The Economical Geography of Swedish Norrland Author(S): Hans W:Son Ahlmann Source: Geografiska Annaler, Vol

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The Economical Geography of Swedish Norrland Author(s): Hans W:son Ahlmann Source: Geografiska Annaler, Vol. 3 (1921), pp. 97-164 Published by: Wiley on behalf of Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/519426 Accessed: 27-06-2016 10:05 UTC

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This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms THE ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SWEDISH NORRLAND.

BY HANS W:SON AHLMrANN.

INTRODUCTION.

T he position of Sweden can scarcely be called advantageous from the point of view of commercial geography. On its peninsula in the north-west cor- ner of Europe, and with its northern boundary abutting on the Polar world, it forms a backwater to the main stream of Continental communications. The southern boundary of Sweden lies in the same latitude as the boundary between Scotland and England, and as Labrador and British Columbia in America; while its northern boundary lies in the same latitude as the northern half of Greenland and the Arctic archipelago of America. The neighbourhood of the Atlantic alone has enabled this northerly country to be a highly civilized land, and gives the West- coast of South Sweden the open water that provides it with communication with the rest of the world all the year round. The extremely advantageous influence exercised by the Atlantic has not, however, counterbalanced the disadvantageous climatological conditions caused by the northerly position of North Sweden, to such an extent as to prevent these conditions from leaving their definitive mark on the scenery and human life of the whole country. There is still truth in the saying that the lower part of the river Dalilven forms the boundary line between the two great and most distinct divisions of Sweden, namely South Sweden and Norrland. The latter is shut off from the great com- municational area, the Atlantic, to the west by a mountain range and by the Nordland of Norway; thus it turns its face to the east where only the thinly populated expanses of Finland and North Russia extend, and from which the Gulf of Bothnia, being covered with ice throughout the winter, cannot be said to separate it entirely and to which it does not join it. During the last few decades Norrland has been regarded as the land of dreams and the land of the future. The dream has now been succeeded by reality, the future has become the present. At this very moment we stand in the midst of the development of Norrland. The time of enormous over-appreciation and under- appreciation has been succeeded by a conception of the value of Norrland which is based on more exact knowledge and experience. We need no longer appre- 7. Geografiska Annaler 192a.

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 98 H. W:SON AHLMANN hend such information from the governors of the counties in Norrland as in 1636, when a message arrived in Stockholm about the finding of >)mountains with Swedish diamonds, some as big as a man's head, and some thrice as large,; nor shall we see any more pronouncements as to the small value of the Norr. land woodlands. There may therefore be reason for giving a comprehensive survey of the industries of Norrland and their importance to the towns, which stand out as the most significant results of material and mental civilization.

The natural conditions as qualifications for the industries.

Neither from a physical-geographical nor from an anthropo-geographical point of view is Norrland a natural, sharply defined territory. In the following account of the main features of its economic geography it seems most suitable to make Norrland com- i j !' I prise the whole of Northern Sweden as far south as Dalarna and Uppland. Of those latter /-Y in provinces Dalarna belongs to "Bergslagen" and Uppland to the "Millar-district" (according to S. De Geer's (io) proposed division). Norrland i i ....r will thus comprise the following counties: Gavleborgs lan, Vasternorrlands lin, Jamt- lands lan, Vasterbottens lin and' Norrbot- ??an tens lin, (fig. i).1 The area of Norrland is 261,271I square kilometres, forming about 6o0 of the whole of Sweden; its population was ,o019,673 on the ist of Jan. 1920, forming about i8 f of that of Sweden. The natural conditions of the industry of Norrland are the geographical situation of the country, the nature of the rock and the soil, the topography, the climate, the vegetation, and the people. In the introduction the dis- Fig. i. The counties of Norrland. advanageous geographical position has already been briefly mentioned. From the point of view of commercial geography the rock ground is of interest I) through its ores, 2) as material for a morphology, fit or unfit for colo-

These counties are divided between the following provinces: Lappland, Norrbotten, Vaisterbotten, Angermanland, Jiimrntland, Hiirjedalen, Medelpad, Hilsingland and Gistrikland.

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 99 nization, 3) as primary material for the creation of soil through weathering and 4) as ground of the quartery sediments. From these points of view the rock of Norrland is sterile, but at the same time it is very rich in iron-ore within its northernmost section. The composition of the rock of Norrland is monotonous as compared with that of other countries, in so far as it may be said on the whole to be composed of three great groups only, viz. archaean rock, cambrio-silurian sediments and the rocks of the "Seve"-group. The archaean rock with a number of subdivisions of various ages and characters forms the whole of Eastern Norrland as far as a line stretching from the easternmost end of Storsj6n to the middle section of Tornetrask. It consists of granites, gneisses, porphyries, porphyric schists, mica- and clayschists, syenites and greenstones. Within a younger series of the archaean formation are situated on both sides of the Lulea-Riksgrainsen (-Narvik) railway line large quantities of iron-ore, Gellivare in a district composed of fine- grained gneisses and mica-schists, Kirunavaare in igneous rocks, syenites and porphyries, bounded on both sides by sedimentary rocks. From the point of view of morphology the most important characteristic of the rock is its homogeneous and resistant composition. Even if its granites, diorites and other igneous massives may put their special stamp on the topography, yet the action of the morphological forces has resulted in a monotonous topography, which for miles has the same chief character of long, undulating forms, broken in detail. Consequently, within the extensive eastern archaean region the rock can scarcely be said to offer any essentially different topographical qualifications for colonization or economic-geographical conditions. - Regarding the archaean rock as ground for the soil, it is wholly determined by the fact that during the ice age the inland ice swept the rock quite clean from loose sediments, so that everywhere firm rock was laid bare. This complete sweeping and the short time that has elapsed since then have had the result that the composition of the rock has on the whole very little importance for the weathering production of fertile soil. True, certain rocks, such as coarse-grained granites, (for instance the Refsund granite), get weathered much more easily and quickly than other kinds of rock, and on a small scale they offer better possibilities for cultivation. Yet not even in this respect would the archaean rock seem to be of any great practical importance to Norrland. The archaean rock forms only the hard ground of the quartery sediments. Nearest to the west of the archaean region there follows a zone of cambrio-silurian rocks. This zone has its incomparably widest extension round Storsj6n, to the north of which it narrows down to a thin line at the foot of the mountains. By being composed of clay-schists, alum-schists, limestones, sandstones, and quartz-

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 100 H. W:SON AHL MANN ites this series of rock is rather different from the archaean rock with regard to the conditions spoken of above. Its limestones are valuable as building material and for the production of lime which will be of great importance to the agriculture in Norrland (which has, however, hitherto taken its lime exclusively from Southern Sweden by rail or by sea). The series also contains iron pyrites, though no quantity is large and rich enough to have been utilized as yet. Because their stratigraphy is quite different from that of the archaean rock and because of their more easily weathered character the silurian rocks offer a topography differing from that of the barren archaean district and are more suited than the latter for cultivation and colonization with their open, flat "smiling" scenery and their comparatively level areas. Nor does this rock series on account of its smaller power of resistance form only the hard ground of the loose sediments, but it forms part of these and renders them more fertile. Thus, the Storsj6 district is the most important agricultural district of Norrland inside the eastern plain. To the west of the Silurian zone begin the mountains, composed of the rocks of the Seve-group and the "west facies" of the metamorphic cambrio-silurian series, characterized as "K6li-schists". As these series are situated at a high level above the sea and farthest to the west within the wide area, where the climate is se- verest and the communications worst, the petrographic composition of the mountain region is of still less importance than is the case with the other districts. Even for the reasons stated above the region is hardly fit for any great colonization. As a rule the limit of agriculture coincides with that of the coniferous forests. H. Nelson mentions (22) that in the basin of the river Ljusnan there are to be found peasant farms in Harjedalen at 700 m. above sea-level, in Jdmtland up to 6oo m. North of this the maximum height declines further, so that in the valley of the Ume river there are farms - though only with meadows, and without plough land - at over 520 m. above sea-level, and to the east of the Sarek- mountains there is a farm at 500 m. The most northerly farm in Sweden is Kummavuopio in 680 54' N.lat and at a height of 465 m. above sea-level. The necessary condition for the formation of agglomerations of people of any size in these districts is the existence of mineral and ore deposits worth quarrying. Such deposits exist too, though as yet only a couple of them have been utilized The large mass of iron-ore rich in titanium in Routivare at Kvikkjokk may be mentioned; existing olivin-stones are at certain places changed into potstones worth quarrying. - The K61li-rocks - chiefly composed of soft micaschists - are spread along the Norwegian border and thus assume a geographical position still less 6cumenic than the others. To a still greater extent than in the case of the Seve-rocks it is thus true that only the existence of large quantities of ore can give rise to a more extensive colonization. Iron pyrites are also

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 101 met with, but as yet only the Sutitelma has been utilizied with transport through Norway along the Saltenfjord.

------

jv S

Fig. 2. The natural districts of Norrland. The coast zone between the broken line and the coast line; the eastern plain between the coast line and the shaded area representing the. archaean plateau; the silurian district the area with great dots; the mountain district farthest to the west at the Norwegian boundary. Scale I : 8,000,000.

