Fleece expedition on the lovely slopes that overhang the Black Sea .

of The ark Noah , too , is said to have

on of rested a peak Of one its branches , but

beyond this , both history and tradition are nearly silent concerning this mountain land

and there are , even at this hour , extensive tracts Off - c ountry untrodden by European foot , and known to us only by the vague and uncertain glimpses afforded by hearsay or imagination .

of The range the Caucasus , with its thousand bare and fantastically shaped

on e summits , extends for a length of hun

A on dred and ﬁfty miles , from napa , the 4 THE CAU CA SUS

A ob m on Black Sea , to Cape b ara , the Cas pian . Its breadth varies continually , as it

out sometimes spreads its branches , and opens into broad acclivities , and sometimes contracts into narrow passes , and sinks into extensive valleys or deep ravines . Amongst the loftiest points in the prin ci al p range , proceeding from west to east , rise most conspicuously the following peaks th e O schten Nisiri D schuman tan , , Maruch , ,

T utur uh of g , and Elbruz about the middle the range stands out pre - eminently the Kas

- beck , and to the east and south east , the

k r — - h S a o is . Kadori , the twer, and the Kah dag

In the neighbourhood of the pass of

D ariel b a , the loftiest heights present a saltic formation , though the lower hill

of . ranges are chalk , Slate , and limestone

of The Elbruz , the loftiest peak the Cauca sian range , attains , according to some tra y of or ellers , the height , to others , 5 AN D ITS P EOPLE . of feet ; and this Colossus is held in

b elie v high veneration by the people , who ing it to be the abode of good and bad

Spirits , look up to it with awe not unmixed with fear . The next in height is the Kas

M sin w ari e s bek , also called the it is timated at feet , and it is constantly w covered , from summit to base , ith ice and snow .

Among the spurs and side ranges of the

- Caucasus , that on the north west runs nearly parallel with the principal chain it is called

con tradistin c the Black Mountain range , in

' - on e tion to the chief, snow covered , whose

- branches , extending north west and south east , are connected with each other by steep f cli fs , deep precipices , and impenetrable forests . These branches enlarge and ex tend as they approach the centre , but to wards the north they throw off numerous arms to the Kouma Steppes , where , after 6 THE CA UCAS US

Beschtan forming the promontory of , they

Kara atch Sink into the forest range Of Sheb g .

To the south , an extensive branch stretches in gentle declivities in the direction of the

u f river Kour , meeting the projecting sp r o A Mount rarat . Towards the east , the prin cip al chain divides itself at different points

W into two ridges , one forming the ide ex

of A tending elevations the ndisch range ,

- while , towards the north east , a second branch forms that of the Kaitach ; this stretches to the Caspian , after encircling larger or smaller valleys , which are again broken up by isolated mountains and hills . Of the various rivers which diverge from the northern ﬂank of the Caucasus the most important are , the Kouban , the Terek , and

P odkouma the Kouma , besides the , a branch

of stream the latter, which runs towards the steppe from which it takes its name . The Kouban has its source in the north AN D ITS P EOPLE . 7 ern slope of the Elbruz and after leaving the hills by a wide bend to the westward ,

and receiving the waters of several tributa

- ries , it falls into the Kouban Liman , which

ﬂows into the Black Sea .

On the right of its course the Kouban

receives no river of any importance ; but

on the streams which join it the left , rising mostly in the high and dark range above

them , deserve some mention , not only on

their own accounts , but from their serving

to mark more distinctly the abodes of the

several Caucasian races .

of The names the rivers , which ﬂow

from east to west , are the Great and Little

In dtchik or S elen tchuk , the Uruss , the

C hod z Great and Lesser Laba , the , the

S chad asha - g , the Supa , Kara Kouban , and

A ﬁp s .

The tributaries of the Kouban are more

numerous than those of the Terek . The 8 THE C A UCASUS

latter also takes it rise in the snowy range , w and soon entering a narro valley , follows an eastern course , till it falls into the Cas pian Sea, whither it conveys all the streams that rise in the north and north - eastern

hese part of the Caucasus . T tributaries j oin the Terek on the left , as do also the waters of the four united rivers , Malka ,

T sh e em T cherek Baksan , g , and , and the

U ruch A red on P M akald on rivulets , , iag , ,

l n Gn a d o . , and others of less importance

The south , and more especially the south

of western slopes the Caucasus , are most abundantly supplied with water ; and some of the streams which rise in these region s

n take the directio of the Black Sea , while the rest join the river Kour , as it ﬂows from west to east , at the foot of the Caucasus , and at length fall with it into the Caspian

Sea near Salian .

A S chacho mong the former we ﬁnd the , 9 AN D ITS PEOPLE .

T shab In ab s A B s b B Gebs , , , rdo , y , ugari or

Iskenitz Ingar , , Guali , and Rioni ; among

- Liachoi A ra oi the latter , the Didi , g , with

J lasami G ud ama uari A . the q , the ori , and

A of mong the tributaries the Kour , the largest are the rivers rising in the south

- of and south eastern slopes the Caucasus , and ﬂowing directly into the Caspian Sea ; of these the most worthy of note is the

Kissra f of , a river formed by the con luence

f A n ditch four di ferent streams , namely , the ,

- A varsh K asamuch Kissra . , Kara , and The

of waters these , after meeting , force them selves between the A n ditch and Kaitach

of range hills , and fall into the Caspian

of S z ulak Sea , under the name the . The

S amura r Koura , also , and the , are ivers

of worthy notice .

The natural boundaries of this highland region are , therefore , the rivers Kouban

on and Terek the north , the valley of the 1 0 TH E CAUCASUS

on Kour on the south , the Caspian Sea the

on . east , and the Black Sea the west Within these limits nature has collected the cha racteristics of the most widely differing

! landscapes inhospitable rocks , wild tor rents , and terriﬁc chasms , with the treasures of the richest and most fertile vegetation , and an almost boundless variety of fruits

and ﬂowers , which are elsewhere found dis p erse d through various zones and climates . Here we have the plane tree and the box wood of unusual size and thickness ; there

v the mulberry and the ine , which in the beautiful wilds of M in grelia grow without

oak elm any care ; the and the , the ash , im the birch and the pine , form almost penetrable forests ; the whole of the Alpine

flora is found here , and destructive creepers , along with the lovely myrtle , rosalia , laurel , azalea , rhododendron , and many other w flowers , as ell as fruits , namely , figs , AND ITS P EOPLE . 1 1

of chesnuts , and melons extraordinary size f and ﬂavour . The richest abundance o ve getable produce , in short , is found blooming

of in the very midst barren unfruitful rocks , that seem to defy the very vegetative power of nature . The animal kingdom of the Caucasus is no less exuberant ; horses , sheep , cattle , an d f a bu f loes are numerous , as well as wild

C boars , jackals , hyenas , panthers , hamois , goats , and deer ; besides hares , pheasants ,

all of and kinds game ; fowls , too , and bees are in abundance ; and among the occa sioual visitors may be mentioned the bear ,

of the denizen the north , and even at times the tiger . The mineral treasures of the

Caucasian ranges are as yet little known ; and the prevalent scarcity of salt often ex poses the mountaineers to great privations .

O n the whole , nature has lavished her bounties most generously on the soil of the 1 2 TH E C A U CASUS

mun iﬁ Caucasus , and she has been no less cent in endowing the aboriginal inhabitants of these mountains with the mental qualiﬁ a cations for enabling them to appreciate her blessings .

1 4 THE CA UCASUS

d re even their resses , are governed and d gulate .

It must be acknowledged , however , that while their virtues are strengthened and

u pheld by these traditions , their national vices are often excited by them to savage

excesses . The tendencies of the people are

all republican ; and most tribes admit nei

ther of aristocracy nor hereditary titles .

A men n m ll bei g equal among the , the jurisdiction of the chiefs or princes (called

f P sah in the di ferent dialects y , By , Bei ,

on Beg , and so ) is exceedingly limited ;

U sd e n and that of the nobles ( , Work , or

M ursd en ) is still more restricted , unless they possess means of upholding the lustre

! of their ancestral rank by a rich showy appearance , or by preeminent valour on the

- ﬁ d O e . battle l n the other hand , great homage is paid to aged men of unblemished character , as well as to those who have dis O 1 5 AN D ITS P E PLE . tin guished themselves by e xpl oits against the common enemy and also to minstrels .

The life of the mountaineer of the Cau casus is one continued series of dangers and hardships , imposed upon him by the necessity of defending his mountain home he must , therefore , in order to gain lasting

o inﬂuence over his tribe , make c ntinual

un displays of dexterity , perseverance , and daunted courage . Where princes reign a small tribute is

the paid to them , and they , as well as nobles , have a right to a hospitable recep

or w tion in every house , rich poor , hich they may enter, and they may remain as long as the provisions last . In all other respects they are on an equality with the

of of rest the clan , and must obey the will

T a fe s the popular assemblies denominated , which are called together to discuss matters

n m l concerni g i itary service , or when a 1 6 THE CAUCASUS

t battle is to be fought , a feas to be cele b rated or as , judicial business , such the

al or of tri condemnation a culprit , to be

n transacted . These meeti gs are held mostly

or on moonlight nights , in sacred groves , under a huge primeval tree , near which is generally to be seen an ancient decayed cross , the last memorial of the Christian sires assigned to the Caucasian races , and to which there is usually attached an emo tion of religious awe , originating in some tradition .

O on e n the occasion of of these meetings ,

e every man arrays himself in his b st attire , and all vie with one another in the pic ture s ue q style Of their adornment , and in the

of display bright arms and jewelled dirks , as well as of formidable j avelins and bril liant feats of horsemanship , so that there is a great deal of pleasurable excitement in

“ these nightly scenes , by which the ﬁery A N 1 7 D ITS PEOPLE . spirits of the warriors are animated to still

higher martial ardour , and the hills are con tin ually made to reecho their tremendous

- battle cry .

The Speaker and Council of Elders are seated on the turf in the centre of the assembly , in order that they may be seen and heard by every on e present ; around them a circle is formed by the middle - aged

‘ warriors , whose steeds are tethered in a

n ring outside that formed by their ow ers , and this outer circle is again surrounded by the youth on horseback . Whenever an elder rises to address the

n of meeting, the deafeni g clash arms , the clatter of a thousand tongues , the stamping of of a multitude horses , and the whole

- in many voiced tumult , is hushed in an

an d stant ; and in profound silence , with

the deep emotion , the assembly listens to counsel addressed to it by the venerable 1 8 THE CAUCASUS

speaker , whose mystical , enthusiastic elo quen c e often excites his hearers to heroic

ff in of e orts defence their mountain homes , by promising them , finally , that whoever is slain on the battle - fi eld in the conflict with

n n the e emy , shall be thence i stantaneously transferred to Paradise . When the speaker has concluded his

u harangue , his proposals are s bmitted to the deliberations , and then to the votes of the assembly ; these are given ﬁrst by the aged , and then downwards to the youngest members present , all having an equal right to express their Opinions freely ; and the maj ority of votes constituting any measure

an d on so agreed on , is law , holy binding the whole community .

Before setting out to attend on e of these

n great public meeti gs , each Brotherhood or smaller community usually discusses and resolves on the measure s proposed to be I 1 9 A N D TS P EOPLE .

advocated in the larger assembly , which

of ten r an d consists of these B otherhoods , is e mp o wered in the public meetings to pass

m . laws , fro which there is no appeal In the Brotherhood the motto is One

for on e for all , and all it undertakes to provide for the widows an d orphan s of fallen warriors ; an d in case of on e of its members being un able when he wishes to marry to raise the funds necessary for the purchase Of a bride , this is done for him by m the co munity .

Should on e of the clan be convicted of theft of any goods or chattels belonging to a friendly neighbour , and unable to pay the

ﬁne (mostly a certain number of oxen or sheep) to which he has been condemned by

“ him public sentence , it has to be paid for by a contribution raised amon g the Bro therho d o to which he belongs .

Robberies committed on the property of 2 0 THE CA UCASUS u nfriendly neighbours , however , especially w if ell planned and boldly executed , are greatly applauded .

a Should disputes occur , and the disp

tants not be able to come to any agreement , u mpires are chosen , by whose decision the parties have to abide .

of The majority the tribes , and especially

L es he an s of the g , cling to the principle retributive j ustice .

Guided by the law , that he who shed

’ deth man s blood , by man shall his blood

! be shed , they regard it as a solemn duty to hunt after the aggressor till they have laid him low ; and this barbarous custom has given rise to sanguinary feuds , which last from gen eration to generation .

These mountaineers are taught , that the spirits of their relatives who have been slain can never rest in peace until they shall have been avenged ; and not only is a

92 THE CA U CASUS v ere n ce for a e an d g , a high sense of the

TVhe n n duty of hospitality . a guest e ters

any dwelling , the host considers himself as

on bound to wait him , to serve him , to minister to his wants , provide for his com

aﬂord fort , and him every gratiﬁcation in

his power . The best place in the house , the choicest morsels at the dinner , are

of allotted to him , and the members the family vie with one another in endeavour ing to amusehim ; the utmost care is taken never to disturb his repose and should he fall Sick , he is nursed with the utmost

anxiety and tenderness .

e re enemies lying in wait for the

n ot stranger , his host would fail to protect him and should the threshold be violated W f by his pursuers , the hostess ould O fer

her him breast , and by this act constitute

of him at once a member the family , who would then peril property and life in his I 3 AN D TS PEOPLE . 2

defence . Such extreme cases as this , how

ever , are of rare occurrence .

The visit of a minstrel is regarded as a great honour to a family and every guest

on is , his departure , furnished by his host him with letters of introduction , which give

‘ a claim to further hospitalities on the road

to his place of destination . Prisoners of war and stragglers only are claimed as

bondsmen ; of the latter , few are found

among the Caucasian tribes , and such as

are met with are usually in the enjoyment of the same privileges as the rest of the

. th e family Should bondsman , however ,

of ff be guilty any o ence , the master Of the

house has a right to put him to death .

One of the darkest features of Caucasian

of life is the existence the Slave Trade ,

w which , not ithstanding the vigilant oppo

sitiou of the English Ambassador at Con

stan tin o le w p , is still a favourite Object ith 2 4 THE CAU CASUS

a on d eﬁ these races , and often c rried , in

of ance all obstacles , with the most daring n O i trepidity . n most occasions , the father himself sells his daughters to a broker who supplies the Turkish harems ; and fre quently receives a good round sum for his m erchandise .

on no The poor girls , their parts , by

the means object to proceeding , as they are

! taught from their infancy to long for the luxurious idleness of the harems of Stam

of boul , and regard it as a kind earthly

Paradise .

Warlike expeditions in pursuit of plun der , either to the Russian territory , or to

n that of a neighbouri g tribe , have great charms for a people accustomed to constant

“ exertion , and delighting in tumult and activity .

W on e hen of these is in contemplation , the ﬁrst step is the ceremony of taking the 2 5 AND ITS PE OPLE .

O Blood ath as it is called , which binds those who take it to perseverance in valor ous f e fort , and to standing by each other to the death . The bravest warrior among them is then chosen as leader , and the occa sion is celebrated by a feast and a dance .

The warriors after this retire to rest ; but at daybreak they rise and set forward on their di march , ascen ng mountains , crossing rivers , and forcing their way through primeval

of . forests , till they reach the point attack The march is mostly planned so as to sur

in prise the enemy sleep , and in such case the deadly onslaught usually spares no on e .

Should any prisoners be made , they are

of speedily driven to some place security , where the spoil is d eposited ; and the re treat of the assailants is generally as sud

den as their appearance .

Prisoners of war Often prefer death to captivity ; they destroy their arms and mu 2 6 THE CA UCA SU S tilate their horses , that they mav not ren

an d der service to the enemy ; sometimes ,

n ﬁ ally , embrace the ﬁrst Opportunity to precipitate themselves in to some rocky abyss , rather than endure the passing their

lives in bondage .

San guinary battles are often fought for the sake of recapturing the body of a slain friend ; as it is considered a great misfor tune and disgrace that one who has fought an d bled in the cause of th e common weal should be buried on a hostile soil . AN D I TS P EOPLE . 2 7

HAPTE I II C R . — — o o . D s . M ode of Life amon g the Caucas ian s . F d re s — — — f h T he A ttalik . Marriage . Edu c ati on o t e B oy s — — Education of the Girl s M e dical Tre atm en t in

— — n n n d C n e C e e on e s . L e o a ircas sia . Fu ral r m i am tati

R n ej oici g .

