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2004-12-01 Iraq's Hostage Crisis: Kidnappings, Mass Media and the Iraqi Insurgency
al-Marashi, Ibrahim
http://hdl.handle.net/10945/37387 ttp://www.gloria-center.org/2004/12/al-maras i-2004-12-01/
raq’s Hostage Crisis: Kidnappings, Mass Media and the raqi nsurgency December 1, 2004 gloria-center.org
his article analyzes the use of kidnapping as a tactic by the Iraqi insurgency in its effort to influence Iraqi, Arab, and Muslim public opinion and politics, as well as the international arena. It assesses how this method has yielded important advantages for the insurgents, despite the horror and opposition this behavior arouses in the outside world.
Since t e ousting of Saddam Hussein?¯?¿?½s regime in 2003, t ere ave been ample reports covering and analyzing t e Iraqi insurgency?¯?¿?½s diverse use of armed tactics suc as roadside explosives, mortar attacks, and suicide bombings. At t e same time, t oug , t ere as been less attention paid and understanding developed on t e insurgents?¯?¿?½ media campaign directed at Iraqis as well as t e Arab and Muslim worlds more generally. Observers of t e Iraqi insurgency agree t at its combat tec niques ave grown more sop isticated since President George W. Bus announced t e end of major combat operations in May 2003. A media strategy, owever, as simultaneously complemented t ese military activities.
Iraqi insurgents[1] employed t ese met ods in order to garner sympat y from t e Iraqi population for t eir ?¯?¿?½struggle,?¯?¿?½ w ile keeping t e international media spotlig t on t e American-led occupation of Iraq. T e p enomena of kidnapping foreigners in Iraq emerged as a result of t e insurgents?¯?¿?½ attempts to influence world media. Taking ostages and releasing video recordings of t eir captivity proved to be a successful tactic for gaining immediate coverage in bot Arabic and international news sources, as well as pressuring world leaders to give in to t e insurgents?¯?¿?½ demands.
T e tactic of kidnappings reveals t at Iraqi insurgents ave a ?¯?¿?½public relations?¯?¿?½ campaign intended to affect audiences inside and outside Iraq. Videos of kidnapped ostages ave proved successful in forcing world leaders to wit draw troops from Iraq, preventing international firms from participating in reconstruction efforts, and instigating rallies against t e occupation of Iraq in t e ostages?¯?¿?½ countries. T erefore, owever repugnant is t e footage, it constitutes a success for t e insurgents in attracting world attention to t eir cause.
THE MED A AND TERROR SM
According to James E. Lukaszewski, a pubic relations counselor w o previously advised t e U.S. military and major international firms, ?¯?¿?½Media coverage and terrorism are soul mates–virtually inseparable. T ey feed off eac ot er. T ey toget er create a dance of deat –t e one for political or ideological motives, t e ot er for commercial success.?¯?¿?½ [2]
Lukaszewski as argued t at t is relations ip is a mutually beneficial arrangement, ?¯?¿?½Terrorist activities are ig profile, ratings-building events.?¯?¿?½ T e media, Lukaszewski continues, provides t e terrorists wit access to an audience out of necessity, especially since it needs ?¯?¿?½[t]o prolong
age 1 of 13 Nov 13, 2013 02:18:55 M MST ttp://www.gloria-center.org/2004/12/al-maras i-2004-12-01/ t ese stories because t ey build viewers ip and readers ip.?¯?¿?½[3] His comments–made in 1987, prior to t e spectacle of planes cras ing into t e Twin Towers– old true in understanding w y kidnappings occur in Iraq.
Jon Alterman, director of t e Middle East program at t e Center for Strategic and International Studies in Was ington described t e be eadings videos as ?¯?¿?½made-for-television events.?¯?¿?½ He writes t at t e be eadings videos are part of ?¯?¿?½A calculated set of actions and images directed toward influencing a mass audience. In t is way, t e audience is often more important t an t e action itself, and t e symbolism is inseparable from t e strategy. Missing t is vital point can lead to precisely t e wrong response.?¯?¿?½[4]
Brigette L. Nacos, w o as written extensively on t e subject of terrorism and t e media, describes a ?¯?¿?½classical terrorist desire for publicity in terms of s eer volume of news coverage.?¯?¿?½[5] Nacos explains t e relations ip between t e media and terrorism based on t ree variables. S e calls t e first ?¯?¿?½t e Bomb and t e Message,?¯?¿?½ or in ot er words, t e terrorist act and t e media?¯?¿?½s reporting of t e incident. T e second variable is ?¯?¿?½public opinion,?¯?¿?½ w ic reacts to t e terrorist attack, w ile t e t ird variable is t e ?¯?¿?½decision-makers,?¯?¿?½ w ic ave to react based in large part on t e public perception of t e event.
By manipulating t ese t ree variables, terrorists affect public policy in a more efficient way t an peaceful met ods suc as petitions or marc es. Terrorism is guaranteed to create a mass-media mediated debate t at influences policymakers, proving t at w en peaceful met ods fail, violence succeeds. Kidnappings in Iraq, Nacos?¯?¿?½s first variable, ave proven to succeed in rallying ?¯?¿?½public opinion?¯?¿?½ in countries. T is as forced decision-makers to react, eit er by paying a ransom for ostages, wit drawing t eir troops entirely from Iraq, or refusing to negotiate wit t e terrorists, an option t at as so far resulted in t e deat of t e captives.