From a morphological and geographical point of view Norrland is to be regarded as a territory which - owing to an extremely long denudation - has

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 102 H. W:SON AHLMANN been changed into a region of very old age, partly attaining the stage of peneplain with its chief slope towards the east. The composition of the ground and the geologic-tectonical development have prevailed in the present topography; the mountains - in their highest parts reaching 2,000 m. above sea-level - still rise within the region of the old caledonian folding. Within this region it is especially the amphibiolites that form the highest mountain massives, only visited by Laplanders and tourists. Owing to tectonic overthrusts and the presence of more easily denudated rocks at the foot of the mountains, the Eastern border of the latter has become clearly marked topographically. At this border or at some distance outside there is a zone of long valley-lakes, stretching from NW to SE and resembling a series of "Piedmont-lakes" formed by overdeepening and dam- ming up. These lakes are a natural line of communication, and as also comparatively large quantities of loose material have been accumulated on their shores, the area has become the seat of a denser colonization than the neighbouring districts to the west as well as to the east. At the lower end of every large system of lakes there have long been church villages which have formed the centres of the interior of Norrland. Of thege may be mentioned Strom on Str6ms Vattudal, Vilhelmina on the Malgomaj, Stensele on Stor-Uman, Sorsele on Stor-Vindeln, Avaviken on Stor-Avan, Arjeploug on the Uddjaur, and Jokkmokk below the lakes of the Lilla Lule river. But the natural communication possibilities of the region will not be fully realized or entirely actualized until after the building of the In- land Railway (about this see below p. 159). The part of the lake zone that is situated within the Silurian district of the Storsj6 district is - for reasons stated above --- more cultivated and colonized than the other parts. To the east of the lake district extends the monotonous archaean district. The granulated surface with its long mountain ridges is cut by valleys from NW to SW. These are probably eroded with a lower base of erosion than that which has regulated the denudation of the adjoining archaean surfaces down to old age. Of the valleys particularly the southern ones are rather clearly marked, so that the country may be said to be ploughed up into a number of low mountain blocks parallel to the rivers. As the archaean rock has been more resistant than the Silurian rocks, the surface of the former is situated at a somewhat higher elevation than the latter. "The tops of the archaean plateau rise from the Silurian Zone, where they sink below the level of 300 metres, until they reach 500 to 6oo00 metres at a few miles' distance from the border of the said zone, after which they again slowly sink towards the coast, where they either end in a very sudden leap with mountains of a height of about 250 to 300 metres close to the coast - for instance in Angermanland - or successively pass over into the flat country in the east (i9 p. 91). Thus the valley-sections nearest to the east of the Silurian Zone are insequent. In detail the archaean surface is broken, in-

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 103

asmuch as the ground was swept clear of all weathered products during the gla- cial age and was afterwards covered only by an uneven layer of till. A number of large shallow depressions have come into existence, which are now occupied by lakes and by marshes and bogs. As, moreover, the till is stony and barren and the climate severe, the archaean plateau is scarcely fit for cultivation. Only here and there on the blocks between the valleys farms are to be found, either solitary or in small groups. Instead, this region is the home of the coniferous forests, and they occur to an extent that is wider and more continuous than in any other part of Scandinavia. The valleys are the zones of colonization. In an age, during and after the recession and disappearance of the ice, when the elevation of the country was lower than now, there were accumulated here first glaci-fluvial material and then more fine-grained marine and la- custral sediments. The narrow bottoms of the southern valleys have thus been filled up to comparatively broad accumulation plains, very suitable for colonization. The broader northern valleys have in the same way become still broader and flatter, which has, however, been of minor importance, in so far as this posi- tive factor of colonization is here balanced by the northerly position. After the accumulation the land has risenl so that the sediments have been cut through. This erosion cycle has been of such short duration that the new river beds have not had time to develop, but are very narrow and thus unsuitable for colonization. However, the valleys are colonization districts not only because of their fine- grained sediments, but also owing to the waterways and their waterfalls. The filling material remains not only with its coarsest constituents in the bed of the river and there gives rise to eddies and rapids, but in certain places it has so entirely filled up the bed of the river that it has been diverted into a side- course, where waterfalls have always been formed. Owing to the stuff it has dammed up, the loose material has entirely rearranged or disconnected great draining systems. The best example of this is Ragunda, which held a great lake until 1796, when the river Indalsilven resumed its old bed and the lake was tapped. We may further mention that the Storsj6 district ought rightly to belong to the river Ljungan and not to the river Indalsailven. The latter may therefore be said to be over-watered: i. e., its mass of water and its drainage area are greater than accords with the valley itself. This is a matter of decisive importance for the geography of the Sundsvall district, as we shall see later. There is also reason to suppose that the river Angermanilven has entirely left its old bed at Asele and that the Malgomaj lake-system used to discharge its water through a fairly large river somewhere near Ornsk6ldsvik, and not, as is now the case, at Hairn6sand. This circumstance also reacted in an interesting way on thetowns mentioned. A number of other examples of more or less great rearrangements

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 104 H. W:SON AHLMANN of drainage systems will probably be brought to light when more detailed investigations have been made. The above outline of the natural conditions of the archaean region may be summed up in the following four chief geomorphological evolutionary periods (besides eventually occurring shorter ones). By means of an extremely long denudation, regulated by a lower or more distant base of erosion than the present one, the land has as a whole been developed into an area in the stage between old age and the peneplain; initial unevennesses and the petrographical differences of the rock thus now hardly appear; yet, owing to the sweeping and selective erosion of the inland ice they have become somewhat more accentuated than before. The extensive monotonous areas now covered with stony moraine, well adapted for coniferous forests but hardly for cultivation, remain as results of this period. Through a lowering of the base of erosion or its westerly displacing the rivers eroded a young or mature valley system that (at least in the southern and middle parts of the country) divided the land into blocks stretching from the north-east to the south-west. The inland ice cleared and sharpened these valleys and probably also made their longitudinal profiles more broken than before. The valleys in themselves did not in this way become fit for large settlements. An improvement, important from the point of view of colonization, was brought about during and after the recession of the inland ice, when the valleys - with a base of erosion 200-3oo metres above the present one - were partly filled with glaci- fluvial and fluvial material. A broad accumulation plain, suitable for colonization and cultivation, is the result of this short period. A beginning lowering of the base of erosion introduced a new fluvial cycle, which has so far resulted in a young, mostly uninhabitable valley generation in the loose sediments. By this last stage the water-courses have again been broken, even more than the longitudinal profiles of the valleys require. The large number of waterfalls thus created now form an important factor for increased colonization on the adjoining sediment plains. Eastwards the archaean plateau sinks so much that after the recession of the inland ice the sea covered large parts of it, und a continuous plain of fine-grained sediments was formed. Through the elevation of the land it changed into a plain, the upper limit of which corresponds on the whole to the marine limit (viz. the uppermost elevation which the sea has reached after the ice recession). This plain forms the most important cultivation and colonization district of Norrland. The valleys which, situated below this limit, push into the archaean plateau form a transition to the latter. The rivers are the arteries of the region, on and along which the main lines of communication from the interior of the country pass. Owing to the fact that Norrland is shut off from the Atlantic by the elevated and desolate alpine region, and "that all running water and most of the roads lead down

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 105 to the Gulf of Bothnia, the eastern plain becomes the foreland in which the products of the interior are collected, and where the exchange of commodities as regards the most important articles of export and import takes place. The importance of the eastern plain is increased by the fact that the interior produces almost exclusively raw material. It is within this district, therefore, that the industrial centres and towns of Norrland are situated. The eastern plain is the only continuous settled area in Norrland. The skerry zone lying outside this, owing to its archipelagic nature, with a population of fishermen but without any great area of cultivated soil, has a character of its own. Its larger islands, especially the well-placed islands lying off the mouths of the great rivers, however, form the seat of great lumber industries. Moreover the skerry zone may be characterized as a kind of apron for the lowland region and as a natural protection for the towns. It appears from this survey of the general physical geography of Norrland that, owing to its system of rivers with their valleys in the mountain region, long lakes in the lake district, marked valleys through the archaean plateau and wide river courses across the eastern plain, the country gets a marked transversal division into zones stretching from the north-west to the south-east. This leading line is of great importance from an economic-geographical point of view, because it forms the natural line of communication between the interior and the trade centres at the mouths of the rivers. Scarcely less marked is the longitudinal division into: the mountain region, the Silurian zone, the archaean plateau, the eastern plain and the coast zone. This division into zones does not, however, offer any natural routes of traffic, particularly not on the archaean plateau, where so far only one railway line combines the separate valleys, and another is now being built to combine the natural transversal fields of communication created by the piedmont lakes. Within the eastern plain the coast traffic has carried on the interchange between the commercial centres. It is significant for the stability and importance of the transversal lines of communication - following the river system - that as yet no railway has been finished in the eastern plain parallel to the coast, and that the one now being built between Gavle and Harn6sand is a private under- taking that finds it hard to carry out its programme. The regional division of Norrland has caused A. G. H6gbom (I9) to divide the country into the following chief provinces, the extension of which appears immediately from the previous account: i) The mountains and the long series of lakes. 2) The Silurian zone. 3) The zone of the moraine hills and the large bogs (= the archaean plateau). 4) The region of the river and sediments and 5) The coast zone. This very natural division is the one mostly used. On the whole it agrees with the one used here, though somewhat different names have been employed. Yet there is a difference, viz. the mountains have been separated from

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 106 H. W:SON AHLMANTN the lake district which seems justifiable from a commercial-geographical point of view. H. Nelson (22) has also proposed a good division into regions, which is, however, particularly suitable when treating the whole of Sweden. To this survey of the most important geological and topographical conditions of Norrland we may now add the following general summary of its climate, as the third physical factor which shapes the possibilities of Norrland from the stand- point of commercial geography. As has been mentioned above, it is the nearness of the Atlantic that is the cause why Norrland, though it lies so far to the north, like the adjacent parts of Norway, has been able to become the region where human civilization and a regular economic life has penetrated furthest towards the north, nearest to the eternal ice of the Pole. Unfortunately the Alpine range lying to the west diminishes the good influence of the Atlantic and effects a great difference between the Norwegian coast and Norrland with regard to both temperature and precipitation. On the Norwegian coast the annual precipitation attains 1---2 m., while in Norrland it is only 0.4-0.5 m.; and in the mean temperature for Ja- nuary there is a difference between the two regions of Io1-14- in favour of Norway, while in summer, when the land is heated more than the water, Norr- land has a temperature 20--4 higher than the Norwegian coast. The entry of full winter into the coastal region of Norrland can be fixed at the time when the sea begins to freeze over, thus putting a stop to navigation. Ac- cording to the report of the Committee for Winter Navigation in Norrland (43), "the sea begins to freeze over, as a rule, in the North of the Gulf of Bothnia at the close of October or the beginning of November, at Lulefi about 14 Oct., but in the navigable channels outside about a fortnight later. In the more southerly parts of the Gulf of Bothnia, as in part of Ursviken, the winter begins about 26 Nov., but in the fairway in Ostra Kvarken at Holn6-Gad about 19 Dec., and in Vestra Kvarken about the middle of Nov. In the more northerly parts of the Gulf of Bothnia, such as Ornsk6ldsvik and Nordmaling, the sea begins to freeze over at the close of November, but the channel outside not until the beginning of January. At H.rn6sand the ice usually begins to form at the beginning of December, but in the Harnu-Harn6sand channel about 22 January; in Sundsvall about 8 Dec., but in the Bren6-Sundsvall channel about 23 January; in Gavle harbour about 4 Dec., but in the Eggegrund-Gavle channel about 4-I8 January. During the winter Gavle is blocked by ice for 81 days on an average, Sundsvall for 1o3, and Luleaf for 172 days." That fact that Norrland is shut off from the Atlantic by the mountain range gives the country a certain continental character with low winter temperature and rather great extremes of temperature, as is shown by the following table.