T H E ordinary mode of life among the Cau

c asian s is frugal , and in strict accordance

w ith their social condition . Their houses and huts are for the most part poor and

m n eagre in construction , seldom exhibiti g

of A fe w the smallest sign prosperity . have

n of dwelli gs rudely built stone , but the

maj ority of the habitations are constructed

of pine boards , roughly put together and

thatched over ; others consist merely of

hurdle - work plastered with clay and mor m tar and though they contain several roo s , 2 8 TH E CA UCASUS

or they are without windows chimneys , and are used as common resting places for men and cattle . Some tribes have n o houses at

a . all , but live in c ves The Caucasian villages are mostly formed in a circle , in the centre of which the cattle are placed for security during the night ;

but others consist of a few huts , widely scattered about the forest , and the poverty of the inhabitants seems legibly written on every threshold . Their ordinary food is a preparation from

an d coarse millet , a piece of roast meat and

of a draught beer , which they occasionally brew , are the greatest luxuries they know .

Knives , forks and plates are dispensed with in a Caucasian household , and considered

rﬂuiti s sup e e . As the Caucasians are exceedingly fond

on e of their arms , of their greatest amuse ments is to polish their jeweled dirks , and

30 T H E CAUCASU S

of mostly silk , and over the head and face

I shadm is worn the , a white and Often beau tifull y embroidered veil . The poorer classes are , of course , more scantily attired . Family life in the Caucasus is generally entered upon at an early age ; a fact that might be in a great measure accounted for by many circumstances arising out of the

i u o peculiar posit on of the co ntry , the is la

of n fﬁ tion ma y of its valleys , and the di culty an d occasion al impossibility of c omm u n ica

n tion between them . Polygamy is fou d

on n of am g o ly a few the tribes , and even with them it may be regarded as the ex ception rather than the rule . Marriages take place at so very early an age , that a girl of eighteen would be looked upon as a

Old decided maid , and be very likely there fore to remain unmarried for the rest of her life . Men of the middle classes choose their AND ITS P EOPLE . 31

n a e wives for themselves , accordi g to t st ; but the matrimonial partners of the s ons of f nobles are chosen or them . In the nego tiation s e n e carried on conc rni g the marriag ,

of the stipulations as to the amount horses ,

an d slaves , cattle , valuable arms which are

t to be given , form a very importan item ;

when these are concluded , the bride , it is

b he r said , is so anxiously watched over y

to relatives , that the lover has to resort many stratagems before he can succeed in

even seeing her for a few moments . The wedding is celebrated with noisy

t of h feasting and revelry , in the mids whic h the bridegroom has to rush in , and , wit

of n the help a few daring you g men , to carry off the lady by force ; and by this process she becomes his lawful wife . The Caucasians are said in general to treat their wives well , but now and then they send them back to their father ’ s 32 THE CAU CASUS

—an f house , a front which gives rise to the bitterest feuds . Adultery is punished with death .

In the ed ucation of the male children we ﬁnd among the Circassians many traits of character and custom , curiously analo gous to those of the ages of chivalry in

n Wester Europe . As it was the practice for young aspirants to the honours of knighthood not to be left to be educated in their parental homes , but to be sent into the household of some noble to be trained to the practice of chivalric exercises , so the son of a Circassian chief

is taken from home , and consigned to the

of or - a n charge a tutor foster father , called

A ttalik , and until he attains the age when his education is supposed to be complete , it is considered a n unpardonable weakn ess in the real father e ven to desire to see his child . Boys are regarded rather as the A N D IT s PEOPLE . 33 property of the tribe than of their parents ; and should the latter have neglected to

A ttalik for on e choose an their son , any who feels so disposed mav Offer to under take the charge . There are even instances of enthusiastic educators carrying Off a pupil

o by f rce ; and this is not , by Circassian law , a punishable offence . A male child at his birth is presented

of w with a bow and a quiver arro s , as symbols of his future career ; and to these

e is add d an amulet , to guard him from w itchcraft . and from the inﬂuence of the evil eye . The Circassians being entirely ignorant

Of science and letters , understand by edu cation chieﬂy gymnastic exercises , riding ,

a swimming , and the use of warlike we pons but the youn g pupil is also instructed in

of n w the art stealing with expert ess , as ell

on e as in eloquence , in order that he may

D T H E CA U CAS U S day shine as an orator at the public meet ings .

n Having attained to manhood , the you g mountaineer is c onducted in triumph back to the house of his parents , where , at a

e on feast h ld the occasion , he displays his a cquire ments before his friends and rela ive s n or — A ttalik t . The guardia tutor the as he is called— is then overwhelmed with

o presents and congratulations , and he enj ys ever afterwards the highest consideration in the family .

The education of female children is left to the mothers , by whom they are taught

f be to attend to domestic a fairs , to skilful horsewomen , and also the use of arms .

On the decease of the head of the family —the father — the management of the household devolves on the mother ; but should the sons n ot agree to remain toge

’ n ther , the father s property is divided amo g 0 » IT S D A N D P EOPLE . O

them , the eldest Obtaining the largest share , and with it the house , of which he then becomes the possessor . The smallest por tion is given to the younger son .

Death being looked upon in this country , im as almost every where else , as a most portant family event , funerals are performed with great pomp ; that of a warrior espe cially with extravagant ceremonies . Illness among the Caucasians is commonly attri buted to evil spirits , which they endeavour to drive out of the patient by all kinds of

torture and by tumultuous noise . Under the impression that the spirit exercises his malignant inﬂuence over the patient chieﬂy during his sleep , they no sooner see him sin kin g into slumber than they take every method they can devise to disturb him , l w and if noise wil not keep him a ake , they sprinkle cold water over his face whenever

7 h e . “ at attempts to close his eyes hen , 36 TH E CA UCA SUS

his ff last , death puts an end to su erings , the women commence the funeral dirge ; tearing the hair from their heads with frantic lamentations , and lacerating their hands and faces in a frightful manner , and the men lash themselves with whips till they are covered with blood .

of No manifestation this kind is made , however , when the deceased has been struck by lightning , as it is considered then that

on e of he is the chosen people , who has been recalled to the Most High without the intervention of a mediator . The body is the in such cases interred on eighth day , o n the spot where the event occurred . The remains of persons who die of disease are

out ﬁrst put into a bath , and then laid upon a carpet in their best clothes ; and l it Shou d the body be that of a warrior , is burnt in the garments he has worn in battle .

38 THE CA UCASUS

I CHAPTER V .

h —R s of C st n T e R eligion of the Caucasian s . elic hri ia ity

— n — min gl e d with Pagan i s m . S o cial R e cre ati o s Love — — f n o ns e s . L e o Mu sic . H mag e paid to Mi tr l a guag

of the v o s T e s —T he T c e e ss or C o s ari u rib h rk , ir a

n —T —A rtiﬁ ial o es of ov n s ia s h e ir b e auty . c m d impr i g — — d i P e of n N oble s . T he e an t . rid Birth am o g Gr at

L —T h T e n n T cherkes ittle Kabard ah . e rib s i habiti g — h A h e . . T e A b assian s or b c as s kaia ,

IT would be very difﬁcult to point out precisely what are the religious doctrines entertained by these mountaineers , as they are extremely vague and indeﬁnite . The ruined churches— the decayed and mouldering wooden crosses , found in many places in groves and forests— the frequent occurrence Of some Christian rite being found still in use among the tribes of the

Western Caucasus , lead inevitably to the 39 AN D ITS PEOPLE .

conclusion that , at some period , the Chris tian religion must have been prevalent

of here ; but if so , the spirit Christianity

has long since entirely disappeared , and

in been superseded by that of Islamism , trod uce d of in days yore , it is said , by a

certain princess and her nobles . The ma j ority of the people have but a confused

of w conception a deity , whom they orship in ceremonies compounded of the usages of M ahommed an ism Pa Christianity , , and

‘ n ga ism . Some of the tribes still pay homage to a God of Thunder and a G od of Light

of ning , as well as to Gods Winds , Waters ,

and Forests ; but as they have no priests , f except the Mahommedan Mollahs , the O ﬁce of consecrating the oxen and sheep , brought as sacriﬁces to these deities (and Offered in traditionally sacred groves and forests) , is usually performed by aged men of unim

peached character . 40 THE C A U CASUS

The feast of Easter is still kept never theless with something like Christian cere

of monies ; and in the beginning Spring , the people Observe a long fast , after which they have a festival , at which they present coloured eggs to each other , a custom pre valent in Russia , and many parts of Ger m any , at the same season .

In a few scattered mountain caves , a kind

w t of orship is paid to the prophe Elias , but without any reference to Christian tradi tion ; and the people in general are greatly under the inﬂuence of childish surpersti

tions , and fears of witchcraft and of ghosts .

The principal occupation of the Cauca

of - sian people is that cattle breeding , which

on on they carry an extensive scale , the herds of some owners amounting to thirty thousand head , and many of their horses are of excellent breed and much prized .

u In agriculture , the Ca casian has made AN D ITS PEOPLE . 4 1

very little progress , and under his mode of l ti lage , even the most fertile soil yields but a very meagre produce . Of handicrafts men fe w there are to be found , except

of armourers , and most the furniture and cooking utensils are of home manufacture .

The women are expert and industrious , as weavers and embroiderers , and produce really wonderful specimens of domestic workmanship in cloth , Shawls , carpets, veils , l and gold and si ver lace , with which they ornament the furs so abundantly supplied

of by the various animals the forests .

T he Caucasians also supply themselves

in with gunpowder , an article very great demand among them .

Music and song ar e held in high estima

low tion , but they are as yet in a very stage of development ; the onl y musical in stru

ments in use are a kind of violin , a ﬁfe , and a small drum , and the melodies performed 42 THE C A UCA SUS on them , though plaintive , are exceedingly monotonous ; but they are nevertheless greatly admired by the public , and no fes tival is complete without the presence of the minstrel , who , in public estimation , is only second to the brave warrior , and is treated with the greatest veneration by

Old young and . The women are generally eager to manifest their admiration for him , and the young damsels especially desire his notice and favour ; the men , too , pay him

homage , but not always quite unmingled with jealousy .

The talents of these bards are mostly displayed in impromptu effusions in praise

n Of dari g deeds in the battle ﬁeld , in eulo

iums g on the warriors , or compliments to the virtues and beauty of the ladies who happen to be present at the party . Next to the song , the national dance is the fa vourite of amusement the Caucasians , and A N D ITS PEOPLE . 43 it is as bold and martial in its chai' acte r as

the people themselves . In general there is much free social intercourse among them , and from these pleasures their women are

on not excluded . The only drawback the

a advant ge of these gatherings is , that when , as frequently happens , the men take to amusing themselves with sham ﬁghts , and

u playing at soldiers , their impet osity often occasions accidents ; and in the bustle of their evolutions , with foot and horse , deadly wounds are inﬂicted , which turn the scene of of an d festivity into an arena mourning , ,

what is still worse , give rise to animosities that beget bloody feuds , continuing through many generations .

The valley of the river Terek , which , as

of we have seen , rises near the centre the

Caucasian range , and ﬂowing eastward , falls

— of into the Caspian Sea , forms a kind divi sion of the territory of the Caucasus into a 44 TH E CAU CA SUS

- - North Western and South Eastern district , the inhabitants of which differ essentially

u in lang age , though the Tatar dialect is extensively known among them , and used

as a general medium of communication , and the nomadic tribes retain com

. O mouly their mother tongue f these , the

or ﬁrst to be mentioned are the Tcherkess ,

Circassians , as they are called in England , or A diges , as they call themselves , whose origin is rather uncertain ; they declare their primitive home to have been in Arabia ; but even if this be true , they have dwelt so long in the Caucasus , that they may fairly be counted among the aborigines . This ﬁne race is renowned for physical

of strength , beauty feature , and symmetry of form ; they are agile and active in the

all highest degree , and surpass the other tribes in their noble and manly bearing , as l wel as in the cleanliness of their persons ,

46 THE CA U CASUS though from their continual intercourse

with their neighbours , their frequent wars ,

and their nomadic way Of life , they are seldom found without any mixture of other races , the amalgamation has been oftener advantageous than otherwise , especially to

of their nobles . Most the Tcherkess tribes

au are governed by princes , though their thority is very limited ; but both princes and n obles are excessively proud of their descent , and manifest this pride in their matrimonial alliances . Marriages between persons of unequal rank are seldom heard of , as they are greatly discountenanced

M ahomme d an ism has made great pro gress among the Circassians , while Christi a n it u y, tho gh it must have been extensively known to their forefathers , has scarcely left auv other trace than that of the before

an d mentioned ruins crosses , still to be seen near their habitations . Their language , AN D ITS PEOPLE . 47

of which , on account its modulations , is f exceedingly di ﬁcult , is spoken throughout the Kab ard ah district called the , from the

Laba to the Black Sea . This district borders

on on to the west the Molka , to the north

e on the Terek , to the east and south ast the

S un d scha K umb ale i d ue and , but south it

n leans o the great mountain chain . It is

divided by the Terek into two parts , the

Kab ard ah Great and the Little , of which

the former, though in the southern part

mountainous , is throughout fertile , and

abounding with luxuriant vegetation . The

Little Kab ard ah extends along a mountain

range , running from west to east , nearly

parallel with the great chain ; its norther n

part is barren , but the southern thickly

wooded .

The K ab ardin e villages consist of forty

or ﬁfty houses built in a circle , and gener

ally bearing the name Of the noblest of the 48 THE CA UCASU S inhabitants ; but both the name and the situation of these villages are frequently changed ; for as the people till the land very indolently , and never manure it , as soon as they have exhausted on e tract they remove to another . 1 82 2 In , the majority of the inhabitants of the K ab ard ah left their native soil to cross the Kuban , and settle between the Great

hik or S elen d sh uk In d s . , , and the Uruss

T che rkeskaia The following tribes live in , or Circassia Proper ; that is , the territory

on bounded the north by the Kuban , to the east (on the northern side Of the great range) by the Laba , and beyond it , by the

d ha S o c .

1 . B esten ian s n n The , who are fou d alo g the Upper Laba , and in the valleys on both

the Sides of mountains , towards the Uruss

C hod z and , where the latter joins the Laba .

2 M ochotian s . h The , who occupy t e base O 49 AND ITS P E PLE . of the Black Mountains , between the Laba and the Fars they live in cleanly and neatly kept villages , and cultivate the land , but in spring and harvest - time they travel with their herds of cattle as far as the

Kuban .

3 T en ir oi Kemur . The g , also called the

uahe s q , to which belong the smaller tribes of Jero okon A H a ttu uahe the g , demi , and q ,

on whose dwelling places border the south ,

on of M ochotian s those the , and extend

from the Laba towards the Kuban . They

possess larger herds than any other tribe , sometimes numbering as many as from

thirty to forty thousand head .

4 Bse d uch G atz akoi . The and the are

spread over the territory Situated on both

A ﬁ s Sides of the Supe to the p .

5 A b asechs . The are found in the valleys

of the chief mountain range , to the south

o f B sed uch the , and they extend over the

E 5 0 TH E CA U CA SUS s outhern declivities to the Black Sea . This

is an d A tribe rather numerous , their uls or

d d fen ce d ~ in villages consist of etache , , and

allisad ed p farms , surrounded by ﬁelds and woods , and held as freehold property by the cultivators , who are brave and warlike in their character .

6 S h a uchs . The ps live westward of the

B se d uch s A b asechs of and , on both sides

o the chief m untain range , and on the Black

Sea coast . They are more numerous than th e A b asechs , and are distinguished for

v their lo e of independence , their free insti

tution s . , and their personal bravery They do not acknowledge the supreme authority of any prince .