THE EMERGENCE AND EVOLUT ON OF THE RAQ NSURGENCY
In 2003, A med Has im, an instructor at t e U.S. Naval War College, categorized t e Iraqi insurgents into t ree groups: regime loyalists, Iraqi nationalists and Islamist groups. At first, t e regime loyalists appeared to be t e strongest element in t e Iraqi insurgency, yet e predicted t at if one faction of t e Iraqi insurgency were weakened, anot er faction could manage to consolidate its control over t e ot ers: ?¯?¿?½T e elimination of Saddam?¯?¿?½s sons, of Saddam imself, and of regime fig ters opened t e way for t e consolidation of a group w ose combat against U.S. forces ad not ing to do wit trying to bring back t e ancien regime.?¯?¿?½[6] Has im suggested t at t e triump over one group opened t e field for its rivals. T e most prominent insurgent group immediately after t e 2003 Iraq war was ?¯?¿?½T e Return?¯?¿?½ (Al-?¯?¿?½Awda), made up of former Iraqi security service members and soldiers determined to bring t eir former leader back to power. However, after Saddam Hussein?¯?¿?½s capture in December 2003, t e group?¯?¿?½s stated goal seemed unattainable as e was in U.S. custody. T erefore, many of t ese forces offered t eir services to t e armed Islamist organizations and bolstered t eir ranks, as Has im predicted.
A few mont s after t e war, elements in Iraq emerged t at ad no desire to fig t for t e return of t eir former dictator. T eir attacks against Coalition forces were specifically directed towards ending t e
age 2 of 13 Nov 13, 2013 02:18:55 M MST ttp://www.gloria-center.org/2004/12/al-maras i-2004-12-01/ American occupation of Iraq. T ese groups can be categorized as t e second faction, t e Iraqi nationalists, most of w ose fig ters are recruited from Iraqi towns suc as Falluja, Ramadi and Samarra, in w at as become referred to as t e ?¯?¿?½Sunni Arab Triangle.?¯?¿?½ T ey ave limited t emselves to guerrilla-type tactics, and if t ey kidnapped foreigners, t ey avoided t e grisly punis ment of be eadings t at ave become synonymous wit t e t ird group, t e Islamist insurgents.
A s adowy organization known as ?¯?¿?½T e Soldiers of Islam?¯?¿?½ (Jund al-Islam), emerged in September 2001, made up of Kurdis Islamists w o began to seize control of several villages near t e Iraqi town of Halabja in nort ern Iraq in order to establis a mini-state similar to t e Taliban?¯?¿?½s Afg anistan. T e organization, w ic as ties to al-Qa?¯?¿?½ida, accepted t at organization?¯?¿?½s fig ters as t ey fled Afg anistan in October 2001. T e group later c anged its name to ?¯?¿?½T e Supporters of Islam?¯?¿?½ (Ansar al-Islam) in December 2001. After U.S. Special Forces and Kurdis militias destroyed t eir main base during t e Iraq war, members of Ansar al-Islam scattered over Iraq itself and, most likely, among Iraq?¯?¿?½s neig bors.
Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, a Jordanian national and former Arab fig ter in Afg anistan, was believed to play a key role in directing Ansar, alt oug e was not declared its leader. Al-Zarqawi opened is own terrorist base in t e Afg an city of Herat in 2000, w ere it was believed t at e forged connections wit Al-Qa?¯?¿?½ida.[7] It is reported t at in late 2003, Abu Abdalla al-S afi?¯?¿?½i, also known as Warba Holiri al-Kurdi, took over t e leaders ip of Ansar al-Islam and c anged its name to ?¯?¿?½Army of t e Supporters of t e Sunna?¯?¿?½ (Jays al-Ansar al-Sunna). Its relations ip to anot er organization, ?¯?¿?½T e Unity and Ji ad Group?¯?¿?½ (Jama?¯?¿?½at al-Ji ad wal-Taw id), also believed to be led by al-Zarqawi, is unclear. For example, a posting on t e internet depicting t e be eading of a Turkis truck driver appeared on t e website of t e Jays al-Ansar al-Sunna. However, t e statement read out during t e be eading identified t e kidnappers as belonging to t e Unity and Ji ad Group?¯?¿?½s Qaqa?¯?¿?½ Brigade.
T e various names of t ese organizations are confusing. In fact, t ey essentially refer to t e same group of insurgents, but per aps also reveal a tactic designed to give t e impression t at t e Islamist elements are more numerous t an t e ot er factions. To make matters even more confusing, t e Unity and Ji ad Group assumed a new name, ?¯?¿?½T e al-Qa?¯?¿?½ida Organization for Holy War in t e Land of t e Two Rivers?¯?¿?½ (Tand im Qa?¯?¿?½ida Ji ad fi Bilad al-Rafidayn), indicating al-Zarqawi?¯?¿?½s allegiance to Usama bin Ladin?¯?¿?½s organization.
Besides t e al-Zarqawi-linked factions, t ere are ot er Islamist insurgent groups responsible for conducting kidnappings in Iraq. T e ?¯?¿?½Muja ideen Battalions of t e Salafi Group of Iraq?¯?¿?½ (Kata?¯?¿?½ib al-Muja idin fil-Jama?¯?¿?½a al-Salafiyya fil-?¯?¿?½Iraq) claims its spiritual mentor as t e deceased Abdalla ?¯?¿?½Azzam, bin Ladin?¯?¿?½s mentor in Saudi Arabia and later Afg anistan. T e ot er faction includes t e ?¯?¿?½Islamic Army in Iraq?¯?¿?½ (al-Jays al-Islami fil-?¯?¿?½Iraq); yet, it is unclear if t e organization is made up of Iraqis or foreign fig ters.
HOSTAGES AND NSURGENT MESSAGES[8]
Gary Bunt, aut or of Islam in t e Digital Age, coined t e term ?¯?¿?½Cyber Ji ad,?¯?¿?½ to describe t ose Islamist organizations w ic use t e internet to propagate a message of religious violence.[9] T e
age 3 of 13 Nov 13, 2013 02:18:55 M MST ttp://www.gloria-center.org/2004/12/al-maras i-2004-12-01/ current conflict, in w ic Iraqi insurgents ave appropriated t e internet in a quest to popularize t eir actions against t e American presences in Iraq, can be described as a ?¯?¿?½Cyber Insurgency.?¯?¿?½ T e Iraqi insurgents ave proven adept at manipulating t e internet, as well as international news outlets in order to send t eir message to domestic and international audiences.