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Highest and Lowest Monthly and Annual Mean Temperature.

Jan. Febr. March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year

I highest - 4. - 3.2 - 3-' + 0.4 + 6.9 + 15.o + 18.6 + I5.9 + 10.3 + 5.5 + - 1.4 + 2.2

lowest - 19.8 - 24.3 - 14.8- 6.8 -- 0.7 + 8.0 + 12.7 + Io.o + 4.6 - 4.6-- 12.1 - 18.8-- 2.6

highest - 2.3 - o.3 + 0.9 + 2.7 + O0.3 + 15.o + 16.4 + 14.5 + 10.5 + 5.9 + 1.3-- 1.4 + 3.'

lowest - 18.6-- 17.21- 13.3- 3.31+ 1.2 + 8.4 + 1.24+ 9.5 + 5-7 3.--- 6.s-- 15.5-- 0.2 alowest 1highest - 1.0.4 + 2.4I. ? .86 + +3.8 .9+ -+ 8.93 +5 15.5 12.3 + 17,2 0. + 16.5 + 11-9 - 7-3 + 2.5-- I.a + 4.8

:1 lowest -- 15.7- 16.9-- 88.4- 2.4 + I - + 9.6 + 11.91 + 11.3 + 7. -3 1.3- 5.5-- 12.3 + 0.8

In the interior of Norrland the autumnal night frosts in are early and numerous. For the vegetable world it is also disadvantageous that the comparatively small precipitation within the archaean plateau and eastern plain mainly falls in summer, while spring is dry. Of the very greatest importance for the general character of Norrland and for the whole of its economic and social life are the snow conditions. The long winter with low temperature brings it about that a substantial part of the annual precipitation falls in the form of snow, or else the moisture settles down as hoar- frost. As the snowfall increases with the elevation of the country, the quantity of snow is very considerable for the interior of Norrland and especially for the Alpine region. It is a kind of storehouse for the precipitation which plays a decisive part in determining the amount of water carried by the rivers, by giving them most water at the time of the melting of the snow; and it is a necessary condition for the forestry, as the driving of timber in the forests requires enough snow for sledging. When the ground lies dead beneath the snow, the life of forest work passes over it; and when the snow melts in the alpine regions the mountain flood pours into the rivers, which carry down the last remains of the timber that has been cut down during the winter and transported to the river ice. On the average the snow lies 140 days in South Norriand, I60- I8o days in Central Norrland, and 2ro days in the extreme north of Norrland. The severe character of the climate in Norrland has undoubtedly an unfavour- able influence on many departments of life. It entirely determines the cultivation of the soil and its possibilities; and it sets its mark also on all other human work. The low temperature, together with the conditions as to the light, the long depressing period of darkness, which cannot be compensated for by the light sum-

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 108 H. W:SON AHLMANN mer nights. The scale for the additional salaries paid by the State to officials in Norrland has to be determined according to the diminishing degree of light during the dark period of the year; the time during which officers hold command in the fortress of Boden is also generally limited to a few years; it is said that workmen at Kiruna do not stay there for more than an average of 2.7 years, and even so far south as Ljusne cannot keep their workmen anything like so long as similar works in Bergslagen and South Sweden. In times like these each additional reduction in the intensity of labour and each hampering factor in labour conditions is of immense consequence to industry. Consequently Norrland occupies a disadvantageous position in this respect. The population conditions may be introduced with the following opinions of A. G. H6gbom (in 19). Even in the stone age there was a colonization of Norr- land from South Sweden, which reached not only part of the eastern plain, but also penetrated into the valleys of Harjedalen, Jamtland and South Lapland. S. Lindqvist has later shown that still earlier, in the bone age, there was a colonization of a great part of Southern Norrland. At the beginning of the 14th century the colonization had "reached such an extension and density that -- if the counties of Visterbotten and Norrbotten are excepted - the great majority of the present parishe sappear mentioned from this time. At the end of the Middle ages, howewer, the population of Norrland would not seem to have surpassed 60 to 70,000 inhabitants (with the exception of the county of Jamtland that then belonged to Norway). The following figures (from 30 and 34) show the growth of the population:

Districts 1571 1751 1800oo 865 1900 1915 1929

Norrbottens liin 6,829 36,869 7,372 74,576 134,769 174,227 180,342 Viisterbottens 7,174 1 88,763 143,735 170,299 179,376

84,500 ViisternorrlandsJimtlands , 70 23,7001 1 00 III,89o68,071 127,524 111,391 232,311 124,541 259,826 131,985 262,740 Giivleborgs 29,650 83,260 143,793 238,048 260,586 265,230 All Norrland ..... 67,353 148,759 239,132 502,727 860,254 989,479 I,oi9,673 All Sverige ...... 531,400 1,78o,678 2,347,303 4,114,141 5,136.44 5.712,740 5.847,037

The colonization of the interior of Lapland was specially attended to by the government during Sweden's period of greatness, partly because it wanted work-

1 At this time Jimtland, Skame, Halland, Blekinge, Gottland and the greater part of the county of Gothenburg-Bohus belonged to Denmark-Norway.

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 109 men for some mines there (for instance the Nasafjall). The first settlements in Lapland were thus founded in the nothernmost parishes of Norrbotten. The present distribution of the population between the four main natural districts in Norrland appears from the following figures:

Eastern plain with the coast zone...... 673,000 inhabitants Archaean plateau ...... 225,500 > Silurian district ...... 104,7oo00 Mountain district ...... 16,500 , S,o 19,700 inhabitants

The dominating influence of the eastern plain with the coast zone is striking. Although not the widest district it contains 2/3 of the whole population. With the exception of the limited Silurian district the eastern plain is the only district that has hitherto offered possibilities for the creation of the high degree of colonization and culture, wich is - as has been mentioned before - a testimonial of the young stage in the economical geographical development of Norrland. Still more expressive is this circumstance shown in the distribution of the towns between the various natural districts (p. 145). Norrland is the only district in Sweden, where any great number of strange elements form part of the resident rural population. During the last few centuries before our chronology the Laplanders came in from Norway. By and by they penetrated further south, in the I6th century they reached Jamtland and in the I9th their present southern border in the southernmost borderland. Their number was 7,000 in I91o and grows very little or hardly at all. Their importance to culture and industrial life has not been great, but the Laplanders with their reindeer form an altogether strange element in the otherwise uniform surroundings. Certain struggles there have been, however, between the agricultural population and these Laplanders. Those struggles have inter alia led to the definition of the so-called border of civilization, above which the soil is to be untouched. Reindeer-farming is at present going back, and the Laplanders are getting resident. We may also mention the disputes with Norway, brought about by the Laplandars, which led to the reindeer pasture convention with the said country in 1920. The other strange element of population is the Finns, who in g9o0 amounted to 24,770. They immigrated early and have been of importance for the colonization of the large woodlands, especially in Gastrikland and Hilsingland. This colonization was above all carried out by means of burning wood (Swed. >svedje- bruks), an utterly primitive method that was soon legally prohibited. At present

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 110 H. W:SON AHLMANN

Percentages of the total population engaged in the four main groupes of occupations.

Farming Manufacture Trade Districts and years Total forestry and and and Public population connected mining communica- service occupations tions

Gdvleborgs Mldn:

1840 ...... 109,794 79.x 11.7 2.0 7.2 1900oo ...... 238,048 43.0 40.3 I.xI 5.6 1910.o...... 253,792 44.2 38.- 13.7 4.0 1920o ...... 265,230 - - -

Vdsternorrlands dn : 1840o...... 85,875 88.3 6,9 1.2 3.6 1900 ...... 232,311 57.6 31.7 7,7 3.0 1910o ...... 250,512 54.4 30.9 11.4 3.3 1920...... 262,740 - -

Jdmtlands din: 1840...... 45,769 90.6 2.5 0.x 6.8 190g ...... 111,391 67.4 20.7 6.8 5.x 1910...... 118, 115 72.6 15.i 8.4 3.9 1020 ...... 131,985 - - - -

Vdsterbottens ldn:

1840...... 54,603 91.5 3.4 0.9 4.2 1900 ...... 143,735 74.5 I7.4 4.3 3.8 19g o...... 161,366 75.7 15.7 5.4 3.2 1920...... 179,376 - - - -

Norrbottens ldn:

1840...... 49,328 89.3 4.0 1.2 5.5 1900g...... 134,769 64.7 23.3 7.8 4.2 1910...... 161,132 59.8 25.0 10.3 4.9 1920...... 180,342 . - -

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRL AND 111 the Finns - who cannot be said to differ advantageously from the Swedes regarding character and temper -- are merged in the native population. As is seen from this the small additions of strange elements of population formed by Laplanders and Finns are of minor importance, and, like the rest of Sweden, Norrland stands out with a homogeneous and uniform population to the benefit of solidarity and development.

The Industries of Norriand.