N ata oi or Natkokuatche s 7 . The g , , is a tribe composed of the remnants of several

others , which are separately extinct . Their warlike spirit and love of independence , has spread the terror of their name far over AN D IT s P EOPLE . 5 1

re the Kouban , and they are commonly garded as a race of marauders ; the y live on S ha suchs w the west of the p , bet een the

Kouban Taman and Black Sea ; and their

territory is particularly rich in wild honey , which is found in crevices of the rocks it

n ot is glutinous , but hard and ﬁrm , and it has to be dissolved in water before it can be used . The second principal race of the western

A b assian s o r Caucasus is that of the ,

A b chases f , who di fer widely from their neighbours in language and feature . They have small faces and long noses , and their

u lang age is quite distinct , not bearing the slightest resemblance to any other , either A or . siatic European , dialect Their man ners and customs are much like those of the Circassians , by whom they were for merly overpowered and driven into the

mountains . 5 2 TH E CA UCA SUS

of Though Christian descent , they appear to be generally quite devoid of religious faith , but their princes and nobles pro

of fess adherence to that Islam . Their villages consist of a considerable number of houses and farms , scattered about the forests , whence they obtain the wax , honey , and furs which they bring to the European markets . Several of their tribes dwell at

on k present the right ban of the Kouban ,

Podkuma and along the rivers Molka and , but the majority have their homes on the t lef bank of the Kouban , and on the moun tain ridge extending down to the shores of the Black Sea . Their country is known by the names of the Great and Little A b assa ; the latter borders on the frontiers of the Circassian s to the west , and to the east on the Kouban , and their district is at present inhabited by

of ﬁve tribes , bearing the collective name

A blikissek . They are

5 4 TH E CAUCAS U S

b. The Tams , who dwell near the Sp rings of the Uruss and the Great Laba .

T he K asil e c . b g , who live between the

Greater and Lesser Laba, and whose houses and huts are carried up to the summits of the highest range .

d B arak i who . o on The , are neighbours

Kasilb e the western side to the g , on the

of Highlands . From the barrenness their soil and their consequent poverty , these people have to contend with great priva

tions .

B n of e. The aghs live ear the sources

d z the Laba and the C ho .

‘ T cha erai or T ch e reh f . The g , g , occupy

of the country westward the Baghs , which on the north w est borders on the dwellings

B e s nian s of the te .

The following tribes reside in the so

A b assa called Transmontane , on the heights of the principal ranges , and on the south 5 AND ITS P EOPLE . 5 e m declivities that slope towards the Blac k

Sea . f . U bichs o 9 The , neighbours the Tcher

kess Na tugoi. They have good and well

cultivated vineyards on the mountain d e cli

y ities .

la M id aw or M e d ow eh . The y, , also called

the A shipsi ; they dwell with the Dshige

T cha erai tita , south of the g .

. T he Bsub eh Bsub or Bs b j , y , neig hbours

of m o the for er tribes , extend all ver the

to heights , from the great mountain ridge

of the Creek Gagry , which constitutes the

A chasia boundary of Circassia and b proper .

A b chasia extends from the highest peaks

of a the great range to the Black Sea , long

of s t the borders Circassia , and is epara ed

from M in grelia by the river Ingur or

. A b chases Enguri It is inhabited by the ,

seb eld es A bkhave s . the T , and the 5 6 TH E CAUC A SUS

H APTE IV C R .

T he T t s of th e C s s —T e A e n a ar auca u h ir pp ara c e . — — - O on s . e n . ccupati R ligio Dome stic Life . T he va — mi — — on s T es . Ku k T T c s . n T h ri rib atar urc oma s . e

ev er - burn in g Fire on Cap e A b charan an d els e — — e e . T he N o t T f L T s . e M o e wh r gay a ar h ir d o ife .

—T h u n — — e S a es . T h S n e O ss etes . i gular Kin d of — H ospitality T he G eographical Limits of th eir — h — — T e to T e D u ore . T h T s e s s etc . he rri ry g Ki t ,

L es hian — e n d g s . B auty a High Characte r of th eir W o en e tc . m ,

T H E Tatars of these regions are found scattered about in various places , not much connected with one another , in the valleys

T che em T cherek of the Kouban , Baksan , g , ,

A of and rgudan , all which rise in the

of northerly branch the Elbruz . The ex ternal aspect of these people does not immediately announce their Mongolian descent , as they are only distinguished I 5 7 AN D TS PEOPLE . from the Circassians by a more compact

ﬁgure , a darker skin , and smaller eyes . They live in pretty little cabins and houses

of built pine logs , and are very intelligent and industrious . They manufacture gun powder , carpets , cloth , and felt blankets ;

l - they get sa t from the mountain salt pits ,

82 7° C cultivate tobacco , and brew beer and which some travellers have thought as good as English porter ; and their merchandize and manufactures are held in great repute all over the Caucasus , and obtain for them considerable inﬂuence Their favourite article of food is horse ﬂesh , which they regularly fatten for the purpose . The more northerly dwelling places of these Tatars exhibit many traces of Chris

n tian architecture , but the Christian religio has entirely vanished from among them .

They are devoted to the Islam faith , but are much addicted also to the interpreta 5 8 THE CA U CASUS

of su ersti tion signs and omens , and are p tious to excess . Polygamy is foreign to their habits , but their wives are secluded

of from the gaze strangers , and treated with

. re great consideration To parents , also , spe c tful homage is paid ; an undutiful son is punished by being put in a pillory in a public place , and Should he not reform his

’ conduct , he is expelled from his parents house , and ﬁnally from the village .

T he principle of retributive j ustice is fully recognized among these people ; but they may be appeased by a solemn recon ciliation , and their strict integrity renders treachery an almost unheard of occurrence among them .

The names Of these tribes are

1 Karatch ai . The , who live near the f h sources o t e Kouban .

U rusb 2 . The y, who are their neighbours to the west . AND ITS P EOPLE . 5 9

3 T che em . The g , who rear bees , and

of produce a great deal honey , which is Of

a rather intoxicating quality , being made A from the zalea pontica .

ian i n s ho in 4 . Bass a w The Balkar , or ,

habit cold inhospitable mountain valleys .

Koumik The Tatars , who inhabit the

ob of plains Of the Sund a, to the east the

of A of northern cape the ksai , and the

K oissu or . Sulak , as far as the Caspian They are also to be found in the districts

Kavan ich u Dsen utei of the G bden and g , in

North Daghestan .

T r uchme n en urkoman s The , or T , occupy

of the whole length the Caspian Sea coast ,

from B on iak to the borders of Shirvan or

of Daghestan , including the districts Der

bend or Kuba ; the most inﬂuential of these tribes number as many as three

A of hundred villages . nother tribe this

of race inhabits the district Baku , which 60 TH E CAU CAS US stretches to the extremity of Cape A b cha ran , where it runs into the Caspian . O n a pinnacle of this plateau , is maintained the

- - far famed ever burning ﬁre , which serves

of to the mariners the Caspian as a beacon , and to those among them who are Guebers

- o or Fire W rshippers , also as an Object of

u pious veneration . It is said to be kept p with a kind of gas ; and these p erpeth al ﬁres are maintained on the highest ridges of the districts of T cheki and Rurki in

A of rmenia, as well as far in the interior

on Persia , and the Steppes between the

Caspian and the Sea of A S Oph .

o a s The N g y , commonly numbered among the Tatar tribes , are a mixed people , trac ing their origin from Nogai , a descendant

D chen iS - m of g Khan , from who , in the thirteenth century , they derived a high reputation .

A of A 1 5 5 7 fter the conquest strachan , in ,

62 TH E CAU CAS US

' that Only thieves need creep in and out softly .

Two only of the Nogay tribes live on th e

left bank of the river Kouban , in Circassia .

M auren sauls These are the , who occupy the extensive fertile valleys extending alon g the

Kouban , from the inﬂux of the Laba ; and

a or the Manz ras , Kasai , between the Uruss u Laba and Ko ban .

The latter were , at the end of the last

n century , very numerous , amou ting to at least eight thousand families , but they are at present reduced to a very small number .

S uan eti or The , , as they call themselves ,

Schnau , inhabit the heights of the Cau

A b chasia casus , south of the Tatars , east of ,

M in relia Imere tia of north of g , west of , and the C hen is ual heights of the q , and of the

In gur , which ﬂows through these mountains .

Bein g surrounded by a steep mountain

v e chain , they have hitherto preser ed th ir 63 AN D ITS P EO PLE .

d b ow indepen ence ; they neither to prince ,

o e a n d noble , nor f r ign invader , are certainly a very ﬁne race , but it must be owned ex cessivel y dirty in their habits , and greatly

a addicted to robbery . They live in miser

or ble cabins , without chimneys , so much

for as a loophole to serve a window , and in these are harboured , not only their families , but also their cattle , and certain treasures ,

oh such as g old and trinkets , which they

or tain by open secret theft , and ornament their wives therewith . Their garments are

poor and scanty ; they wear no headdress , seldom comb their hair , and frequently possess but one drinking cup for the whole family , but then , that serviceable utensil is a silver goblet .

These people are said to be of Christian

n of d oc origi , but not a vestige Christian trine is to be found among them and their mode of life would certainly n ot do any great credit to it if th e re were . 64 T H E CAUCASUS

Their women , though they cover their

of faces with a red cloth , so that only one

re their eyes is visible , are by no means markable for chastity , and generally have

on e at least favoured admirer .

Among the honest occupations of this tribe is that of obtaining lead and copper ores from their mountains , and also prepar in g their own gunpowder .

O or O The ssetes , ssetians , are a people of peculiar dialect and physiognomy ; they

e n hav rou d full faces , fair hair , and blue

n eyes , and are Of middle height , and stro gly built . Their villages , though small , consist

Of stone houses with ﬂat roofs , and they are protected by strong towers , in which , when

w o the hamlet is attacked , the aged men ,

men . , and children , can take refuge These people are , like the rest , brave in battle , and willing to combine against a common

enemy , but their system of morals is based I P 6 AND TS PEO LE . 5 on a mere tissue Of absurd and inconsistent A . as traditional usages guest , as long he remains under their roof, is watched over

the with the utmost solicitude , and host woul d certainly defend him at the peril of his own life against an y attack but scarcely has the stranger quitted the abode th a t af

forded him such hospitable shelter , than

the host , his former protector , sets out to

n follow and plunder or eve murder him , and that sometimes before he has got b e f yond the precincts o the village .

The religion of the Ossetian s is a com

n a pou d of Christian and p gan practices , and they also worship a prophet Elias , in caves which are the abodes of astrologers

l ve and soothsayers , here he d in great

n eration . A gricultural pursuits would in this coun

l on n t try require considerable abour , accou of of the sterility the soil , and the inha

F 66 THE CAUCASUS

bitan ts therefore in general prefer cattle

own breeding but they grow their tobacco ,

of and brew a malt liquor excellent quality . If we regard the Terek valley as the boundary between the Eastern and Western O Caucasus , the ssete territory will be the

- of O south eastern part its western half. n the north their country is bounded by the

K ab ard a - , and on the west and south west

the Tatars and Im ere tian s are their neigh

bours . They extend along the southern

of an d b e declivities the Caucasus , thence

tween Imeretia and the A rag vi into G eor

cliﬂS gia Proper , along the Imeretian chalk ,

Reon i by the sources of the , and eastward

- Liachvi a Liachvi to the Didi , P tara , Med

K ssami A ra vi chuda , , and g , where they are

D l ti known under the name Of va e t .

The most important branches of this

D schmuri Gud ama ua tribe are the and q , who live on the banks of a considerable 67 AND ITS PEOPLE . mountain river of the same name ; and th e

C hewaure thi on th e A , whose territory is ra y i O the D vale tti g . The ssetians , north of ,

U ruch occupy the banks of the rivers , Dur

A re d on G n ald on dar , , Frag , and , down to the Terek , which receives these rivers . The most inﬂuential Ossete tribes found ne of D a ar the sources the Terek , are the

m n gores , who inhabit the rugged i eral ridges along the U ruch ; they are governed by princes of the venerated Circassian fa

- h k e T c er essaté . milies , Badi lath and The

S chimi-Kurtauli W ala iri Phaikomé , g , , and

T a auri K a ck sb e . lastly , the g , inhabit the

6 . M e d z e hee or The g Kists , are often

che tchen z es called T , from the name of their

u most inﬂ ential tribe . They possess the vir tues and qualities peculiar to the Circassian

n races , and especially a most e thusiastic

of love freedom and independence , submit ting with the utmost reluctance to a foreign 68 THE CAU CASUS

yoke , and watching with keen vigilance

of off every Opportunity throwing it .

Their villages consist of ﬂat- roofed stone

ca houses , protected by walls and towers ,

h of pa le resisting an energetic attack . Some

Of these tribes possess an abundance of cattle and corn , but they are nevertheless m very frugal in their ode Of living . They usually conﬁne themselves to the district bordered on the west by the Terek

on (in the part where it ﬂows northward) , A the east by the ksai and Engure , and bounded on the north by the Lesser Ka

S un d cha barda and , and to the south by the Snowy Mountains . The most inﬂuential tribes among them are !

~1 or . The Ingushes , Galgai , who reside on Kumb olei b e the , and in the plains A tween the latter and the banks of the ssai .

2 - of . The Kists , north west the Ingushes , an i A d extend ng to the rgun .

7 0 THE CA U CASUS compelled to succumb to the encroachments of the enemy , though they are as manly in

of character , as fond independence , and as

of ready to do battle in defence it, as any

other of the Caucasian races . Though in general their manners resemble those of the

r Circassians , their habits are more predato y and violent , and they are sterner Observers of the law of retribution . Their villages (auls) resemble those of the Kists , the houses being ﬂat and stone

of roofed , but a larger size , and so well

of fortiﬁed , that they may certainly boast

’ of each man s house being his castle . Some the highlanders among them live in caves

or dug in the rock , huts wedged in between

f L e s hian the cli fs . The g women are the

ﬁnest in the Caucasus , and , besides their beauty , are famed for their domestic habits and their skill in knitting and weaving .

N or are their virtues conﬁned to the do 7 1 A ND ITS PEOP LE . m stic n e circle ; for , when a battle is bei g

e fought , they ﬂy to the ﬁeld to encourag

f of rean i the e forts their countrymen , to d mate the failing and exhauste , and bring needful succour to the wounded ; and they themselves have been known to commit

on of suicide the ﬁeld a lost battle , rather than submit to be taken by the enemy .

The whole of these L esghian races are devoted followers of Islam .

The soil of the L e sghian territory is very v arious in different parts ; in some it is

n fertile , yieldi g abundant return for the light labour bestowed upon it ; in others , the severest toil is required to obtain a subsistence from it , as an artiﬁcial soil has to be spread over the hard naked surface

Of the rock . But whenever this is the case , the people work with indefatigable perse ve ran ce upon it , and often , by their indus

u try , convert dreary and barren plands into charming plateaux . T H E CAU CASUS

L es hian s The g are divided , according to t their several dialects , in o four distinct

A A kushas tribes ; namely , the vares , the ,

K asikoumiks an d Kura hs the , the g .

The territory of the Avares borders west

ou A on ward the ksai , to the north the

A E n d eri promontory of the ksai and , to

on Koissu the east the , and to the south extending over the chief mountain range on a the Sam ra . The most inﬂuential tribes among these A A vares are , the ndi , the Gambi , the

K oissub ou A , the nsaldi , the Richei , the

Kialar B orotsi Khitadler , the , the , the

n U so , the Dido , the Karak , and Khe

serti . The Akusha district borders westward

Koissu on on the , to the north and east the Tartar tribes of K asan ick Gubden and

D sen utei g , and to the south on the sources of O the ssen . Their principal tribes are AN D ITS PEOPLE . 7 3

S salata ~ the , the Tarkow , and the Brother hood of Dsaro .

The Kasimo uks live between the upper

of K oissu on part the their west , and the

K aitach range and T ab asseran on their

A kushas east ; and have the on the north , and the Turpi ridge and its southern de

inﬂu pendencies on the south . The most en tial tribes amon g them are those of

A K arakaitah T ab asseran Kasikou chim , , ,

S ussan e t Y elissim mick , and the of ; the

D saro Dsaro Be Brotherhood of , with the ,

D sin ick M irch ach lakan , Taly , , and several

Rub eshti smaller tribes , including the , who have the reputation of being the best armourers in the Caucasus ; and lastly , the

Kurra h of g , who inhabit the valley the

Kour , towards Baku .

To give a correct statement of the num bers Of the various races and tribes who inhabit the Caucasus , would be a task still 7 4 THE CAU CA SUS more difﬁ cult than that of enumerating their names , and describing the position of the almost inaccessible districts they inhabit .

The following table , therefore , though d rawn up from the ' most authentic sta tistical documents , is only given as an approximate calculation , which it must be left to a future time to rectify .

