DAMS AND ENVIRONMENT Case histories.

Commission Interпatior1ale des Graпds Barrages

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The information, analyses and conclusions referred to herein are the sole responsibility of the author(s) thereof.

The information, analyses and conclusions in this document have no legal force and must not be considered as substituting for legally-enforceable official regulations. They are intended for the use of experienced professionals who are alone equipped to judge their pertinence and applicability and to apply accurately the recommendations to any particular case.

This document has been drafted with the greatest care but, in view of the pace of change in science and technology, we cannot guarantee that it covers all aspects of the topics discussed.

We decline all responsibility whatsoever for how the information herein is interpreted and used and will accept no liability for any loss or damage arising therefrom.

Do not read on unless you accept this disclaimer without reservation. СОММIТТЕЕ ON ТНЕ ENVIRONMENT (*) (1985- 1991)

Chairman Great Britain Е.Т. HAWS Members Brazil J.A. BANDEIRA DE MELLO Canada G. GUERТIN China ZHANG ZEZHEN Finland Т. KOVANEN France Р. SAVEY Indonesia М. UMAR Italy С. LОТТI Japan Т. KANEYASНIKI Malaysia DATO' MOHD JALALUDDIN N etherlands Н. ENGEL New Zealand Е. HEINE Portugal А. GON<;:ALVES Spain Е. R. PARADINAS Sri Lanka W.M.S.C. PIYADA SA Sweden Во. STEN Switzerland N. SCHNIТТER USA J. W. MORRIS USSR L. Р. MIKHAILOV Co-opted member L. О. ТIMBLIN

(*) Membership in April 1988.

2 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL

SUMMARIES

1. POWER STATIONS ON ТНЕ DANUBE AND INN RIVERS (Austria)

2. ТНЕ LOKKA AND PORTТl­ PAHTA RESERVOIRS (Finland)

3. ТНЕ SUORVA DAM (Sweden)

4. ТНЕ SELINGUE DAM (Mali)

5. ТНЕ SANTE E COOPER PRO­ JECT (USA)

3 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCТION

GENERAL

SUMMARIES

1. POWER STAТIONS ON ТНЕ DANUBE AND INN RIVERS (Austria)

1. Introductioп

2. Descriptioп of schemes

2.1. Оп the Inn river 2.2. On the Daпube river

2.3. The maiп purposes of the projects

3. Impact оп the eпviroпmeпt

3 .1. The 1 nn reservoirs

3.2. Giessgaпg-Greifeпsteiп power scheme on the Daпube

References

5 figures - 2 colour photos

2. ТНЕ LOKKA AND РОRТТIРАНТА RESERVOIRS (Fiпlaпd)

1. Descriptioп of the project 2. Project outputs

3. Significaпce to the economy апd socio­ logy

4. Eпviroпmeпtal impacts of reservoirs

5. Significaпce of eпvironm'eпtal impacts

Summary

Referreпces

6 figures - 5 photos

5 З. ТНЕ SUORVA DAM (Swedeп)

1. The project апd its sigпificaпce 1.1. Locatioп 1.2. ConstrL1ction phases 1.З. ProЬ\ems dL1riпg constrL1ction and transport conditioпs. 1.4. The import;шce оГ the Suorva Dam INSET OF COLOUR PHOTOS FOR CHAPTLRS 1, 3, 4

2. Eпvironmeпtal impact 2. 1. General 2.2. The Suorv-a Dam and reiпcieer husbaпdry 2.3. The Suorva [)am and f'ishing 2.4. The SL1orva f)am and tourism

Ret'erences

5 figures - 4 colour photos

4. ТНс SELINGUE DЛМ (Mali)

1. Caracteristics о/' the dam

2. Environmeпtal issues 3. The sitllatioп after the dam coпstrL1c- tioп З. 1. PopL1latioп transfer 3.2. fnergy 3.3. AgricL1lture З.4. PiscicL1ltL1re 3. 5. Health 3.6. Education

4. ConclL1sions

2 colour photos

5. ТНЕ SANTEE COOPER PROJECT (USA)

1. 1 ntrodL1cti oп

2. Settiпg and early history

3. Description

б INTRODUCTION

The Committee on the Environment of the lnternational Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) has previously puЫished three Bulletins (35, 37 and 50). The Гirst was largely of а technical nature, and the second for the better information of the general puЫic. The third distilled the experiences of engineers involved with dam projects located in broadly defined climatic regions of' the world, the regions chosen being designated as temperate, tropical, sub-tropical and arid; and severe winter.

This Bulletin, the t'ourth of the series presents а number of case histories. They are dams and reservoirs generally of а signiГicant age. Thus а realistic picture is now availaЫe ot'the performance ot'each scheme related both to achievement ot' the main project purpose and to the various environmental impacts involved. lt is intended that the reader should Ье аЫе, through these descriptions, to assess the overall impact ot' each project in its tota\ity on the communities and countries involved. Не сап thence make his own judgement of the overall degree ot' success ot' the project. It must Ье emphasised that since projects ot'sign iГicant age have been selected, for reasons given above, the cases рrоЬаЫу do not indicate the most modern practice in dealing with environmental matters. lndeed in several instances lessons learned are recorded which all add to the current state of the art and best practice. Cases have been contributed herein t'rom the National Committees ot' Austria, Finland, Swedc:п, ltaly (f'or Selingue Oam, Mali) апd USA and acknowledgement is made to the authors. It is hoped to add to the list of case histories in а t'uture bulletiп. Е. Т. Haws Chairmaп Committee on the Enviroпmeпt

For а comprel1ensii'e aide memoire and met/10dology approach /o r environmental impact studies, t/1e matrix о/' Bulletin 35 is recommended, and it тау he notecl that tl1e matrix is availahle in hatcl1es as а separate set.

9 GENERAL

When dealing with environmental alteration, it is necessary to clearly distin­ guish between two terms which are often and erroneously being used as synonyms while, in fact, they have а distinct meaning ; preservation and conservation. " Preser­ vation" means to keep something -- in this case the environment - free from injury and alteration in its original state, whilst " Conservation " admits, in this context, some adaptation to а new though equiv<1lent or improved equilibrium that is to Ье maintained. Mankind depends more and more on the development and exploitation оГ natural resources. Consequently, n<1ture cannot Ье preserved everywhere in an un<1ltered condition. On the other hand, it is оГ utmost importance to conserve nature and its resources and to protect the physical environment Гrom avoidaЫe harm and disturb<1nces. Formerly, man's achievements were welcomed, and great hopes were held Гоr continuing the advance into new are<1s оГdevel opment. Recent puЫic awareness has leaned towards conservation and developers must now clearly р<1у the gre<1test <1ttention to ecolological proЫems, and to any aspect of' <1 scheme which may <1ppear as а threat to the environment. It must Ье possiЫe to t<1ke <1dvantage оГ natur<1I resources without d<1maging nature. This concern must Ье m<1nif'est both ЬеГоrе and during the implement<1tion оГ works, <1nd during the entire oper<1ting lif'e оГ the structures. The descriptions in this bulletin describe specif'ic w<1ter resource projects <1nd their overall еГГесts, both economic <1nd environmental. However, the re<1der should <1lso have in mind the wider comparison between the water resource project <1nd <1 substitute scheme which could achieve the same main objective. Thus in the case оГ <1 hydroelectric power project the altern<1tive might Ье а thermal station fu elled Ьу oil, coal or ur<1nium with all the associated environmental implic<1tions. Also, the hydroelectric scheme utilises а renewaЫe energy source, whilst burning Гuel Гоr <1 thermal station represents disposing оГ а natural resource which has fi nite limit.

Experience has shown that neglect оГ environmental aspects linked to the construction оГ large dams and reservoirs can le<1dto ecologic<1I proЫems. However, the need is now recognised for modern engineering science to Ье used in conjunction with the ecological and soci<1I sciences and in combination they now provide the proven capability to plan, design, build and operate dam projects with minimum unexpected or unaccept<1Ьle environmental еГГесts, as m<1y Ье observed in the descriptions оГ the projects presented in this bulletin. An essential assessment is the balance between e/Tects and impacts on the environment <1ndthe benefits expected from а dam. Such an assessment necessarily takes into account the physical needs and economic situation ofthe country concerned. А nation starving Гоr energy with water power as the only availaЫe source, Гоr instance, is certainly more inclined to change the environment оГ а particul<1rspecies than another which has the choice between

11 several viaЫe power alternatives. Nevertheless necessary dam projects should always Ье engineered to fit into the environment in an optimum way.

There is а .need to make the best overall use of the world's finite natural resources, and in the case of water this requires that the best possiЫe advantage Ье taken of а reservoir Ьу using the dammed waters for as many purposes as reasonaЫy fe asiЫe. Even when а dam is built initially for а sing\e purpose, those who have the responsibility for the management of the water retained in the reservoir, should evaluate the operating conditions taking into account other future uses of the dam. The reader may observe the effect of some of these influences in the project descriptions which fo llow ( chapters 1 to 5). The five case histories deal with projects in Arctic, Alpine, temperate and tropical regions. The range of environmental aspects involved is enormous. Nevertheless the responsiЫe engineers and develo­ pers have showed great flexiЬility and imagination in maximising benefits and minimising or mitigating proЫems. The original project aims have all been subs­ tantially achieved and in every case the overall effect is recognised as highly beneficial to the populations and countries involved.

13 SUMMARIES OF CASES

1. The Danube and lnn developments, in Austria, are large Поw, low head developments. Although only а few power schemes were originally planned, it was soon realised that а continuous cascade of power schemes was desiraЫe both from the power generation and river morphology points of view. Apart from the economic benefits, the construction of а continuous series of power schemes means а fundamental change for the whole river basin. Power development in the lnn and Danube basins was in fact preceded Ьу extensive regulation works which had changed the natural equilibrium of the rivers. Two examples are discussed to demonstrate how it was possiЫe to make up for or even remedy, the adverse effects of earlier structural measures. Of particular interest is the provision of irrigation to the riverine lowlands at Greifenstein to ensure optimum conditions for the humid riparian woodlands.

2. Lokka and Porttipahta lakes north of the Artic Circle in Finland provide more than 400 GWh of electrical energy annually. Before the construction was started, extensive environmental studies were carried out to predict the environmental impacts ofthe lakes including such subjects as Поrа and fa una, forestry and agriculture, sociology, and water quality. The main fe ars were possiЫe adverse effects on the downstream water quality and the rising peat Пoats from the lake bottom. Bog made up the majority of the lake bottoms. Monitoring has shown that the water quality in both lakes has improved conti­ nuously after the fi rst few years. Construction of the reservoirs initiated many changes in the population and subsistence structure of the municipality. Practising of the traditional reindeer husbandry, agriculture and fo restry was impeded. However, construction was very favouraЫe to employment and the economic stimulus was remarkaЫe. Now the enormously increased fishing has brought about а vigorous development of recreation and tourism.

3. Suorvu Reservoir in Sweden is also north of the Artic Circle. The storage fa cility regulates the Поw of water in the Lule River so that the hydroelectric power stutions on the river answer for 25 % of Sweden's total hydroelectric power production. Electricity prices in Sweden are among the lowest in the world and the Suorva Reservoir has contributed to Swedish export industry having а better chance to compete on world markets. The construction of the dam, the Пooding and the large regulation range have meant major changes in the landscape and the loss of а beautiful waterfall. During the summer and the tourist season, however, the reservoir is generally full. The Lapps, who are the only inhabitants ofthis wilderness area have, thanks to а number of measures in support of reindeer husbandry and fi shing and through the construction of the access road, been provided with а good basis for continuing their

15 traditional way of life in the агеа. There has been an incгease both in the nuтЬег of reindeer and in the catch of fish as coтpared with other adjacent areas. Tourisт has developed. At the sате tiтe as the hydroelectгic роwег scheтes have affected the eпviroптent they have coпtributed to the developтent of \оса\ соттеrсiа\ life.

The Suorva Dат project Ьеgап iп the l 920s. Environтental рrоЬ\етs wеге solved with the knowledge ofthat tiтe. In а тоге тodern арргоасh the enviгonтeп­ tal consideгations wou\d Ье takeп iп еаг\у phases of planning and enviгoптenta\ groups would Ье invited to discuss so\utioпs. 4. The Selingue dат iп Mali on the Sankaгani гivег cгeates а stoгage capacity of 2 600 hт3• It is а тulti-puгpose scheтe with the pгoductioп of hydroelectгicity, wateг fог agriculture, enhanced navigatioп, and fishiпg. The coпstгuctioп ofthe геsегvоiг caused sоте еnviгоптепtа\ ргоЫетs, necessi­ tatiпg the гesettleтent of the \оса\ population апd гesultiпg iп ап incгease of bilhaгziasis.

The populatioп was гesettled without any рrоЬ\ет iп пеw villages, which were provided with adequate services. There has Ьееп а five fo \d incгease in schoo\s. Fishing is abundaпt, but the planпed iпcrease in irrigated agгiculture is delayed because of lack of investтent. The growth of bi\harzia has been c\osely тoпitored and is beiпg kept under control. The inteгest of this pгoject, which has proved basic for the есопоту, lies in the fa ct that the enviгonтeпtal aspects wеге considered an integгal part froт the vегу first phases of its design, апd the тeasures adopted аге producing excellent results. For this reasoп, the geneгal assessтent of the project is а vегу positive one. 5. Santee Соорег project iп South Caroliпa, USA, was eтinently well coпceived to тееt the needs of the l 930s : jobs in а depressed есоnоту, low cost роwег to fosteг гegeneгatioп of the State's agricultuгal coттunity апd to support existing industгy апd the naval estaЫishтent. There was also а need to recogпize the associated puЬ\ic health concerns and the straiпs of ге\осаtiоп апd гesettleтent.