With regard to the two chief factors of industrial life, the physical geography and ,the existence of raw material, the industrial life of Norrland is dependent on: i). The northerly position, the extensive area and the great distribution of archaean rock, only covered with moraine, and preventing the growth of an evenly distributed dense population. 2). The abundance of forests, floating- channels, water-power, and iron ore. These factors together determine the present character of Norrland as a colony of raw material in transition to an independent district of industrialism. The statistics of the distribution of the population according to occupation are unreliable, especially regarding the farmers of Norrland, among whom are included many who earn a great part of their living from other industries, above all forestry (see Hogbom 20). In spite of this the figures (p. 1 Io) may be given (according to 34 and 30) to furnish some idea of the industrial life of Norrland. A feature which runs through all the counties and years is, first and foremost, the predominance of the agricultural population over the other occupational groups. This especially holds good for the years down to the middle of the nineteenth century, for which the figures are both highest and "purest", inasmuch as the subsidiary income from other occupations is not so great then as it became later. According to N. Wohlin (34), the agricultural population of the county of Gavleborg increased during the hundred years before I86o more markedly than in the kingdom as a whole on the average: probably this increase amounted nearly to a doubling of the population. In the other four northern counties the agricultural population is almost trebled. In the sixties, however, a complete change takes place with the process of industrialization that then began. In the county of Gavleborg this process of industrialization was somewhat more marked than in the kingdom as a whole, and the agricultural population was increased by only a tenth, while for the other counties during the same period the agricultural population increased by 50 /o. These figures must primarily be considered against the background of what has previously been brought forward with regard to the very small percentage of cultivated land, which shows the extreme thinness of the population in general. Further they should be considered

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 112 H. W:SON AHLMANN in relation to those for the whole kingdom, which show a still greater decline for the agricultural population than in Norrland. While the statistics show here an increase in absolute figures, there is a decided diminution in several counties in South Sweden. Although, as has been said, our statistics with regard to these things are unreliable, yet it is probable that Norrland is the region of Sweden where the agricultural population shows the greatest arithmetical incre- ment. The reason for this is firstly the relatively large nativity, and secondly the fact that the resources of Norrland in the way of cultivable land are still so great that the division of homesteads can take place on a relatively large scale. The decennial periods between i86I and 19Io show an excess of births over deaths for Norrland which is considerably greater than for the rest of the country, inasmuch as the figures for Norrland are 11.7-17.1, as compared with 10.7-12.2 for the whole of Sweden. Moreover the increase of population per thousand per annum during four-fifths of this period was about twice as great as in the whole kingdom (1I.i--I8.9 in Norrland, as against 4.7-9 for the whole kingdom). After Igoo, however, there is a complete change in the latter respect and the changes of population within Sweden show even a loss for Norrland after that date. During the period 1871-1900 the gain of Norrland through internal shiftings of population was 55,000 persons, while its loss during the period I901-I91o ran to 20,000 persons. The same conditions are shown by the latest years. In other words, Norrland has ceased to attract population: it has been an area of colonization, but is so no longer. Agriculture: From what has previously been said about the colonization of Norrland it appears that Norrland has an old farming district. The following table (summarized from 17, 30) of the distribution of the land supplements the previous

Distribution of the land in thousands of hectars in 1918 (and 19o6, 19oo). The In wholeuNaThole In Belonging private o Cul-iNatural Wood- Other D i s t r i s t country(without to possesioncompanies tivatedin 196 meadowground land meadow ground land ground lakes) in 1900

Norrbottens liin...... 9,866 2,648 555 22 47 197 3,557 6,o65 Viisterbottens ...... 5,557 3,025 1 046 35 91 226 3,067 2,173 Jimtlands >> ...... 4,761 3,764 1,632 43 69 42 3,300 1,350 VTiHsternorrlands > ...... 2,413 2,389 1,087 45 107 48 2,030 228 Giivleborgs ...... 1,820 1 658 712 43 119 53 1,378 271 All Norriand ...... 24,417 13,484 5,032 38 433 566 13,332 10,087

The rest of Sverige ...... i 16,632 I -- i- 3,394- - 3,394 5 59 559 )11411 11,411 2, 2,219 I

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 113 one regarding the distribution of occupations, as it gives the position and mutual relations of farming and the other industries in Norrland. In spite of the considerable percentage of the farming population, the cultivated soil only covers an area of about I,s % of the whole ground while the wooded land amounts to 54 % and the impediments to 40 %. The reason of this is seen immediately from the previous account of the severe climate, the archaean rock and the great extension of peat-bogs. The geographical extension of the area of arable land is best seen on J. C. Anrick's map (6) drawn according to absolute methods. It

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Fig. 3. The valley of the river Angermanilven seen from the mountain Multraberget in the neig bour- hood of Solleftea. shows the mountain region without any kilometre of ploughland with the exception of the Undersaker and Hammerdal districts in Jamtland. 'Within the Silurian district the arable land increases, and within the Storsj6 country and northwards to Flasj6n it reaches a comparatively great extension. Further towards the north its size decreases within the lake district, and is not greater than within adjoining parts of the archaean plateau. Within the latter the valleys - particularly the southern ones as far as the river Angermanailven - stand out as zones of culti- 8. Geogra/iska Annaler 1921.

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 114 H. W:SON AHLMANN vation between the large wooded land-blocks that only here and there have a few square kilometres of cultivated ground. Within the eastern plain the cultivated soil is concentrated round the mouth-districts of the great rivers and the lower parts, now occupied by lakes and watercourses or partly filled with the

------

2 mi

Fig. 4. Map of the lower parts of the rivers AngermanIlven, Indalsilven and Ljungan, showing the distribution of the population. Dark shaded (at the coast): areas with more than 75 persons pr. sq.-km., comprising industrial districts; light shaded (in the interior): areas with less than 75 persons pr.sq.-km., comprising agricultural districts. The continuous, fine line: the uppermost marine limit. Dotted lines: railways. (Based on a map of the settlement of Norrland compiled by Norlindh.) most finegrained loose sediments. The most continuous cultivated tracts occur in the valleys of the rivers Ljungan and Angermanalven (fig. 3,4). In the Ume. district trictalso - theespecially area of around ploughland Vinnais is considerable. - and in the TheLjusnan valley area of andthe theriver Skellefte. Indalsalven, dis- on the other hand, is relatively little cultivated, owing to its slight breadth and

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 115 the sediments caused by this; and the district west of Gaivle is also but little used for agricultural purposes. Amongst the districts between the rivers, Stor- Kage, and the Dellendistrict are especially distinguished for their great tracts of ploughland. Particularly in these districts of the eastern plain the farming is rich even in comparison with South Sweden, where one has no real idea of the density and solidity of these Norrland regions. Fig. 4 (summarized after Norlindhs map of the population in Norrland) gives, somewhat schematically, the distribution of population in the districts round the lower parts of the rivers Ljungan, Indalsalven, and Angermanailven. The choice of the limit in density of population with regard to the light and the dark tint the author has taken such that the former almost exclusively embraces the agricultural population and the latter industrial districts. If we ignore these latter, the map gives the main features in the distribution of population that have existed for very long periods. It is true that the agricultural population has not inconsiderably increased in numbers during the last few decades and that new areas have been brought under the plough, but nevertheless the general grouping of the settled areas has certainly been the same for long periods. We thus see that the river valleys, especially those of the rivers Ljungan and Angermanalven, show the most continuous settled areas below the marine limit. Between the valleys settlements are scattered: they are thickest in the eastern districts on the plain and then gradually thin out towards the archaean plateau in the west and dis- appear almost entirely on the left side of the map. On these intermediate areas the process of colonization has clearly followed the watercourses and has been fixed either by them or by the shores of lakes that the river flows through or comes from. Yet, according to P. Hellstr6m (17) great parts of fertile soil in the county of Norrbotten are still uncultivated. In the coast region, according to the land survey of 1901, only one fifth of the cultivable land, and in the Lappland at most one-twentieth (according to other authorities, only one fortieth) has been brought into use. Here, however, cultivable land is held to include certain bogs. In the county of Ja~mtland, especially in the northern part of the county, there are large areas of land that are very suitable for cultivation. In the county of Vasterbotten the land is more fully utilized, but along the coastal rivers of An- germanland there still remains serviceable ground. In the forest districts of Gastrikland there are also said to be tracts with good possibilities for agriculture. The meteorological factor that is especially important for farming or that may be said to characterize it, is the short duration of the period of vegetation (see table p. 116); in the county of Norrbotten it lasts only about 143 days and in that of Visternorrland 168 compared with 23o in Osterg6tland and 256 in Skine. This short duration of the period of vegetation is not compensated for by the day. light lasting longer during the summer farther north. As spring begins much

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 116 H. W:SON AHLMANN

Average temperature for the year, the numbers of days of vegetation and the use value of the cereal harvest and the hay crop in millions of kr. for the

Aver- Days Forage Grass D i s t r i c t s temp. vegetaage of rye Autumn Barley Oats Barley Potatoes Oatsplants; specially and and of the tion hay pasture year

Norrbottens lin ...... I -- 3 143 1.5 (I.o) 25.9(15.4) 9.8 (.5) 4. (3.6) 55.6(68.8) o.8(5.x) Visterbottens >> ...... + 0.7 16o0 .7 (0.8) 17.5(15.9), 6.4(2.4) 3.6(2.8) 65.o (66.) 3.9(519) Jlimtlands ...... + I. 165 I.x (0.9) 4.5(12.8) 2.4(1,2) 3.1 (2.4) 72.o(70.0) 3.5 (6.5) ViSsternorrlands ...... + 2.3 168 2.o (I.) 17.1(15.3) 8.(6.7) 5.6 (4.6) 60.5 (66,0) 2.8(4.5) Giivleborgs I ...... + 3-5 190 2.2 (2.3)1 9.8 (7.7) 16.9 (17.2) 3.5 (32) 62.5 (59.x) 0.3 (2.6)

All Norrland ...... + 10.31 - 1.5 (I.2) 16.9 (I3.4) 8.7(5-7) 5.7 (3.3) 63.x (66.o) 2.3(4.9) The rest of Sweden ...... - - 10.2 3.4 23.0 3.8 32. 4.2 later than in South Sweden, but the harvest of the most important cultivated plants takes place at about the same time, there is in Norrland a much shorter time for field work than in the rest of the country. Like the disadvantageous distribution of rain, previously pointed out, the danger of frosts gives to the farming of Norrland its peculiar character. - With regard to the latter it should first be pointed out that the county of Gavleborg agrees in most respects more with South Sweden than with Norrland. This was especially the case formerly, when the county of Gdivleborg was specially corn-producing. The nature of the farming of Norrland is also seen from the table (summarized from 17 and 30) which shows how the importance of the hay-crop in comparison with the corn harvest is very much greater all over Norrland than in South Sweden, and also how it increases in Norrland towards the north. From the table (p. I 2) it is also seen what a great area the natural meadows cover compared with the cultivated soil, especially in the northernmost parts, and what a great percentage of the cultivated ground is covered by forage-plants. These facts mean that towards the north cattle-breeding more and more overweighs corn-farming owing to physical-geographical conditions, especially the light and the severe climate. The table shows how all kinds of cereals cover a much smaller percentage of the tilled ground than in South Sweden. This holds good especially about wheat, which is only grown on a very small area in Gatstrikland and not at all in the rest of Norrland. The percentage of the area of the autumn rye is also much smaller. Oats show less difference for natural reasons. Barley forms an exception: it covers a comparatively much wider area than in South Sweden, its importance increases towards the north, and it is the only corn of the northernmost counties.