I S H K E SS r A G S . . T C E R o D I E

1 In the e Kab ard a . Gr at s

In the L es se Kab ard as 2 . r

3 Kab ard as who ve en e e on . , ha tak r fug th e ban ks of the In d shik an d the U ru ss

B en i n s 4 . est a h hi 5 . M o c ot

“! O T en i oi the Je oroke s A e g , with g , d mi , a n d H attuquahe

r x B se d ooks

o o A b a se ch s

o c S hap sooks

1 0 N a tu oi th n n . g with e Sha e a d T he g akeh

Total of the T s cherk e ss I A N D T S P EOPLE .

A B A S S I A N S .

In L s e A s A . e s r b as a Kliteh

2 . T ramkt

Lo 3. uh

A slankt 4 . s

D ud ur uahe 5 . q 6 i . B b ert

In A b C n n B . Great assa ; i s mo ta e part

1 . Beshilbai 2 T . am

O G Kasilbeg

A- I Barake i U Bagh G T sha gerai

In h T n s n n of th 0 . t e ra m o ta e part e Gre at Abasse U bi h 7 . c

8 . Midawi

9. B subeh

In A chasia D . b

1 A b chasia

2 . T seb ald en

3 . A bkhan en

Total of A b assians 76 THE CA U CA SUS

I I T S I . R A R A T .

In 1 . chief moun tain ran ge m 2 . Ka il ck Tartars

3 . Turk oman s N 4 . ogai in Circassia

T otal of Tartars

S U A N E S b o t , a u

v . SS A N S O E T I .

D w l hi l . a es

2 h f b e . T e total o oth er tri s

T otal of O ss etes

M I D ZI G I—I E E n e the s e es v 1 . S , am ly, mall r trib

in clude d in th e chi e f trib es .

1 In us ch es . g

s 2 . Ki ts

3. Karab ulaks

T h h n z 4 . c etc e es

T otal of M id zighees

L E S G H I A N S o n to t e e t es . V I I . , acc rdi g h ir chi f rib

A w r 1 . a es

A ku ha 2 . sc

' K imuks 3 . as

4 . Kuragh

T otal of L esghian s

Makin g the gran d total of the wh ole p opulati on

78 THE CA UCASUS

skin , which have been previously saturated with naptha . Nearly all the people inhabiting this part of the Caucasus are of Georgian origin , and

n belo g to the Greek Church . This region is divided into three pro vinces or districts , all extending northward to the Snowy Mountains .

1 M in relia . g in the west, between the

T chemiS - rivers Ingur , y quali , Rioni , and the Black Sea .

Imeritia M in relia 2 . , lying eastward of g , whose people are in much the same condi tion as their western neighbours . 3 . Georgia Proper , extending eastward to the T cheki and Rurki . The Georgians are considered as the ﬁnest race in the Ca ucasus next to the

Circassians , to whom they are inferior in

of grace deportment , but they are not , like

a n the Circassians , nimated by a noble passio p r AND I TS PEOPLE . 7 9

for liberty and independence . The women endeavour to heighten their beauty by the

of ta a re use paint , in which cer inly they n ot very successful ; and they also , with

V o d the same iew , overl ad their resses with gaudy ornaments .

Imeritia The population Of Georgia , and

M in relia g is very scanty , and many rich woodlands and beautiful valleys have be e n entirely depopulated by the sanguin ary wars that have raged in the country , and by the iron despotism that still continues to weigh on and impoverish it . 80 THE CAU CASUS

H APTE C R V .

T H E WV A R S O F T H E C A U C A S U S .

T h in n n —R e e Caucasu s A ci e t Tim e s . main s of a gre at

W s th oun 1 n s — n ce all acro s e M ta . A gla at the A n — c i en t History of G e orgi a Russian Progress from

the e of P e e th e —U n e th E tim t r e Gr at . d r e mpres s

t n - s e n f h . Ca h eri e. Fir t S ettl m e t o t e C os s ack s

R ss n In e s in th Kab ard a — e n b e u ia trigu e . Gr at um r

of o s b in n d n h u u F rt uilt a e ar t e C a cas s .

T H E amount of knowledge of the Caucasus possessed by the ancients , and the degree of importance which these regions held in their estimation , we have now little means of ascertaining , as history and even tradi tion are silent on these points . But we are led to in fer that they must have at ta ch ed considerable value to it , from the fact of a prodigious wall having been built

m of at so e remote period , and the remains s AND IT PEOPLE . 8 1

n which are still to be seen , extending alo g

of various tracts the great mountain chain ,

on from Derbent , the shores of the Caspian

D ariel of . Sea , to the pass This wall is attributed to Alexander the

Grea t , who is said to have reigned over the

the of Iskan d eer . mountaineers , under name

t of n There is ano her story , too , a certai

for Georgian king , residing in an ancient

u on tress , b ilt the southern declivities of the Caucasus on e hundred and twenty

a n d years before Christ , holding sway over a powerful and ﬂourishing people , until the

Scythians (C haz ard es) came from the north to w age war upon him . In consequence of these wars , the eastern district fell under

of Persian rule , and the western under that the Greeks , who exercised authority in the country till the fall of the Pontic king

Mithridates , after which it yielded to the

of mighty sceptre Rome . 82 THE CAU CA SUS

Towards the end of the tenth century , we ﬁnd both districts reunited under the

Georgian queen Tamar , in whose reign

they became a powerful kingdom and , as the sway of this queen extended over many of the mountain tribes , she compelled them

to adopt the Christian religion , which had been promulgated in Georgia as early as the fourth century .

This prosperous Georgian kingdom was , however , ravaged and laid waste by Ti m our , in the thirteenth century ; and so complete was the desolation , that nearly two h undred years afterwards it had n ot

A the recovered from it , when lexander

First , by dividing it among his three sons , made it an Obj ect of contention to Turkey ,

Persia , and Russia , and led to long dynastic

Of warfare concerning it , each those powers endeavouring to gain the advantage over th e other . 3 AN D I TS PEOPLE . 8

The Persians advancing from the Cas

pian , and the Turks from the Black Sea , came here into collision , and vied with each other in effecting the ruin of the country , which each regarded as the

’ enemy s territory ; while they exercised by turns a ﬂuctuating authority over the sub

of j ugated people Daghestan , and the Turks

‘ occasionally also over the Black Sea coast , and the districts at the mouth of the

Kouban .

1 5 5 3 n In , the Russia s overran Kasan and two years afterwards the Circassian

of Beschtan princess , being hard pressed by the Tartars , had to emigrate to the

K ab ard a rote c , and applied to Russia for p 1 5 5 7 tion . It was given ; and , in , the

A a d Russians garrisoned strachan , and van cin g to the mouths of the rivers Terek

Koissu and , gained , for the ﬁrst time , a footing on Caucasian soil . 84 TH E CA UCASUS

1 5 68 In , they built the fortress of Terki , on the Terek ; and within a year after wards , their name had spread such terror

Geor among the mountaineers , that the

gians , too , sought their protection . The Russian garrisons on the Terek

e e dis lea wer , however , view d with such p 1 5 70 sure by Sultan Selim , that , in , he caused them to evacuate Terki ; but by 1 5 74 they had retaken , enlarged , and strengthened it ; and then when they had

S hamkul defeated the of Tarku , they gar rison ed E n d eri that place as well as , and built the fortress of K oissu .

Sultan Selim n ow became so much alarmed at the Russian successes , that he

of sent an army three thousand men , under

A chme t the First , to assist the people of

Daghestan against them ; and these com bin ed forces compelled the Russians to retreat .

86 THE CAU CASUS

A e the K oumik ft r this , Tatars and the people of Daghes tan were defeated in battle ; and Russian inﬂuence appeared n ow to be ﬁrmly established , and Russian authority to reign supreme .

Under this supposition , and relying too much on a success that was really some m what ephe eral , the Russians were guilty of many acts of imprudence and tyranny , for which they had afterwards to suffer the 1 604 punishment . In and the following years , the Daghestan people waged a ter rible and exterminating warfare on the

w ann ihi~ invading army , hich they fairly lated ; so that for a long time the Russians

all of lost those means communication , and all the inﬂuence over the people and

of t had countries the Caucasus , which hey f acquired under so many di ﬁculties , and with such unspeakable sacriﬁces .

Though several tribes of the Kab ard a 8 AN D ITS PEOPLE . 7

an d still remained under Russian rule , though in 1 6 1 4 several princes of the

Kab ard a Lesser swore , both verbally and e in writing , allegianc to Russia , it was evi dent that her inﬂuence over them was little more than nominal . D uring the interval between this time an d of that Peter the Great , no important

of achievement the Russians is recorded , though they showed their intention of per severi n g in their efforts to co n solidate their

E u power , by fortifying Tarki in ropean

. 1 648 of Imere tia style In , the King f o fered his submission , and two years after wards took the oath of allegiance to Russia for m ! m n e hi self and his heirs a co pact, v ertheless n , which could only be co sidered

of binding in time peace , as might be easily shown from the state of the people at that

v . period , and e en at the present day

“f ith the appearance of Peter the Great , 88 THE CA UCASUS

f however , the aspect of Russian a fairs in the Caucasus underwent a marked change . The Turks had retaken Tamar and built

A a of nap ; and , while their possession the coasts of A b chasia brought them into inti mate contact with the mountaineers , and that of Poti and Redout Kaleh gave them

M in relia Imeretia great power over g and , they had also taken A chaltz ik .

of on The tribes Daghestan , the other

of hand , taking advantage the weakness of

Persia , declared themselves independent , as did also the khans of Kuba , Derbent , Baku ,

S hemacha G an d a , Shervan , Sheki , g , Kara

Nachitche van . bagh , Erivan , and

L es hian s The g , hitherto almost unknown 1 7 1 4 now began to rise , and in they made an onslaught upon Georgia , and afterwards frequently repeated their attacks . In order to counteract the inﬂuence A gained by the Sultan of the vares , the AND ITS PEOPLE . 89

U tsmai of Karakaitach of , the Kadi Tabes

of K ase miicks seran , and the Sultan the , the keen perceptions of Peter the Great suggested the possibility of surprising them by an energetic movement , for which a plausible excuse had been afforded by the assassination of three hundred Russian mer chants . 1 72 2 A Peter embarked in , in strachan , with a large force— some historians say a hundred thousand men— and proclaiming that he had undertaken this expedition to assist Persia against the Kasikoumucks and

L es hian s g , he landed at Tarku , and soon conquered and garrisoned the coast as far as Derbent . In 1 72 3 Persia made over to Peter

M asan d eran Daghestan , Shirvan , Gilan , and A strab ad ; and in the treaty Of peace entered into with Turkey , he stipulated for

of A the conﬂuence the vares and the Kur , 90 THE CAUCASUS as the centre of the territory dividing the frontiers of Russia , Persia , and Turkey .

In the following year the warriors of

Daghestan attempted the re - capture of

Tarku but they failed , and had to submit to Peter , who then began to build the forts of S vatoikrest Koissu on the , and Kislyar on m the Terek , demolishing at the same ti e the fortiﬁcations of Terki , the town which he had given up in 1 72 8 .

n of The pla s Peter, however , though clearly laid down in his will , were in a

' great measure frustrated b y his death ; and the Russian successes in the Caucasus were i 1 7 35 checked by Shah Nad r , who , in , car

n ried his forces triumpha tly through Persia , defeated the Turks at Kars , and , although the L e sghian s took some of his guns at

Kumick , succeeded in forcing the Russians to retreat beyond the Terek .

The Turks , too , were equally successful A N D ITS PEOPLE . 91 a A 1 7 39 gainst the Empress nna , and in

K ab ard a forced her to evacuate the . Cathe

rine II , however , who entered fully into

’ the spirit of Peter s . designs , began to prosecute them with circumspection and

A of Kab ard a assiduity . prince the having become a convert to the Greek Church , the Russian empress pretended that , for his protection , it was necessary to fortify Mos

on d on e in 1 763 dok the Terek ; this was ,

o and , in rder to secure this fortress , the 1 77 1 empress , in , established a military cordon , consisting of the subj ugated Greben

on Cossacks , who were compelled to settle

of and guard the left bank the Terek , from

Kislyar upwards ; while , to the Wolga

Cossacks , was entrusted the charge of guarding the line between the latter place

M osd ock of and , so that the progress the

Russian arms was rendered very secure . It was in the ﬁfteenth century that 92 TH E CA UC A SUS

of this tribe bold adventurers , called Cos sacks , rose into notice . They occupied the steppes between the Wolga and the Don , and in the course of time extended them selves over the coasts of the Sea of A soph and the banks of the Dn eiper ; nominally d acknowle ging Russian supremacy , but makin g very light of it whenever they had

of an opportunity . The ﬁrst settlement the Cossacks on the Don was called Tcher kask , and was founded by their Hetman , under Ivan V asiliewitch ; after this event the Cossacks became more tractable , though they revolted nevertheless under Tzar Alexei

M ichaelowitch of , whose reign , and that his successor , were disturbed by the attempts of the Cossacks to recover their in d epen d ence . Their last and most determined rebellion f took place in the reign o Catherine II ,

P u atchef under their chief g , and in this

94 THE CA UCASUS secured by palisades and surrounded by

on huts raised high poles for sentries , and

V ashkas called , from which the alarm can be sounded on the suspected approach of an enemy . As the Cossacks are good horse

of h men , and capable muc endurance , they have often proved of great service to the

Russians in combating the mountaineers .

In 1 77 1 instruction s were issued by the government concerning the means to be pursued to gain the affections of the people

rd of the Kab a a . Deserters from that coun try , and all who could be induced to adopt

of the doctrines the Greek Church , were to be rewarded with rich gifts and money ; but on princes and nobles willing to enlist in the Russian military service , landed pro perty was to be bestowed , in addition to gold and honours in abundance The

n ot scheme was , nevertheless , very success

K ab ardin e s ful at ﬁrst , for the raised an 95 AN D ITS PEOPLE .

of - ﬁ ve army twenty thousand men , with which they defeated General Mederu in

1 7 7 2 .

In the meantime the rest of the Caucasus

the was in a very disturbed state . A t

of death Of Nadir Shah , the whole Daghe

Gan d a stan , Shirvan , Karabagh , y , Erivan ,

N achitchevan and , revolted successfully a H eraklias of gainst the invaders ; and ,

Georgia , also thought the moment favour able for securing the former dependencies of L e hian s his country , and took the g into

Gan d a pay to aid his designs on y , Kara

hi h v ac tc e an . bagh , Erivan , and N But the people Of these districts combined with the sultan of the Avares and the Turks to

H eraklius attack ; and Catherine , availing

of e herself this circumstance , sent a larg — army under general T odleb en the ﬁrst

Russian army which had traversed the — K ab ard a an d the Pass of Daricl to assist 96 THE CA UCA SUS

H eraklius against his enemies . The Turks were then defeated in 1 77 1 at Kutais and

B a d ad shik g , after which they concluded a

of treaty peace , and it was then settled that the Kab ard a should be dependent on

Russia .

In 1 775 Russia established in the Terek country several forts , the most remark able of which were Jekaterin ograd on the

Geor ievisk P odkouma Molka , g on the , and l hil Stavropol on the A s e . Within three years afterwards this line of fortiﬁcations

M oskossk D ousk was continued to and , and placed under the guardianship of VVOlga

Cossacks . The Kouban Cossacks were thus induced to claim Russian protection , and the Kouban became the western , the Molka and Terek the eastern frontier of the Rus sian territory . Another attempt was made in 1 779to

of Kab ard a recover the independence the ,

98 THE CAUCA SU S

H APTE V I C R .

T he on S n —H is s in M i s si he ik Ma z ur . ucc es s agita —T h — t on . R v T h S i e u s sian s again i ctorious . e h e ik

— o v n — taken pri son er . V ario us warlike m e me ts T he — Rus s ian fron ti er ex ten de d T he W ill of the Kin g

o f — n f h n Georgia Ru ss ia tak e s p os se ssi o o t e C ou try . — — Prin c e Z izian off ass as si n ated M o re F ortres se s

— s s n n f th R s n hi b uilt. A sa si ati o o e u s ia Ally by s

— - — own S on T he Tran s Caucasian Provin c es T he

—D n on Tartar Gen e ral Y ermoloff . ari g E x ploits b oth — B — im ll h . A n Kas u a . sides rsla ey .

