Proceedings of GREAT Day Volume 2011 Article 25 2012 Psychedelic Research Resurgence Andrew Demosthenous SUNY Geneseo Follow this and additional works at: https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. Recommended Citation Demosthenous, Andrew (2012) "Psychedelic Research Resurgence," Proceedings of GREAT Day: Vol. 2011 , Article 25. Available at: https://knightscholar.geneseo.edu/proceedings-of-great-day/vol2011/iss1/25 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the GREAT Day at KnightScholar. It has been accepted for inclusion in Proceedings of GREAT Day by an authorized editor of KnightScholar. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Demosthenous: Psychedelic Research Resurgence Psychedelic Research Resurgence Andrew Demosthenous Introduction receptors. Many hallucinogens are found naturally in plants and animals. Evolution of tools in In the 1960s, more than 1,000 peer-reviewed chemistry and the scientific method in the 1900s research articles detailed the therapeutic use of supported the process of synthesizing new psychedelic compounds. Passage of the Controlled hallucinogens. Substance Act of 1970 classified psychedelic With the enactment of the Controlled substances such as LSD, MDMA and Psilocybin as Substances Act of 1970, hallucinogens, among Schedule 1 drugs with no medical value, them LSD and Psilocybin, were classified as interrupting research into the application of schedule I drugs by the United States congress psychedelic compounds for well-being. New (U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency 2010). In 1984, studies from institutions such as New York MDMA was added by the Drug Enforcement University, Purdue University, Harvard University, Agency (Baum 1997, p. 213).The schedule of the and Johns Hopkins University are producing drugs, I being the highest and V being the lowest, evidence that use of these drugs in combination determines the regulatory measures enforced by the with psychotherapy may have potential value for United States DEA. The higher the drug treating mental illnesses such as addiction, mood, scheduling, the stricter the policies are regarding affective, and psychotic disorders. This study manufacturing, importation, possession, explores the relationship between the effects of distribution, and research for that particular drug. these drugs on well-being and the FDA scheduling Placing LSD, Psilocybin and MDMA in the of these drugs at the highest level. Analyses of six schedule I classification disrupted research on the open-ended interviews with a snowball sample of application of hallucinogens to well-being and college students about their recreational mental health. This also fostered the strictest experiences with LSD, MDMA and Psilocybin judicial consequences for possession and found that college students use these drugs as a tool distribution. Both using and distributing LSD are for spiritual and emotional development. They felonies. Anyone caught distributing LSD can get reported positive transformative experiences and up to forty years in a federal penitentiary and a two improved relationships with family and friends. million dollar fine (National Geographic 2009). These findings support the continued expansion of Three criteria the United States DEA and FDA research on psychedelic assisted psychotherapy for use for determining if a substance should be treatment of mental illness and the rescheduling of classified as schedule I are: 1) the drug has no medically beneficial psychedelics by the FDA. accepted medical use in the United States; 2) there is a lack of safety for use of the drug under medical Hallucinogens supervision; 3) the substance has a high “potential for abuse” (Nichols 2003, p. 133). “Potential for “Hallucinogens are substances that cause abuse,” an ambiguous criterion, is typically powerful changes in sensory perception, from interpreted by the United States DEA and FDA as strengthening a person’s normal perceptions to the potential for addiction. inducing illusions and hallucinations” (Comer The FDA system of scheduling has been 2010, p. 389). These substances, also known as heavily criticized due to the influence of politics. psychedelic drugs, include LSD (Lysergic Acid President Nixon in the early 1970’s took Diethylamide), Psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-N,N- responsibility for drug scheduling away from the dimethyltryptamine), and MDMA (3,4- Surgeon General and his team of medical experts. methylenedioxymethamphetamine). Many people The responsibility was delegated instead to the use different definitions for hallucinogens and office of the attorney general and his team of law include different types of drugs into those enforcement experts. Since