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 117 of the cultivated ground in percentage for different kinds of crop in 1913 and (192o), the years 1913-1915 and (192o) and the stock of cattle 18o5 and 1916.

Other kinds Value in millions of kr. Number of cattle in thousands in 1805 and 1916 Total of plants, for the years 1913-1915 number of fallow,uncultivated and and (1920) Horsesanimals Cattle Swine Sheep animals ground Corn havest ground Hay crop i8o5 1916 18o5968o5 1916 1916 5 9 1916

2.4 (4.6) 4. (5-3) 15.3(25.6) 4.2 14.9 26.6 77.0 4.6 26.8 74.2 175.6 2.9(6.5) 5.x (9.4) 23.8 (33-5) 4.6 20.7 27.0 111.3 12.o 28.: 93.6 25L17 3.4 (6.2) 3.3 (6.2) 14.5 (28.8) 5.9 18.5 34.2 77.x 7.3 36.6 50.g 194.7 3.9 (1.8) 6.o (12.5) 17.5(31.8) 9.9 20.6 49.2 111.2 13.6 46.6 70.4 249 9 4.8(7.9) 7.8(17.4) 22.3(28.2) 11.8 19.9 56.0 90.2 19.8 40.3 53.? 195.6

3.5(5.4) 126.3(50.8) 9 .4(143.9) 11 36.41 94.61 93.ol 466.8 57.3 1 7.4 1 342.41 1,067.2 23.3 1404.6(810o.3) 293.3(443.2) 358.5 606.6 1,278.9 2,441.4 I,oo8.o 1,071.5 856. 1 4,942-7

Potateos cover about the same percentage of area as in the rest of the country. Thus the climate forces the kinds of corn that are most in need of warmth to decrease towards the north in favour of barley and hay. The produce of the grown plants per unit of area is, however, not smaller in Norrland than in South Sweden. Certain statistics even indicate (in 17) that the opposite is the case. The value of the corn-crop is also great compared with the small area of tilled ground. In the last few years (1920) the corn area has decreased still more and the area with forage plants has increased. The value of the total corn-harvest and hay-crop has increased - almost doubled - because of the fall in the value of money. The number of cattle, which has grown considerably since I805, is of course much smaller than in South Sweden, but in proportion to the population the numbers are about the same, or even higher for Norrland than for South Sweden. This agrees with what has been said above about the growing importance of cattle-breeding towards the north. Most cattle are found in the most industrialized counties, such as Vasternorrland and Visterbotten. With regard to pig- breeding, on the other hand, Norrland is still very much behind. The peculiar character of the agriculture of Norrland has naturally resulted in special conditions concerning the produce of vegetables. The investigation of N. Wohlin (35) has shown that all Norrland is deficient in the two most important bread-producing kinds of corn, viz. wheat and rye. In spite of the great distribution of barley, there is only a limited district in the north part of the county of Givleborg that has a surplus, i. e. produces more than the total population consumes. The county of Gavleborg is also the only one that has a surplus of oats. The growing of potatoes, on the other hand, is so important that the greater

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 118 H. W:SON AHLMANN part of Norrland supplies its wants. With regard to cattle the greatest part of Norrland also has a surplus, in consequence of which large parts also have a surplus of milk (especially the eastern plain) and butter; cheese, on the other hand, is less plentiful, and from what has been said above it is clear that all Norrland suffers from the want of pork; the same is true of eggs and of course garden produce. From the preceding paragraphs it appears that most food-stuffs must be transported to Norrland fromt hes outh. According to table p. 144. Norrland needs a yearly import of cereals of about 140,ooo tons; of this quantity 26,400 tons were directly imported into the Norrland ports and 141,000 from South Sweden, of which 80,500 were transported by sea and the rest by rail. The general conditions of nature in Norrland and the special character or its farming have caused 95.5 % of the whole district to belong to small or medium farms (of less than 50 hectar). There is a great difference of opinion as to the future of Norrland as a farming district. The advocates of farming assert that farming, adapted to the conditions of nature, has great possibilities of development. Yet in its forests, its ores and its waterfalls Norrland has its natural qualifications for developing its industry in the first place, or, in other words, for developing the already existing centres of colonization and creating new ones. Forestry, more exacting with every year, also requires more people resident on the archaean plateau. We may therefore expect that if an agricultural colonization or a more intensive system of agriculture arises in Norrland, this would take place primarily around the industrial districts which already exist and are in process of development and around the new industrial centres which will undoubtedly spring up in the near future at various places in Norrland. An independent agricultural colonization within areas that have now but a small population is hardly likely to take place to any great extent, even though one may expect increased cultivation in the best parts of the Silurian and lake zones when the Inland Railway is finished. Even with regard to the future of agriculture it will never again dominate in Norrland but retain a sub- ordinate position as a handmaid to industry.

Forestry and lumber-trade. In spite of the culture strife of centuries it is still the forest that puts its stamp on Norrland. The archaean plateau, so unsuitable for cultivation that as yet less than I % of its area has been used for agriculture, is the excellent ground, where the 13,300,ooo hectars of forest of Norrland grow (fig. 2). This forest, that belongs to the North Baltic region, is almost exclusively composed of fir (Pinus silvestris) and pine (Picea abies, syn. P. excelsa);

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 119 accessory elements are birch (Betula odorata), aspen (Populus tremula) and alder (Alnus incana and glutinosa). The commercial history of the forests of Norrland and their present condition and use in the first place depend on the scant population of the country and the character of outfield land and raw material colony that it has had for a couple

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of decades. As yet the consumption of lumber and wood-pulp is small in Norr- land itself. To begin with the forest belonged to everybody, then the state claimed own- ership, and in that capacity it started the so-called "avvittringsverk" in the 19th century. The task of this work was to provide farmers and settlers with wood to improve their economical position and encourage the colonization. The result of this great "avvittringsverk" is the fact that so extensive areas are now in the

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 120 IT. W:SON AHLMANN hands of - companies (tabl. p. II 2). Since 19go6 the companies are prohibited to purchase ground ("Norrlandska fdrbudslagen"). The great revolution of late years in the forest economy of Norrland, and in the whole of its economic life, has been the immense boom in the lumber industry in the sixties. Even during the Middle Ages, it is true, Sweden exported forests products, but it was not until the time of Gustavus Vasa that one can speak of any real lumber trade. For a long time, however, that trade took place mainly from Nya L6d6se, and later from Vastervik, Norrk6ping and Soderk6ping, and Stockholm, Gavle and Oregrund. It is true that lumbering in Norrland was encouraged by the fact that Johan III founded sawmills at, for instance Iggesund in Hilsingland, Njurunda in Medelpad and at two places in Angermanland; but even after these hade come into existence the making of tar remained of the same importance for the forestry of Norrland as oak lumber for the west coast ports. Coniferous trees had not yet attained any value, and "the Norrland peasant engaged in the floating of logs had often to be contented if his takings covered the cost of living during the period he worked in that way". In addition to this, forestry suffered from the privileges granted to ironworking. Another thing which had a hampering effect on the management of lumber trade in Norrland was also that which is known as the Bothnian Trade Restriction. In spite of all these impediments, however, we must say that, long before the Norrland forests came to be utilized in a rational manner and their value came to be turned to full account, they were of much importance for the settlement of the coast zone. For, however much the lumber trade was hampered, nevertheless as early as in the eighteenth century woodgoods take a very prominent place in the exports of the Norrland towns. In consequence of the ordinances of 1647 and 0664, which permitted anybody to fell timber for sawing, and after the ordinance of 1734, which accorded to the sawmills the right of unrestricted cutting, there arose at the close of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century a large number of sawmills in Norrland. Nowadays the forest must be regarded as the most valuable natural resource of Sweden. As an iron-producing country we have been entirely outdistanced by other countries in the course of the nineteenth century; buth with regard to wood Sweden still takes a leading position in the world and will certainly continue to be of great consequence. When in the forties the import of lumber into England became free, liberal ideas of political economy asserted themselves, and the problem of lumbering the forest was technically solved by the steam-saws, then the forest got its economical importance, and the new era of Norrland commenced; then large parts of the private forests came into the hands of the companies, because their former owners did not understand the new value. Steam made the sawmills independ-

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Fig. 6. The floating channels of Norrland (after 16 and 47).