T O s arre t the progress of Russia , by other means than by superiority in warlike opera tions , the Turks now had recourse to reli gions agitation , and a clever fanatic , Sheik 1 785 Manzur, was , in , sent to proselytize the Caucasians . He found among them great apathy with respect to the doctrines of Islam ; but taking ad vantage of their 9 AN D I TS P EOPLE . 9

n i tense hatred of their Christian invaders , he addressed e n thusiastic appeals to their

o n in patri tism , and havi g thus succeeded

n e n in o exciti g a fe li g fav ur of the Turks ,

e of the in their political charact r , as enemies

he f Russians , afterwards e fected his pur

pose of gaining them over to their religion .

n This Sheik Ma zur was , in his personal

al n n to qu iﬁcatio s , si gularly well adapted

Y a e the task he had undertaken . oung , gr c

of m ﬁ ful , ajestic gure , and beautiful fea

of n of tures , daring valour in prese ce the enemy , and gifted with captivating elo quen ce he was also frugal in the mid st Of

l on plenty , iving almost wholly milk and i bread , yet lav shly charitable , and the fame of his sanctity Spread at once like wildﬁre

among the Caucasians . He constantly preached to them the necessity of unity 1 785 and combined action ; and , in , he had

n acquired such i ﬂuence , that he began to 1 00 TH E CA U C A SUS

alarm the Russians in their forts , by cutting

Off their supplies and reinforcements . The standard of rebellion being now 1 788 fairly raised , he , in , broke through the Russian lines , and attacked Naur and

r though unable to master the gar ison , for the very women fought on the walls with heroic desperation , he acquired by this bold attempt a still more po werful inﬂuence over his Caucasian followers .

n War had , meanwhile , agai broken out

u between the Russians and the T rks , who , uniting their forces with those of the Cir cassians , marched towards the Kouban , and engaged General Bulkakoff ; but he d b efeated them , and drove them ack to A napa .

1 7 91 A was In , napa captured by the

s Rus ians , and Sheik Manzur , being taken

r prisoner, was sent to end his days in mise a b at of S chlu selb ur le captivity the fort s o g .

1 0 2 TH E CAUCA SUS

from the fort of Ust L ab rusk to Georgievsk

N ed re w m an sh and to the Redout , near

of Protschoi which were built the forts ,

O Gr e orio olst K aukask kop , g p , and . But the progress of the Russians was not

. A uncontested ga Mohamed , a relative of

Shah Nadir, now fell with ﬁre and sword

on the invaders and endeavoured to restore

fh e former state of things ; but General

Z ukoff advanced with his forces from Kis

liar , and besieged and took Derbent , Baku ,

T cheki Kesha , , Shirvan , and Karabagh , which were garrisoned by the Russians till the death of Catherine .

The King of Georgia, George the Thir te e n th , becoming about this time greatly

m of e barrassed , by the feuds and hostility

L es hian s of the g , solicited the assistance

Russia , which was immediately granted ;

and since , by means of this help , he was successful , his gratitude led to an event Of I P P 1 0 3 A N D TS EO LE .

r of importance , that bid fai to realise some the ambitious dreams of Peter and Cathe

n e . rine , for the extension of Russian i ﬂuenc

George the Thirteenth , namely , made over his empire by will to Russia ; and in con

O f n o c sequence this will , whe his death

u in 1 800 c rred , she immediately assumed

n the government , and in the followi g year took possession of the country , proclaiming

T iﬂis the capital of the districts of Gori

i i n k T hetav S ac . Lori , Dusheti , , and g

Having n ow obtained a footing on the

of other side the Caucasus , Russia set to w ork in good earnest , to accomplish the difﬁcult task she had undertaken ; and though unable to communicate with her own dominions through any other chann e l

on e than that of dangerous mountain pass , she persevered in forcing her way onwards

in through all obstacles . The dangers she

it t curred , however , mus be admitted , were 1 04 THE CAUCASUS not to be compared to those which the

English had to brave in their Indian wars .

The ﬁrst governor of Georgia , General

n Knorri g , organized the system by which

Russia proposed to govern the newly a c

quired country . He was succeeded , in

1 803 Zizian off , by Prince , who , as a far

at sighted politician , once became aware of the necessity of securing the territory so

of recently gained , by extension the fron tier ; and not bein g able just then to attack

the Turks , he directed his movements to

of wards the Caspian instead the Black Sea ,

1 804 G an d a and in , seized y , under the pretext that it was formerly a dependency of an d u Georgia , now belonged to R ssia

of . by right inheritance He annexed it , therefore , to the other territory , under the

of E liz ab e ths ol name p , and this act created

of so great a panic , that the people Shirvan ,

K arakaitach Baku , Derbent , , and even the

1 06 THE CAU CASUS

of A b ch asia Bey , Prince , he suppressed the insurrection in his own territory . In 1 805 he even succeeded in incorporating Kara

T cheki Nuchi bagh , and occupying , , and Shirsheh but while in the act of passing

of the gate Baku in triumph , he was sud d en l y assassinated . Russian forces immediately advanced from the Terek , made themselves masters

of of Derbent as well as Baku , and , after a sanguinary struggle , they avenged their

’ general s death by horrible atrocities .

n ow The Turks , strengthened by an alliance with the Circassians and the T chet chen z es , declared war against Russia ; but d ifﬁ the Russians , though surrounded by culties f and su fering great hardships , were nevertheless victorious .

Genera l G ud owitch attacked and took A napa by sea , overpowered the Circassians

um she d b on the Kouban , and p the Te et A N D I TS PEOPLE . 1 0 7

ch en z e s by conﬁscation of the fort Khan

e a Kal , which formed lso a convenient and

a cceptable addition to the Russian line of

fortiﬁcations .

or By force stratagem , therefore , the

in Russians had succeeded establishing ,

1 798 1 803 on between and , eight fortresses

Podkouma the Upper Molka , and along the to the Kouban ; to these , in the course of one year more , they added six others . In

1 805 in , Cossacks from Little Russia were trod uced L abin st to guard the Ust , , and

K aukask ; and though in 1 807 the armis

- tice of Uzun Kilissa was concluded , in 1 809hostilities were resumed with nuwar

of Imeretia ranted ferocity , and the Prince a n d his family were taken prisoners and

T iﬂis conﬁned in , which they were not suf fe red to leave again . J K ust at this time the Russian ally , elim

own A ~ Bey , was assassinated by his son , rs 1 08 THE CAU CASUS

lan Bey , who was attached to the Turkish party ; and as the A b chasian s on the occur rence of this event made some anti - Russian f demonstrations , a pretext was a forded to

n - Russia for occupyi g Sachum Kaleh . This 1 8 1 0 she did in , and secured thereby her

ﬁrst footing on the east coast of the Black

Sea . 1 8 1 3 In the Russians concluded , on terms

of very favourable to themselves , the peace

Gulistan ; the stipulations of which , besides Offering great immediate advantages to

of Russia , contained the germ future acqui sition s of territory as well as of fresh pre ten ce s for aggression .

Russia w as to Obtain by this treaty all the southern declivities of Caucasus , as far as to the A ttaghe z range bordering on the

A on on raxes , the Persian side ; and that of - A ch alz ik Persia, as far as the .

- Trans Caucasia , therefore , consisted at

1 10 T H E CAU CAS U S peace to be of long duration ; S he would probably , it was thought, regard it merely as affording a favourable opportun ity of

e pr paration for the renewal of hostilities ,

d c for which , indee , oc asion was daily given

by the Circassians , assisted by the Turks , attacking and plundering the Russian lines .

Kab ar din es to The , though compelled u s bmit to the protectorate of the Russians , embraced every opportunity of giving vent to the hatred they bore them ; and the

T chetchen z e s were no less hostilely dis m posed , but burst forth continually fro their inaccessible mountain retreats; to spread terror an d death through the lines

of the invader .

The hostility manifested against the

Russians on their ﬁrst appearance in the

of Caucasus , increased in the minds the mountaineers with every Russian conquest ; A N D I TS PEOPLE . 1 1 1

e r and , had their resistance been prop ly o r an d n n ganized , their stre gth augme ted by c ombin ation and union un d er on e lea de r they would do ubtl e ss have succeed e d in an n ihilatin g the legions of their north e rn

o the n foe . The p licy of Russians in exili g

n the kha s , under the idea that the people would then be more easily subjected to the laws and reconciled to the customs of thei r new rulers , had by no means the desired

f on e fect but , the contrary , rendered them still more distrustful of, and exasperated

n e w or against their rulers . The beys

n princes , while ostensibly acknowledgi g

in the Russian protectorate , were really triguin g against a complete subj ection to it and their dangerous opposition was e n coura ed L es hian s g by the g , amongst whom

A Karakaitachs Kasikoumicks the vares , , ,

A z ooks Dsaro- Belokan s , and , were the most formidable foes to Russia ! the khans of 1 1 2 THE CA UCA SUS

T ab asseran and Kuragh alone had cordially espoused her cause .

The Mahometan Tartars of the provinces taken in the last war from Persia , were naturall y more inclined to Obey the dictates of their own khans than those of Russian f o ﬁcials , and therefore needed to be care

Y ermoloff fully watched . , their commander ,

’ however , did his best to uphold the czar s

n n ew of interest , by constructi g lines forti

ﬁ cation and destroying others which had proved useless ; and he succeeded in Ob

a for for t ining the Russians the ﬁrst time ,

S un d shah a secure footing on the , by the

P re rad n oi- U smalchan forts g stan , , Gurt ,

- Nasran , and especially Gras naj a , which

- commanded the deﬁle of Khan kaleh .

E n d eri on K oissu Near , the outlet of the , in the plains of Tarku , he erected the fort of W n e sn a a a f eﬂi cien pj j , which a forded an t

Khankalat defence against the of Tarku ,

1 1 4 THE CAUCASUS in check by forts erected on the left bank of the Kouban , and extending for a consider

able distance into their territory .

Fort Protshn oi- Okop now became the cen

of tre the Russian military Operations , and the C hern omorski Cossacks stationed along

m - n the Kouban , fro the Ust labi sk down wards , were placed under the orders of the

n in who ge eral commanding the Caucasus , commenced a cruel guerilla warfare against the mountaineers ; burning their villages and corn ﬁ eld s en , capturing their ﬂocks , and d eavourin g to exterminate them by all the scourges of war . They nevertheless resisted

his advances , fought step by step for their

n native soil , and to the Russia superiority of numerical force opposed that of the most determined and desperate valour .

Of the feats of daring performed by the

n n Russia s duri g this war , several deserve

of to be mentioned . The capture Paraul , 1 AN D ITS PE OPLE . 1 5

of of A the residence the Khans the vares ,

1 8 1 8 A kucha for instance , in ; that of the

in 1 82 0 ; and the Siege and occupation of

Kuragh , by which various powerful tribes f were reduced to subj ection . The defeat o

’ S arkhai K asse muk , Khan of the d heer

Khore of y , in the same year , was great

importance to Daghestan , and for some time served to check the attempts of the

h Ir l L esghian s to regain t e iberty . In this battle there were twelve hundred

l six men kil ed , and the Russians took hun

dred prisoners , besides capturing the nine

celebrated guns which the L esghian s had

taken from Shah Nadir , and a great quan

of tity of other munitions war .

S arkhai Khan now took refuge with the

of Kir van i Khan , and then ﬂed w th him

and the Khan of Karabagh to Persia ; and

their ﬂight afforded Russia a welcome Op

p ortun ity and pretext for placing the con 1 1 6 THE CA UCA SUS

quered districts under her own governor . This plan she also pursued with the

of T ch eki th e Khanate , after the death of

n In w kha . the mean hile the Russians had

frequent skirmishes with the western tribes , in which both parties met with serious dis comﬁ ture and damage . A rslan Bey , while advancing his preten sions to the throne Of A b chasia (in gave battle to the Russians near K od or ; but though in comman d of a force numeri cally stronger than that of the enemy , he ff sn ﬁ ere d a defeat . He renewed his e orts for the delivery of A b ch asia from the

n 1 8 2 4 foreig yoke in , but this attempt also proved unsuccessful an d terminated his

career . The Russians continued to gain

ground , though slowly, and they had to purchase this slow progress by almost in credible sacriﬁces . A ll at once a fanatic Mussulman , named

1 1 8 TH E CAU CA SUS

Shah of Bagdad , had drawn a great num ber of d isciples and followers after him to

of K urlomir the village , in Shirvan , where he had established a school for preachers ; and the chief purpose of his teaching was to exhort the people to united action in the pursuit and destruction of the invading unbelievers . This astute politician knew

of full well , that the success the moun tain e ers in defending their country against the well trained and strictly disciplined armies of Russia , depended entirely on their

- co union and co operation . Without this operation the Caucasus must inevitably b e come an easy prey to the invader . To induce all the Caucasian hord es to rally round the banner of the prophet , was a task of no little difﬁculty ; for it was necessary to contend against the petty mu

of f tual j ealousies the di ferent tribes , as well as against their low standard of morality , IT s P 1 1 9 AND EOPLE .

of and their lack knowledge , and of any property or stake in the country beyond that of their miserable hovels .

By steadfast perseverance , however . and by working on their passions when they were either suffering under reverses or

buoyed up with triumph by success , he at last effected his purpose of enlisting the sympa thies of the different tribes in the common cause , and inducing them to parti cip ate in the struggle against the common

of hold enemy . His tactics were so a cha r acter , that he often succeeded in surpris ing the Russians and carrying dismay into their lines .

O of f ne his disciples , Mohammed E fendi animated by the enthusiasm of his pre ceptor , returned to his native country to ofﬁ ciate as a religious teacher for the dis tricts of T ab asseran and Kuragh ; and 1 82 0 when , in , the Russians succeeded in 1 2 0 THE CA U CASUS subj ugating Kuragh and in partly devas

of T ab asseran tating the interior , this

Mohammed Effendi traversed every Village and hamlet in the country to excite the zealous hatred of the Faithful against the Inﬁdel , and to implore them to be true to the standard of the prophet and arrest the progress of the Christian foe . Old and young to a man responded to his

. In ﬂamed call by his rapturous orations , they came thronging in to swell his ranks , and exulted in the sanguine anticipation that now at last they would extermi nate the Christian invaders .

1 2 2 THE CAU CA SUS that should carry destruction to the door of the invader . When he had spent some time in seclusion , he returned to his native place , where he was elected Murshid of

d ﬁle Tchetchenia and the coast e s .

He now began his operations by agitat ing the people counselling them to wage an exterminating warfare against all unbe lievers , and feeding their fanaticism by wonderful accounts of the revelations made

hIm to , during his pilgrimage to the tomb of A - M usselim on e bu , of the heroes who

of KunSta h fell in the battle g , and whose

' i i - departed sp r t , as Kasi Mullah alleged , had commanded him to lead the children of the Prophet to glory .

O n f comma ding stature , and gifted with

' he glowing eloquence , acquired the greatest

‘ inﬂuence over the multitude the ranks of

' his adherents were rapidly swelled ~by he w and zealous converts ; and taking ad van 3 AND ITS P EOPLE . 1 2

tage of moments of ardour and excitement , he often succeeded in surprisin g the Rus

sians , and even wrested from them the fort A Y mir Hadji urt , in the country of the i K oum k Tatars .

n re The Russia s , it is true afterwards

captured this fortress , but they had to lavish a great amount of force to attain their ob e ct j , and in the meantime the Murshid had , by successful stratagem , secured to himself

of the devotion the mountaineers , amongst whom his fame was now Spreadin g like wildﬁre .

General Y ermoloff had to strain all his s faculties , and make tremendou exertions to oppose the formidable power of the h Murs id , and at last he only succeeded in destroying a few of the Aouls on the

S un d cha and the Argun territory ; though

even these conquests , triﬂing as they were ,

were exulted over by him as great victories , 1 2 4 TH E CA UCASUS ou account of the difﬁculties he had had to overcome .

difficul The Czar , however , great as the Y ties were , became impatient with ermo

’ loff s slow progress , and appointed Prince

P askiewitsch to supersede him ; and the

latter general , on his departure , received imperative orders to conﬁne the Caucasians within the limits to which the policy of the Russian cabinet had restricted them a cen tury ago .