then, “cops and lawyers definitions. For the purpose of this paper, the instead of doctors were judging the toxicity of hallucinogens being discussed will be the drugs” (Baum 1997, p. 25-26). Decisions made by substances which affect serotonin (5-HT) type the U.S. attorney general’s office regarding the 251 Published by KnightScholar, 2012 1 Proceedings of GREAT Day, Vol. 2011 [2012], Art. 25 scheduling of drugs were more heavily influenced ancient India, peyote used by Native American by the politics of the war on drugs than scientific tribes, rituals by Aztec shamans, ritual use by data presented by doctors. For example, in the peoples throughout Mexican history, ceremonies of hearings held by the DEA in 1986 regarding the the ancient Greeks, and use of ayahuasca in modern scheduling of MDMA, thirty-four witnesses, Brazil (Nichols 2003, p. 133). Psychedelics were including experts in the field of psychology and popular for philosophy development and religious psychiatry, gave testimony and a ten volume report use because of their ability to induce states of outlining the potential medical benefits of MDMA, altered perception. These substances were not asking for its rank to be lowered to schedule III. considered “drugs” in these cultures. To find DEA Administrative Law Judge Francis Young references to use in literature, it is important to look wrote a ninety page opinion paper highlighting the at key words such as “fruit of the gods,” “divine witness’ findings and agreed that MDMA should be fruit,” or “flesh of the gods.” dropped to schedule III, IV or V because of its The science of psychedelics became popular potential medical value in mental health. Despite after new scientific methods for synthesizing the overwhelming evidence and the agreement by psychoactive substances became available and new Judge Young that the law should be changed, Judge techniques for studying them. MDMA was first Young reinstated his original ban on MDMA, synthesized in 1912 by Merck chemist Anton leading to the permanent placement of MDMA in Kollisch (Ecstasy Rising 2004). Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act in MDMA hadn’t been ingested at that point, so there 1986 (Stafford 1992, p. III-63). was no indication of its potential effects. Soon after There is also evidence that the government Albert Hoffman synthesized LSD at the Sandoz was aware of this inaccurate evaluation of LSD’s pharmaceutical laboratory in 1938, scientific danger because the CIA had conducted multiple interest began to peak in psychedelics. Hoffman experiments on American and British military had accidentally ingested a small amount and personnel. From 1947 to 1977 the CIA had experienced the world’s first LSD trip (National conducted operations coded MKSEARCH, Institute on Drug Abuse 2001). By the 1965 more MKOFTEN, MKCHICKWIT, MKULTRA, than a thousand peer-reviewed research articles MKDELTA, and MK NAOMI (General Council of detailed the use of psychedelic compounds for the Department of Defense 1977). Their goal was medical purposes. Promising therapeutic effects to use LSD as a covert weapon to cause brain were reported in over 40,000 subjects who had each damage or permanent insanity to the enemy. Their used LSD in multiple sessions (Vollenweider and other goal was to use LSD as a mind control agent Kometer 2010, p. 1) (Nichols 2003, p 162) or torture device for prisoners in order to obtain (Stafford 1992, p. 40-44). At the same time, information (Greenberg 2010, p. 164) (National recreational use was rampant, having been made Geographic Documentary 2009). It would have popular by Leary and his associates (Stafford 1992, been the perfect weapon because a 25 microgram p. 51). The suicide of Diane Linkletter, daughter of drop (the size of two salt grains) of this colorless the entertainer Art Linkletter, after taking LSD was and odorless fluid anywhere on the skin could one of the major sparks that allowed the passing of cause the effects. One ounce is enough to dose 300 the Controlled Substance Act of 1970 which put all thousand people. The CIA was unable to achieve psychedelics on the schedule I list. The media had their goals of weaponizing LSD. They were unable argued that Diane had no personal problems, and it to control minds or cause permanent insanity by was the drug that caused the suicide. While alive dosing personnel. Instead of being controlled or she was portrayed as a well-educated, Christian, damaged, the men had fits of laughter and an white woman with no prior drug use or symptoms enjoyment for the nature environments they were in of depression (Baum 1997, p. 25) (Greenberg 2010, (National Geographic Documentary 2009). p. 256). Rampant use of ecstasy in the 1980s lead to the adding of MDMA