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 122 H. W:SON AHLMANN ent of the rapids in the interior of the country, so that sawmills could be established at the mouths of the rivers in the lowland regions that were the most suitable places for them. There was one great rout for the movement of the population: from the archaean plateau down to the eastern plain and the coast zone with their new industrial centres. The new settlements in the coast-zone and the eastern plain were so large that they played a great anthropo-geographical part and were of decisive importance to already existing communities. The years 1848, - when the first steam sawmill was founded at Vivsta vary near Sundsvall, - and 1853, - when the second steam sawmill came into existence at Kramfors in Angermanland, - are consequently not only extremely important years for the lumber industry itself, but they are also the dates of the hitherto most important period in the development ot Norrland. The factor that made the lumbering of the Norrlandish forests possible was, however, not only the steam sawmills but also the drainage system that is exceedingly well adapted to floating channels (fig. 6). According to the calculation of the Ore-Committee (41) the total area of ground pr kilometre of floating channel is estimated in Norrland at a maximum of 9,5 square kilometres, i. e. an area on both sides of the floating channel with a breadth of 4.8 kilometres. The practical result of this is that wood from the forests of all Norrland may be brought to the floating channels with an average maximum driving distance of 7 to 8 kilometres, which is very advantageous. According to Smedberg 1 the total length of the floating channels in Norrland is about 22,ooo kilometres. If the whole system of the river Dalalven is added the figure is 24,450. Of the real Norrlandish systems the one of the river An- germanilven is greatest (2,816 km.), then follow those of the Umeriver (2,403), the Kalixriver (1,955), the Ljusnan (1,889) etc. As a comparison with these figures it may be mentioned that in 1920 the railway system of the whole of Sweden was I5,I54 kilometres, of which about one fifth belonged to Norrland. Further, during the period from 1908 to 1912 the floating traffic carried out 1,778 million ton- kilometres on an average, while for all the Swedish railways the average number of ton-kilometres during the same period was 2,417 millions. To the most important industry of Norrland the railways are, indeed, of small consequence. Figure 7 shows graphically the quantity of logs (after I7) that arrives at the ends of the floating districts at the mouths of the rivers and thus illustrates the present production of the various forest districts. They also form the primary quantities that determine the geographical position and extension of the lumber industry districts. The figure shows that the river Dalalven has most floating or 14 millions of logs ( 3 cubic feet pr log in average). The river An- germanailven comes next with 9,700,000 pieces (0 5 cubic feet pr log in average). Yet the rivers Indalsalven and Ljungan together transport more than the river Flottningsfbreningarnas f6rdelning pa vattendomstolarna. Flottningstidskrift I918 h. 6.

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- r. 1. - s. ,- - r - o. z r r- 5'-_ 7

Lii Ii i

} ! i i .?_go~

i i k" i t; Xb t

i:)'

!Ii

,.-i-- .. ...`i-.. . . .' _ ;: ; - - ,

Fig. 7. The floating districts of Norrland. (Scale I: 8,5oo,ooo). The shaded: areas above the coniferous forest. The black circles mark the number of logs of the floating districts pr year (on an average during the period 19o8-1912). I mm. radious = c:a 1,55ss million logs.

Angermanilven or 10,200,000ooo logs, which is of the greatest importance for the question here spoken of, in so far as those two rivers together determine the

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uniform Sundsvall district. The river Ljusnan transports little less than the river Angermanilven (9,269,000 logs). The Ume and Skellefte rivers, on the other hand, transport much less (about 2 millions). The'Harmanger, GideH and Husum rivers transport more than one million pieces, the two latter forming one floating system. The large rivers of North Norrland all transport less than one million, because the still saved state forests are situated within their drainage districts. The yearly average number of logs during the period 1908-19I2 was 66 million logs; in 1912 the sum was 77,7 millions. The lakes within the river districts are only intermediate stations (fig. 8) in the floating, and only in one or two cases have they become places, where logs are

::::::_i . ::-ji:::::.: . ;-r -"..: :'::~: :---: 41~

:::i :: .

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Fig. 8. A timber-jam (timber magazine) in a river in Norrland.

elevated for minor sawmills. The terminal points of the floating districts and the centres of collecting the logs are the mouths of the chief rivers; practically all the logs arrive there. The exceptions to this rule are the rivers Dalalven and Ljusnan. The logs from the mouths of the minor water-courses are also towed to these mouth-centres. The archipelagic character of the coast is of importance for this transport, in so far as it offers secure fairways inside the skerries. The river Dalalven and to a certain extent also the river Ljusnan differ from the conditions now mentioned, for on neither of these two rivers do the floating goods reach the very mouth. In the firstnanted river this condition depends upon the lack of skerries in the mouth of the river; thus the logs cannot be sorted here because the water is not sufficiently calm. In the river Ljusnan there are various fishing conditions that prohibit floating in the lower parts of it. Along the whole drainage system of the river Dalalven there are larger or smaller places, where timber is elevated; at Firnas the logs are taken up for the large sawmill

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 125 of Korsnits, and at Ramson the goods for Skutskar. These circumstances do not speak least regarding the essential difference of the district of the river Dalalven from the rest of Norrland. The logs of the river Ljusnan are taken up at Mysje in the lowest section of the river to be conveyed to S6derhamn by rail and from thence by sea-floating to the sawmills along the coast. The log quantities of the separate rivers are the primary reason of the situation and size of the lumber trade districts, shown by the following figures. But it must be remembered that the large sawmills in the largest industrial districts especially those of Sundsvall and hirn6sand, have now had to collect their ne, cessary masses of timber from very different districts. Thus such a considerable

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Fig. 9. The sawmill of Skutsklir in the neighbourhood of G~ivle. work as for instance Kubikenborg now takes its rawmaterial from the whole coast district from Haparanda to Sbderhamn, and Holmen must go as far as South Sweden to satisfy its wants. A not inconsiderable import of timber is also existing from Finland across the Gulf of Bothnia. The largest sawmill district is the one at Sundsvall between the mouths of the rivers Indalsailven and Ljungan. That of the river Angermanailven between Harndsand and Sollefted comes next. Together with that of Ornskbldsvik those districts (see fig. 17) had in 1912 o06 sawmills, whose output of sawed and planed lumber was 50,5 million crowns. Next we come to the districts of Sbderhamn and Givle, which, together with the minor places in the cdiinty of Gaivleborg, had Io8 sawmills with an output of 26 million crowns. The sawmill districts of the counties of Norrbotten and Visterbotten are much smaller - from reasons stated above. They had respectively 34 and 39 sawmills with an output of I I, and I2,7 million crowns. The county of Jaimtland, finally, had 39 sawmills with an output of 3,3 million crowns. The output of the whole of Norrland was 11,7

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million crowns, and that of the rest of Sweden only 51,9 (only the production of the large sawmills taken into consideration). If we consider the lumber export from the separate shipping-districts (fig. io), we shall find that those of Sundsvall and Harnosand in I9I2 separately exported as much (95o,ooo cubic metres) as the whole distriet from Haparanda to Skelleftea and only little less than the district from Hudiks- vall to Gavle (1,3 million cubic metres). The export of all Norrland was 4,6 million cubic metres, while that of the rest of Swe- den xas only 2,x millions. The importance of the forests of Norrland to the foreign trade of Sweden also appears from the fact that Gunnar Andersson (4) estimates all the export of Sweden from 1863 to 19I2 at 15 milli- ard crowns, of which the forests of Norrland

Z contributed about 4,5 milliards. To the lumber trade of Norrland the wood-pulp industry - previously developed in South Sweden - has been added during the last decade, which shows a tendency towards a greater manufacturing of the raw material of the forests. The most numerous wood-pulp factories are situated within the district of Sundsvall. That of Harnosand -Solleftel comes next. In 1913 the northernmost factory was the one at Lulea. The paper industry had on the other hand in the same year only got as far as 2 fac- Planed tories, one in the Sundsvall district and one Round at Hudiksvall, while in the Midlands and South Sweden there were some 60o. The development of the wood-pulp industry in pro- Fig. Io. Summary of Swedish lumber exports in 1913, divided according to shipping districts. portion to the sawmill industry appears from I,o mm. radius = So,ooo standards export. the following figures: from 1896 to 19oo the average yearly output of the sawmills of Norrland was 96,5 million crowns out of Sweden's total output of 140 million crowns, and in 1913 1 20 million crowns out of the total output of 2oo millions, while the corresponding figures for wood-pulp industry are 6,7 million crowns for the former period out of the total 24 millions of Sweden, and for 1913 63 million crowns out of I 26 millions.

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How have the forests of Norrland endured this industrial development, enormous for Swedish circumstances? The colossal reserve of capital which the Norr- land forests represented when the lumber industry came into being, is now largely used up. As Gunnar Andersson says (4) "generally speaking, in the private forests of North Sweden the first crop has been taken", and we now face a period which demands strong and exacting care of the forests so that their utilization can be kept going and new harvest obtained. In the neighbourhood of settled areas and roughly speaking below the highest marine limit, the old forest has practically disappeared entirely, states H. Hesselman (I8), who adds that young forests and stands of medium age are predominant. Further away from the settled areas, far above the marine limit, however, there still remain, after the cutting of the fires thinned stands of pines, which to a very great extent now yield timber for the Norrland wood-pulp factories. The great beam trees, which have demanded many hundred of years for their growth will never come again; we shall have to content ourselves with weaker and poorer dimensions than those given by the primeval forests. But this means an increased output and a higher economical yield from the voods. Hesselman further points out that the rational management of the present young forests and the medium-aged stretches of wood is a thing of the very greatest importance for the continued profitableness of the Norrland forests. In many places too one can find well- managed stretches of forest that are not greatly inferior to the finest forests in the Bergslag region of Central Sweden: thus Hesselman cites a mixed stand of wood in Angermanland, which has grown up on an old rye clearing and is now about 90o years old, where the spruces are 28-29 m. high and the whole plot has probably a cubic content of 500 m. of timber per unit of surface, which is extremely fine. According to the Forest Preservation Committee of 1896 North Sweden yields 16,8 mill. cubic metres and South Sweden 18,5. According to Zellkn's estimates of 1go6, however, the corresponding figures are 22,5 for North Sweden and 23,1 for South Sweden. The following figures are the most probable for the production (in cubic-metres) during one hundred years on different grounds and in properly managed and enclosed stands:

Best ground Medium Poor ground ground

TheLapland rest andof Norriand Norrbotten and Dalarna...... 4506oo 300400 225150 South Sweden ...... 750 500 300

The reason of this state of thing is first and foremost the greater natural incre- ment of forests in South Sweden, which is due to the better climatological con-