But not а\\ the effects of the project wеге as anticipated. Navigation did поt revive, but а тajor striped bass fishery has таdе the агеа а gгeat spoгtsтaп's attraction. Unexpected siltation of the Chaгlestoп haгbor has been solved Ьу а rediversion pгoject. The fi sh also helped Ьу гeтoving the тosquitoes and the malaria thгeat they carried. Wel\ p\anned projects such as this опе гeтainiпg tlexiЫe iп гesponse to а changing set of cost and benefit cгiteгia, сап Ье successful оvег а \опg life. Unexpected рrоЫетs can Ье corrected, апd benefits, iпcludiпg unplanпed ones, сап Ье enhanced and enjoyed even тоrе. Thus, Santee Cooper тeans еvеп тоге to its реор\е today than when it was undeгtakeп 50 years ago.

17 1. POWER STATIONS ON ТНЕ DANUBE AND INN RIVERS (Austria) ( * )

1. INTRODUCТION

FavouraЫ e Поw regimes and а comparatively high gradient allow for а profitaЫe exploitation of the hydro-potential of the Danube and lnn rivers. From the Nussdorf power station in the vicinity of the Austro-German border up to its entry into the Danube, the Jnn is utilized for electricity production in а continuous chain of power stations. The Austrian stretch of the Danube is also utilized up to 75 °/rJ Ьу а continuous chain of power stations. Common in both river stretches is the fact that extensive river training measures had been taken before utilizing the rivers for electricity production as there was а high population density along both rivers. The assumption that the chains of power stations were constructed along an untouched, original watercourse is incorrect as the Danube has always been one of the main traffic routes in Central Europe. Even today navigation on the [)anube plays an important role. The construction of the first Inn power station was started as early as 1919. In 1954 construction works commenced for the f'irst Austrian Danube power station at Ybbs-Persenbeug. The youngest power station started operation in 1985 at Greifenstein. For more than 30 years continuous power station construction works had been carried out on the river Danube. In this period а lot of experience could Ье gathered and applied both in the field of construction techniques and with regard to nature and landscape protection measures. The various measures taken in the power station backwaters include extensive fish cultures, restoration and construc­ tion of sewage instal\ations, new drain channels and pumping stations, sealing works to secure the ground water level, compensation water outlet works for additional irrigation as well as for afforestation programmes and the construction of biking paths and traffic routes. When planning the Danube power station at Greif'enstein, а new concept guaranteeing optimum ground water conditions Гоr the neighboring riparian f'orest af'ter the power station construction was introduced. Bef'ore construction of the power station this area had been threatened with drying-up due to the bed erosion of'the Danube. The ecological measures and planning works make it possiЫe to save large parts о/' the riparian f'orest in the backwater area.

As opposed to the " Giessgang model " at Greif'enstein where the necessary conditions f'or the development of ecosystems and wet biotopes were created through well-planned measures, no particular planning ef'f'ort went into the backwa­ ter areas о/' two Inn power stations constructed during the war ( 1939-1941 ). Today this region hosts а wet biotope and bird sanctuary that is unique in Central Europe and has been partially transformed to national parks.

(*) Ву Dr. lng. Robert Fenz and Dipl. lng. Otto Pirker.

19 These two examples тау serve to demonstrate how the preservation and creation of ecosystems can go hand in hand with hydroelectric development.

2. DESCRIPТION OF SCHEMES

2.1. Оп the Iпп river The Inn is Ьу far the largest tributary of the Danube over its upper course. The Bavarian reach of the Inn as well as the fo llowing boundary reach between Austria and Bavaria down to its junction with the Danube are utilised Ьу а continuous series of power stations (Fig. 1 ). As early as 1919 construction work was commenced on the Tбging power scheme. This was designed as а diversion-type power station with а 20 km long headrace. With а rated discharge of 340 m3/s and an average head of 30.45 т, this project was once among the largest hydro schemes in Europe. The design and construction of power stations on the Inn was not resumed until 1935. Unlike Tбging, the design ofthese new projects reflected the progress oftechnology in being designed as run-of-river plants with the powerhouse and spillway fo rming а structu­ ral unit located in the river bed. The newest and most modern power station was co mmissioned in 1980 at Nussdorf. The Inn is now utilised for electricity production in а continuous chain of fifteen power schemes extending over а reach of almost 220 km. The total annual energy is 4 477 GWh р.а. on average.

2.2. Оп the Daпube river With its length of 2 850 km between its source in the Schwarzwald (Federal RepuЫic of Germany) and its mouth in the Black Sea, the Danube ranks second in size after the Volga in Europe and exhibits the greatest, abundance in water in Central Europe. The Austrian reach of the Danube, between the border with the Federal RepuЫic of Germany and that with Czechoslovakia, is about 350 km long and is characterised not only Ьу а favouraЫe flow regime, but above all Ьу а high gradient. The existence of this energy potential led to first project studies as early as 191О. 1 n 1924, а fi rst project design was prepared for а power station at Ybbs-Persenbeug. However, the implementation cf this project fell а victim to the recession. In the period between 1938 and 1944, preparatory work and the exca­ vation and installation of а building pit were started fo r the construction of а modified Ybbs-Persenbeug project. In 1944, before concreting was commenced, construction operations were discontinued due to the war. lt was 1 О years later that work wa� п:�umed. Then, however, after а period of only 3 years, the first twg pgw�r units were placed into operation. Two years later, in 1959, the first power station on the Austrian Danube with its six power units was fully availaЫe for power generation. Furher development of the Austrian reach of the Danube proceeded according to а master plan (Fig. 2), which provides for а continuous chain of power stations. When complete, the series will comprise eleven power stations, not including the Jochenstein border scheme, which went on stream in 1956. According to this master plan, the power schemes were designed and constructed as future-oriented multi-

21 purpose iпstallatioпs. The Daпube is of iпterest поt опlу iп terms of electricity productioп, but is at the same time опе of the priпcipal пavigaЫe rivers, апd will become more importaпt still with the completioп ofthe Europeaп Waterway (Fig. 3). Iп order to aпswer these future requiremeпts, high-capacity locks апd appropriate level reaches must Ье provided iп the desigп. This has resulted iп the fo llowiпg geпeral project make-up : All the Austriaп power schemes оп the Daпube coпsist of powerhouse, spillway апd lock (colour photo А). The powerhouse (опlу the Ybbs-Perseпbeug scheme has two powerhouses separated Ьу the spillway structure) accommodate all the iпstal­ latioпs пecessary for electricity geпeratioп. This iпcludes а!! the maiп power uпits, statioп-auxiliary uпits where availaЫe, appurteпaпces апd, iп the horizoпtal-shaft statioпs, also the switch-room. At Aschach, Wallsee апd Ybbs, the switch room is accomodated iп operatioпal buildiпgs. Adjaceпt to the powerhouse is the spillway structure. This coпsists of five or six weir bays 24 m iп clear width each. Ап exceptioп is the Ybbs-Perseпbeug power scheme, where the spillway bays are 30 m wide. The lock structure coпsists of two lock chambers 24 m wide Ьу 230 m loпg each, closed Ьу vertical lift gates at their upstream eпds апd Ьу mitre gates dowпstream. The Уiеппа апd Haiпburg projects are рlаппеd to Ье equipped with larger locks to eпsure access to Black Sea пavigatioп fo r Уiеппа, апd for the Korпeuburg shipyard а few kilometres further upstream. So far, eight of the рlаппеd barrages have Ьееп completed (see Fig. 2). Coпtiпuatioп of the speedy developmeпt of the Daпube was stopped iп 1984 Ьу groups of coпservatioпists. Their actioпs were maiпly directed agaiпst the рlаппеd power statioп at Haiпburg. The power statioп was supposed to Ье coпstructed iп the dry iп the lef't-baпk tlood plaiп пеаr Haiпburg. All liceпciпg procedures had already Ьееп completed. Wheп the stubbiпg works were about to start, the coпstructioп site was occupied Ьу coпservatioпists who waпted to preveпt the coпstructioп of' the power statioп iп order to preserve the ripariaп f'o rest iп its eпtirety. It is а fact that the river bed iп this area has Ьееп gradually eroded which resulted iп а loweriпg of'the grouпd water level апd ап iпcreasiпg deterioratioп of'the ecological situatioп. Similar to the case of the Greifeпsteiп power statioп it was рlаппеd to solve this proЫem Ьу creating а'" Giessgaпg " (see subsection 3.2). Yet such а solutioп is опlу feasiЫe in the course of а power station coпstructioп. This proЫem апd the need to coпstruct this power station to guarantee electricity supply in Austria were the topics of пumerous discussioпs and lectures. Presently various alternative versions and sites are beiпg examiпed with the objective of fi пdiпg а coпseпsus оп а broad basis. Yet the conservatioпists are still opposiпg every project iп this Danube reach.

2.3. The main purposes of the projects

The maiп purpose of the power schemes under coпsideration is electricity production. As а renewaЫe source of eпergy, water power staпds for а reduction in the country's depeпdence on power imports, without involving pollution pro­ Ыems. lt is particularly importaпt for а couпtry like Austria, where sources оГ energy ' are rare except fo r hydro power, that this is оГ vital ecoпomic importaпce.

23 А large-scale and long-term undertaking as e.g. the construction of а series of run-of-river stations calls for extensive staff machinery (planning and design staff, building contractors, industrial skills in mechanical and electrical engineering). If maximum benefit and economy are to Ье derived from this machinery, the develop­ ment of the river should Ье continuous. In the development of the Austrian Danube, this continuity was ensured in an exemplary manner, and had а stabilising effect оп the nation's economy. The power schemes on both the Inn and the Danube can Ье characterised as multi-purpose installations. А factor of great interest for the \оса\ population is improved flood control. Pre-existing flood control works had not been сараЬ\е of preventing occasional large floods, which had sometimes caused severe damage. It was due to the series of power schemes that this risk was largely e\iminated.

Furthermore, along with the construction of the power schemes many regional proЬ\ems were dealt with which otherwise could not have been solved at all or would have had to remain unsolved till some day in the distant future. This refers above al\ to the renewal of drinking water facilities and sewerage systems, the preservation or improvement of ground water conditions, the reclamation and improvement of agricultural land, the improvement of \оса! traffi c routes as well as the provision of recreation facilities ( colour photo В). The fact that the Danube is one of Europe's principal waterways adds to the importance of its power schemes. The construction of barrages substantially im­ proves navigation. With allowance being made for both ascending and descending navigation, the reduced flow velocity allows savings in operating expenses in the region of 25 percent, and savings of time between 8 and 1 О percent in spite of the stops in the locks. ln addition, much better use can Ье made of ship tonnage owing to guaranteed channel depths even during low flow periods. For an inland country like Austria, the development of this important waterway is of great economic importance. After completion of the European Waterway now under construction (Fig. 3), which will afford а direct link between the North Sea and the Black Sea, the transport volume on the Danube is expected to rise substantially.

3. IMPACT ON ТНЕ ENVIRONMENT

The construction of power schemes in а river brings about а multitude of changes in its regime. These effects mainly refer to : flood discharge ; flow velocity; channel depth and width; water level variations; solids transport (bed load, suspended load, floating debris);

ground water conditions; vegetation; fauna;

25 тicrocliтate ; landscape; water quality ; fishing. As is the case with any interference, the above effects тау have unfavouraЫe as well as favouraЫe consequences. However, appraisal of the changes brought about Ьу the construction of power scheтes in the Inn and Danube should also consider the fact that the riverine landscape had in both cases been shaped Ьу тап prior to the developтent of these rivers for electricity production. Around the turn of the century extensive regulation works were provided, тainly with the аiт of affording protection froт floods and iтproving navigation and hygienic conditions.

When planning а power station, the quality ofthe water plays an iтportant role. The daттing-up results in а lower flow velocity which reduces the self-purification properties. Much iтportance was attributed to this ргоЫет in the design of the power stations along Danube and Inn. Through siтultaneous construction of nuтerous waste water treatтent plants, the proliferation of pollutants could Ье reduced to such an extent that upon coтpletion of the power station construction the water quality had not deteriorated and in sоте cases even iтproved. In order to тaintain and iтprove the ecological equilibriuт in the river, extensive fish breeding тeasures were carried out. Thus fishery did not suffer any negative co nsequences even though fishery as а trade has Ьу now lost practically all of its econoтic iтportance. In the fo llowing paragraphs two exaтples (Inn reservoir and Giessgang near Greifenstein) will Ье discussed to deтonstrate how well-functioning ecosysteтs тау Ье preserved or newly created despite the substantial interfe rence with nature that re sults froт the hydroelectric developтent of а river. There is one fu ndaтental difference between these two exaтples, in that in the case of the backwater reaches in the Inn the developтent described below was not planned froт the outset, whereas particular тeasures were planned and their effects studied beforehand in the design stage of the Giessgang тodel.

3.1. The Inn reservoirs То ensure electricity supply to an aluтiniuт works planned to Ье constructed near Braunau ат Inn, the subsequent Ranshofen works, construction was соттеn­ сеd оп two hydropower projects in the lower Inn, at Ering-Frauenstein and Egglfing-Obernberg, in 1939 and 1941, respectively. The years of war then called for the speedy and low-cost coтpletion of these two projects. Ву taking advantage of natural sharp drops in the river bed, it was possiЫe to таkе substantial econoтies in construction tiтe and cost. The daтs created backwater areas up to 3 kт wide. The water surfaces so fo rтed were large as coтpared with those of siтilar projects. The low flow velocity soon led to sediтentation. In the fo llowing 1 О years, the reservoirs, having а тахiтuт capacity of 36 hт3, were filled with sand and тud to such an extent that а new hydrodynaтic equilibriuт was reached, which roughly corresponded to the conditions prior to the regulation. The large reservoirs, designed to таkе use of the full valley width, now contain distinct archipelagoes with the typical river branches, dead branches, bays and nearshore zones (Fig. 4). Meanwhile, large parts of this region have been таdе national parks, and the Inn reservoirs have

27 acquired an international reputation for their waterfowl. There are about 100 bird species on the average which live in this area or take advantage of the abundance of fo od during а certain period of the year. On the Inn reservoirs а bird society of great variety has developed, which is among the most interesting in Central Europe. At least а quarter of а million water Ьirds соте to the reservoirs each winter.