T e spate of kidnappings in Iraq began after t e 2003 Iraq war, but t e primary victims were Iraqis abducted by Iraqi criminals and ransomed for financial reasons. In April 2004, as U.S. forces conducted simultaneous attacks against insurgents in Falluja and Najaf, t e Islamic Army in Iraq and al-Zarqawi-linked groups began kidnapping foreigners in an attempt to prevent t ose countries from sending troops or participating in Iraq?¯?¿?½s reconstruction. T ese two organizations were primarily responsible for t e spectacle of kidnapped ostages pleading for t eir lives in front of a video camera. T e videos are designed bot for local Iraqi and international consumption, sending simultaneous messages to two very different audiences.
Messages to the Iraqis
Videos of decapitations are designed to serve as warnings for any Iraqis serving in t e interim government?¯?¿?½s security forces or ?¯?¿?½collaborating wit t e Crusader American army,?¯?¿?½ in t e words of groups linked to al-Zarqawi. A videotape posted on t eir website in October 2004 depicts t e be eading of two Iraqis, Fad il Ibra im and Firas Imayyil, reported to be members of t e Iraqi National Intelligence service, w o were captured on Bag dad?¯?¿?½s Haifa Street on September 28, 2004.[10] T e kidnappers identified t emselves as t e Brigades of Abu Bakr al-Sidiq of Jama?¯?¿?½at al-Ji ad wal-Taw id. Before t eir executions, t e victims warned fellow Iraqis working in Iraq?¯?¿?½s security services to leave t eir posts and ?¯?¿?½repent to God?¯?¿?½ for t eir sin of collaboration wit t e occupation.
Jays al-Ansar al-Sunna kidnapped anot er Iraqi, Sayf ?¯?¿?½Adnan Kana?¯?¿?½an, for working as a mec anic for t e American forces based at t e Mosul airport. T e videotape s owed im bound, in front of t ree masked insurgents and t e group?¯?¿?½s black flag wit w ite Arabic script. His execution was based on t e c arges t at e was ?¯?¿?½a crusader spy recruited by t e American troops to follow and carry information about t e muja idin in Mosul.?¯?¿?½ Before is execution e was forced to confess in a fas ion similar to t e Iraqi security agents: ?¯?¿?½I am telling anybody w o wants to work wit Americans to not work wit t em. I found out t at t e muja idin ave very accurate information and strong intelligence about everyt ing. T ey are stronger t an I t oug t.?¯?¿?½[11]
Ot er be eadings are directed to specific Iraqi communities, as an October 2004 video t at appeared on t e Jays Ansar al-Sunna?¯?¿?½s site depicting t e execution of a S i?¯?¿?½a Muslim, Ala?¯?¿?½ al-Maliki.[12] Al-Maliki is depicted as reading a statement, similar to a forced confession, w ereupon e is be eaded amid screams of ?¯?¿?½God is Great?¯?¿?½ from t e kidnappers. T e S i?¯?¿?½a ave been a specific target for t e al-Zarqawi groups as t ey ave been accused of conducting attacks against Sunni Muslims in Iraq as well as allying t emselves wit U.S. forces. Al-Zarqawi as attempted to spark a civil war between t e two sects in Iraq, t us undermining American attempts to bring stability to t e country. He allegedly released a 33-minute audiotape w ere e declared t at Iraqi S i?¯?¿?½a were not true Muslims and were ?¯?¿?½t e ears and t e eyes of t e Americans?¯?¿?½ in Iraq. T ereafter, e urged t e Sunni Muslims in Iraq to ?¯?¿?½burn t e eart under t e occupiers?¯?¿?½ feet.?¯?¿?½[13]
age 4 of 13 Nov 13, 2013 02:18:55 M MST ttp://www.gloria-center.org/2004/12/al-maras i-2004-12-01/
T e insurgents ave also targeted Iraqi Kurds for t eir alleged collaboration wit U.S. forces. In September 2003, members of t e Jays al-Ansar al-Sunna be eaded t ree Iraqi Kurdis militiamen in retaliation for t e cooperation of Kurdis political parties wit t e Americans in Iraq. T e statement of t eir website said t at t ey were ?¯?¿?½renegade military men, affiliated wit t e traitor Kurdistan Democratic Party?¯?¿?½ and t at t ey were be eaded ?¯?¿?½for t em to be an example to ot ers, and for us to avenge our women, c ildren and elderly w o die daily from American raids.?¯?¿?½[14]
As in t e case of t e S i?¯?¿?½a killings, t ese groups ave targeted t e Kurds for t eir ?¯?¿?½sworn allegiance to t e crusaders [w o] foug t and are still fig ting Islam and its people,?¯?¿?½ and ave accused Massud Barazani, leader of t e Kurdis Democratic Party and Jalal Talabani, leader of t e Patriotic Union of Kurdistan of being Israeli agents.[15] Essentially, t e insurgents ave justified t e killing of Iraqi Muslims by branding t eir captives as ?¯?¿?½unbelievers?¯?¿?½ (kafirs) for aiding in t e reconstruction of Iraq, under an ?¯?¿?½infidel occupation.?¯?¿?½
Insurgents ave used kidnappings to even demonstrate t at t e Iraqi interim prime minister, Ayad ?¯?¿?½Allawi, is not immune to t eir actions. On November 10, 2004, a previously unknown group called Jama?¯?¿?½at al-Ansar al-Ji ad claimed responsibility for kidnapping t ree of Allawi?¯?¿?½s relatives. On an Islamist website, t e following declaration was made: ?¯?¿?½Praise be to God, for wit is support and is Glory in t is oly mont , a faction from Ansar al-Ji ad, may God onor t em wit victory, and set t eir aim upon t e target, kidnapped t ree relatives of t e ead of Iraqi treason, Allawi, may God burn im and slay im.?¯?¿?½[16] T e group demanded t at all male and female prisoners be released in Iraq, and t at U.S. and Iraqi security forces end t eir assault on Falluja, w ic began in t e first week of November 2004. T ey t reatened to be ead ?¯?¿?½Allawi?¯?¿?½s relatives if t eir demands were not met, per aps indicating t at t e group was linked to al-Zarqawi.