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 128 H. W:SON AHL MANN ditions there than in Norrland. Moreover the forests of South Sweden are now in an older and to some extent better state of cultivation. Because of the circumstances now mentioned the forests of Norrland have lately been unable to produce quite as much as before. True, the number of the pieces of logs in most of the rivers has risen during the periods from 1903 to 1907 and from 1907 to 1912, but this to a great extent depends on the yearly increased wood-pulp factories. The production and export of lumber have attained a steady production from 900oo. This fact is clearly illustrated by the fact that the divisions of Sk6n and Timra - that are the most marked sawmill districts in the Sundsvall country - show a speedily increasing population from 1855 to i890, when retardation sets in (fig. 17). The defective capability of the lumber industry to increase the population ever since the nineties has not only found expression in the stagnation in the industrial districts themselves but also in a change in the population conditions within the whole district affected by the lumber trade and the forestry connected with it. As has been mentioned previously, Norrland has ceased to attract people since I~oo and to profit from the interior emigration, but on the contrary suffered losses. This also appears from an ana- lysis of the movement of the population within the 34 parishes in the valleys of the rivers Indalsalven and Angermanalven from 1870 to 1918 (36 and 30). The settlements within this district and the neighbouring ones appear from figure 4. Certain traits in its agricultural settlements have previously been pointed out. Concerning its industrial settlements, which on the whole coincide with the dark spots, the map shows that they are largest and most continuous at the mouths of the rivers. Between them the rivers Ljungan and Indalsalven have created the extensive Sundsvall district within the coast region (fig. I6). Because of the different morphological formation of the lower section of the river Angermanalven, as compared with the two other rivers, the former has created almost continuous zones of settlements along its water way. The Uttera river has created the smaller Ornskoldsvik district. Besides these industrial districts round the mouths of the rivers there are spare agglomerations of population in the interior along the railway. Of these some, like Braicke, are typical station communities; others, like Alby, are on the other hand industrial centres. In the mentioned 34 parishes the increase of the population was greatest from 1870 to 1895. During the following periods the decrease in the growth is greatest in the typical industrial parishes, whose increase pro mille during the period from 1895 to I9oo is only half as large as the one from 1870 to 1895. During the following years down to i913 the in- crement declined still more in all parishes; and the change in the population movement is so great that the large industrial parish of Aln6 exihibits a diminution, as is also shown by the transitional parishes of Viksj6 and Ed. The parishes that come out worst, however, are the agricultural parishes, of which no

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fewer than five reveal a diminuation of population. The most remarkable thing of all is that these parishes are the nearest neighbours to the great industrial districts. Whether this must be taken as an indication of the great dependence of agriculture on industry -- to such an extent that if the latter stands still or goes back, that very fact implies diminished possibilities of development for the nearest agricultural districts - is uncertain, inasmuch as the occupational distribution of the population in these parishes is complicated and not exactly known. After 19I3 there appear the exceptional conditions arising out of the World War. The decrease in the growth of population is now still greater, and five agricultural parishes - among which three of those mentioned before, the other two being their neighbours - show decrease, as well as the forest parish of Holm, the transition parish of Ed and the industrial parishes of Sk6n, Aln6 and Bjartra. As all the parishes that show stagnation or decrease of population of late are situated within the coast district, where the lumber industry forms the centre, it is again confirmed that at present the lumber trade must be said to have ended its role as a creator of new settlements and as a factor increasing the population. The stagnation or even regress, that the lumber trade shows from an anthropogeo- graphical point of view, will probably continue for a long time, as the ap- proaching electrification of industry with the further perfection of the technical resources will save human energy. It is considered that a modern sawmill should be able to produce 6o to 70 % more than an old one of the same size. As the production can hardly be expected to increase in the large timber trade districts, the stagnation will continue. A qualifica- tion for this and a remedy against coming decrease in the future production is the introduction of rational forestry. This will, however, take a long time, and the profit will come late. At the carrying out of rational forestry there is above all one geographical factor that is in the way, viz. the very scattered position of the forests of the companies. The forests still resemble the grounds of the villages before the pourparty. The state forests have, however, been more saved so that they nowcan render a considerable crop. The situation of the state forests (fig. ii) is thus of importance for the estimation of the development and geographical conditions of the lumber trade of Norrland during the following decades. The districts that will then in the first place be taken into consideration are the mouths of the Pite, Lule, Kalix, Skellefte, and Ume rivers or, in other words, the districts that are now inferior to those of the rivers Angermanilven and Indalsalven. The sole timber manufacturing that has stayed within the woodlands themselves is the burning of charcoal and the subsequent obtaining of tar, turpentine etc. The production of charcoal in the Midlands and South Sweden has been constantly going back, partly as a result of the speedy development of paper-

9. Geografiska Annaier 192I.

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+ <

PUBLIC FORESTS OF SWEDEN 1913

f Eased on W, Ekmmn's map)

0 State forests + 4-

Lapp tax fells S

Comrssosaf forests o

------County L(Ln-) boundary Limit of coniferous forest + X Scale I : 6 000 000 +X

410 d #A, A? g11N reWA

'A-5A 4b SZ N ~? OUCt~YIr mtm I

+ %4 0 4\d

Fig. II. The public forests of Sweden.

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GOEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 131 pulp industry. As the demands for charcoal for the iron industry have simultaneously grown, ever greater masses of charcoal must yearly be fetched from Norrland. According to the Iron ore Committee and the Charcoal Committee of Jarnkontoret (41) the consumption of charcoal in Sweden has for the last few years as a rule kept at somewhat over two million lasts or 40 million hectolitres a year (one hectolitre of coal weighs I2 kilogrammes, i. e. one last 300 kilogrammes), of which about 8o 0 are consumed in the counties of Varmland, Orebro, Vastmanland, Kopparberg and Gavleborg and only 4 ?% in the four northernmost counties. According to the same source the production in Norrland has been estimated at 13,5s million hectolitres for 1914 and 19,6 million hectolitres for 1916, distributed according to the following table:

The county of Gavleborg ...... 9 mill. hl. > Jam tland ...... 3,7 >) ~>) ,> V asternorrland ...... 3,s >> Visterbottens ...... 2,4 > Norrbottens ...... 1,2 >> >>

The rather considerable surplus of charcoal in Norrland has been sent to the Midlands. Yet the production of charcoal in Norrland must be called inconsiderable in proportion to the areas of forest. This is especially true about the northern counties; in South Norrland the possibilities of charring are comparatively well used. The incomparably largest part - about 70o % - of the whole quantity of charcoal is obtained through charring in the woods; through burning in furnaces only 8 to 9 0/ are obtained. As has previously been mentioned there is a very great difference between the forests of Norrland and those of the Midlands. As a summing up of their (41) exposition of the supply of charcoal wood in Norr- land and Dalarna: "Large quantities of dry and damaged wood exist in Norrland, scarcely good for anything but burning. The cubic mass of charcoal wood in one hectar is of course rather different in different parts, but for the whole of Norrland and Dalarna the average has been estimated at 8 cords in one hectar. The result of the investigation is that in Norrland and Dalarna there should be a supply of charcoal wood, corresponding to about 30o million lasts. Besides, out of growing forests wood, corresponding to about 400,000 lasts, might yearly be taken. For the next 30 years about 1,4 million lasts should thus be obtained from Norrland and Dalarna". According to the investigation of the Iron ore Committee, based on systematic taxings of the supply of charcoal wood, there should be a total supply of 18 million cords in the county of Norrbotten, the charcoal wood in the district of the Torne river not counted. Further the committee points out that the costs of the Norrland charcoal will be rather con-

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 132 H. W:SON AHLMANN siderable, and that we can only avail ourselves of about half the resources through wood charring round the railway lines that now exist and are decided. To make good the other half a great number of charring places and furnaces must be arranged. The best place for a large fondation of charcoal furnaces for the county of Norrbotten is the mouth of the Lule river. The charcoal wood is - as was just pointed out -- of two kinds, the supply and the durable productions. When the former is finished, a considerable decrease in the production of charcoal should ensue. However, it will probably take a long time and surely much more than the supposed 30 years. We may thus presume that for a reasonable time Norr- land will be able to supply the amount of charcoal wanted by the iron industry. When, in hundred years' time or sooner, the forests of Norrland are in a good condition, and the communications have been further developed, new possibilities ought to exist for a greater production of charcoal. Like wood-pulp-industry charring contributes to and urges on a rational forestry. An increased production of charcoal' in the Norrlandish forests will also in a high degree contribute to an increase of the resident population of wood labourers in Norrland. As a summing up of all this it may be said that the period now ended in the lumbering of the forests of Norrland has resulted in a marked economical-geographical division of the natural provinces. The archaean plateau has become a district producing raw material, which is collected and partly manufactured in the coast zone. This is a typical geographical sign that the resources of the country have begun to be rationally employed. Regarding the future of the lumber trade of Norrland it may further be pointed out in accordance with Gunnar Andersson (4) that the enormous resources of coniferous forests of North Russia and Siberia cannot be used, until the prices of lumber have risen so high that the whole Swedish forestry has consequently been secured. Yet it should be remembered that the export of lumber by way of the ports of the White sea has been quadrupled since 1884, and that it was in 1913 as great as that of all Sweden. The forest resources of East North America are for the most part much more roughly used than those of Norrland, and, besides, the need of lumber in America is much greater than that of Sweden. On the American Coast Cordilleras from California in the south to Alaska in the north we find forests that form a real danger to us. Probably, the forests of East Asia, especially the ones in Amur, also will become a very great lumber producing district. As, however, the forestry of Sweden as a whole and that of Norrland too has gone far in its rational development, Sweden, and specially Norrland, will occupy a still more advantageous and economically strong position in a future, when Canada and North America must replace their natural forests with cultivated forests. Mining. Besides forests the archaean plateau also contains the great iron ores.