P askiewitsch did not disappoint the hopes of his imperial master , for with a new army at his command , he fought so successfully against Caucasians , Persians , and Turks , that he was enabled in the treaties of peace of 1 82 7 1 82 9 to and secure to Russia, in

of h this part the globe , the empire at w ich

S he had so long been aiming . Persia agreed

T alisch Na chitehe to hand over to Russia ,

r elin van , and Erivan while the Turks

1 2 6 THE CA U CA SUS

about inhabitants , among which O are ssetes , Tatars , and

P shawes or Tushes .

me ritia 64 2 . I 0 , with square miles , di vid ed n Imere tia i to the districts of , with

M in relia w g , ith and

G urriel of , with inhabitants , all

A in whom are of Georgian origin . lso it clud e s A b ch asia n , with inhabita ts ,

' whose allegiance to Russia is Of a very

doubtful and precarious nature .

h z ik 3. A c alt The province of , with

inhabitants , of whom many are

Armenians . 4 A 360 . The province of rmenia , with

square miles , and included in which are A the districts of Erivan , with rme n ian inhabitants and Tatars ; an d

Nachite van w A , ith rmenians and

Tatars .

5 of . The province Shirvan with the dis AN D ITS PEOPLE . 1 2 7

ricts of t Shirvan , containing Tatars A and rmenians ; Karabagh , with Tatar inhabitants and Arme

n i n s T cheki a ; and , with Tatars and A rmenians .

To these must be added the Khanate of

K alissh on a , with Lenkoran the Caspi n

of L es hian ! Sea , and the country the g tribes

of D saro ~ B elokan the Confederation , with

inhabitants ; the Sultanate of Y elis

of sai , with and the territory the

A n z ooks K ab utchi , the Didoi , and , with all of whom frequently rebel

against their Russian taskmasters . The

allegiance of these people being enforced by military despotism of the worst kind , they often seize the Opportunity Of the Russian garrison of occupation being deci

mated by sickness , to drive them with great

out of loss their territories . k l f 6 . a S ham u at o D ghestan , with the 1 2 8 TH E C A UCASU S

Tarku , with inhabitants ; the dis

tricts of of Derbent , with Kuba ,

of and Baku , with

Some Russian authorities speak also of

L esghistan and Circassia ; but their organi

z ation n , even if they can be cou ted at all

among the Russian dominions , is so very

an uncertain , that y record of their condi

tion must be illusory .

Paskie witch the Prince , having settled

boundary question , now devoted himself to

the consolidation of the newly acquired

territory , by conciliating as far as possible

the masses of the people . Georgia gave him no trouble , for he allowed the nobles

to retain their rank , property , and privi

on leges ; and they , their Side , manifested a vehement desire for ﬁne Russian uniforms

and glittering decorations . The female

of population Georgia , too , was delighted with the fashions introduced by the Rus

sian ladies , and soon imitated them .

1 30 THE CAUCASUS

tion of the hostile tribes with the subj ect

races .

The coast of the Black Sea being n ow in

of the hands the Russians , they built along

it o a f rt after fort , without p ying the slight

est atte ntio n to the attacks of the enraged

o a e of m untaineers , or to the rav g s the pesti

le n tial t on of clima e , by which their garris s

o too e n e off ccupation were fr que tly carri d . All losses were quickly replaced by fresh

of drafts of men , and as ships war were

n co tinually cruising along the coast , the

n m or landi g of arms , a munition , stores , by

t . the enemy , became almos impossible

As also the Russian forts on the Kouban

commun ic a commanded the valleys , the

on or tion that side was , more less , under

Russian control .

The Circassians from time to time re

ff or newed their e orts to assault , capture , destroy on e or more of these forts ; but 1 AN D ITS P EOP LE . 31 they never attempted to retain their c o n

n o n quests , retiri g immediately to their m u

e e the tain fastnesses , which th n becam targets fo r i n cessan t attacks by fire an d

n m i n s sword , directed agai st the by the sian divisions stationed at P rotsch n oi- Okop and by these m e an s man y of the m e nu tain e ers were bro ught into subj ecti on .

\V e ste rn In the Caucasus , the Tcherkess or A b ase chs Circassian tribes ; the , Shap

Nata oi A b assian s of sooks , and g the the

U bich Posib , Madore , and , as well as the

S uan eti of , are still in the enjoyment free

on dom and independence ; and , the whole , the allegiance of the tribes supposed to be subject to Russia is of a very doubtful ff nature . Their disa ection is often mani fe sted by outbreaks against the army of occupation , attended by disastrous couse quen ces ; but their nominal subjection is

e u neverth less a key to fut re conquests , and

pregnant with important results . 1 32 THE CAU C A SUS

With a View to the isolation of the vari o us tribes still hostile to Russia , Prince

P askie witsch formed a plan for connecting the conquered districts by four military

on e r oads . The was intended to form a communication between the Bay of G e len d chick and the Northern Kouban the

A b chasia second , to proceed from across the loftiest ranges to the valley of the P od

L es hian kouma ; the third , to cross the g mountains from K ache tia to the valley of Koissu d eﬁles , and through its to the

Tarku ; and the fourth , to traverse the mountain ridge of the Muchi into the

S amura valley of , and thence to Derbent .

how Cleverly as this plan was arranged ,

it ever , was found , when it came to be exe cute d , that the obstacles to be overcome were of so formidable a character , that only the ﬁrst of the proposed roads could be completed and properly defended by forts .

1 34 THE CA U CASUS

HAPTE I II C R V . — Furth e r E x pl oits of Kas i - Mullah M arch through — — Da est n . T es T b s o D efe ated b gh a ak arku y t rm . y

n Ko chan off — — G e eral Surprise of Ki slyar . Re

e ated R evo s of the D sharan T —C n p lt rib es . ampaig —H im of G en eral R os en . ri d estroye d an d Kasi —H m Mullah kille d . a sad B ey b e com e s the l ead er

n n - ss n f h n of the i s urg e ts . A as si ation o t e Kha um — an d h er s on s Is him self in turn as s as sin ate d in — h e . t e M o squ e . Gu rilla warfare

D G H TA N A ES had now became tranquil , and the S hamkul of Tarku had even rendered the Russians considerable service ; b ut the territories of the T che tchen z es and Les ghian s were daily becoming more dis d turb e .

of Y ermoloff had The last achievements , n i deed , served for a time to abate the ardour of both races but Kasi - Mullah was I P E 1 35 A N D TS OPLE . neither intimidated n o r i n clined to in ac ti vit an d to y, he was making every exertion

n e exte d his inﬂuence and his fame ; whil , k n owing that he was feared an d hated by

- the priesthood , he resolved to humble this and other fac tion s parties before re - com m e n cin g operations with his increased

forces against the Russians .

O A rrakan on A n the plateau of , the va

S ahif ff n rean range , he attacked E e di , the chief Of his opponents , and defeated him , so that he had to escape by ﬂight ; while

- of in Kasi Mullah , at the head his daily creasing forces , directed his march towards the northern mountains . Encouraged by his success he then ventured on attemptin g to detach the aged Khanum of Kun sagh m fro the Russians , under whose protection

n she stood , and persuadi g her to espouse the cause of the prophet ; but as she de clin e d o n his overtures , he resolved forcing 1 36 THE CA U CAS U S

he r to compliance and to the support of his 1 8 2 8 army ; and in he attacked her forces , but failed in the attempt and was obliged

to retreat . Though eager to avenge his

d iscomﬁture on the Russians , who had come

to the assistance of the Khanum , he did not 1 831 ﬁnd the opportunity he sought till , m when , arching into Daghestan with the

ﬂag of insurrection in one hand and the

Koran in the other , he roused the country to rebellion , attacked the chief Russian forts on the Caspian , and assaulting the town of Tarku took it by storm and eu tirely routed his enemies . After this achievement he besieged the

B ourma a citadel of y , which was considered impregnable even by the Russians cut off

of the supply water , and so exhausted the

a g rrison by constant attacks , that he would soon have captured the fortress and made a triumphal entry , had not the Russian

1 38 THE CAUC A SUS there to spend the winter in comfort and security , and make preparations for the

ensuing campaign .

The unusually stormy insurrections in

an d n - Of the east orth east the Caucasus , 1 831 imposed , in the course of the year , a great deal of labour and anxiety on the

Russian generals , which were still further augmented by outbreaks in the south .

D shar The Confederation of , though re

eatedl he p y forced to submit to t Russians , had often successfully attempted to throw

O ff for their yoke , but this hardihood they had been severely chastised by Y e rmoloff.

d had Har ly , however , the Persian war broken out , than they once more recovered

their independence , and maintained it dur ing the whole time the Persian and Turkish wars lasted .

A of P askie fter the conclusion peace , w itsch forc ed them back to their nominal AND ITS PEOP LE . 1 39

e allegiance to Russia , and inﬂicted sever punishment for these i n surrectionary a t

of tempts but his severity was little avail , for hardly had he quitted the Caucasus when they attacked the Russian garrison , which they defeated and took from it four pieces of artillery . To avoid such disasters for the future the Russians now constructed

S akatal n the fort of , by which the positio was completely commanded . These revolutionary movements of the

D sharan races , which had occasioned so

a f much uneasiness to the Russians , had forded great encouragement to a fanatical

L es hian of ~ g chief, a bitter enemy the Rus

H amsad in sians , named Bey , by whose strumen tality the disturbances had been

e d of fr quently fomente . Under pretence entering into negotiations with him , the Russians had enticed him into their camp and made him prisoner ; an d although 1 40 THE CA U CASUS they had kept him in captivity but a very r sho t time , and when they released him loaded him with presents , his capture was regarded as an act of treachery , and tended

to embitter his hostility against them . He returned the Russian presents with con tempt , and hastened to unite his forces

of - with those Kasi Mullah .

- In the following spring , Kasi Mullah broke forth again from his mountain re treat ; and this time he chose the Terek

of line for the theatre his operations , and

V ladikavkas even threatened , the key to

D ariel the pass of , before he returned , richly laden with plunder , to his mountains .

The Russians now felt serious apprehen sions that the forts which they had con

structed , with the view of overawing their enemies , would not even serve to secure

ac the safety of their own garrisons . The tivity of the mountaineers frustrated all

1 42 TH E CAUCASUS

The mountaineers fought valiantly , every man amon g them bravin g death as long as

n he was able to bear a weapo .

With the fall O f H imri and of Kasi

n n Mullah , the Russia s imagi ed their task completed ; but they had ye t to learn that

Kasi - Mullah was on ly the pioneer of other o f pponents , who would O fer them still more

an d ou determined resistance , that the slaught of the T che tch en z es and L esghian s were but in trod uctory to still bolder ex

loits p .

H amsad Bey , the irreconcilable enemy of the com Russia , took place of his Slain

of panion , as leader his organized force ; and on meeting with Opposition from va

' two of rions chiefs , he attacked them , the

a of Kadi of Dargo and the Shamk l Tarku ,

o wn in their territories , and forced them to A assist him . fter this , he entreated the

of Kun sa h aged Khanum g to support him , 0 1 4 5 AND ITS P EOPLE .

‘ tw o and when she refused , he caused her

a nd he r sons , afterwards the aged princess

n self, to be assassi ated .

But H amsad Bey was overtaken by a j ust

n retribution for this deed . On visiti g the

e the mosqu a few days after murder , he was himself a ssassinated in the very midst of O his Murids by sman and Hadji Murad ,

i of n e n all es the Kha um , and who had be educated with her sons . The Murids , to O avenge their master , then killed sman , a n d Hadji now called on the people to take vengeance on the murderers of their b e loved princess . The people responded to h the call , and returned wit him to the

of mosque to slaughter the Murids , some whom had escaped and taken refuge in a neighbouring tower but their fierce pur suers set it on fire , and they all perished in the flames .

III a the meantime , the Russi ns had dis 1 44 THE CAUCASUS c o vered that they had been quite mistaken in supposing the Spirit of insurrection in the Caucasus stiﬂed by the death of Kasi

Mullah . It became evident , even in the

districts garrisoned by the Russians , that this was by no means the case , and they therefore changed their tactics , and from a defensive , adopted an aggressive mode of warfare . 1 834 In , they stood once more before

H imri , and captured it this time with less 1 832 trouble than in , utterly destroying it, so as not to leave on e stone upon another ; yet notwithstanding the completeness of the

n 1 836 destruction , the mountai eers had by

on built the same height another fort , still more formidable . The Russians now contemplated attack ing the mountaineers in rapid succession ; but the latter frustrated their design by

off suddenly moving , just as their enemies

1 46 TH E CAU CASU S

CH APTER I! .

’ — S chamyl s b irth a n d e arly youth H is n atural quali

i h —R s n ﬁéa t on s for the mis s i on e as s um e s . u sia

’ v n e n —S cham l s ﬁ s e s o eo e tc . t ad a c i t G rgia , y r app ar — t f H imri . an c e on th e th e atre o f th e war . Cap ure o

’ — - S chamyl s mys te riou s di s app e aran ce Fights a

— n o m p itch e d b attle with the Ru s s ian s . Ru ss ia s c

A hulk —T he v o f th e p elle d to retire from c O . arri al — — m ’ — A hulk t en . S cha l s es e V a C z ar . c o ak y cap

ri on s even ts o f th e war .

W H T A Themistocles was to the Greeks , what Wallace an d Tell were to their re s e ctive S ch am l to p countrymen , such is y the brave warriors of the Caucasus . For many years he has been struggling to defend the freedom of his native soil from

ﬂatterie s the crafty policy , the arms and the of Russia , and to drive back the invader i from those lovely fert le valleys , which , P P 1 47 AND ITS EO LE . though interspersed betwee n the rocky d eﬁle s of snow capped mou n tains and al

a re e t most inaccessible from without , y amply provided with all the necessaries Of

life .

This remarkable man , the valiant chief and venera ted sultan a n d prophet of his

in 1 7 97 o f people , was born at the aoul

H imri , the birthplace also of his cele

- b rate d . predecessor , Kasi Mullah The people among whom his earliest years were

v passed are , like all mountaineers , de otedly

an d attached to their native land , this feel ing was probably imbibed by him as well as

others with his earliest breath . These peo ple are also remarkable for their skill in martial exercises and in horsemanship , a

of n e Singular anomaly in a race mou taine rs , which has been sometimes accounted fo r by their descent being traced to a remnant

n of European crusaders . Their complexio 1 48 THE CAU CASUS

and deportment Show , indeed , little traces

of an Asiatic origin ; and though they

acknowledge the authority of the Koran ,

they entertain among them a vague ex pec

tation of a Saviour who is to supersede — Mahomet the prophet of God a popular belief which is said to have formed a great

’ Obstacle to S chamyl s success .

In his early youth he is stated to have been some what feeble in his bodily consti tution , but exerting himself to overcome this natural inferiority by courage and reso lution . Even then , he held himself in some measure aloof from his compan ions was fond of spending many hours at a time in

an d solitude in some wild picturesque spot , and maintained his inﬂuence with those around him by a certain reserved solemnity o f of manner, as well as by the superiority

n n his tale ts and learni g . As he grew to a more mature age he also

1 5 0 THE CAU CASUS

dependent tribes b etween the Cossacks on

the north and the conquered country on

the south . They had just enlisted in a local Nizam

a large n umber both of the Christian and Mahometan inhabitants under the Rus

S cham l sian standard , when y appeared with

H am sad of Bey on the theatre the war , pro

n claimi g that he had , in a personal com mun ication with the prophet , been entrusted with the mission to free his country from its invaders , and announcing himself to be invincible in arms and invulnerable to m ortal weapon . The whole of Daghestan rose at his summons , and he took the for

of tresses the Tarku and Derbent , and plundered and laid waste the Russian ter ritory as far as Kislyar . In the defence of

H imri (the chief emporium Of arms and ammunition for the Caucasus) , where Kasi

S cham l Mullah lost his life , y was really 1 1 AN D I TS PEOP LE . 5

an d n wounded , both by bullet bayo et ; but as he fought his way through the ran ks Of the n in e emy , and afterwards disappeared a very sudden and mysterious manner , his followers were conﬁrmed in the opinion that he bore a charmed life , and was their appointed prophet and deliverer .