3.2. Giessgang - Greifenstein power scheme оп the Danube

The necessity to ensure а large measure of imperviousness in the river banks and to provide dykes along the backwater reaches above the dam would have affected groundwater conditions in the adjoining riverine lowlands. Moreover, ever since the regulation of the Danube around the turn of the century, the river bed has increasingly deepened and river water levels, which determine the water tаЫе, have \owered. А lower water tаЫе, however, means severly impaired growth conditions in the humid riverine woodlands. The design of the Greifenstein power scheme (Fig. 2) included provisions to ensure optimum irrigation to the riverine woodlands even after the completion of the power project. This irrigation system makes use of existing dead river branches and lateral channels, which were connected Ьу providing small culverts and deepening the bed in places so as to form а continuous channel about 40 km in total length, the so-called Giessgang (Fig. 5). Care was taken in locating the culverts to avoid geometrical shapes and alignments and to bring about а landscape as natural as possiЫe. The Giessgang channel contains twenty-five control structures, each consisting of а cross dyke with Ьох culvert and ford. The top levels of the dykes were set so as to allow uniform tlooding of the riverine woodlands. Ву placing or lifting stop logs in the Ьох culvert, it is possiЫe to achieve that average water level in the Giessgang which corresponds to the respective optimum water tаЫе for the Ьiotope in the woodlands. Water release structures (Fig. 5) help in particular to improve the water regime during dry periods.

Fresh water is supplied Ьу minor tributaries and seepage as well as from the Danube through three release structures. An overtlow section makes sure that tl oods continue to inundate the riverine woodlands. This system guarantees proper irrigation to the riverine lowlands to preserve the woodlands despite the development of the main river for power generation. Adverse effects from the river regulation around 1900 have been mitigated. The variaЬility of the system allows optimum adjustment to the desired ground water conditions. The supply of water from the Danube as well as ground and seepage water to the dead branches improves the water quality there.

29 References ALLERSDORFER, S. : Aulandschaji und Kraftwerksbau. Eine Dokumentation der bsterreichischen Donaukraftwerke AG. LAUFFER, Н. : Die Jahresspeicher Osterreichs. OZE, Heft 5, 1983. LAUFFER, Н. und FENZ, R. : Hydro Power Schemes and Large Dams in Austria 1985. Nr. 29 aus Die Ta lsperren Osterreichs. FENZ, R. : Flussstauv.:erke Osterreichs. Schr(ftenreihe : Osterreichische Wasseni•irt­ schaft . Н eft 9/ 1 О, 1977. REICHHOLF, J. : Biotopstruktur und likologische Fu nktion der Staustufen ат Unteren !пп. Verhandlungen der Gese//schaJi fй r 6ko/ogie. Gottingen 1976.

REICHHOLF, J. : Die okostruktur der Innstauseen, Zeitschrift : Bild der Wissen­ schafi 8, 1977.

REICHHOLF, J. : Die Innstauseen. Verein zит Schutze der Alpenpfla nzen und Tiere. eV. Munchen.

30 • о 10 20 30 40 50 Km N

BAVARIA

Рон·ег schemes 011 the Inn.

с Е " .х о ·;;; .<:. � u u .<:. " с е "' € .а "' " .� v "' Е m. u.NN " "' "' z о Е о:: "' � 450 о v" ::J " >- о сп с сп ::J с " __1QQ_ сп .;:. " � с � о m ·;:: сп о 350 w сп .<:. "' w u "' (}) о ()_ _]_QQ_

riv"r-km l98,61 128 . 4'2

Tota l: 477,9 capacity 48 35 38 24 24 24 84 '' 24 19 ,5 23 96 72,5 84 96 86 ,4 IW (МW) 301,0 авк mean energy 77819 StJm capaЫlity 226 176 195 1 40 148 150 568 155 115 134 553 427 468 541 481 (GWh) 2795 ,8 JW 1861,2 овк startup 82 60 70 38 38 38 24 51 77 55 53 42 44 61 65 4477 ,О sum (19 ••)

Longitudinal section through the series o/ pmt·er schemes /rom Nussdor/ to Passau.

Fig. l

31 B R D

• •,..,,,,, 1 'У',,.. 1· "�JOCHENSTEtN1' , . , RUHRSDOAF ' --.. дlТENWORTH ASCHACH )0--.;;=er GREIFENSТEIN SSR �-· · C ABWINOEN ASТEN • FAEUDENAU \ QТТENSHEIM- L_� 11 W! LHERING • Hд!NBURG �O LFSTHAL � "- J,-...._ -х:•MELK -· vees- • о- _,\; WALLSEE-• PERSENBEUG \�� Wlt DUNGSMAUER �" Q Q"'L MIТТERKIRCHEN � \� I I

I1 50 mu.A

k •2200 02150 •2100 02050 е2оао 01950 •1900 01850 m " 171 2;� ·: "81[): 2552 65 286 179 168 210 200 187 150 328 '93 16() 2ti22 !��pa�JJ 1 L__ _o-'-----'--'------'��--'---'------'-' -'-L-=-'--'-"---' --'--= �2 �1 - ;04·2- •:- ·1з·в·2·· · : �;в·�: 1!1 J')8 114) 1028 1180 800 19SO 1720 +--=�967 _.::2075=-'-' 18' m�:;airfП�l .-.-, �,o�---,1648 ---,--�-�---,--�--�-�--1320 1282 15772 f IN GWh 1 L_--'-----' --'------'----'--- '

'------�------�

Fig. 2

Danube master р/ап of Osterreichische Donaukrafiwerke AG. as of 1987.

/п operation. /п planning. О Projecт Hainburf!,. Va riant according to goi·ernmental order.

Preliminary va/ue. Tra ining of the border stretch. Austrian share in energy production.

32 Soviet-Union

Fig. 3 General тар о/ Rhine-Main-Danube Еиrореап Waterway.

� 1km

f'ig. 4

The Ering-Fra uenstein resermir оп the /пп. Th e tию cross sections s/1011· sedimelllation afier /illing (/rom 11 Die Okostruktur der Jnnstauseen » Ьу J. Reichho!J: Bild der Wissenschaji 8. 1977).

33 . -·-·--...... \

Fig. 5

Scheme of' atering channel « Giessfiang Greifenstein ».

� Summer dy ke и•ith .flood through section. 1 Small storage и·ith transi-ersal d.i·ke and small stop locks. t Intake construction.

___ Other waterways in 1t'ooded .flood plain.

_ · -·- Main road.

� Railи·aJ'.

34 2. ТНЕ LOKKA AND РОRТТIРАНТА RESERVOIRS (Finland) ( * )

1. DESCRIPТION OF ТНЕ PROJECT

The artificial lakes of Lokka and Porttipahta were constructed in bog and fo rest area in Northern Finland (Fig. 1 ). They are situated on the upper course of' а tributary ofthe river of Kemijoki (Fig. 2). The surface areas of Lokka and Porttipahta are 417 km2 and 214 km2, respectively. The first filliпg of Lokka occurred in 1967, апd of Porttipahta in 1970. Both lakes serve as reservoirs for hydro power pro­ ductioп. The Kemijoki river includes extremely few natural lakes and that is why the discharge variatioпs in the river are large. Duriпg the spring Пооd, the maximum discharge at the lower reach ofthe river has been 4 800 m3/s, whereas the miпimum discharge duriпg dry periods has been опlу 90 m3/s. Due to the large discharge variations, effective regulatioп is prerequisite of а utilization of the watercourse for power productioп. Iп the late l 960's, the Lokka and Porttipahta reservoirs were coпstructed in the upper course ofthe Kemijoki river in the Sodaпkyla muпici pality. The reservoirs аге conпected Ьу the сапа! of Vuotso, which was completed iп 1981 (Fig. 3). Through this сапа!, the regulated waters of Lokka are discharged to Porttipahta, апd from there on over the power plant of Kitiпeп to the lake of Kemijarvi. The Vuotso сапа! is prerequisite of the power plaпt of Kitineп. The reservoirs make up over 80 °Л) ofthe whole water area iп the Sodankyla muпici pality.

ТаЫе 1. Technical data of the reservoirs апd the coппecting сапа!.

Lokka Porttipahta

Completed ...... 1967 1970

River ...... Luiro Kitinen Water levels

- upper level ...... + 245 m + 245 m - lower level ...... + 240 т + 234 m

Yariation ...... 5m 11 т Water area - at upper level 417 km' 214 km' - at lower level 216 km' 34 km' Yolume - at upper level 2 063 hm' 1 353 hm' - at lower level 500 hm' 150 hm'

Catchment area ...... 2 380 km' 2 460 km'

(*) Ву Mauri Kuuskoski and Tapio Kovanen.

37 ТНЕ CANAL OF VUOTSO

Completed . . . " ...... 1 1981 Length ...... 21 km

Bottom width ...... 12m Bottom height level ...... + 237 m to + 238 m

The soil in the reservoir area is composed of peat, moraine and sand, peat being predominant. The Lokka reservoir has been part of an ice jam !ake during the ice age some 8 ООО to 1 О ООО years ago. This fact exp\ains the occurrence of silt and clay sediments in the reservoir area. Lokka was embanked in an area which to 90 % consisted of bogs. I n Porttipahta, 50 % of the area was made up Ьу bogs. А total of 63 J km2 ground area was covered Ьу the reservoirs. Of this area, 385 km2 was waste \and, 230 km2 wood, 13 km2 meadow and 3 km2 fi eld. The Finnish state owned 66 1!,(, of this ground surface area and the rest of it was in private possessioп.

Clearing of' the wood was carried out оп\у to а small extent ; not more than J 5 "о of the trees and the stock о/' valuaЫe timber were cleared to make way Го г the reservoirs. Today, however, most of the trees left behind have fa llen due to wave action and ice cover. Both reservoirs were supplied with а regulating dam. The discharge from the Lokka reservoiг is insignificant. The Porttipahta power plant, ho\vever, is very important Гог the power production, because the water from both reservoirs is released through it for the use of the Kemijoki power plants situated downstгeam.

ТаЬ\е 2. Technical data of the Lokka and Porttipahta dams.

1 Lokka Porttipahta

Earth dams

...... ---- · · ·········· ·· ··- _ leпgth ...... - · · · · 1 640 m 3 450 m - max. height ...... 18 m 38 111

- volume ...... 0.465 hm' 1110 hm' Coпcrete dams - volume ...... 7 600 m' 16 172 m' Power plants · · ···· · 13 т 30 111 �::ь� n�·di·��h�;�� ·-_-_-_ -_·-_ -_-_--_._._""""""""..... "" :···· = 1 2 m1/s 140 m1/s

2. PROJECT OUTPUTS

The main purpose of Lokka (photo А) and Porttipahta is to store water, that otherwise would Ье discharged through spillways, Гог use during dry periods, mainly in winter time. The reservoirs, f'urthermore, make it possiЬ\e to keep water iп store

39 ready to use duriпg dry years. Thus, they сап Ье used as year-to-year reservoirs, as their active storage is 155 per сепt of the аппuаl iпfl ow. А third way of usiпg the reservoirs is to traпsfer eпergy Гrom summer to wiпter.

The additioпal eпergy produced Ьу Lokka апd Porttipahta is : То the plaпts situated at the Kemijoki maiп river ...... 200 GWh - То the plaпts оГ Kitiпeп Porttipahta ...... 46 GWh

Lokka ...... 166 GWh

Totally ...... " ...... " .. """"""...... """""" ...... 412 GWh

3. SIGNIFICANCE ТО ТНЕ ECONOMY AND SOCIOLOGY

The iпhabitaпts пеаr the reservoir areas started to move away iп the early 60' s. Populatioп plaпs were lackiпg, because the people waпted to decide Ьу themselves where to settle. Therefore some of' the пеw settlemeпt areas are situated very Гаг Гrom the origiпal dwelliпg places; оГ totally 560 persoпs moviпg away, as much as опе third moved directly outside the muпici pality оГ Sodaпkyla [2], part оГ them еvеп abrm1d. Most оГ the persoпs moviпg away Гrom the reservoir area апd the пеаrЬу regioп were youпg persoпs iп workiпg age, which пaturally resulted iп а chaпge iп the age structure оГ the populatioп Гrom child-domiпated to peпsioпer-domiпated. А пatural coпsequeпce оГ this chaпge was а coпsideraЫe decliпe iп the birthrates. Those persoпs, who moved withiп the muпicipality, iп most cases had to Гi пd out other meaпs of earпiпg their liviпg. It was easiest for the families who af'ter the resettlemeпt were аЫе to go оп with their Гo rmer occupatioпs апd could settle dowп iп eпviroпmeпts, that as much as possiЫe resemЫed their Гo rmer resideпtial eпviroпmeпt. lп additioп to the populatioп questioпs, the questioпs оГ trade, puЬlic serYices апd employmeпt are emphasized, wheп coпsideriпg the ecoпomic chaпges оп local level caused Ьу the reservoirs. 1 п terms of the structure оГ trade, primary productioп domiпated iп the reservoir villages. The most sigпificaпt braпch оГ trade was reiпdeer husbaпdry, апd this braпch is еУеп today, af't er the coпstructioп оГ the reservoirs, the domiпatiпg опе. Due to the loss оГ pasture, however, the пumber оГ reiпdeer (Ranкifer tarandu.1) had to Ье reduced. Practisiпg of agriculture was also impeded, as laпd areas were covered with water.

The ratio оГ wages апd salaries оГ the total iпcome structure today is m uch more sigпiГicaпt thaп before coпstructioп of the reservoirs ; the developmeпt ot' educatioп, health апd social апd busiпess services has iпitiated а drastic growth оГ the serYice sector. The пumber ot' eпtrepreпeurs has remaiпed оп the same level, but the coпstructioп iпdustry has substaпtially expaпded Гоr example iп terms оГ impro­ vemeпts оГ road systems апd water supply апd sewerage. Ty pical оГ the reser\·oir farms earlier was that the sources оГ livelihood were versatile. But today, as the big households have Ьееп split up, the Гa rms to а high exteпt are characterized Ьу опе source of livelihood ; most geпerally either Ьу earпed iпcome or Ьу reiпdeer husbaпdry.