Messages to nternational Businesses
Insurgents ave carried out kidnappings in order to drive foreign companies out of Iraq or to deter future investors from aiding in t e U.S.-led reconstruction of t e country. Before t e 1991 Gulf War, Turkey was one of Iraq?¯?¿?½s largest trading partners and it seems Turkey will reclaim t at role. T e presence of Turkis companies doing business in Iraq is clearly visible not just in t e nort of Iraq, but as far as t e markets in Basra in t e sout . Most of t e trucks providing transportation for Iraq?¯?¿?½s reconstruction effort originate in Turkey. Due to t is visible role, Turks ave been t e primary victims of t is aspect of t e insurgents?¯?¿?½ campaign.
Al-Zarqawi?¯?¿?½s Jama?¯?¿?½at al-Ji ad wal-Taw id posted videos on t e internet of t e executions of Murat Yuce, an employee of Bilintur, a Turkis company, and Durmus Kumdereli, a Turkis truck driver. [17] In October 2003, Ma er Kemal, a Turkis contractor, and Ramazan Elbu, anot er Turkis truck driver, were executed by anot er al-Zarqawi linked group, Jays al-Ansar al-Sunna. W ile t e video of Elbu?¯?¿?½s deat was released on t e website of Jays al-Ansar al-Sunna, t e kidnappers identified t emselves as belonging to t e Qaqa?¯?¿?½ Brigade of Jama?¯?¿?½at al-Ji ad wal-Taw id, underlining t e close link between t e two groups. Before is be eading e was most definitely coerced into saying t e following: ?¯?¿?½I drove a truck of supplies to t e Americans…. W en I was coming back (to Turkey), t e group captured me. I call on all Turkis drivers not to come to Iraq.?¯?¿?½[18] Afterwards,
age 5 of 13 Nov 13, 2013 02:18:55 M MST ttp://www.gloria-center.org/2004/12/al-maras i-2004-12-01/ one of t e masked gunmen be ind im declared t at is oly warriors will deliver deat upon t ose w o elp ?¯?¿?½t e Crusaders?¯?¿?½ (i.e. t e Americans). T e ?¯?¿?½Salafist Brigades of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq,?¯?¿?½ also believed to be linked to al-Zarqawi, claimed responsibility for seizing ten Turkis ostages in September 2004. On October 4, t e al-Jazira news c annel received a video from t is group depicting t e deat of one of t e ostages.[19]
T ese kidnappers made demands t at t e Americans release all Iraqi prisoners and demanded t at all Turks conducting business wit t e Coalition to vacate Iraq. ?¯?¿?½We of t e group of Unity and Ji ad announce?¯?¿?½ t at we will cut off t e ead of t is ostage if our demands are not met.?¯?¿?½ T e kidnapper directed a final warning to is Turkis audience, ?¯?¿?½We ave long warned t em not to enter t e land of Islam and land of Ji ad, t e land of Iraq.?¯?¿?½[20]
Anot er group of kidnappers, under t e previously unknown name of t e Holders of t e Black Banners, kidnapped t ree Indians, two Kenyans and an Egyptian, even t oug t ose countries ad not participated in t e war or occupation of Iraq. Nevert eless, t ey manipulated t ese ostages to deliver a warning to a broader international audience: ?¯?¿?½We ave warned all t e countries, companies, businessmen, and truck drivers t at t ose w o deal wit American cowboy occupiers will be targeted by t e fires of t e Muja idin.?¯?¿?½ T e statement continued saying, ?¯?¿?½Here you are once again transporting goods, weapons, and military equipment t at backs t e U.S. Army.?¯?¿?½[21] T e message t ey sent was t at no nationality is safe upon entering Iraq.
Message to Nations Deploying Troops in Iraq
T e main focus of t e insurgents as been to kidnap foreigners from nations contributing military forces to t e Coalition. Usually, t ese foreigners were t reatened wit decapitation unless t eir leaders wit draw t eir troops from Iraq. One of t e first victims was Kim Sun-il, a 33-year-old Sout Korean translator be eaded on June 22, 2003 by Jama?¯?¿?½at al-Ji ad wal-Taw id in retaliation for is nation?¯?¿?½s refusal to wit draw its troops from Iraq.[22]
Italians in Iraq ave also been kidnapped and executed due to t e presence of t eir military in t e sout ern Iraqi town of Nasiriyya. Enzo Baldoni, an Italian journalist, was executed on August 26, 2004, by t e Islamic Army in Iraq w en t e Berlusconi government refused to wit draw its troops. [23] On September 7, two Italian aid workers, Simona Pari and Simona Torretta, were kidnapped. A statement released over t e internet from a group called t e Islamic Ji ad Organization in Iraq t reatened to kill t e two Italian women if Italy failed to wit draw its troops wit in 24 ours. T e ostages were released, but only allegedly after a ransom was paid to t e kidnappers–a payment t e Italian government denies was made.[24]
Iraqi insurgents t reatened to be ead t e Filipino ostage, Angelo dela Cruz, unless t e P ilippines wit drew its troops from Iraq. T e P ilippine government acceded to t e kidnappers?¯?¿?½ demands and wit drew 51 soldiers and police officers from Iraq.[25] T is event proved t at ostage takers could force governments to reverse t eir positions on committing troops to t e American-led Coalition.