An interval of quiet succeeded the cap

H imr i ture of , and this led to the idea that the Caucasian wars were at an end ; but

S chamyl still remained at the head of a

men numerous body of armed , and ocen pied himself with freeing the pas ses and securin g supplies whenever they were needed ; and while the native tribes in their mountain fastnesses refused to pay tribute or Offer any kind of submission to

on the invaders , they , their sides , had to entrench themselves behind walls which

or they dared not leave , either for exercise f water , except in su ﬁcient numbers to 1 5 2 THE CAUCASUS

III guard against surprise . fact , although the Russian s were supposed to have re

of mained in possession the Caucasus , they were obliged to remain in their forts or in their great lines of road , and they were never safe when beyond the reach of their cannon .

1 837 S ch am l In , y , having obtained con sid e rable n rei forcements , measured his strength with that of the Russians in a pitched battle ; an d his success so greatly

res t e of u impaired the p ig the R ssian arms , that their general resolved to deal with him at once as he had done with his prede — cessor that is , to march upon his secluded stronghold with an efﬁcient body of troops ,

or n capture kill him , and an ihilate any force that he might have collected .

’ On their march towards S chamyl s hiding

C hun sak place , the Russians fortiﬁed , much to the displeasure Of the reigning princess ,

1 5 4 THE CAUCASUS

So great was the se n sation created by this defeat , that the Emperor Nicholas now

o resolved to c me in person to the Caucasus ,

n n trusti g that his presence , while it enco raged his own soldiers , would strike terror n i to his enemies . His imperial aspect does n ot , however , seemed to have proved quite so awful to the mountaineers as he had anticipated ; and when he sent forth a proclamation stating that he had powder en ough to blow up their very mountains should he SO please , they were by no means so much alarmed as he intended them to be .

He made , too , the unwelcome discovery , that the army of the Caucasus was n o more free from corruption than any other Rus

an d sian institution , he ordered General Rosen to be superseded in favour of

G olovin e re General , who then received in forc emen ts to the number of eighty thou AND I TS PEOPLE . 1 5 5

n VVltll o w sand me . this army a decisive bl

’ w a s an d A chulko S ch am l s to be struck , , y

an . r strongest hold , taken at y cost Nea ly on e of u however we re half the R ssian troops , ,

in lost various ways , and still the object was ff not e ected . Thereupon General Grabbe

- in - was appointed commander chief, and

after having fought some disastrous battles , he A ch ulko appeared before , which he w besieged for t o months .

n of This mountai fortress , the name which is said to be a word of Tatar deriva

n n in of tion , sig ifyi g meeting place time

! on disturbance , is situated a high rock , one side of which falls precipitously to the

. Koissu river , a depth of six hundred feet , while the other loses itself in inaccessible d eﬁles . Nature , therefore , has done much i for the defence of th s place , and what she has neglected has been supplied by the

of S cham l hand art ; for y , much as he said 1 5 6 THE CAU CASUS

of of the help the prophet , did not rely

b ut A ch ulko implicitly on it , surrounded with walls and towers , whose strength the Russians had often proved in impetuo us and untirin g attacks . But this time the emperor ’ s orders were to take the fortress at all hazards ; and after the capture of entrenchmen t after

entrenchment , fort after fort , and a mur

n dero s assault of ﬁve days duration , General

Grabbe did take it .

The din of combat died away durin g the

of on n night the ﬁfth day , and the morni g of the sixth the Russians found themselves masters of the ruins of A chulko . But where n ow was S chamyl ? Neither among the slain n or among the prisoners was he

O or of to be found . ne two his men were seen here and there on the tops of some of the rocks ; and after a while some deserters joined the Russians , and confessed that

1 5 8 THE CAU CA SUS

S cham l to favour the escape Of y , who had descended the moment the Russians had — left the spot , and taking advantage of the excitement in their camp consequent on his

r supposed capture , had made good his e

an d n of K oissu treat , reached the ba ks the , without his enemies bein g able to do any thing more than sen d after him a fe w useless bullets .

The immen se sacriﬁces that the Russians had made in the hope of capturing S chamyl

e n tirelv were therefore useless .

In the very same year he made his ap p earan ce again at the head of a large force

K achetia in , in the most southern part of

S akatal the Caucasus , threatening and

n in Ruchi , an oying the Russians when

small numbers , but always dispersing at the approach of an y stronger body of the enemy until he reached Tchetchenia , when he fought a battle with them and gained the victory . 1 AN D ITS P EOPLE . 5 9

Movements and achievements of this

kind , and the astonishing reports of the

f RussIan s defeats su fered by the , extended and strengthe n ed his inﬂue n ce among the

n him mountaineers , who now rallied arou d

in greater masses , believing that he had a divine mission to free them from their

n hated e emies . In 1 840 the Circassians stormed the forts of W iliamin ofsk L a aressk A an d , g , and bin ,

n repeatedly crossed the Terek , defyi g the

s S cham l Russian in all directions . y mean while took the initiative , and attacked their

Nicolaiz ioski largest fortress , , which he took and destroyed , and then again dis

w p ersed his follo ers .

The Russians rebuilt these forts , gar rison ed A them , and then sent General nrep to avenge the indignities they h ad suf fe red n ot ; and this he did , but till he had himself sustained considerable lo ss . Seizing 1 60 THE CAU CA SUS the opportunity wh e n S ch amyl had lessened f the e ﬁciency of his forces by dividing them , he made a well - planned attack on him with all the troops at his command , and suc ce e d e d in obtaining a decided advantage .

In 1 84 1 the Russians were again in so far successful , that they were enabled to

’ conﬁne the war to S ch amyl s country ; but in the beginning of 1 842 he advan ced into the Russian territory , and with the celerity

a that characterised all his movements , p

e are d p all at once before Kislyar , with a force of twenty thousand men ; defeated the Russians , though they fought bravely

n to oppose his advance , and retur ed to his camp laden with rich booty .

But this year had still more severe r e verses in store for the Russians .

of General Grabbe , the conqueror

A chulko n , had bee ordered to take Dargo ,

’ on e of S cham l s y strongholds , and to inﬂict

1 62 TH E CAU CASUS

elements than to their own want of skill

or energy . He still , however , persisted in ignoring the military talents and stra

te ic S ch am l g skill of y , though these were

n ow of in the highest state activity , and

gaining him continually fresh adherents ,

T che tchen z e s even among the , who the Russians had supposed would never be

T he a tation induced to join his ranks . . gi he had set on foot had also gained him

K ab a rd a A kucha Ka friends in the , and ,

rakaitach T ab asseran , and had Openly joined

a t him , so that the Russians were now

tacked and menaced in every direction , and the whole of their army had to be conﬁned

within their forts .

eid hard t General N , the newly appointed

- in - commander chief, wrote despatch after

n con despatch , pointi g out the deplorable

dition he found himself in , and urging the

’ n of S cham l s ecessity meeting y strategy , 6 AN D ITS P EOPLE . 1 3

o e which was of no ordinary kind , by s m

other methods than those indicated in the

plan of attack arranged for him at Pete rs ~

burg , and which he had been commanded

. A to observe fter some delay , he received

reinforcements , but was again recommended

to follow the Petersburg plan , and also to arrange his army of men into ﬁve

S cham l divisions , march upon y from as d f many i ferent points , destroy every ﬁeld , and overcome every Obstacle that might

an d present itself, and ﬁnally , to surround h m l f defeat S c a y . The di ﬁculties presented by the peculiar nature of the ground to be

the t traversed , as well as scarci y of provi sions for the maintenance of so great an

army , had not at all been taken into con sideration in Petersburg . Great delay was occasioned by the non

of n arrival despatches , or retur s from an a h ad n A a a gent , who bee sent to str ch n 1 64 THE CA U CASUS with a million of silver roubles to purchase food for the army and after all , the delay

for was of no avail , no tidings of the agent could be obtained .

n ow the T ch erke e s Neidhardt attacked g , on the Sulak , with thirty thousand men ; yet it took him a whole month to bring an unimportant village to subjection , and in doing so , he lost great numbers , both of

on ofﬁcers and men . He then advanced

S cham l him Dargo , where y was awaiting with a body of m en amounting to twenty four thousand . Numerous as his force was ,

however , he avoided coming to a pitched

battle , and contented himself with molest ing the Russians incessantly , and harassing their forces whenever they were preparing to attack him , and then suddenly falling into their rear , until Neidhardt was obliged to retreat .

In addition to this failure , another cir

1 66 THE CA UCASUS

In the ﬁrst instan ce the sultan was suc c e ssful , but he was afterwards defeated in a desperate engagement , and so much reduced

S cham l that he had to ﬂy for refuge to y , who received him with open arms , and he has ever since resided with him , under the

of S cham l name Daniel Bey , assisting y by his sagacious counsels , his inﬂuence , and his personal bravery . The sultan ’ s defection from the Russians

S cham l was also of great service to y , by compelling them to divide their new forces half of which only could advance against

n him , while the rest were e gaged in keep ing in order their former subj ects . AN D ITS PEOPLE . 1 67

! CHAPTER .

' Prin ce W oron zoff app ointe d to c o mman d the army of

—H i n o — fe s the Caucasus . s u limite d auth rity Suf r

— i n rep e ate d d e fe ats . Chan g e n the Ru ss ia plan of

— S h m h r T he warfare c a yl ravage s t e Kab a d a . — Gran d D uk e Al ex an de r arrives S ch amyl attack s — the forts on the Black S e a Mak e s a d es c en t o n

— n — n t n f Armen i a Gai s a c omplete victory . I ac io o

n r w — e c en s of S chamyl duri g the last ye ar o t o . Sp im — i n t n e f h n n . his o ratory . I s a c O s ster di s cipli e

Pre sen t state of the Cau c as u s .

’ T H E failure of General Neidhardt s cam p aign having created great displeasure

against him at the court of Petersburg , he was dismissed , and General , now Prince ,

W oron z off appointed to take his place , and n un i vested , at the same time , with such

r limited powe and authority , as had not been granted to any Russ1 an subject Since the time of Catherine the Second and her 1 68 THE CAU CASUS

res on favourite Potemkin . He was to be p sible to the emperor alone for anything he thought proper to do ; from the Pruth to the Araxes his word was to be law ; he was to bestow rewards and distinctions in the army without even asking the em

’ ' p eror s sanction ; to be allowed to bring

f of O ﬁcers , civil and military, every class , before courts martial at his pleasure , and

of to inﬂict even the punishment death , if he thought ﬁt . The only order he was required to obey was that of taking Dargo

S cham l and y , and for this purpose an army of two hundred thousand men was placed

under his command .

W oron z off set out with twenty - four thou sand men to effect these Objects and as he

L es hian s advanced towards Dargo , the g t d feigned to evacuate the distric , and allowe him to cross the pass of Andi unmolested .

S cham l a u Then y , h ving previo sly destroyed

1 70 THE CA U CASUS

of deserted village , stripped every comfort ,

of and destitute even food .

W oron z off had n ow no other resource

G erse saul on than to retreat to , but his retreat he had to encounter the well - caleu

’ of S cham l s lated attacks y forces , and by these he was all but crushed . It is alleged that he reached G ersesaul with a few g e

r ne als , still fewer proportionably of other ofﬁcers , and only four thousand men .

During this campaign he had learned the

S ch am l bitter lesson , that y and his brave

L esghian s were formidable foes ; and that their European opponents must often be favoured by fortune , if in a conﬂict with these mountaineers they could merely main tain their position , not to speak of gaining

a any advant ge .

In a con ference that W oron z off held w 1 845 ith the Emperor Nicholas in , he announced his intention of changing his 1 AND I TS P EOPLE . 7 1

f of n system o warfare . Instead undertaki g great expeditions against the heads of the

W oron z off Circassian tribes , proposed to weary them out by delay , isolation , and

’ S ch am l s exhaustion ; in short , to adopt y

of a own plan warf re , and in the meantime gradually , if possible , to destroy the na tion al unity and detach the smaller tribes by compulsion or bribery , and SO obtain by stratagem the standing in the country which he had been unable to secure by force of arms .

W oron z off The emperor seeing that , with all his talents and the vast powers at his

command , had , under most favourable cir cumstan c es diﬂi cult , considerable y in retain l ing , even nominal y , his possessions in the

ac uiesed in all Caucasus , q these arrange ments . Unmolested by foreign powers , and only engaged in suppressing the Caucasian insurrection , he found that all his energies 1 7 2 THE CA UCA SUS

were required for the task . W oron z off Spent some time in making the necessary preparations for the capture of Dargo

’ V e d en n o S cham l s , y favourite residence , and in 1 846 the Russian detachments were ready to march ; but again did S chamyl

’ anticipate their commander s plans , and m doo him to disappointment .

While W oron z off was engaged in cutting

T che tchenian down and burning the forest , where the enemy had so Often fallen un e x p ectedly on the Russians and made great

S cham l all havoc among them , y , collecting his strength , made a forced march across the mountains with a body of twenty thousand

K ab ardin es horse and foot , took the by surprise , punished them for their defection ,

off ravaged their whole country , carried a

n number of prisoners , and retur ed laden with plund er to his mountain fastness b e fore the Russian troops could come up with him at all .

1 74 THE CA UCASUS

’ through the Devil s Pass , and leaving a

of t part his troops to main ain that position ,

Rauhkaleh attacked an aoul called , and cut

to pieces all they could meet with . But on their return they found their rearguard e foe was ngaged with the , and it with dif

ﬁ culty they could cut their way back to the main body .

In 1 85 3 S chamyl attacked the forts on

m a the Black Sea , fro Redout Kaleh to N ro uiskoi q , and not without success ; and throughout the autumn of that year and

1 85 4 a n the commencement of , the Circ ssia s were more than usually active— probably

because the Russians , having other enemies f to contend with , a forded them a favour able opportunity .

In 1 85 5 S chamyl made a descent upo n

A n the Russian territories in rme ia , at the head of twenty thousand of his mountain w m arriors , and he gained a co plete victory ; p l 5 A N D IT s PEOPLE . 1 4

n for the Russia s , according to the reports , lost four thousand men , as well as all their

artillery , tents , and baggage .

S ch am l During the Crimean war , y had unlimited range across the isthmus from A sea to sea, and only fort napa , the largest of the Russian forts , remained unmolested by him . Even this fort was said in some

e accounts to have been abandoned , in ord r

’ to strengthen Prince M en schikoff s army in the Crimea ; but S chamyl seemed to have become weary of the war . When the Russian princesses who had been in capti v it y in his hands were liberated by him , the

Russians in return restored to S chamyl his e ldest son , who had been taken from him when a child and educated in the Russian army . This son , it is said , has ever Since

S cham l an d inﬂuenced y in their favour , induced him to refrain from assisting the

Turks . 1 76 TH E CAU CASU S

O O f f the bravery the Russian army ,

fﬁ — Of both O cers and men , their fortitude m amidst continual reverses , both fro the sword of the enemy and from sickness and

“ sn ﬁ erin s g , such as were often of a nature to disspirit the stoutest troops in the world , too much cannot be said . Perhaps no other army than the Russian could hav e borne up with such an undaunted persever ance against a warrior surrounded by so

S cham l dazzling a prestige as y , and who had in so extraordinary a degree the power

of of exciting the enthusiasm his followers .

Many specimens of his eloquent ad — dresses have been preserved , though they cannot well be j udged apart from the peen liar and exciting circumstances under which f they were delivered . The ollowing pas sages may serve to give some imperfect idea o f their style and tone

“ on e Do not believe , he says on occa

1 7 8 THE CA U CA SUS

quered all Avaria ! If the lightning strike a

tree do all the other trees on that account ? how their heads before it D O they fall

down for fear they should be str uck also ?

O ye of little faith ! Follow the example

of the trees of the forest . Had they ton gues

to speak they would put you to sham e !

the If worm devours the fruit , does the

other fruit rot away for fear of being de

’ v oured !

“ Do n ot alarm yourselves because the f in idels increase so quickly , and continually

- ﬁ eld send forth fresh warriors to the battle , in the place of those whom we have de

. s stroyed I tell you , a thousand poi onous fungi spring out of the earth before on e good tree reaches maturity .

“ of I am the root the tree of liberty .

My Murids are the trunk , and you are the branches . But Shall the rottennes s of one branch entail the destruction of the whol e A ND I TS PEOP LE . 1 7 9

1 O ff n e s tree God will lop the rotten bra ch , and cast them into eternal ﬁre !

the Enrol yourselves , then , among number of those who ﬁght for the faith of

Mahomet , and you will gain my favour , and

I will be your protector . But if you persist in giving ear to the seductive speeches Of the Christian dogs ,

instead of listening to my exhortations , I will carry out what Kasi - Mullah formerly

han d s threatened you with . My shall burst u - pon your aouls like a thunder cloud , and take by force what you will not yield to

persuasion . I will wade in blood . Devas tation and terror shall follow me ; and wha t

the power of speech cannot Obtain , shall be

! won by the edge of the sword !