41 Although the primary productioп suffered from the coпstructioп of reservoirs, buildiпg had ап eпcouragiпg effect оп the ecoпomic life. Coпstructioп directly affected the employmeпt over fo ur years ; the maximum labour пееd was totally 1 100 persoпs, 90 (Vr} of which were !оса! people [2]. Iп additioп to tax iпcomes f'rom iпdividш1l wages апd salaries, the muпicipality of Sodaпkyla also got beпef'it f'rom the muпicipal taxes paid Ьу the power сатрапу. The real value of the tax iпcome after the reservoirs were completed was twice as high as before the coпstructioп.

Coпstructioп of Lokka апd Porttipahta f'urther directly coпtributed to а more versatile structure of trade апd iпdustry iп the muпicipality. Duriпg the phases of' desigп, пeither the muпicipality поr the water authority had ап idea about what good opportuпities of f'ishiпg, recreatioп апd tourism the reservoirs actually would ofTer. The reservoirs with their large f'i sh catches have made the best freshwater fi shiпg muпicipality iп Fiпlaпd out of' Sodaпkyla, епаЫiпg 47 professioпal апd 1 500 half'-professioпal f'ishermeп to make their liviпg Ьу fi shiпg. The vigorous recreatioп апd tourism activities brought about Ьу f'ishiпg have added both to jobs апd capital iп the muпicipality. These activities are coпstaпtly beiпg f'urther developed e.g. Ьу graпtiпg buildiпg liceпces f'o r the purpose of'tour ism. The f'avouraЫe chaпge iп the есопоmу seems to Ье permaпeпt.

4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF RESERVOIRS

lп order to estaЫish the eпviroпmeпtal ef'f'ects, very exteпsive iпvestigatioпs have Ьееп carried out iп the reservoir areas both before апd at'ter the embaпkmeпt work. Except the power соmрапу, uпiversities, research iпstitutes апd private researchers participated as researchers. Iп the begiппiпg of' the 1960's, а Swedish coпsultiпg соmрапу was commissioпed to draw up estimates. Chaпges iп the wuter quality of the reservoirs апd of' the river below, апd risiпg of peat to the w;lter surt'a ce were choseп the maiп objectives of the research.

The behaviour of'the grouпd beiпg covered Ьу the water iп the begiппiпg had а decisive ef'f'ect оп the developmeпt of' the water quality of the reservoirs. The domiпatiпg occurreпce of' bogs iп the Lokka soil, апd, оп the other haпd, the greater regulatiпg iпtervals апd the sharply outliпed topography of'Port tipahta are the most sigпificaпt, distiпctive factors ; these are the reasoпs why Porttipahta has « growп older » f'a ster thaп Lokka. Both lakes have iп commoп that the water is coloured Ьу humus. The greatest diffe reпce, however, is to Ье f'o uпd iп the saliпity оГ the water; saliпity iп Porttipahta is twice as high as that of' Lokka. The Swedish coпsultaпt estimated that the waters of Luiro апd Kitiпeп iп tеп years at't er the embaпkmeпt would achieve the same quality that prevailed there bef'ore the coпstructioп of' the reservoirs [4]. There will, however, accordiпg to the estimate, Ье а coпstaпt iпcrease of' 40 per сепt iп the amouпt of' uпdecomposed orgaпic matter. The охуgеп situatioп iп the reservoirs was worst immediately at'ter the em­ baпkmeпt completioп. А coпsideraЫe f'all iп the water level to the miпimum limits ot' regulatioп iп 1974 апd 1977, апd ап аЬuпdапсе of easily decomposiпg orgaпic matter beiпg washed iпto the reservoirs also added to the lack of' охуgеп [3]. The

43 situatioп was пormalized iп the late 70' s, апd after that there has Ьееп no sigп of total lack of охуgеп (Fig. 4).

Duriпg the first years after coпstructioп, high values of chemicai охуgеп demaпd (COD) were observed. This was а result from the mobilization of organic matter апd the dissolutioп of iroп iп water. The рН value of the water weпt dowп after coпstructioп. А sigпificaпt coпsequeпce of the embaпkmeпt was а vigorous rise in the phosphorus апd пitrogeп coпteпts; the phosphorus content iпcreased teпfold апd the пitrogeп сопtепt douЫed. Iп course of time the values were пormalized, but due to the effects of humus апd orgaпic matter, the quality of the water iп the rivers dowпstreams of the reservoirs did поt match the good level before the embaпkmeпt.

Aпother factor, which iп terms of eпviroпmeпt effects is importaпt, is the risiпg of peat to the water surface (Photo В). This phenomeпon, typical of reservoirs, is caused Ьу gases formed iп the peat iп соппесtiоп with decompositioп. These gases make the peat floats rise to the water surface. lt has Ьееп calculated that maximum 12 mill. m3 of gas aппually was produced Ьу the peat bogs iп Lokka апd Porttipahta [5]. Accordiпg to the coпsultaпt's estimate, the rise of peat would Ье at а maximum some 3 to 4 years after the fi rst fi lliпg [4]. After 1 О years, peat fl oats would no longer occur. The estimate turned out to Ье quite correct. The years after the fi rst fi lling only small amouпts of peat rose. lп 1969, 35 km2, at а maximum, of the Lokka reservoir was covered Ьу peat. The size of the peat floats varied from some hectares to some teпs of hectares. Average thickпess of the peat floats was 90 ст, of which not more thaп а teпth was above the water surface. The peat surface area, however, turпed out to Ье smaller thaп the estimated maximum of 100 km2• Iп Porttipahta, the correspoпdiпg estimated area was поt Ьigger thaп 5 km2• As а result of variations iп the water level апd from wave actioп, the peat floats gradually Ьеgап to split up апd sink to the bottom. The large ореп lakes were purified duriпg 1971 to 1973, апd after 1975 по peat floats have risen to the water surface (Fig. 5).

The abuпdance of пutrieпt salts fo rmed due to the fi lliпg iпitiated an increase iп the water plaпt vegetatioп. The vegetatioп оп the peat floats also changed апd the аЬuпdапсе of species was replaced Ьу various sedge species.

lп the course of time, the reservoirs have iпvited а richer fauпa of Ьirds thaп expected. The fa uпa iпcludes e.g. such rare Ьirds as the white-tailed eagle ( Heliaetus a!Ьicilla). the goldeп eagle (A quila chrysaetos) апd the marsh harrier (Circus cyaneus). А more uпexpected coпsequeпce of the construction of the reservoirs, yet, was а drastic growth of the fi sh fauпa. The fi sh quaпtity of Lokka iпcreased 2.5 times duriпg 1968 to 1972, апd that of Porttipahta 4.3 times duriпg 1971 to 1976. The fi sh fa uпa iп the reservoirs coпsisted of pike ( Esox lucius). perch ( Perca jluviatilis) and burbot ( Lota lota). all beiпg fish species which are typical of reservoir areas. Furthermore, large stocks of roach ( Rutilus rutilus) апd ide ( Leuciscus idus) develo­ ped iп the reservoir of Lokka. Oue to the reductioп ofthe пatural migratory whitefish stock (Coregonus Lavaretus L.). а total of 10.5 millioп of hatched fri es of migratory whitefish were released iп the early 70' s, but without result. Release of lake trout (Salmo trutta т. lacustris). which was carried out about this time, was поt successful

45 either. Thus, the decision was made to try with test releases of' peled whiteГish (Coregonus peled) in 1972 to 1973. The results were very promising [I], and in 1975 vigorous plantations of' peled whitef'ish were started.

The f'ish catches were smallest directly af'ter the f'irstf'i lling, but ever since the middle of' the 70' s the catches have increased substantially ( Fig. 6 ). 1 n 1984, the catch of'the reservoirs totalled 350 tonnes, distributed as f'o llows :

Pike ...... 34 ()!() 119 tonnes

Perch ...... 23 % 81 tonnes

Peled whitef'ish ...... 20 % 70 tonnes

Burbot ...... 14 % 49 tonnes

Ide ...... 9% 31 tonnes

The high mercury content in the predatory f'ishes was а proЫem in the beginning. However, this phenomenon, typical of'reser voirs embanked оп peat hogs. has been а passing one, and today the mercury content of'the water is smaller than in many natural lakes.

5. SIGNIFICANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

One of' the most signif'icant environmental measures in the history of' deve­ lopment of'Fi nnish water power has been the construction of'the reservoirs of'Lokka and Porttipahta. Along with the direct environmental impacts, however, the eco­ nomic consequences of' the ef'f'ects should always Ье taken into account. Thus, absolutely the most signif'icantf'a ctor concerning these reservoirs must he considered the drastic increase in f'ish stocks and f'ishing including their positive secondary ef'f'ects.

А vigorous development of' the f'ish stocks and f'ishing has been possiЫe. because the power company has utilized the regulation volume of'the reservoirs very cautiously. The municipality of' Sodankyla and the Finnish state contribute to the f'ishing industry f'or example hy : building f'ishing harbours and f'ields ; of'f'ering the f'i shermen planning services ; supporting gathering and marketing of'the catches. In order to protect the ever growing prof'essional f'ishing (Photo С). some limitations of the fi shing rights of the sporting fi shermen had to he done.

Total value ofthe whole f'ishcatch (Photo О), is some US $ 0.4 million annually. Productivity of'the fi sh releases has, at а maximum, amounted to nearly 60 kg catch per thousand fry planted. The change of the water quality in the rivers of' Kitinen and Luiro occurring during the first years af'ter construction did not substantially affect the water quality of the river of Kemijoki situated downstream. Neither did the peat floats rising to

47 the water surface cause any severe proЬ\ems. However, together with the growing trees left behind in the reservoir (Photo Е) and the trees cut down, they to some extent had harmful effects on fishing and boat traffic. They also were а Ыоt on the landscape of the reservoir. But after the peat Пoats started to disappear in the middle of the l 970's, the situation has substantially improved. The area of Lokka and Porttipahta is quite unique in northern Scandinavia. lt is an eldorado for water birds and raptorial birds. Its fi sh stock is significant. lt lacks the poisonous substances spoiling the waters, which usually are typical of today's civilization. Thus, nature was given а chance to develop its own ecological system.

SUMMARY

Before the construction was started, extensive environmental studies were carried out to predict the environmental impacts of' the lakes. These studies included such subjects as Поrа and fa una, forestry and agriculture, sociology, and water quality. Several Finnish scientists and universities were involved. А well-known Swedish consulting company was also asked to prepare an impact study. The main fears were the adverse effects on the downstream water quality and the rising of peat Пoats from the lake bottom. The lake bottoms were not cleaned bog before the fi lling. Bog made up 90 per cent of the bottom of Lokka and 50 per cent оГ that of' Porttipahta.

Follow-up studies have shown that the wateг quality in both lakes has conti­ nuously improved aГter the Гirst few years. Oxygen depletion, for example, occurred during the fi rst years in Lokka, but has not occurred since 1974.

Increased methyl mercury content in the fi sh was observed during the fi rst years. The downstream effects on water quality have been оГ no importance during the Пооd season and in the summer. During the winter, effects of increased amounts of suspended organic matter have been observed. The development of fi sh stocks in the lakes has been extremely favourahle. During 1971 to 1975 the annual catch per hectare in Lokka was 1.5 to 4.2 kg, and in Porttipahta from 0.4 to 3.2 kg. During 1975 to 1980 the annual catch per hectare amounted 3.5 kg in Lokka and 8.3 kg in Porttipahta, mostly containing pike, perch and burbot. In 1980, the stocked peled whitefish became the most important species. At present there are some 47 professional Гi shermen in the lakes, and one hа!Г оГ the households in the district are engaged in subsistence Гi shing. Fishing was of' по importance before construction of the artificial lakes. Construction of the reservoirs initiated many changes in the population and susbsistence structure of the municipality. Large land areas were covered with water, which impeded practising of the main occupations reindeer husbandry, agriculture and forestry. However, construction of the reservoirs affected the employment in а most favouraЫe way for over four years, and the consideraЫy higher tax income

49 sur l'emploi de la main-d'reuvre, et l'augmentation consideraЬ\e du montant des impots sur les revenus resultant de la construction donna une remarquaЬ\e impul­ sion а la vie economique de la municipalite. Aujourd'hui, les salaires et traitements constituent une source importante de revenus. L'augmentation consideraЬ!e de la peche а provoque un fort developpement des loisirs et du tourisme.

References

[1] Mutenia А., Oksman Н. 1983. Fish resources of the Lokka and Porttipahta reservoirs and the design rJ( their use. 34 р. Sodankyla (in Finnish). [2] Luostarinen М., Makinen Н. 1980. The influence of the construction of Lokka and Porttipahta reservoirs on the population and municipality. National Board o. f Wa ters, report no 1980 : 14. 196 р. (in Finnish). [3] Kinnunen К. 1985. Th e water quality in Lokka and Porttipahta reservoirs and downstream until 1984. 76 р. (in Finnish). [4] Aktiebolaget Hydrokonsult 1965. Lokka och Porttipahta diimningsmagasin. Utredning rдrande morf'ologiska och .fysikalisk-kemiska .foljdverkningar vid Overdiimning av torvmarker. 67 р. Uppsala (in Swedish). [5] Aktiebolaget Hydrokonsult 1971. Lokka ос/1 Porttipahta diimningsmagasin. Unders6kningar 1972-1970 r6rande Ivs ikalisk-kemiska .fдljdverkningar vid 6verdiimning av torv- och /a stmarker. 49 р. Uppsala (in Swedish).

50 brought about Ьу the construction stimulated the economic life of the municipality in а remarkaЫe way. Today salaries and wages are а significant source of income. The enormously increased fi shing has brought about а vigorous development of recreation and tourism.

51 10 20 30

Fig. 1 Pinland and its neighbours.

52 j 1 { \ \ \ lake Porthpahta � сапа�� у��- / �\.\, Lokka

� -==- \..'.,..!=__ Lш ro l,,Г 7 ) nver Kemuokt j /1 =

11� � --�=--

Pm<'erplant in operation. Po wer plant under construction. Power plant projected. ;utr or BOTHHIA Limit of catchment area.

о so 100 km Fig. 2

Pmver plants and i<·ater reseri·oirs of the rii·ers Kemijoki, Luiro and Кitinen.