Ot er foreigners ave been killed due to t eir government?¯?¿?½s mere contemplation of sending troops to Iraq. Raja Azad and Sajad Naim, bot from Pakistan, were working in Iraq for a Kuwaiti-based firm.
age 6 of 13 Nov 13, 2013 02:18:55 M MST ttp://www.gloria-center.org/2004/12/al-maras i-2004-12-01/ T ey were killed on July 28, 2004, by t e Islamic Army in Iraq because Pakistan was considering dispatc ing troops to aid t e Coalition.[26] T ese executions ad a two-fold message: deterring Pakistan from bolstering t e ranks of t e occupation forces and discouraging t e Kuwaiti firm from contributing to Iraq?¯?¿?½s reconstruction.
Even private Nepalese security guards in Iraq were targeted as troops contributing to t e Coalition. T e Jays al-Ansar al-Sunna killings were rationalized wit t e following statement: ?¯?¿?½We ave carried out t e sentence of God against twelve Nepalese w o came from t eir country to fig t t e Muslims and to serve t e Jews and t e C ristians… believing in Budd a as t eir God.?¯?¿?½ T ey used t e Nepalese kidnapping to launc a verbal assault on t e United States: ?¯?¿?½America today as used all its force, as well as t e elp of ot ers, to fig t Islam under t e so-called war on terror, w ic is not ing but a vicious crusade against Muslims.?¯?¿?½ T e video concluded wit a kidnapper vowing to fig t t e interim Iraqi government: ?¯?¿?½We will work on exterminating t em until t e last fig ter.?¯?¿?½[27]
Messages to the United States and Britain
In addition to protest against U.S. actions in Iraq, kidnappings also occurred to protest against t e American ?¯?¿?½war on terror?¯?¿?½ in general. For example, Nicholas Evan Berg, a young American businessman conducting telecommunications work in Iraq, was captured in April 2004. T e video of is deat s ows Berg wearing an orange boiler suit, symbolic of t ose worn by al-Qa?¯?¿?½ida inmates detained at t e Guantanamo Bay facility. He was surrounded by five masked men reading a lengt y statement claiming t at is execution is retaliation for t e abuse of Iraqi prisoners by U.S. troops at t e Abu G raib prison. On May 11, 2004, an Ansar website broadcasted a video entitled ?¯?¿?½Abu Musab al-Zarqawi Slaug ters an American,?¯?¿?½ w ic s ows Berg being decapitated over a period of five minutes. Berg?¯?¿?½s fat er publicly blamed George W. Bus for is son?¯?¿?½s deat , demonstrating t e insurgents?¯?¿?½ can even succeed in alienating American support for t e ongoing occupation of Iraq.
Jama?¯?¿?½at al-Ji ad wal-Taw id kidnapped Britis engineer Kennet Bigley in Bag dad on September 16, 2004, along wit two American co-workers employed wit t e Gulf Services Company of t e United Arab Emirates. A video issued in t e name of al-Zarqawi t reatened to kill t e captives unless t e United States freed all Iraqi women in custody.[28] T e two Americans, Jack Hensley and Eugene Armstrong, were be eaded, wit t e videos of t eir murders posted on t e internet on September 21. T e next day, anot er video was released s owing Bigley pleading for is life, begging Britis Prime Minister Tony Blair to elp im and release t e female detainees eld by t e coalition.
Various individuals, politicians and non-governmental organizations participated in a campaign to save Bigley?¯?¿?½s life. T e Muslim Council of Britain sent a delegation to Iraq to negotiate is release. Since Bigley?¯?¿?½s mot er was Iris , politicians from t is country appealed for is release on t e al-Jazira station, as did Muammar Gaddafi and Yasir Arafat. T e fact t at international leaders intervened on is be alf bestowed upon t ese groups a sense of legitimacy and importance. Nevert eless, t ese overtures failed to save is life as, on October 10, a video of Kennet Bigley?¯?¿?½s execution was posted on an Islamist website.
On October 19, armed men abducted Margaret Hassan, t e ead of t e umanitarian group CARE
age 7 of 13 Nov 13, 2013 02:18:55 M MST ttp://www.gloria-center.org/2004/12/al-maras i-2004-12-01/ International in Iraq.[29] A video was later released w ere Hassan was seen begging to be spared t e fate of Bigley, demonstrating ow t e latter as emerged as a symbol of w at would appen if t e kidnappers?¯?¿?½ demands go unmet. T e video, w ic received maximum exposure in t e Western media, coincided wit a Britis decision to dispatc 850 troops sout west of Bag dad. S e said in t e video, ?¯?¿?½Please elp me. Please, t e Britis people, ask Tony Blair to take t e troops out of Iraq, and not to bring t em to Bag dad. T at’s w y people like Mr. Bigley and myself are being caug t, and maybe we will die like Mr. Bigley. Please, please, I beg you.?¯?¿?½[30] Suc comments ave demonstrated ow t e kidnappers can send a message directly to t e Britis public t us avoiding dealing wit its leaders altoget er. In t is case, t e Britis public viewed w at t e kidnappers wanted t em to see.