But S chamyl is not merely an impas sion ed enthusiast ! he is a most stern and

of rigid disciplinarian , which , among others , on e terrible instance is related . 1 80 THE CA UCASUS

His mother , whom he treated with the

con si greatest respect , and who exercised e d erable n i ﬂuence over him , had on one occasion ventured to introduce to him some messengers who came with proposals for a dishonourable peace . A fter hearing what she had to say , he

r e shut himself up in the mosque , and

mained there three days and nights . Then

he came forth , pale and haggard , with his eyes swollen ; and calling his Murids an d the people around him , declared it to be the will of Allah that his mother should receive a hundred lashes , for having made that vile proposal to him . The poor Old

for woman shrieked and begged mercy , but the off Murids seized her , tore her veil , and

S chamyl himself began to inﬂict the p u

ishmen t un for ~ n . But at the ﬁfth blow the tun ate S ch am l creature fell dead , and y flun g h imself on the ground with loud

1 82 THE CAU CASUS

all ra in vain . Neither his g cious words nor his good deeds were appreciated by the mountaineers ; and they never inspired any conﬁdence . The condition of the Eastern Caucasus is still less promising to the Russians , and

u of Kab ard a tho gh the populations the , and of of b e the coast the Caspian Sea , have

come ostensibly more friendly to Russia , years must elapse before they can be de

n pended o .

It was during the administration of Prince

W oron z off that S chamyl achieved his great

of of est feat arms , and by the defeat his a pparently overwhelming forces , that the mountain chief acquired the fame and in

ﬂuen ce which have caused the subjection of several large districts of the Caucasus to

Russia to be merely nominal . They have f become so disa fected , that strong garrisons are required to keep a vigilant watch on A N D ITS PEOPLE . 1 8 3

their movements , and this is the case with

on n all the Western Lowlands the Kouba , and on the line between the Kouban an d

Terek and the Black Sea coasts . T H E CA UCASUS

HAPTE ! I C R .

n o S ham l ha in — T he gra d bj e cts c y s had vie w . H is

—T e e s es of — s s e . T h re ligious y t m hr tag progress . e

— — h M r — T h N aib . T e u s chid . P n Murid s e s s . erso al — — n f S cham l . H is o e of H i app e ara c e O y m d life . s — pre sen t ab od e T h e future prosp e cts of the C an i cas an s .

S C H A M Y L — , though now past his prime as — he is upwards of sixty years of age is

of acknowledged to have been , in his time

vigour , a great soldier and a great man , with an intellect capable of originating grand ideas , and a character to develope them into great deeds . The purpose he had in view from the commencement of his career , was not only to emancipate the

Caucasian races from the Russian dominion , but to effec t their thorough reform from the vices which , for centuries , had enervated

1 86 T H E CA UCA SUS

To promote the accomplishment of this purpose , therefore , he has adopted three

. of methods First , that encouraging the

revival of religious ardour ; secondly , the e n xciti g devotion to his own person ; and ,

f n re thirdly , e fecti g , as far as possible , the conciliation Of all the feuds between the different tribes .

The religious system of S chamyl has been partly derived from Hadji Ismael ff E endi , by whom he was instructed in his

- m . youth , and still more fro Kasi Mullah It may in many respects be regarded as a young and fresh offshoot from the aged and decaying trunk of Islamism . A ccording to this system , it is supposed that man must pass through four prelimi nary stages before he can rise to a condition entitling him to the happiness of Paradise .

The ﬁrst stage is that in which is required the strict observance of all external ordi AN D ITS PEOPLE . 1 87

nances of Islam , such as prayer, pilgrimages , almsgiving , honesty , truthfulness , and so o n . The second stage requires more than mere Obedience to positive ordinances ; it demands virtue , and the elevation of the character to the performance of good deeds .

f- In the third , man attains to sel know h ledge and faith , and occupies himself wit the contemplation of nature and of the m Creator. This is the highest develop ent of mind .

S cham l Practically , y ranks in the ﬁrst

of class the great multitude mankind , who , being unable to think for themselves , must be tied down by external forms—sometimes

. O n persuasive , sometimes constraining the second stage he places the Murids , since they are striving to acquire virtue

whose necessity they acknowledge . They

th of obey e dictates the law , not for its

of own sake , but for the sake the fruit of 1 88 TH E CAUCASUS

it which is the germ . The third stage is

Naib s occupied by the , who have a more

of exalted sense virtue than the Murids ,

M urschid and are representatives of the ,

S cham l at y , whose position is the highest tain able , and whose worth and accomplish ments entitle him to receive all revelations and inspirations from above and to be one

G od with .

M urschid Thus the is the sun , giving

N aib s light to the , his moons , who , with the Murids , their stars , illuminate from their height the people below . The Naib s

v S cham l act as iceroys to y , govern the several districts to which they are a p

in of pointed , give j udgment the name the

M urschid d of , ecide cases minor importance on own their authority , and have command over a thousand armed men , while the

Murids command only one hundred . In time of - need a Murid , clothed in a blood red gar

1 90 THE CAUCASUS the multitude bow down before him in pro

n found veneratio , anxiously desiring per

of mission to kiss the hem his garment .

Besides his Murids , he is also attended

M kalen d as by his ullahs , with their , or ink

n w him sta ds , who follo to note down his

of commands . His general mode living is extremely frugal ; and his favourite resi

V ed en n o dence , Dargo , is a simple but

on solid structure , situated a lofty rock , surrounded by impenetrable forests and

its precipices , and protected at foot by a

eu rapid river . It is a square fortress ,

of closed by walls and towers , in one which

S cham l b ut y occasionally resides , at other times he occupies a ﬂat - roofed house on its

of east side . The rooms this house are

n carpeted , and or amented by arms of rare

u bea ty , captured from the enemy , while its walls bear inscriptions from the Koran .

Before the fortress lies a village , occupied 1 1 AN D ITS P EOPLE . 9 chieﬂy by artisans ; water is supplied by a stream that has been conducted from the hills into an immense reservoir in the middle of the fortress ; an d at a short dis

tance from it is situated the provision store , where a large quantity of maize , corn , and

u millet is laid p .

n The Circassians of the Wester Caucasus ,

’ S ch am l s though not subj ect to y rule , and in general not favourable to it , are largely

an d adopting the Mahometan faith , would

’ probably be gained over to S ch amyl s plans

fﬁ n without di culty , were he you g enough

to pursue them with activity .

own a He has succeeded among his v ssals , in substituting the penalties of a strict law for the terrible and destructive blood reven ge hitherto prevalent amon g them ;

of and , within a very Short space time , he has composed an organised state out of a multitude of mutually hostile robber - bands 1 92 A T THE CA UC SU S , E C .

all and this organisation will , in proba bilit y , become the basis of their future progress towards a civilization that will carry them ultimately beyond the of the crescent .

T H E E N D .

1 94 A D PPEN IX .

A chief of the rarat Kurds , under whose s afeguard we had n o thin g to fear from the

n of A plunderi g habits his followers . t Bay azid we had provided ourselves each with a

o S ix stout p le between ﬁve and feet long , furn ished with a spike at one end and a h ook at the oth e r .

n A Crossing the plai of rarat , we com m e n ce d e the asc nt through a wide ravine , enclosed between vast ridges O f volcanic

n rock . For three hours we wou d our way

d eﬁle s n through rugged , occasio ally tra

e v rsing fertile plateaux , verdant with grow in of O ~ g crops wheat and barley . ur sure m footed little horses , accusto ed to this sort of work , picked their way through the most

n us break eck places , and brought in safety

’ - of our to the black goats hair tents host , which were pitched on some pasture lands on o of A the southern sl pe Greater rarat , about fe et above the level of the sea . Hither the Kurds resort in summer with

a n d n n their ﬂocks herds , retur i g to the vil h lages of the plain at t e approach Of winter .

“ ’ A portion of the chief s tent was se t P D 1 AP EN IX . 95 apart for our use ; the floo r w as c overe d

- o e with gay c loured carpets , a fat She p was

e an d w as t kill d , everything supplied tha

o Kurdish h spitality could suggest .

’ At 3 O clock next morni n g w e were on

. wh o to the move , all except Mr Thursby , o ur n o n to regret , was obliged by i disp sitio

in n remain the tent . Three hours of co ti n ued asce n t on foot brought us to the base

o off o f the cone . Here Maj or Fraser b re to

- of the south east . and took a line his own ,

. . a n d while Mr Theobold , Mr Evans , I ,

n commenced the ascent on the souther Side ,

' ke e in to a n p g the snow , which presented

unbroken surface to the very summit .

wh o e To my two friends , are exp rienced A lpine climbers , this was easy work , but it soon began to tell unfavourably on my u n

For accustomed limbs . a time we kept

o pretty well together ; by degrees , h wever ,

Mr . Theobold began to forge ahead , fol

a lowed by Mr . Ev ns , while I brought up

the rear as well as I could . But my strength

an d w was fast giving way , hen about half

u un way p the cone , I found myself utterly 1 96 A PPEN D IX .

a n . A able to proceed y further ccordingly , there being no alternative but to descend , I sat on th e sn ow a n d shot down with the u velocity of an arrow , ndoing in a few mi n ute s the laborious toil of nearly thre e

n hours . This was a keen disappoi tment , amply repaid to me however , as will appear

an d by bye . At the foot of the cone I found Issak

Bey , who with a couple of his people had

u o come o t to watch our progress . He l oked on my failure as a matter Of course , and

n seemed to think the others , too , must soo

n o give in ; but , up they went higher and higher , his interest and surprise keeping p ace with their ascent . For some hours we watche d their u p

of ward course , the Sharp naked eye the Kurd plainly discerning what I was able to A see only with the aid of a telescope . t

he ob old length , at Mr . T crowned the

of s ummit . Great was the astonishment the ! ’ Chief. Mashallah he exclaimed , God is great l— What wonderful people these

of English are ; a few them come here , and

1 98 D APPEN IX .

n n mi d , he succeeded in arresti g his perilous

an d r m n f descent , , sc a bli g with di ﬁculty to a

n rocky ridge that protruded above the s ow , he climb e d over it with immen se labour ; an d v n his thus reco eri g lost way , he won the height about having been thrown m back full three hours by his ishap . He

e n e f d sce d d on the traces o Messrs . Theobold

v n an d and E a s , regained the tents at mid n n on ight , havi g been about twenty hours foot .

O 1 3th 2 P M . n the , about , Mr Thursby an d a m o I st rted fro the tents , acc mpanied

n by two Kurds , carryi g rugs , greatcoats ,

n and a small supply of provisio s . We pro cee d e d slowly an d leisurely until w e reached

- about on e third the ascent of the cone .

There we were obliged to dismiss the Kurds ,

u who , from religious fear , ref sed either to proceed further or to Spend the n ight on

n the mountain ; but , to i sure their return

in th e . morning for the rugs , etc , we thought

n n r t it expedie t to detai thei arms , the deares possession of these nomade people . As we had neither of us much fancy to APPEN D IX . 1 99

try the ascent by the snow , we chose a new

of o ur o w n rf n line over a rocky su ace , faci g

o a n d s un nearly due s uth , which the wind had bared n early to the summit .

n ow w e Left to ourselves , selected a

the n on e to spot to pass ight , piled up st s

a an d windward as a shelter gainst the cold , ,

n havi g dined heartily , we made ourselves as

’ W e sun comfortable as possible . saw the

b n set in indescriba le glory , throwi g the shadow of the vast moun tain far away o ver

A d e rb i an n Georgia and j , and even darkeni g

of n the distant haze the Eastern horizo .

o ur w e Wrapping ourselves in rugs , passed the n ight as well as could be ex

e c ted wn o n 1 4 p , and at peep of da the th we resumed the ascent . It certainly was toil

an d some slow , but was , nevertheless , satis factory . From an elevation of about fe et

s un u n above the sea , we saw the rise in clouded majesty , lighting up Simultaneously

our of n to view vast tracts the Russia , Per

w as sian , and Turkish empires ; that a glo

to for n rio ns Sight never be gotte . 2 0 D 0 APPEN IX .

A bout feet from the summit , we came upon an oak cross that had been ﬁxed there in the rock by Professor A bich in the

a 1 845 ye r ; it was in perfect preservation , and the inscription , in Russian characters , was still legible . This was the most difﬁcult part of our u ascent , the obstr ctions were frequent , and the climbin g a t times perilous ; but cautio n an d perseverance e n abled us to overcome

n an d 9A M everythi g , at . . we had the satis faction of standing on the highest point of

n a the mou t in . Here I stuck to the hilt in

n w or - the s o a kama , short double edged

d w e of swor , which found at the foot

’

A bich s . cross Here , also , as loyal Britons , we drank the health of o ur beloved ! ueen in brandy . Her Majesty will perhaps deign to accept this expression of allegiance on considering that hers is probably the ﬁrst name that has been pronoun ced on that so~ lemu height since it was quitted by the great patriarch of the human race ; for no record or tradition exists Of the ascent havrn g ever b d been made efore , although repeate ly tried

2 02 APPEN D IX .

n tria gle is an elevated ridge , forming a third eminence . These three points stand out n on in disti ct relief a clear day . The snow on the top is almost as dry

in n as powder , and walki g over it we did

o - not Sink m re than half way to the knee .

The impression left on my mind is , that the summit is an extin ct crater ﬁlled with

TV e e n n o f snow . experi ced di ﬁculty of

e n o respiration , except b i g sooner bl wn by exertion than we Should have been at a

e n lower l vel . The cold was i tense ; and though a perfect calm prevailed at the time

o of n at the f ot the co e , as we afterwards learnt , a keen wind was blowing from the

w n n of west , hich raised a bli di g mist ﬁne sn ow that prevented us taking an y distant v iews . “ A s may be supposed , our success has created n o small se n sation throughout the country ; the fame Of it preceded us wher

n ever we went . It was annou ced as a sort of won der to the caravans travellin g east ward ; and ' the K aim akan of Bay a zid has made it the s ubj ect of a Special report to

Constantinople . D 2 03 APPEN IX .

From the sacred character Of the

n mountai , and the traditions associated

the with it throughout east , identical as

in they are with scriptural records , I am clin e d to think that a degree of importance will attach to this performance , in popular

estimation , beyond what is due to a mere

of n n o exhibition erve or muscle , and this ,

in our doubt , will tell favour of national prestige .

B RT S T RT RO E UA , Maj or ,

ecia l S er vice A sia M a or . Sp , j

ze m l E r rou J u 2 6 . , y

The Russian Caucasian Calendar for 1 846 , which was taken from the library

of the Governor of Sebastopol , gives the following statement of the administrative arrangements of the provinces of the

Caucasus .

T iﬂis 4 1 45 (lat . north ; long . east) is the seat of the chief military governor or

- f lord lieutenant . Here the general sta f is 2 04 APPEN D IX .

established , as well as military and gym nastic schools , etc . it is the head quarters of the military police ; and here is also ,

’ besides the civil governor s C hancery and

f Of other o ﬁces , the palace the treasury , the

of civil and criminal courts j ustice , the tribunal Of public inspection , the exchequer

n T iﬂis or palace of ﬁna ce , etc . is besides

of the centre of all the military roads , and communication with the followin g places

T h elaff A ch al z ich Gori (lat . , , Eri

N a chitche van A van , , lexandropol , Eliza b e th ol S ch amachu S chuscha p , Kutais , , ,

L an koran B acku or , Baku , Derbent , Sta v ro ol C i n ache N ch K nb P a ti orsk p , g , y , , g ,

Kilsan . The last ﬁve places mentioned in this list will probably not be found on an y

or l of map chart , and must necessari y be recent da te .

7 RI C H A RD S G REA T U E E N S T REE T . , 3 , !

Unive rs ity of C alifornia S O UT HE RN REGIO NA L LIBRA RY FA C ILITY 305 De Neve Drive Parking Lot 1 7 0 Box 95 1 388

- LO S A NGELES , C A LIFO RNIA 90095 1 388

r i mat rial h li r r r i Retu n th s e to t e b a y f omwh ch it was borrowed .