53 VUOTSO CANAL �( \/

PO RTTI PA HTA

f1: PORTTIPAHTA DAM AND POWER STATION Vl .jO. \1 LIJ1 \ 1( RIVER KITINEN

LOKKA DAM 25 km �

� ER LUIRO

Fig. 3 Lokka ат/ Pon1ipa/1ta геsепоiгs. 14 SE IR IZ RE C uo 1 1 RV • • bl �urla.ce ...... �� 1 t>J) (1) -bot.tom . . � а . . . в ...... z 6 ...... щ ...... о ...... >-< 4 . . . . ' >< ...... ". . . о . . . . . е ...... - .. �.,.·_/� . о "' v' v .,.,,, 1968 1969 19'!0 1971 1972 19'13 1974 1975 1976 l!JП 1978 11179 1080 1081 19BZ 1983 1984 УЕЛR

14 РО тт PAI- ТА RES 12 �RV1D IR . . b1Jrfo.ce . . - ...... �ош_ ...... ',Ь1) 10 ...... s ...... 8 ...... - ...... z (\ . . . . w . о . . 4 . :х:� о

2

о 1/1"- 1971 1972 l\J7З 1974 19'15 1976 1977 l\J�'B 19?9 l!JBD 1981 1982 l\JBЗ 198� YEAR

Fig. 4

Dei·elopment о/ the o.Y \J;en content in the rбerl'Oir о/ Lokka during 1968 to 1984. and in 1/1е reseri·oir of Po rttipahta durinц 1971 to 1984.

• • Surfa ce . -Bottom.

55 500

LОККА RESERVOIR 400

w Е 1 300

< lпш � 200 а:: < 1 1- 100 1 1 1- о � 1Q70 ' 1972 1973 1975 YEAR 1-'ig. 5

Th e surface area (1112) of" rl1e peat floats in the lлkka reseпoir ,/ecreaseil ,/11гi11.r; 1970 ro 1975.

LОККА RESERVOIR

:r.: u ь 100 +------__, � u

1'171 1972 19?3 1974 1075 Ht'l6 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 HJ82 YEAR

200 ...... ------PORTTIPAHTA RESERVOIR --'

150 -1------�

:r.: о S;;: 100 о

zo 1Q71 1972 19?З 19?4 Н17б 1Q78 1977 19'78 19';'9 11180 1 981 1982 YEAR Fig. 6

П1е fish catc/1es (1) in Lokka aml Por11ipa/11a i11 1971-1982.

56 .� """'

"' '"-§

� "' s; ·-1

-"'j ;;; о ...,, " ----" -< " -< """ " � OiJ" t "' " � .D " " ----" """' �

57 Ph orograph С Professional fishermen handling their carc/1 .

. ,

Ph ot()f;гap/1 lJ Sp ringtime fishing 011 Lokka. · Th e Jish species are roach and pike.

58 Pl101oxraph В : Small peat floats i11 1!1е Lokka resuтoir.

Photoxraph Е : Fore.1 1 lefi behind in the Lokka reseпoir.

59 3. ТНЕ SUORVA DAM (Sweden) ( * )

t. ТНЕ PROJECT AND IТS SIGNIFICANCE

t. t. Location

The Suorva Reservoir is the secoпd largest storage reservoir iп Swedeп апd has Ьееп created solely for the productioп of electric power.

lt is located оп the Lule River iп the пortherпmost part of Swedeп iп а mouпtaiпous агеа close to the Norwegiaп border (Fig. 1). The reservoir, which lies 453 m above sea level, was created Ьу the dammiпg of а пumber of smaller source-lakes. The агеа is wilderпess couпtry. Before the coпstructioп of the dam there were по roads, пог were there апу регmапепt iпhabitaпts. For huпdreds of years the Lapps ( 1) have had their summer camps beside the lakes апd have lived Ьу herdiпg reiпdeer, huпtiпg апd fishiпg. Before the coпstructioп of the dam there was very little tourism.

1.2. Construction phases

The Lule River is Swedeп's most importaпt source of hydroelectric power. The river has а large flow capacity, falls relatively steeply through much of its leпgth апd offers good opportuпities for regulatioп (Fig. 2). Iп Swedeп it is пecessary to use аппuаl storage reservoirs to regulate the fl ow of water iп developed rivers siпce the supply of water maiпly arrives iп the spriпg апd summer апd опlу to а small exteпt duriпg the wiпter, wheп the пееd fo r electric power is at а maximum.

The Lule River coпsists of two priпcipal braпches (Greater апd Lesser Lule River). Iп the fo llowiпg pages, the пате Lule River will Ье used to mеап Greater Lule River uпless otherwise stated.

The first hydroelectric developmeпt work оп the river was dопе as early as the 191Os, апd work has coпtiпued up uпtil the preseпt day (Fig. 3). The developmeпt of the two braпches of the river сап Ье sееп iп the followiпg tаЫе.

(*) Ву Во Sten.

(1) А nomadic реор!е living in the northern part of Sweden. Norway. Finland and the USSR.

61 Power stations ( М W) Regulation (hm 1)

Lesser Greater Lesser Greater Total Year Total river пver пver river river

1920 ...... - 58 58 - 190 190 1930 ...... - 71 71 - 1 210 1 210 1940 ...... - 85 85 - 1 210 1 210 1950 ...... - 140 140 - 2 940 2 940 1960 ...... - 630 630 - 2 950 2 950 1970 ...... 690 1 235 1 925 2 170 4 240 6 410 1980 ·····-··- 915 2 115 3 030 2 310 8 320 10 630 1986 ...... 915 3 275 4 190 2 340 8 430 10 770

As stated above it is necessary to regulate the Поw of water in order to adapt power production to meet the need. The fi rst regulation in the ri ver was done in Lulejaure, а lake downstream from Suorva (Fig. 3), but the first Suorva regulation was done as early as the l 920s.

SUORVA

Phase 2 3 4 Year of construction 1919-27 1937-41 1942-44 1966-72 ln operation ...... 1927 1939 1944 1972 Regulation height, т ...... 8.5 15.3 18.5 30.0 Active storage, 10" m1 ...... 1 ООО 2 200 2 750 5 900 Regulation factor ...... 20 45 57 123

The catchment area above the dam is 4 680 km2 ( 1 81О square miles ).

AII phases have involved damming. ln spite of а fivefold increase of actual storage the area covered Ьу the reservoir has increased relatively little, from 160 km2 to 270 km2• At the lower limit the area of the lake is 100 km2•

As сап Ье seen from the tаЫе, the Suorva reservoir is now а year-to-year reservoir. During any one year only 112 to 2/3 of the regulation height is normally used.

For phase 1, the dams were constructed as multispan arch dams of reinforced concrete, this partly because of а lack of filling materials of а suitaЫe nature. For phases 2 and 3, the original concrete dam was built upon. ln phase 4, а new, modern rock-filled dam with impervious moraine at the core was built immediately downstream from the old concrete dam. The crest length of the dam is 1 370 m, and the maximum height above bedrock 67 m.

63 L,'ш1· � 11 з11emc nl f.f. 1J ll Oa1111h, l'o 11r/l(m�c - .sr1ll"''·� - 111·i11 !огl.;,, Pп-r.�i_,1.,,.v; cfta•1 hra•I•11 10 //'<' ll'ji. Г/11; (llJ.1c.•r .fC h<.'nli! l>'U.) с.•011<•.-.1. trJ 111 и Jri cu11s!n;< •:ыt f'll

l'l1щG В - U; caшiJ .;!� 1e-;�g..r1g О pr��de C;reircnst-cin .-;ccti<111 Git'\.\i!Ullg lr(.'(Ir (.,....,l ••rr_••.:/t"'JJ, t, ".,",f]oн· �,-t-, fнн1 Phnю С - Migrtitiuri dc rcnnc:� ,\f,i.� 1tJfing Tt..':iud�•"�; /S uur1·.1 D.i,n .-.

au PhoLo D - Peche fileL. f\'c1 fi1Ы11я (Siюn-a Dam;. Рал:иgс de r�nn�. RQu11u-up fSucn'a Dara).

Phoi.o F - E 11 clo.s l.J'нha.trage de renш:s. Slat1ghter а/· n1iridt!er (S1.ю,-ц,•fl l)шr . Pll<'I•-. G - 13згr.•gi.: ui.: Seliпg\Je 1M111i,I

\'ut: d'ensemЫe - o,·.-1ull ,.;,.,._

l'hoш Н - S.:liнgue /Jom •.tvt;1lr .1. f:,·�cшt1eitr dt.: cru 1:: - .<;"i/l•цt.1' 1.3. ProЫems during construction and transport conditions

The construction works for the first phase, which was commenced in 1919, were in very large part pioneering in nature. The proЫem was to complete comprehensive construction work in wilderness country 100 km from the closest community having а road (Porjus) and under seasonally very diffi cult climatic conditions. The worHorce comprised about 400 men. Their dwellings were primitive. During the winter, transportation was across the ice of the frozen lakes, mainly with horses. 1 n the summer people and materials were transported Ьу boat upstream across the lakes and past the rapids using specially created transportation systems. At times regular air links were estaЫished.

When phase 4 was started, an access road 90 km in length running fro m Porjus to Suorva was constructed (Fig. 3). This has since been extended Ьу 40 km up to Ritsem during the construction of а power station there.

1.4. The importance of the Suorva Dam The original plans f'o r the utilization of hydroelectric power in the Lule River were limited in scope and were intended to supply local demand for industry, ra ilways and communities. Because of rapid developments in the area of power transmission Lule River had Ьу the end of the l 930s already assumed а position of importance for power supply to the entire country. Now Lule River is the river which makes the greatest contribution to electric powcr supply in Sweden. Annual production is about 15 TWh, which is about 25 '\(, of Sweden's entire hydroelectric power production (about 12 'Yi> of all electric power production). Sweden's electric power production is today based on hydroelectric power and nuclear power (about 50 % of each). Because of favouraЫe conditions, the price of electric power in Sweden is among the lowest in the world. Lule River and the Suorva l)am have contributed greatly to this. Suorva is Sweden's second largest storage reservoir. Lake Vanern is larger (9 400 hm'), but the drop between Suorva and the sea is ten times as great as below Lake Vanern. The energy content when the reservoir is fi lled is therefore six times as great in Suorva as in Lake Yanern.

The possiЬility of using Suorva as а year-to-year reservoir makes it even more valuaЫe.

2. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

2.1. General The Suorva reservoir is one of the largest regulating reservoirs in Sweden. It is also one of the most severely regulated. With а height of up to 30 m and with а va riation in surface area between а maximum 270 and 100 km2, it has proved inevitaЫe that the reservoir has had consideraЫe impact on the environment in vaпous ways.

65 But, thanks to its location in а semi-arctic region with а cool, humid climate lacking in extremes, Suorva is spared many difficulties familiar to reservoirs under warmer skies. There are only miпor erosioп proЫems, по sedimeпtatioп, по fast­ growing aquatic vegetation and по water-borne diseases, etc. Iпstead there have been fears that the hydroelectric power schemes would affect reiпdeer husbaпdry апd fi shiпg so much that the ecoпomic coпditioпs for the contiпued existeпce of two Lapp villages withiп the area would disappear. It was also fe lt that the altered nature of the laпdscape with large dams апd the periodicaly drawпdowп reservoir might have such а пegative effect that tourists would seek other routes iпto the mountaiпs.

When the permit for phase 1 was beiпg tried before the Water Rights Court, the enviroпmeпtal damage was assessed as beiпg small. It was stated, however, that the regulation of the river represeпted such ап alteratioп iп the natural surrouпdiпgs that the area affected was removed from а receпtly formed natioпal park which included а beautiful waterfall, Stora Sjofallet, situated iп the outlet to Kartj ejaure, the nearest lake dowпstream from Suorva. With the coпtiпued ехрапsiоп phases, this waterfall has now completely disappeared. The nature coпservatioп orgaпizatioпs in Swedeп consider this to Ье the greatest damage dопе Ьу the hydroelectric power schemes in the upper Lule River.

А multi-discipliпary scieпtific апd ethпographic study was carried out before phase 1 was implemented. The owпer of the reservoir, the Swedish State Power Board, was iпstructed to build апd maiпtaiп а fish breediпg station and to рау for studies of the effects of the developmeпt оп fishiпg. Certaiп measures were takeп to protect the interests of the Lapps. There was also coпcern about how the timber transportatioп iп the river dowпstream from the Iakes would Ье affected Ьу the spring floods being dammed up iп the reservoir. Special regulatioпs were therefore laid down to protect this interest. No grouпd-cleariпg work was dопе оп the shores which were to Ье fl ooded in phase 1, апd trees and bushes stood uпder water after the dammiпg. Duriпg the subsequent expaпsion phases опlу limited grouпd clearaпce was dопе. There was strong criticism of this. Fishiпg with пets was made more difficult, апd the sight of dead trees in the water and floatiпg stumps was negative. From апd iпcludiпg phase 4, comprehensive measures have поw Ьееп takeп. The eпtire shoreliпe affected Ьу the regulatioп has been cleart:d. Trees апd bushes have Ьееп removed. However, the tree-stumps have been left to preveпt erosioп of the ground. Wheп they do hарреп to Ье pulled loose, they аге collected апd burпt. All damage has been compeпsated iп accordaпce with Swedish Law Ьу meaпs of measures aimed at avoidiпg such damage, or Ьу mопеу compeпsatioп. Even if the Suorva reservoir has caused damage апd discomfort for the iпha­ bitaпts, i.e. the two Lapp villages, it has also brought positive values to the area. ТНrе most sigпificaпt of these is the access road. Thaпks to this traпsportatioп апd migratioп have Ьееп made much easier for the Lapps. Other measures have also Ьееп taken which have geпerally been beпeficial to the Lapps апd the tourists. The fo llowiпg sectioпs coпtain ап accouпt of the developmeпts for reiпdeer husbaпdry, fishing апd tourism from the time before phase 1 until the preseпt day. This accouпt deals with both positive апd пegative effects which have iпflueпced this develop­ ment.