On November 18, 2004, t e Dar al-Salam radio station in Bag dad announced t e news of t e deat of Margaret Hassan.[31] S e was t e first woman foreign ostage to be killed by kidnappers creating a widespread outrage among t e Iraqis. Articles appeared in Iraq questioning w y er captives would kill someone w o ad devoted er life to elping t e Iraqi people.[32] However, ot ers in Iraq surprisingly defended t ose w o killed er. Nuri al-Muradi of t e Iraqi Communist Party blamed er deart on t e Iraqi aut ority, ?¯?¿?½T e Iraqi Government killed er to damage t e reputation of t e resistance, but t ey will fail.?¯?¿?½[33] Fak ri al-Qaissy, a leader among t e Iraqi Salafists justified er murder in response to t e images of a U.S. Marine t at killed an unarmed Iraqi in a Falluja mosque in mid-November: ?¯?¿?½Since t e Americans are waging an extermination war on us, t e resistance, too, will kill everyone–women, old people, infants. T e Americans ave left us wit no ot er c oice t an violence.?¯?¿?½[34]
Messages with slamist Themes
Kidnappers ave also used ostages in attempts to force foreign leaders to c ange t eir policy on broader Islamic issues wit little relevance to events in Iraq. In late August 2004, t e Islamic Army in Iraq kidnapped two Frenc reporters, George Malbrunot and C ristian C esnot, despite t e fact t at France ad ve emently opposed t e 2003 war. T e group gave t e country 48 ours to revoke a government ban on Muslim girls wearing eadscarves at sc ools.[35] Moderate Frenc Muslim organizations condemned t e tactic.
ANALYS S OF THE HOSTAGE V DEOS
T e videos of be eadings ave been described as t e insurgents?¯?¿?½ version of ?¯?¿?½s ock and awe,?¯?¿?½ terrorizing t eir audiences into submission. T ese acts reac t e front page of almost every major newspaper, giving t e perpetrators of suc crimes t e international attention t ey crave and t e ability to broadcast terror to a wider audience. Insurgents ave released most of t ese video communiqués to Arabic news c annels, knowing t at t ey serve a dual purpose: t ese news c annels enable terrorists to reac young Arabs and Muslims in t e region, w ile at t e same time t e broadcasts will be picked up by c annels suc as CNN or t e BBC.
T ese videos, because of t eir gruesome nature, serve t e insurgents?¯?¿?½ interests on numerous levels. First, t e videos give t em t e ability to display t eir symbols, w et er t ey be flags or logos, leaving a permanent impression on Arab and Muslim viewers. Some of t e insurgents?¯?¿?½ communiqués ave become quite sop isticated, most likely using advanced computer programs to display flas ing logos in Arabic of t eir organization on t e corner of t e screen. Most of t e be eading
age 8 of 13 Nov 13, 2013 02:18:55 M MST ttp://www.gloria-center.org/2004/12/al-maras i-2004-12-01/ videos were conducted wit t e black and yellow flag of Jama?¯?¿?½at al-Ji ad wal-Taw id or black and w ite flag of t e Jays al-Ansar al-Sunna in t e background, t us associating t eir banner wit t e fear caused by suc violent executions.
T e images of American and Britis ostages are designed to intimidate Western audiences, w ile damaging t e popularity of President George W. Bus and Prime Minister Tony Blair, t e two key partners in t e Coalition. T e videos served to taunt Bus during is election campaign. W ile t ey failed to prevent is re-election, t ey ig lig ted t e instability t at as beset Iraq since e declared t e war?¯?¿?½s end in May 2003, t us preventing im from declaring Iraq as a victory in t e ?¯?¿?½war on terror.?¯?¿?½ Per aps Kennet Bigley?¯?¿?½s kidnappers kept im alive for an extended period of time before murdering im to maximize t eir manipulation of t e Britis press, causing t e Britis public to question Blair?¯?¿?½s commitment to t e Coalition.
T ese videos are also designed for consumption in Iraq, as well as t e Arab and Muslim world at large. For some Muslims, t e image of a elpless foreign ostage redresses t e umiliation of a Western power occupying a country in t e eart of t e Middle East. In t ese cases, t e insurgents are in control of t e ostages?¯?¿?½ fate w ile t e impotent West is elpless to obtain t eir release. T ere are indications t at suc images are not only popular in Iraq, but t e wider Arab world as well. Videos of insurgent attacks against Coalition forces as well as of t e be eadings of foreigners ave proven to be fast-selling ?¯?¿?½entertainment?¯?¿?½ in Iraq, implying t at sympat y for t ese acts exists. T e sale of video discs featuring ostages being executed by Islamic militants was banned by t e Iraqi police, yet still make up 75 percent of t e domestic movie vendors?¯?¿?½ sales, indicating t at Iraqis are aware of t e insurgents?¯?¿?½ capabilities for sowing fear in Iraq, if not approving of t e insurgents?¯?¿?½ actions. [36]
Discs depicting scenes of Iraqi resistance in Falluja, as well as be eadings, are also being purc ased in markets in Cairo and Damascus. T ese films feature t e lyrics of Fallujan singer Saba al-Janabi celebrating suc insurgent tactics: ?¯?¿?½We are t e men defending t e town and be eading t e enemy. W en Falluja called on us, we rose up and met t e c allenge.?¯?¿?½[37]
T e messages al-Zarqawi sends t roug t ese videos also inspire young Muslims to join is ji ad in Iraq. One account describes ow a Lebanese man was inspired by is message and later volunteered, albeit unsuccessfully, to conduct a suicide mission against U.S. forces: ?¯?¿?½Zarqawi addressed imself to all Muslim yout , saying t at t e Americans ave come and come wit all t eir armies, t ey attacked us, so we s ould go ourselves to take our revenge.?¯?¿?½[38]
For t ose Muslims w o do not find inspiration in suc brutal acts, t e videos also serve anot er purpose. Be eadings could be t e insurgents?¯?¿?½ message t at t eir enemies are in fact violating ?¯?¿?½Islamic?¯?¿?½ law, even t oug t is is merely w at t e insurgents claim. In ot er words, aiding t e Coalition is ?¯?¿?½un-Islamic?¯?¿?½ and t ose collaborators will be punis ed in kind for suc blasp emy.