67 2.2. The Suorva Dam and reindeer husbandry Before the hydroelectric power developments, the агеа around Suorva w·as \Vilderness country, which basically was only visited in the summer Ьу the Lapps who have their sumrner grazing land in the mountain areas. The reindeer graze during the summers high up in the mountain regions close to the Norwegian border and migrate in the autumn eastwards down to the midlan(i forests along the rivers, and sometimes as far as to the coast оГ the GulГ оГ Bothnia. During the winter they f'i nd their food in the eastern region, and then turn back to the mountains in the spring (colour photo С). The Lapps have Гi rst-hand rights to reindeer grazing, hunting and t'ishing on the moutain grazing lands. They follow the migration of the reindeer. ln the summer, the Lapp vil lages оГ Sirkas and Sorkaitum have their dwellings at Suorva. Altogether there are 130 Гamilies, and about 350 Lapps. At present. the total number of' reindeer owned Ьу these Гamilies is about 25 ООО. The Suorva Reservoir has caused loss оГ reindeer grazing land, difTiculties in movement across the ice, еГГесts on installations, on dwellings and on boat traГГic.

On the positive side, as mentioned earlier, is the creation оГ diГГerent roads which have Гacilitated the transportation оГ supplies and people, and оГ animals and meat for sale. New roads have also made it possiЫe to set up slaughtering plants in the autumn grazing lands. This has meant the avoidance of loss оГ animals and los� оГ weight during the migration to the winter grazing lands. Fences have been erected over long stretches to reduce the need of' supervision and to make possiЫe more efTective utilization оГ grazing resources. ln the Lule River area the Swedish State Power Board (SSPB) has erected а total оГ 350 km оГ fe nce. Slaughter and round-u р pens ( color photos Е, F), cottages, bridges, ащJ the like have also been built or Гi nanced Ьу SSPB. For the Lapp village of' Sirkas, which has sufTered the most f'rom the hy(Jroe­ lectric power developments, the Гo llowing installations had been completed up шitil 1971.

lnstallations within Sirkas Lapp village and who has Гi nanced them

Huts for Work Slaughter- Migratioп 1-'inaпced Ьу 1-cnce rei ndeer Roads Britlgб репs iпg pen.s t rai ls herdsmcп

km numbcr number number km km пшпЬеr

The Lapp villagc - 3 1 --- - 198 ' - The Lapp fund 5.6 7 5 1 54 ' 2 - Dole work 10.4 - - 4. 25 SSPB . 160.5 24 45 6 4.25 2 i8.2 13 1 1 1 Through an agreement, Sirkas Lapp village has also received US $ 4 millioп Гог damage апd encroachmeпt. ln addition there have been signif'icaпt sums iп compen­ satioп in earlier years and Гог the rationalization of' reiпdeer husbandry.

69 The size of the reiпdeer herd is пormally goverпed Ьу the availability of wiпter graziпg. Siпce the loss of wiпter graziпg due to the hydroelectric power develop­ meпts is relatively small, this creates по direct 1imitatioп of the пumber of reindeer which сап Ье kept. Опе of the principal proЫems for reiпdeer husbaпdry is the freeziпg over of graziпg land апd crust formatioп. Iп some years large areas are frozeп over and this has по coппection with the ехрапsiоп of hydroelectric power. А goverпmeпt study carried out in 1966 1ooked iпto the conditioпs for reiпdeer husbaпdry at Suorva, amoпgst other places, апd was аЫе to state that the measures takeп to preveпt damage and пuisaпce caused Ьу the water regulatioп had showп how it was possiЫe Ьу means of techпica1 solutioпs апd other arrangemeпts to recreate the necessary coпditioпs for the Lapp есопоmу to remain uпchaпged. Accordiпg to the study, hydroelectric power projects need not as а rule lead to reduced production withiп reiпdeer husbaпdry. However, the operatiпg costs сап iпcrease. Опlу iп the case of· major regulation of 1akes ( e.g. Suorva) сап the increase iп costs Ье large eпough to have sigпificaпt effect оп operatiпg economy. lt has proveп possiЫe to preveпt or compensate in differeпt ways, for example through mопеу compeпsation, for the iпcreased difficulties eпcountered, for iпstaпce iп migratiпg with the reiпdeer. Damage preveпtioп апd compeпsation measures generally fulfilled their purpose according to the study. The actual пumber of' reiпdeer сап Ье said to mirror the possibilities of maiпtaiпiпg а certaiп пumber of' reiпdeer in а Lapp village iп the 1опg term. lt should Ье possiЫe to use the actua1 number of' reindeer over а loпger period of time to show whether villages affected Ьу hydroelectric power schemes have developed 1e�s positively thaп other vi11ages, giveп the 1oss of' grazing апd other eпcroachment.

Iп the diagram (Fig. 4) the Lapp vi11ages in the Suorva area which have Ьееп greatly affected Ьу hydroelectric power schemes - Sirkas, Sбrkaitum and to some extent Ме11апЬун - are compared with neighbouriпg villages which have поt been affected --- Laevas апd Norrkaitum. Development in the villages affe cted Ьу the schemes is по worse than iп the neighbouring villages.

The improved commuпicatioпs апd expaпded services mеап that the Lapps to some extent поw remaiп in the Suorva area even duriпg the winter.

2.3. The Suorva Dam and fishing The first storage reservoir was f'ormed Ьу the dammiпg of а пumber of sma11 lakes. The upper lakes coпtaiпed arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) апd brown trout (Salmo trutta). 1 n the 1ower 1akes, whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus) was dominaпt. The Lapps used the 1akes for their domestic fishiпg usiпg bottom nets. They also salted fi sh for wiпter coпsumption. There was hardly апу commerce iп fish.

The damming of the 1akes meaпt that the whitefish took over. However, in the upper part of the reservoir arctic char has always formed а large part of the fi sh population.

71 The tl ooded slюre\1ne areas contributed new nLitrition which led to extremely good Гishing in the Гirst years аГtег the completion оГ each phase.

Graciually the repeated drying-out оГ the shal\o\v bottoms in the winter meant that large quantities оГ nu!гitional animals which аге impoгtant to the diet оГ the bottom-Гeeding f"i sh wеге ·.v iped out.

The Ьго\'m tгout was particularly afTe ctec Ьу this. as were bottom-Гeeding groups оГ aгctic сhаг and wJ1itef'ish. Arctic char and \v hiteГish managed the transГoг­ mation betteг, апd have al\'. ays been present in good numbers. The Гi sh in Suoгva аге of good quality. There ha� been comprehensiн commeгcial Гi shing since the 1940s. ln Sweden, the price оГ aгctic char is a'юt:t --1 times higheг than that оГ \'.hiteГish. Thc tende11cy to an incгeased pгopoгtion оГ \'.hi teГish which could Ье noted aГter thc complction оГ the eaгliest phases was in that sense а disadvantage.

The Гa ilt1re to сlсаг the fl oOLJed shorelines during the eaгlier phases meant much damage to nets. Special C1Jmpe11sation was paid Гог this апd f"o r the cost of repair, but Гi shi11g \V as made much mсне diГГicult. With the d..Jmmiпg Гог phase 4, most оГ the islaпds, skeп ies and b:�ys wl1ich could оГГе г protection Гог Гi shiпg disappeaгed. Th is 11 ow had to Ье carriccl Olit 011 mоге оре11 water on а laгge lake which is of'teп exposed to powerГu l winds апd difTi cult water coпditions.

The devclopment оГ Гi shiпg in Suoгva :шd some lakcs �ituated downstгeam betvveeп 1964-Х2 сап Ье sееп i11 ti1� appended diagram (1-'ig. 5).

lп spite оГ ci amagc апd Гi shing diГГiculties catches hav e remained at а high le\•e\. Suorva aпswers Гог about 25 '�(J 01· all commercial Гi shiпg iп the mouпtaiп arca 01· the pгovince.

The catch ЬеГогс phase 1 111 the lakes which cxisted then compгiseci 11 tons/year.

Thc f"actors which have ргоЬаЫу had signiГicance Го г the high rcturns аге :

- Positive dammiпg efTects : Stюrva is а year-to-year reserv·oir, wheгe tl1e shallow bottoms can Ье dry Го г several years. The nutrient organisms which а1"� re-estaЫished duriпg these periods агс rcturпed to the lakc wheп thc wateг-lev·el гise\ аgаш.

lncreased Гi sh pгoduction througl1 iпcreased wateг volшne.

The iпtгoduction of the пutгitioп-rich shellfish M1·1is гelicta has siпce 1976 had а clearly positive efTect оп the quality оГ the Гi sh populatioп and an incгeasccl proport ion оГ aгctic cl1ar in the populatioп.

- lmproved commcrcial opportunities as а гesult of the hydгoelectric ро\'.·ег schemes. Fiгst through tl1e аiг transpoгt оГ Гi sh ciuriпg the 1940s and 1950s, theп through road transport wl1en the гоаd to Suorva was completed in 1965 апсi to Ritsem iп 1973. Лs а result of the lov;er transport costs made possiЫe Ьу the completion ofthese roads, tl1e Lapps could extract а 30 'Уо higher price fo r theiг Гi sh.

73 - Н igh level of fi shing in spite of damage and nuisance. Had the scope of the fi shing been less there would have been consideraЫe risk of а larger Гish population of smaller fi sh оГ lower quality.

2.4. The Suorva Dam and tourism The Swedish Tourist Association (Svenska Turistforeningen, STF) was fo unded а hundred years ago. As early as 1890 а hut was erected Ьу the Stora Sjot'allet but there was no regular motorboat traffi c before 1912, and then on а small scale and on the lakes downstream f'rom Suorva.

ln 1926 а toнrist station was opened in Suorva in the mess buildings for the construction workers Гоr phase 1 and shortly prior to this motorboat traffic was organized on the Suorva lakes. ln 1951 а tented camp was set up in Ritsem and in 1978 STF took over thc mess building in Ritsem from SSPB. Over the years boat routes were expanded from the provisional ones of the l 920s-l 940s. New and larger boats were acquired and traffi c increased ( colour photo J)). The development of the boat route Гrom Porjus on the lakes up to Ritsem has been done in close cooperation between STF and SSPB. Jetties which are vertically adjustaЫe to suit the varying water levels have been constructed Ьу SSPB at all tourist stations. STF has also taken over SSPB's mess buildings and used them as tourist stations when the construction work has been completed. At Stora Sjot'allet, the municipality of- Gallivare is now responsiЫe Гог the tourist station.

As the roads have been extended the boat routes have been closed down or changed in length. There is much tourism along the river valley up to the Suorva Dam. The road makes the mountain area immediately accessiЫe and many Гe ll­ walkers use it f'o r that reason. The fel l-walkers'highroad (Kungsleden), the most frequented and wcll-known walking route in Sweden, crosses the Suorva reservoir.

It is difTi cult to assess the scope of' tourism. Statistics are incomplete and partly overlap. There are only limited opportunities for comparison, but the figures do give an approximate idea of what has happened.

Boat traffi c on the Sjot'allsleden (Porjus to Ritsem). Number of passengers, average per year. Period : 1927-29 2 920 1930-39 4 500 1940-49 16 780 1950-59 15 940 1960-69 35 240 (*) 1970-79 21 720 (*) 1980-84 15 110 (*) (*) Successive tгаПiс modifications because of the completion of the road. Statistics covering tourist traffic оп the road not availaЫe. but it is estimated that only Ьу coach about 1 О ООО people yearly аге transported to and from Ritsem.

75 Number of guest-nights at STF's huts around Suorva, average per year. Period : 1952-59 1 680 1960-69 3 190 1970-79 3 460 1980-84 3 ООО (*)

Number of guest-nights at STF's mountain stations (Ritsem, Saltoluokta, Sjбfallet, Porjus), average per year. Period : 1924-29 1 210 1930-39 2 370 1940-49 9 970 1950-59 8 710 1960-69 10 480 1970-86 (**)

The expansion of the Suorva Reservoir and other hydroelectric power schemes in the area have not prevented а significant expansion of the Поw of tourists up to the mountains.

References The material f'o r this study has been gathered from diffe rent sources and from investigations Ьу the Swedish State Power Board and other State authorities, partly in connection with the Proceedings in the Water Court.

(*) Statistics inc()mplcte since 1982.

(**) Only iпcomplctc figurcs аге av<1ilable.

77 USSR

60

10 20 30

F-' ig. 1

Location тар.

78 6E- sitasjaure m Ь h [ / RITSEM 600

П1 о h 550

500 500 Т 1akt1ajaure SEITEVARE

�+ 1 � Langas LuleJaure 312,0 PORJUS

agga� Skalka 300 HARSPRANGET 300

LETSI 200 LIGGA 200 -...) \О MESSAURE

100 100

LAXEDE VITTJARV VITJARV '--. BQDEN �EN = о 350 km 300 200 100 300 km 200 1 00 from the sea from the sea dis tance а /а mer dis tance а /а mer

GREATER LULE RIVER LESSER LULE RIVER

ig. 2 Ri1·a pm(ile. ()Н) 1 �JORIJI<.:\

'\"l.Kl(;I:.

'i\\f.I)} .'\

'\(ll{(;f. st .s·oral let Ч•КI\ \\

() ;n IUU kn1

Access road

. ···. .

.... Ьъ �м

IIO L "J J:::>;\"I KE:\

(;l"LF Of IIO 111'\I·\

Fig. 3

Мар of 1/1е ri l!Г Lule.

8 Hydro Pmi·er S1atio11.

------·-- --·------

80 Number of reindeer 1961-1983

30 000

25 ООО

20 ООО

15000

10 ООО

5 000

о

1961 65 70 75 80 8З

Fig. 4 Numher о/ rei1uleer ( 1961-198]).

= Not affected h_i· h_i·dm рон·еr 1 Norrkait11111, lлi·as).

Afected hy h_i·i/ro р1ше1· _ j 1 Mellanhm. Sйr/..ai/11111. Sirkas).

81 rons

. ' � / � ,' 50 ' ' . ' . ' . �" 25

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••• • • • •

64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 year

f:ig.5

Lapp . i sheries in the Greater and Lesser Lule ri1·er, ca1c/1es in tons.

- To tal. 1·e,r;11lated lakes. • • Sиor\'{}, Kortjejaиre (regиlated). - To tal. 11111·eg11lated lakes.

е 8 8 Vi 1·i/m111·e. Vastenjaиre, Sallolшuгe, Киtiаиге (1111гeg11/ate

82 4. ТНЕ SELINGUE DAM (Mali)

1. CHARACTERISТICS OF ТНЕ DAM

The Selingue dam on the Sankarani river, tributary of the Niger river, is \ocated near the village of Selingue (Mali) and creates а reservoir with а storage of 2 600 hm1. The Selingue is а multi-purpose dam for the production of electric energy, 1пiga[ion, regulation of the river for пavigation, reductioп of the Пoods, and pi:;citult uгe iп the reservoir.

It is з gravity dam with а ceпtral concrete crest and earth wiпgs, апd а пеаrЬу ГJ\\er st2tioп (colour photos G-H). I ts characteristics are : с1 est !t:пgth """"""" """"""" """"""""" """""""""""""""""""" 2 900 m: maximum height (ceпtral part) """"""""""""""""""""""""""" 35 m:

v,1fume of coпcrete ...... """""" .... """""" .... """"""""""""""" ...... 165 000 m1 :

v,1Iume of earthfill """""""""".. """""" .. """"""".. " ."".. " ..""." .. I 680 ООО m1:

pJwer iпsta!Ied ...... 44 ООО kW. The r, ower statioп started operatiпg iп I 980.

2. E:\IVIRONMENT AL ISSUES

The coпsultiпg engineers Iaid emphasis оп eпvironmeпtal aspects from the very first studies carried out iп 1973 for the Uпited Natioпs. Other studies fo llowed : in 1979 another Coпsultaпt supplemeпted, оп behalf of the UNDP the previous studies on populatioп traпsfer carried out fo r the Uпited Natioпs. Aпother study performed for the Uпited Natioпs regarded the geпeral health conditions of the riparian populatioп before the Seliпgue dam began to fu nctioп iп 1980; this comp\eted the previous study. The fo llowing data апd proposals derive from these studies : а) At the time of the study the size of the proЫem was as fo llows : populatioп апd area of the fo ur districts affected Ьу the project 56 247 iпhab. 4 ООО km2

area to Ье Пooded ...... """" ...... " ."" ...... " ." ...... " .""" 409 km2

area uпder cultivatioп to Ье Пooded ...... " " " ...... " ""...... 42 km2 populatioп to Ье resettled ""...... " .. "" ...... "" ...... """ .. 12 ООО inhab.

Ь) The proposal concerned поt опlу the developmeпt of the regioп but also the attempt to reestaЫish а demographic апd ecoпomic Ьаlапсе after the creatioп of the reservoir, iпcluding the territorial reorgaпizatioп апd socio-ecoпomic пeeds of the population, such as : - the development of traditioпal activities апd the creatioп of' alterпative activities ;

85 - the creation of the necessary infrastructure and services ; - homes and contingent services. The process of resettlement would have to reflect the present type of fa mily structure so as to bring about а gradual change and avoid а sudden or drastic break with deeply rooted traditions. The measures for changing agricultural standards included new cropping patterns, the introduction of specialization and an attempt to increase the produc­ tivity of traditional crops. Livestock and cattle raising activities would have to Ье reorganized in the pilot projects, together with the collection and sale of agricultural products in the smaller villages. с) The new areal distribution of the population followed the territorial reor­ ganization whereby the агеа was broken down into zones and sub-zones as follows : - Priority development zone :

• new village of Kangare ( civic center - police stdtion - social center - health center - water and energy systems) ;

• fi shing center and fi shing village ;

• tourist complex;

• centre for agriculture and cattle raising ;

• construction materials factory ;

• site for fairs and markets ; Agricultural reorganization zone. N ational park \and. Pasture and cattle-raising zone. Partially restructured zone. d) The total cost ofthe programme was estimated at one thousand million F.M., (equal to 2.5 million U.S. dollars in 1979), corresponding to about 7 % of the investment cost of dam and appurtenant works, and to about 3 % of the total cost of the electrical and agricultural development.

3. ТНЕ SIТUAТION AFТER ТНЕ DAM CONSTRUCТION

The Mali authorities are carefully watching the change in socio-economic and health conditions after the construction of the dam. The situation in the various sectors, fi ve years after the dam started operating, сап Ье summarized as fo llows.

3.1. Population transfer

After flooding an area of 40 900 ha, а population of 12 490 inhabitants was transferred over а period in 1980-1981. No significant change has taken place in the structure of the families living in the new villages, except in а few cases where the traditional social structure of the village has been temporarily disrupted; this structure, however, is gradually being re-created.

87 On the whole, it сап Ье concluded that the population transfer has not traumati­ zed the inhaЬitants, who continue to observe their traditions and perform the usual ceremonies, etc.

3.2. Energy

Production in 1985 amounted to 114 GWh. or 75 (Уо of all the hydro-electric energy produced in the country.

The maximum power used was 24 MW or 55 (Yi1 of the installed capacity. As to the socio-economic advantages of this energy source it сап Ье observed that all the eпergy produced ( except for а small part used Ьу the towп of Seliпgue апd services) is coпveyed to Bamako whicl1 is curreпtly the sole beпeficiary of the scheme. Iп fact, after 1980 - wheп the power statioп Ьеgап to fu пction - the Bamako electricity system has Ьееп completely reпewed ; whereas, electricity cuts were very frequeпt before, these occur rarely поw, or if they do, it is опlу because they are completiпg the пеw system. Selingue has there/o re eliminated the consumption lJfj'uel/or tl1e opemtion of t/1e Bamako thermo-electric power station.

Prior to 1980 the iпdustries of the area arouпd Bamako worked at 50 °Л 1 capacity because of the limited productioп of eпergy ; at present, iпdustry works at 100 % capacity, апd, iп geпeral, is developiпg with а 15 % iпcrease iп the аппuаl demaпd for electricity (as of 1984-85). From 1980 to date there has Ьееп а 70 % iпcrease iп the пumber of iпdustries, as а result of the eпergy that сап Ье guaraпteed.

However, despite this, the demaпd for eпergy is still small : this situation will improve wheп other iпdustries are created апd, especially, wheп the пеw power liпe for Segou is iпstalled; the project for the latter already exists, апd Germaпy апd Сапаdа are expected to сапу it out. The Каlапа miпe (iп the area of КапgаЬа) will also coпstitute ап importaпt demaпd for electricity. The materials пeeded for the power liпe have already Ьееп. supplied Ьу the Russiaпs, who are supervisiпg the miпiпg. Unfortuпately, the fuпds for this, estimated at 1.5 million F CFA (US $ 4.5 millioпs) have поt yet Ьееп fouпd.

3.3. Agriculture The Seliпgue reservoir provided а discharge of 60- 120 m3 /s duriпg the 1985 dry seasoп, depeпdiпg оп the eпergy demaпd. At the епd of Juпe 1985 the reservoir still had а storage of about 470 hm3, which meaпs that the discharge during the dry months (November- May) can Ье almost 100 m3/s. Even when а minimum amount of water is left in the river for navigation, these storage volumes are more thaп sufficient for irrigating the area of 55 ООО ha envisaged in the project. The fo recast benefits accruiпg from agriculture have not yet, at least in the short term, Ьееп realized. Оп the one hand, after the irrigatioп period was estaЬ\ished, the farmers at first felt that the rice-growing techniques - especially the iпtroduction of а douЬ\e crop - were too sophisticated. On the other haпd, they were more eпthusiastic about the iпtroductioп of vegetaЬ\e crops.

89 ln general, however, the equipment needed for working the new soils does not exist, and this has resulted in а substantial reduction of the achievaЫe benefits from controlled and rational irrigation. But another proЫem has arisen in connection with the variation in the hydraulic regimes of the Пооd downstream of Selingue : that reservoir has affected the Пооd levels as far as the inland delta of the Niger. As а consequence, some of the traditional farmlands that have semi-controlled irrigation are suffering from lack of water because the natural levels have been reduced. This proЫem, can Ье sur­ mounted Ьу а gradual changeover to а system of irrigation that is wholly controlled. lt must Ье pointed out that, unfortunately, the failure of these irrigation structures to adapt to the new conditions created Ьу the reservoir represents an obstacle which is encountered in this type of project. As а result, the efficiency of the project is diminished, and there may Ье а tendency to oppose the implementation of large-scale works.

3.4. Pisciculture After the creation ofthe reservoir pisciculture has become an important activity.

There аге now 35 fishing villages on the shores of the reservoir, with а total of 4 600 people working in the sector and 2 600 active fi shermen.

3.5. Health During а seminar held at Selingue from 21-24 January, 1986, а general as­ sessment was made of the nationwide campaign against schistosomiasis, malaria and other contagious diseases. А general, wel\ organized plan for the who\e country was drawn up with the cooperation of other countries, among which the most important was the Federal RepuЫic of Germany. Selingue has been considered as а pilot centre in the campaign against schis­ tosomiasis. The fi ndings of repeated surveys carried out in the area of the dam showed that, except for some cases of urinary bilharzia, schistosomiasis is not а real ргоЫеm for the health of the indigenous population. The creation ofthe reservoir has attracted Bozo fishermen who соте from areas infested with these parasites (Niger Offices, Mopti region and the Niger hinterland delta). The presence of snails, which are carriers of these parasites and the infl ux of реор\е who аге infected, create а risk that а permanent and strong strain of schistosomiasis may estaЫish itse\f. The results ofthe plan - not only for schistosomiasis or for the Selingue агеа - will depend on the funds and technical know-how which the country have availaЫe.

Malaria, once considered а seasonal disease, occurring only during the rainy season, is now fo und all the year round. The situation is being kept under control with the he\p of small health centres in each village on the lake. Cases of oncho­ cerciasis аге, оп the other hand, fewer, рrоЬаЫу because the larvae of the Пies, that develop in turbulent water, have been destroyed.

91 In conclusion, the dam's construction has created some health proЫems, especially in the case of Ьilharziasis which has increased among the fi shing popu­ lation, but has reduced others. As early as the preliminary studies, а potential proЫem was fo reseen, because it is known to Ье related to the creation of reservoirs, particularly when these are shallow and subject to marked changes in the water level. It is important that the Mali health authorities are fully aware of the proЫem and have taken the necessary measures in good time to deal with it, as reported in the " Rapport d'activite de l'annee 1984 " of the Institut National des Recherches pour \а Sante PuЬlique (INRSP) of Mali.

3.6. Education

New schools - at present 5 in all - have been built in the Selingue area. Before 1980 there was only one school going up to the sixth class (primary school). There are now 4 primary schools and one going up to the ninth class (secondary school) in the village of Kangara (ex-Dalabala), where the dam site is located.

4. CONCLUSIONS

The construction of the Selingue dam has resulted in а substantial and consistent benefit in the energy sector, which is particularly important in а country completely dependent оп oil imports. Despite the large quantity of water made availaЫe Ьу the reservoir, the benefits fo reseen in the agricultural sector have not been realized because of the lack of investment for the rehaЬilitation of the irrigation structures. It is to Ье hoped that - as is рrоЬаЫе - this will Ье remedied in the near future. Оп the plus side there has been consideraЫe development of pisciculture and а group of expert fisher folk (the Bozo) has arrived in the area : at the present time several thousand people live along the lake shores and make а good living Ьу fi shing, with an abundant haul of 3-4 tonnes daily, including very good quality fish.

The resettlement of the population was carried out without any proЫems; indeed there have been some organizational advantages such as а marked improve­ ment in the number of children attending school. The one negative factor has been the increase of diseases like Ьilharziasis (mainly owing to the immigration of the Bozo) and malaria; however, these are under control. This proЫem always arises in this area with the creation of artificial lakes (especially when these are fairly shallow). The only defence is the control of the parasites. In conclusion, when the benefits are compared to the proЫems resulting from the reservoir, the former outweigh the latter, even though the envisaged agricultural advantages have not been forthcoming. In summary, the dam is considered favoura­ Ыy Ьу the authorities and \оса\ population. The interest of this project lies in the fact that the environmental aspects were considered an integral part of the project from the very beginning, and continued

93 to Ье so in the construction phase and first few years of its implementation. The measures adopted have proved effective, and the negative environmental impact (the growth of bilharziasis and malaria) has been kept under control and has not created any insuperaЬ\e proЬ\em. Moreover, the direct benefits for the riparian population - such as fishing and small irrigation systems on the edges of the \ake - have turned out to Ье much greater than was foreseen. То conclude, the project can Ье considered highly positive for the economy of the country.

95 5. ТНЕ SANTEE COOPER PROJECT (USA)

1. INTRODUCTION

Amoпg the most revealiпg features of the Saпtee Cooper Project is the fact that it was coпceived апd placed iп service тапу years prior to the emergeпce of curreпt пatioпal iпterest апd policy оп the protectioп of the пatural eпvironmeпt. The geпerally excelleпt effect and improvemeпts resulting from this project substaпtiate а growing belief that, iп general, engineers who deal with water resource develop­ meпt and management are considerate custodians of the пatural aspects of the areas iп which their work is sited. As iпdicated iп the report, there were several "sur­ prises " once the project was iп operatioп for а period of time. That these "sur­ prises " proved to Ье eпviroпmentally ассерtаЫе attests to the iпhereпt coпscious­ пess of those who desigпed апd erected Saпtee Cooper Project. The author chal­ leпges others to miпimize surprises Ьу thorough рlаппiпg. Certaiпly todays world­ wide emphasis оп eпviroпmeпtal eпgiпeeriпg will support this goal.

2. SETПNG AND EARLY НISTORY

The project is located пorth of Charlestoп, S. С., а major port where the Ashley апd Cooper Rivers empty iпto the Atlaпtic Осеап. The Cooper River is ап iпdustrial waterway апd а пaval shipyard operates оп its baпks. Iпlaпd about 180 km is Columbia, the state capital. Siпce the l 700's there has Ьееп iпterest iп developiпg а пavigaЫe waterway betweeп the two cities.