T e debate over be eading raises t e question of ow t e media s ould deal wit p enomena of televised be eadings. One must ask if t e insurgent videos serve t e interests of t e mass media. Bigley?¯?¿?½s kidnapping created a personal drama of t e kind t at most television news stations crave.
age 9 of 13 Nov 13, 2013 02:18:55 M MST ttp://www.gloria-center.org/2004/12/al-maras i-2004-12-01/ However, even if t e media fails to report on t e kidnappings, insurgents can still publicize t eir captives and t eir fate over t e internet. W en t e video of t e decapitation of Nic olas Berg was released, it was t e most popular searc item on t e internet.[39]
CONCLUS ON
As of t e time of t is article?¯?¿?½s publication, more t an 150 foreigners ave been kidnapped in Iraq since President Bus announced t e end of major combat operations in May 2003, and t e trend will continue as long as it delivers results for t e kidnappers. W ile some ostage takers ave been rewarded wit ransom money, ot ers wit political objectives ave succeeded in forcing t e wit drawal of foreign companies or troops serving in t e U.S.-led multi-national force.
W ile many Iraqis are disgusted by videos of be eadings of ostages, t ey argue t at t ere is little difference between t e insurgents and t e Americans, w o displayed t e images of t e mutilated corpses of Uday and Qusay Hussein after t eir deat s. T e images of Iraqi inmates umiliated during t eir incarceration at t e Abu G raib prison are given as anot er case in point. Some of t e ostages were supposedly killed in retaliation for t ese images. Indeed, it appears t at t e popular reception of t ese videos in Iraq and t e Arab world underlines t e growing unpopularity of t e U.S. presence in Iraq.
T e former Ba?¯?¿?½at ist regime of Saddam Hussein instilled an all-embracing sense of fear into Iraqi society. T e insurgents ave essentially replicated t ese tactics. T eir videos instill fear in Iraqis w o mig t consider cooperating wit t e interim administration. However, unlike t e domestic fear of Saddam?¯?¿?½s regime, t e insurgents ave exported t is atmosp ere of fear into t e Arab and greater Muslim world. T ey serve as a warning to any oil workers, businesspersons, or diplomats contemplating taking part in Iraq?¯?¿?½s reconstruction. T e videos send a message of fear to any world leaders w o take part in t e process, proving t at t ey could urt t eir domestic popularity, suc as in t e case of Prime Minister Blair.
T is tactic as yielded successes for t e insurgents, suc as exposure in t e international media. T e kidnappers can claim victories in forcing companies to wit draw from reconstruction efforts, ampering t e Coalition?¯?¿?½s attempts to create stability for a new Iraqi government. For al-Qa?¯?¿?½ida-linked insurgents, it is in t eir best interests to perpetuate t e ji ad necessary for t eir existence. T ese decapitation acts can also be said to bolster advocates of t e ?¯?¿?½war on terror?¯?¿?½ by s owing t e ?¯?¿?½barbarity of t e Islamic world.?¯?¿?½ By releasing t ese videos in t e name of organizations linked to imself, al-Zarqawi as emerged as t e de-facto leader of t e Iraqi insurgency. T ese victories indicate t at suc tactics will continue in Iraq in t e immediate future.
NOTES
[1]
T ose taking part in t e violence in Iraq against Coalition forces, t e interim Iraqi government, and civilians ave been referred to as eit er ?¯?¿?½resistance fig ters,?¯?¿?½ ?¯?¿?½terrorists?¯?¿?½ or ?¯?¿?½foreign ji adists.?¯?¿?½ For t e sake of t is article, t e term used most often in t e media, ?¯?¿?½insurgent,?¯?¿?½ as been employed.
age 10 of 13 Nov 13, 2013 02:18:55 M MST ttp://www.gloria-center.org/2004/12/al-maras i-2004-12-01/ [2] Cited in S eldon Rampton and Jo n Stauber, Weapons of Mass Deception: The Uses of ropaganda in Bush?¯?¿?½s War on Iraq (New York: Jeremy P. Tac er/Penguin, 2003), p. 136.
[3] James E. Lukazewski, ?¯?¿?½T e Media and t e Terrorist: A Dance of Deat ,?¯?¿?½ Executive Speec es, June 1987 ttp://www.e911.com/speec es/mediaandterrorists. tml.
[4] Jon Alterman, ?¯?¿?½Reading A Postmodern Future in t e Iraqi Be eadings,?¯?¿?½ The Daily Star, October 23, 2004.
[5] Brigette L. Nacos, Terrorism and the Media, From the Iran Hostage Crisis to the Oklahoma City Bombing (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), p. xv.
[6] A med Has im, ?¯?¿?½T e Sunni Insurgency in Iraq,?¯?¿?½ Middle East Institute erspective, August 15, 2003, ttp://www.mideasti.org/articles/doc89. tml.
[7] David S. Cloud, ?¯?¿?½Elusive Enemy: Long in U.S. Sig ts, A Young Terrorist Builds Grim Resume,?¯?¿?½ Wall Street Journal, February 10, 2004.
[8] Insurgent messages are usually posted on t eir websites, w ic are closed after a few weeks, if not days. T eir statements can also be eard in Arabic on ?¯?¿?½be eading videos,?¯?¿?½ w ic ave proliferated to numerous websites t at ave no link to t e insurgency. Rat er t an encouraging access to t ese websites and for t e sake of t is article, t e aut or as relied on transcripts of insurgent comments found in t e Associated Press or various news sources in Englis .
[9] Gary R. Bunt, Islam In The Digital Age: E-Jihad, Online Fatwas and Cyber Islamic Environments (London: Pluto Press, 2003).
[10] Maamoun Youssef, ?¯?¿?½Tape S ows Insurgents Be eading Two Iraqis,?¯?¿?½ Associated ress, October 14, 2004.