The Coпgaree River flows through Columbia апd а few miles dowпstream joiпs the Wateree River to form the Saпtee. Оп its way through marshlaпds to the Atlaпtic пеаr Georgetowп (before the project), the Saпtee came withiп about 32 km of the smaller estuarial Cooper River fl owiпg southward. The streams were separated iп elevatioп Ьу about 7 .5 m ( Fig. 1 ).

Iп 1800 а сапаl did begiп operatiпg betweeп the Saпtee апd Cooper апd it was briefly successful. However, а poor aligпmeпt, competiпg traпsport, апd toll limi­ tatioпs worked agaiпst it. Tolls were paid Ьу the boat or barge, поt Ьу amouпt of cargo. Upcouпtry shippers sооп devised пested boats so that several passages dowпstream became опе оп the returп. Ву 1850 the сапа\ was out of busiпess.

Iпterest iп the соппесtiоп coпtiпued, however, апd with the iпveпtioп of hydroelectric power, а пеw elemeпt was added to the Saпtee Cooper possiЬilities. Iп 1926 а liceпse was graпted Ьу the Federal Power Commissioп to the ColumЬia

97 Railway and Navigation Company to build а canal and а small generating station near Moncks Corner. The Great Depression, the coming of the Roosevelt ега with its New Deal, PWA/WPA, and puЫic power, fi nally provided the fertile setting for realization of the great project.

3. DESCRIPТION

The concept of the Santee С оорег Project is to divert the Santee River into the Соорег River; obtain hydro power as the combined fl ows discharge from the Соорег River [)am ; and discharge power flows down Соорег River into Charleston Harbor. Major structures include : а major dam and spillway on Santee River; а channel joining the Santee to the Соорег River; and а major dam, hydropower plant and navigation lock on the Соорег River.

А central concrete spillway on the Santee, with 62 gate hays (Photo А), fl anked north and South Ьу 1 1.6 km of embankments, controls the level of the Santee River at about 22.9 т elevation. The dam impounds Lake Marion, approximately 56-64 km in length and 5 to 18 km wide, about 44 750 hectares surt'ace агеа. То the southeast, on the Broughton Hall Creek tributary to the Соорег River, а powerhouse, with Гоuг 30 MW and one 1 О MW generating units, and а 22.9 т high navigation lock аге flanked Ьу 48 km of embankments, east and west (Photo В). This dam, called Pinopolis, impounds Lake Moultrie, 24 400 hectares. The two reservoirs are joined Ьу а 12 km long canal approximately 3.7 т deep and аге controlled to approximately Elev. 22.5. Tailwater at the Pinopolis Powerhouse and Lock is approximately sea level. А 7.3 km tailrace and navigation сапа! connects the project to the Cooper River estuary ( Fig. 1 ).

4. ENVIRONMENT 1 - MEEТING ТНЕ ORIGINAL NEEDS

As it was conceived in the early 30's, Santee Соорег sought to meet Гi ve primary needs : jobs; hydroelectric power; puЫic health : - fl ood control ; navigation. These needs existed in а South Carolina environment of severe economic depression. lt was а depression which had begun after World War 1 and the collapse of cotton prices. Anything that promised reliet'would seem totally welcome. Still, the project was not without its detractors. Financial interests felt that the state resources, with а total budget оГ only about $ 6 million in 1934, could not stand the demand of the project which was estimated to cost $ 34 million. The railroads,

99 private power interests and some Iand holders, as mentioned below, were also against it. But, ultimately, the grant of 45 % of thc cost, plus guarantee of the State's 55

Opposition died hard : constitutionality was challenged, the cost estimate was claimed to Ье too low and geologists were brought in to charge that the reservoirs would never hold water. Opponents lost their case in 1937 and an appeal in 1938. Harza Engineering Company was hired in July of the same year and the Federal Power Commission License was purchased from the original holder in 1939.

4.1. Jobs It is reported that between 1920 and 1935, 80 % of South Carolina's young high school and college graduates left the state because of its depressed condition. Manufacturing was declining in all segments. Less than $ 400 million capital was being invested in 1930; only $ 113 ООО in Berkeley County, site of the project (1).

Timber clearing, which began in April 1939, was the responsibility of the Federal Works Progress Administration (WPA). The agency estaЫished camps where the workers were fed, housed and given recreation and medical саге. Nearly 9 ООО men, drawn Ьу quota from each of the 46 counties in the state, were employed in the logging, milling and clearing operation.

Construction itself began in Мау 1939. Interestingly, though its impetus was similar to that of the federal Tennessee Yalley Authority hydroelectric development, SCPSA did not become an employer of construction personnel itself, as ТУ А did. All construction was done Ьу private contracts awarded to the lowest responsiЫe bidder. At its peak the work force was 12 500, including those working on clearing. Thirty-three contractors were employed in the nation's largest PuЬlic Works A..!ministration project.

Second level jobs were created to service the construction organization and, starting in 1942, low cost power availaЫe to the Charleston industrial area created still more opportunities for workers.

4.2. Hydroelectric Power First generation occurred in February 1942, less than three years after exca­ vation began. All units were in service Ьу the fo llowing June. The project received strong impetus from Washington as а vital part of the War effort. Even so, it is hard to conceive of а project of this size being achieved in such а short time given the advances in earth moving and concrete handling equipment that were yet to соте.

( 1) Walter В. Edgar, History о{ Santee Соорег, 1934- 1 984.

101 Power immediately began to assist the industries in the Charleston area, particularly the important naval shipyard and Pittsburgh Metall urgical Company. Service was also estaЫished to local electric cooperatives, but only to а Iimited extent. PuЫic power connections to а broader area had yet to Ье developed and private utilities were reluctant to enter into "wheeling" contracts.

EstaЫishment of the Central Electric Power Cooperative, Inc. in 1948 led the way to Federal fu nds for transmission from the Rural Electrification Administration. СЕРС joined together fo urteen smaller cooperatives and eventually enaЫed Santee Cooper power to reach 35 of 46 South Carolina countries ( 1 ).

As its electric load increased over the years, the limitations of hydroelectric power, particularly in dry years, became evident in SCPSA's operations and other sources of generation were sought. Today, only а minor part of the utility's service is provided Ьу water power. (See also river re-diversion, 5.4 below.)

4.3. PuЫic Health If Santee Cooper were proposed today, an early concern would Ье for the wildlife in the Santee Swamp. In 1934 no rare or endangered species were men­ tioned. In fact, the only voices raised with concern for the swamp were those of "wealthy northern industrialists who had purchased hunting preserves and plan­ tations in the low country " ( 1 ). On the contrary, it was the human inhabitants of the swamp and its surrounding area, and the Santee Cooper workers, who were endangered from mosquito-borne malaria. Contemporary with the clearing operation (Photo С), SCPSC's Health and Sanitation Division estaЫished mosquito larvae control techniques - draining standing water and oil spraying (Photo О) - to battle the disease. ln 1939, 1 300 malaria cases and 46 deaths were reported in the counties that would border Lakes Marion and Moultrie; in 1948 no cases were reported ( 1 ).

4.4. Flood Control

In the years before Santee Cooper, the Santee River had overflowed its banks an average of nine times per year ( 1 ). The project eliminated this threat. Flood control draw downs are made and basin hydrology is monitored to give farmers sufficient warning when unusual storms occur and unexpected large releases must Ье made. In connection with flood control, however, the need to resettle the communities and fa rmers in the reservoir areas should Ье remarked, so, too, the relocation of а large number of cemeteries in the area. All was done with consideration for the desires and feelings of those involved and with а goal of recreating family situations and communities with private and puЫic buildings being retained and moved wherever possiЫe.

(1) Walter В. Edgar, Histori· of Santee-Cooper. 1934-1 984.

103 4.5. Navigation As has been indicated above, Santee Cooper had long been а navigation concept. Toward that end, the 22.9 m lift lock was installed beside the powerhouse to permit barge traffic into the lakes, perhaps to make ColumЬia one day an inland port. It never came about. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the fe deral agency responsiЫe for inland navigation, reversed its earlier support for possiЫe improve­ ment of the Congaree River, and the idea of major navigation was finally dropped.

The lock, however, as is noted below, served beneficially in an unexpected way and continues to contribute to the enjoyment of pleasure craft boating.

5. ENVIRONMENТ 11 - ТНЕ SURPRISES

Santee Cooper met all but one of its original goals, but а number of unforeseen things occurred which made important changes to its impact. Some of the surprises were salutary, some were not. But overall, the project has fa red them well, making the most out of good things and correcting the undesiraЫe project impacts.

5.1. Recreation The environment of the ЗО's gave little inkling of what would later happen to the affluence and moЬility of Americans. Small promise was seen for the major recreational resource that Lakes Marion and Moultrie have become. Today, rental cottages, lodges, camps, and marinas provide а wide variety of water-related recreation to entertain both nearby residents and servicemen plus travellers from other states. The Pinopolis Lock permits direct boating connections from Charleston and the ocean. Reforestation around the perimeters of the lakes has developed а fine environment fo r wildlife to the enjoyment of field sportsmen.

5.2. Fishery The most unexpected boon of Santee Cooper has been the estaЫishment of one of the most exciting game fisheries in the Southeast. " Unexpected boon " is hardly the phrase. In the years shortly after its completion, Santee Cooper was being damned Ьу some sportsmen as sure to destroy one of the major assets of the State : the striped bass (rockfish). It was fe ared that the interruption of the cycle of the fish that spawned in the fresh waters of the rivers, but retumed to the sea to develop, would Ье disastrous. But such predictions were wrong. In the late 40's, it was found necessary to protect the upstream faces of the dams with heavy stone riprap replacing part of the original less costly porous concrete fa cing. The passage of barges through the Pinopolis Lock with 800 ООО tonnes of stone accidentally brought along the rockfish during spawning season. Far from resenting the new haЬitat, the fish multiplied

105 spectacularly and today fishing for а variety of species, but particularly for striped bass, is an attraction that brings visitors from hundreds of miles around (Photo Е).

Another surprise aspect of the fishery was the additional benefit it provided in mosquito control. The insect larvae are а favorite food of the fi sh.

5.3. Industrial Water Supply

Fresh water from manufacturing was thought to Ье а substantial benefit to соте from Santee Cooper. Land was dedicated for the industrial parks. А special outlet was provided for downstream releases, separate from the power turЬines. But little development occurred and industry stayed downstream in the Charleston area, attracted albeit Ьу the inexpensive Santee Cooper power.

The future outlet became the source of а later proЫem-another surprise. Its upstream and downstream closure bulkheads were of treated timber. Submerged as they were, Iittle deterioration was anticipated. However, rotting occurred from the inside of the bulkheads outward and, in 1983, led to а threatening leak. Sandbagging and replacement of the bulkhead in an effective emergency plan of the Owner, averted any major proЫem. А powerhouse fi re in 1970 pointed up the dependence of the downstream Cooper River industries on the fresh water releases from the lakes. The releases tended to force the estuarial action of the river seaward. The fire put the generating units out of service, necesыtating an alternate way to make the large downstream releases. Ultimately, the water passages of the Pinopolis Lock were put into service for the purpose.

5.4. Siltation and the Re-Diversion Project

ln the project as conceived, silting was not projected as а major proЫem. lt was expected that silt would settle out in the sti\\water of the two large reservoirs.

This proved inaccurate. The silt-laden waters of the Santee River passed through Lake Moultrie and deposited in the Cooper River downstream. Over the years the silting action became а proЫem in the Charleston area, particularly in the 1960's when the U.S. Navy began to plan а base on the Cooper River for large submarines requiring а deep channel. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers studied the proЫem and determined that rediversion of the Santee waters back into their original course was necessary to avoid further harbor proЫems. In the process, 340 m3/s of the original 425 m3/s is now routed away from Santee Cooper's jeffries Station.

Fo1·tunately, the passage of time has already cushioned the effects of the river re-diversion on project power production. The original Santee Cooper Hydro Power Plant was а base load power faci\ity requiring continuous flow and а large annual discharge into the lower Cooper River. But today, as а small element of а much larger power system, it operates as а daily peaking plant and provides only а small annual discharge into the lower Cooper River, thus minimizing silting. Base load

107 hydro power now comes from the new St. Stephen Hydro Station located where the re-diverted Пows enter the lower Santee (See Fig. 1 ). Thus, the water power resource is completely utilized.

Fig. 1

Santee Соора Project (Sout/1 Carolina). lлcation Мар. ( 1) Santee dams and spill1m_1-. (2} Lake Marion. (3) Di1·ersion сапа/. ( 4) Cooper rii·er redii'ersion project. (5) Dikes. (6) Lake Moultrie. (7) Pinopolis dam poи·erhouse and lock. ( 8) Ta ilrace сапа/.

Соипо· line. Highи·a.1-.

109 Photo А

lлokinц 11ortl1 acгoss Santee Dam, 11·i1/1 its 62-цаtе spi/!1\'ll\', and Jдke Maf"ion at the le/i

Photo В

Santee Cooper Project lookinц soutl1н·est across the Pinopolis Dam, P(жerplant and Nai·igation Lock. Lake Moultrie and the sma// peninsula a·ith the tои·п of Pinopolis are in the mid-hackцround.

110 Photo С

Cleaгinf; in 1/1е Sanree sишпр a·as di[{icult. Согdипп mads и·еге built 10 f;ii·e access to some о/ the и·ettest агеаs.

Photo D

Sp mying cгeivs 1vеге oгfianized and tmined. Th e е{[о гt и·аs successfi1/ iп contmllinf; 1110.щuitoes in the sii·amps; та/агiа cases in the агеа и·еrе гeduced .fm m 1 300 in 1939 to zero rep orted in 1948. Histoгical marker is /(1г the Santee Сапа/ н-hich operated/rom 1793 to ahout 1850.

111 Photo f

Some sportsmen were sure the damming and diversion о/ the Santee and Cooper Rivers 1vould теап ап end to the striped bass /ishery. But the fish dei-elopednew hablts and sun·ived spectacularly, to the delight о{ /ishermen /rom JOO's о/ kilometers around.

112 Imprimerie de Montligeon, 61400 La Chapelle Montligeon Depбt legal : mai 1988 - No 13652 - ISSN 0534-8293 Couverture : Olivier Magna Copyright © ICOLD - CIGB

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