[11] ?¯?¿?½Web Site S ows Iraqi Militants Be eading Man,?¯?¿?½ Associated ress, October 23, 2004.
[12] ?¯?¿?½Ansar al-Sunna Army Claims It Be eaded S i?¯?¿?½ite Worker,?¯?¿?½ Iraq Report, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, Vol. 7, No. 38 (October 15, 2004).
[13] Ibid.
[14] Mariam Fam, ?¯?¿?½Militants Be ead T ree Iraqi Kurdis Militiamen,?¯?¿?½ Associated ress, September 19, 2004.
[15] Ibid.
[16] ?¯?¿?½Ansar al-Ji ad Group Claims Responsibility for Kidnapping Allawi’s Relatives, States Demands,?¯?¿?½ translated by t e Foreign Broadcast Information Service, (FBIS), November 10, 2004.
[17] ?¯?¿?½More T an 150 Foreigners Kidnapped in Iraq,?¯?¿?½ The Associated ress, October 14, 2004.
age 11 of 13 Nov 13, 2013 02:18:55 M MST ttp://www.gloria-center.org/2004/12/al-maras i-2004-12-01/ [18] ?¯?¿?½Kidnapped Turkis Driver Is Be eaded In Iraq, S own On Video On Islamic Web Site,?¯?¿?½ Associated ress, October 14, 2004.
[19] ?¯?¿?½Militant Group Says It Is Holding 10 Hostages in Iraq in A Video Broadcast On Al-Jazeera,?¯?¿?½ Associated ress, September 18, 2004.
[20] Rawya Rage , ?¯?¿?½Islamist Web Site S ows Be eading of Two Hostages in Iraq; Anot er Turkis Hostage T reatened,?¯?¿?½ Associated ress, October 11, 2004.
[21] Tarek El-Tablawy, ?¯?¿?½Militants T reaten To Be ead Hostages,?¯?¿?½ Associated ress, July 21, 2004.
[22] Todd Pittman, ?¯?¿?½Militants in Iraq Kill Sout Korean Hostage; Arab TV Says He Was Be eaded,?¯?¿?½ Associated ress, June 22, 2004.
[23] Mariam Fam, ?¯?¿?½Italian Journalist Held Hostage Is Killed Al-Jazeera Says,?¯?¿?½ Associated ress, August 26, 2004.
[24] Katrin Benn old, ?¯?¿?½Hostages in Iraq: For Europe, It’s Personal,?¯?¿?½ The International Herald Tribune, September 30, 2004
[25] James Glanz, ?¯?¿?½Iraqi Insurgents Using Abduction As Prime Weapon,?¯?¿?½ New York Times, July 26, 2004.
[26] Omar Sinan, ?¯?¿?½Militant Group in Iraq Says It Has Killed Two Pakistani Hostages,?¯?¿?½ Associated ress, July 28, 2004.
[27] ?¯?¿?½Website s ows Nepalese Hostage Execution Video and Images,?¯?¿?½ Cable News Network (CNN), August 31, 2004.
[28] Hamza Hendawi, ?¯?¿?½Suicide Bomber Targets Bag dad Police, U.S. Forces Pound Falluja and Nearby Villages,?¯?¿?½ Associated ress, September 17, 2004.
[29] Karl Vick, ?¯?¿?½Head of CARE in Iraq Abducted,?¯?¿?½ Washington ost, October 20, 2004.
[30]Kim Sengupta, ?¯?¿?½Harrowing Footage Shows Hassan Pleading For Her Life,?¯?¿?½ he Independent, October 23, 2004.
[31] ?¯?¿?½Program Summary: Bag dad Dar al-Salam Radio in Arabic,?¯?¿?½ FBIS, November 18, 2004.
[32] Abd-al-Qadir A mad, ?¯?¿?½W y Did T ey Kill Margaret Hassan?,?¯?¿?½ Irbil Khabat, translated by FBIS, November 24, 2004.
[33] ?¯?¿?½Iraqi CP Official Accuses Iraqi Government; Defense Minister of Kidnapping Hassan,?¯?¿?½ Al-Jazira Satellite Channel, translated by FBIS, November 23, 2004.
[34] ?¯?¿?½Iraqi Salafist Official Defends Hassan?¯?¿?½s Murder,?¯?¿?½ Liberation, translated by
age 12 of 13 Nov 13, 2013 02:18:55 M MST ttp://www.gloria-center.org/2004/12/al-maras i-2004-12-01/ FBIS, November 18, 2004.
[35] ?¯?¿?½Frenc Reporters Vanis in Iraq,?¯?¿?½ BBC News, August 22, 2004.
[36] Matt ew Mcallester, ?¯?¿?½Iraqi Be eading Now Fueling New Global ?¯?¿?½Snuff?¯?¿?½ Film Market,?¯?¿?½ Newsday, October 17, 2004, < ttp://www.SundayTribune.com>.
[37] Jim Mic aels, ?¯?¿?½U.S., Iraqi Forces Gear Up For Falluja S owdown,?¯?¿?½ USA Today, October 20, 2004.
[38] Neil Macfarqu ar, ?¯?¿?½A Recruit?¯?¿?½s Journey to Ji ad in Iraq,?¯?¿?½ The International Herald Tribune, November 3, 2004.
[39] Matt ew Mcallester, ?¯?¿?½Iraqi Be eading Now Fueling New Global ?¯?¿?½Snuff?¯?¿?½ Film Market,?¯?¿?½ Newsday, October 17, 2004. ttp://www.SundayTribune.com
Ibrahim Al-Marashi ( h.D. Oxford University) is a post-doctoral fellow at Sabanci University. He was a consultant to the Iraq Analysis Center in New York and a lecturer at the U.S. Naval ostgraduate School, as well as a research associate at the Center for Nonproliferation Studies.
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