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These are, as has been said before, localized within the northernmost district between latitudes 67 and 68. By far the richest deposits are those at Kirunavaara (fig. I2). The borings which have been made during late years show that the richness of the ore is considerably greater than shown by the figures hitherto published (about 750 million tons). Gdllivare with Koskullskulle comprises about 270 million tons. Of the remaining fields, both to the north-east and to the south-west of the railway, we notice Svappavara, about 30 million tons, Levedniemi, about 30 million tons, Ekstr6msberg, about 50 million tons and Mertainen, about 5 million tons; in addition, within the parish of Kvikkjokk there is the great deposit of. Ruoutevare, which is not yet worth quarrying on account of its great percentage of titanium. The ore in Gillivare is divided into three main qualities: A) below 0,o035 % of phosphorus and 67-69 % of iron, C) with 0,o035-,8 %0 of posphorus and 64-67 % of iron, D) above o,8% of phosphorus and 61-64 % of iron. The percentage of iron in Kiruna amounts to 70 %; the percentage of phosphorus varies between 0o,02% and 5 %, the sulphur seldom exeeds o,o5 % and the titanium 0,04-0,8 %. This high percentage of iron makes the fields of Lapland appear as by far the largest part of the supply of high percentage ores at present available in Europe. There are other deposits of ore besides these large fields; some of them are perhaps not yet discovered, others are, but cannot yet be utilized on account of legal difficulties. - A field of peculiar character are the great resources of graphite at Vittangi. The commercial-geographical importance of the ore deposits of Lapland like that of the forests depends on the northerly position of the country and the consequent thinness of the population or the lack of consumption of iron goods within Norrland itself. These facts affect the ores much more than the forests, because the region of the former is so northerly that it has the character of a wilderness. Outside the local agglomerations of population that have grown up round Kiruna and Gallivare-Malmberget the solitude stretches continuously for mile after mile. To these advantageous conditions is added the no less decisive fact that Norrland completely lacks coal. Kiruna is situated above the border of the coniferous forest, and round Gdillivare the forests are not particularly rich. Water power exists, but no waterfall was harnessed before Porjus in I914. All these circumstances have caused the ores to be utilized exclusively for export up to I914. In the 18th century and up to the beginning of the I9th, there was, however, a not inconsiderable iron industry in Norrland. In the south and central parts of Norrland this industry used ore from Bergslagen and partly also bog-ore (the Graninge works also used ore from Ut6 in the Stockholm archipelago), and within the northern part Gaillivare ore. After the iron industry had developed to industrialism in Bergslagen in the latter part of the i8th century, the smelting houses and tilt-hammers of Norrland with their long, primitive and very expensive transport of ore could not compete with the latter but were discontinued

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 134 H. W:SON AHLMANN with the exception of those in the county of Gavleborg. When the size and value of the ore fields of Lapland had become evident, it became necessary to concentrate on the communication routes that made mining possible. The Luleai-Gallivare railway-line was opened in 1887, and from 1893 one mine after the other was

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......

Fig 12. Kirunavaara. opened at Gallivare; in 1899 the mining of Koskullskulle began; in 1899 the railway to Kirunavaara (fig. 12) was finished, and in i903 the line to Narvik was completed, and thus a continuously open export port was secured. Up to 19 19 64 million tons of ore had been dug out in the Gillivare district and in Kiruna together. Of the total quantity 28 million tons were exported by way of Narvik and the rest by way of Lulei. Before the war (1913) the yearly mining in the Gillivare district and in the Kiruna fields amounted to 5 million tons. The ore-fields of the state in Norrbotten, especially those of Luossavara

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 135 and Mertainen, ought to be reserved for the needs of the iron industry of the Midlands. In the agreement of 1907 with the Graingesberg-Oxeldsund traffic company that owns the Kiruna-Gillivare ore-fields the state renounced the right to export ore. No great need of ore from Norrbotten for the iron works of the Midlands seems to exist, since the investigations in the latter district have shown that its resources of ore are sufficient; moreover, the high costs of freight will for a long time to come make transport of ore to the Mid- lands impossible. The Iron Ore Committee of 1913 has consequently had to pay special attention to the possibilities for the creation of an iron industry in Norrland itself. Largely in agreement with the proposal of the Committee the Riksdag of 1918 gave the recently formed but not.yet built Norrbottens iron-work and the Griinges- berg-Oxel6sund company the right to mine 350,000 tons of ore yearly in Luossa- vara from 1919 to 1930. The smelting-works of Porjus, now finished, have, besides, been granted the right to obtain some ore from Loussavara. It has also been decided that the ore fields of Mertainen shall be more closely investigated. The results hitherto attained have been very encouraging with regard to the percentage of phosphorus in the ore of this field. The possibilities of producing charcoal bar-iron in Norrland depend in the first place on the supply of charcoal wood and the prospects of using it. The results of the work of the Iron Ore Committee with regard to this have previously been described. The question of the practicability of electric iron and steel manufacture is also of very great importance for the creation of an iron industry in Norrland. The experiences seem to indicate a future for this method. The decrease in the quantity of charcoal needed to one third (the consumption in an electric furnace is estimated at 360-400 kilogrammes for one ton of white bar-iron) of the usual one also makes it possible for an iron industry to arise in Norrland without danger of overtaxing the possibilities of charcoal production in Norrland and of leaving the needs of the iron industry in the Midlands unsupplied. It is difficult to decide what geographical place is most suitable for a great electric iron industry, as the factors can as yet hardly be surveyed. As a general rule the ore seems to be conveyed to the coal districts and not vice versA. What will be the circumstances in this respect, when the power is electric, is, however, uncertain. Still the new great electric works at Porjus are situated at the source of the power. It is also probable that in the future eventual new iron works will be situated near the Lulea--Narvik railway-line. The need for industry to have the best possible communications for the transport of its products makes it probable that especially the flat country round Boden and Lulea will prove the most suitable place for a Norrland iron industry. Hitherto the importance of the ore-fields of Lapland for the colonization con-

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 136 H. W:SON AHLMANN ditions of Norrland has been limited to the creation of the isolated communities of Kiruna and Gaillivare. Narvik in Norway has also chiefly the Swedish ore- fields to thank for its existence, and to Lulea' the export of ore is of much importance, though not so much as to Narvik. Indirectly the ore fields are the cause of the rise of the small station settlements along the railway as also of the bigger settlement at Porjus, whose power station was built because the railway needed electric power, and whose smelting industry is based on the ore. The ores have thus as yet only been able to create minor isolated communities in the large wilderness, a fact that still more proves Norrland's character of a young and undeveloped industrial district. The continued development to more intense industry with a richer and more extensive dense colonization will probably take place rather slowly.

Water power. As has previously been pointed out, the valleys and drainage system of Norrland are the geographical factors that caused the penetration of the colonization from the eastern plain, up to the archaean plateau, and the lumbering of the forests. The power-sources of the water-courses is the factor determining the continued development towards a greater manufacturing of the raw materials and is the basis of the continued change of Norrland from a wilderness and a rawmaterial colony into an industrialized country. The water-power makes up for the lack of coal. Of the total gross water-power of Sweden, which is estimated at 5 a 6 millions turbine horse-power, it is calculated that c:a 2,400,ooo are in upper Norrland, and 2,500,00ooo in lower Norrland with Dalarna. The greatest sources of power in Norrland (fig. 13) are situated in the main rivers, and their magnitude is due more to the mass of water, and less to the height of the falls, than is the case, for instane, in Norway. The sources of power lie almost exclusively below the great collecting basins of the Silurian and lake zones. Owing to the previously mentioned sedimentation of the valleys during and after the Ice Age not only has the number of the falls and their height on the archean plateau been increased, but falls have also come into existence on the eastern plain. Thus we have what is from a morphological point of view the abnormal condition that several of the great rivers immediately above their outflow into the Gulf of Bothnia form considerable falls, which, thanks to the fact that the greatest mass of water in the river is collected here, yield considerable amounts of power. The most important example of this is the river Dalailven, which near its mouth forms Alvkarlo, owing to the fact that the whole of the lower section of the river has changed its course. The same is true of the rivers Ljusnan and Ljungan, and of Stadsforsen at the mouth of the river Indalsilven, the Ume and Skellefte rivers also possess a great source of power in their very lowest parts (see fig 13). The circumstance is of extremely

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 137

Svs 2 1 0 1 r- s 74 5

SUPPLIES OF WATER-POWER IN THE LARGER WATERCOURSES OF NORRLUND

(ater M. SERRANDER)

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This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 138 H. W:SON AHLMANN great importance, as the eastern plain, and especially its coast district is, and will remain, the main area for settlement and industry. As regards the power resources of the different rivers, the appended table can be given on the basis of the report of the water-power experts (42), with the caution that it deals with the total amount of water-power and that the figures are not quite certain, but are partly based on estimates.

Water-power Resources of the larger Norrland Rivers.

R i v e r Turbine H.P.

R. Torne ilv from Torne Trisk. R. Muovo from Karesuando (Swedish side), R. Laino from Soppero ...... 349,000 R. Kalix ilv from Kaalasjirvi 3II...... 3,000 R. R ne lv from Muorka ...... 28,00 R. Lule ilv from Stora Lulevatten, R. Lilla Lule from Randijaure ...... 409,000 R. Pite ilv from Vuolvojaure, Vargisan from Kuollejaure ...... I5I,000 R. Abo lv from Kikkejaure ...... 15,3oo00 R. Byske filv from Arvidsjaure...... 44,500 R. Skellefte Ilv from Storavan...... I92,000 R. Riekkn lv from Villvatten ...... 13,5oo00 R. Ume Ilv from Storuman...... 462,000 R. Ore vly from Ortrisk ...... 25,800 R, L6gde Milv from Stora L6gdesj6n...... 12,000 R. Gide iilv from the confluence of the Laxan ...... 3o,6oo R. Angermanilven from Vomsjn ...... 449,600 R. Indalsilven from Amsj6n ...... 68I,o R. Ljungan from L6mmasjn ...... I85,000 R. Ljusnan from Ramsj6n ...... 235,000 R. Given from Hyn ...... 12,000 R. Dalilven from Siirnasj6n ...... 551,ooo

The largest, and to some extent also the best, sources of power are in the river Indalsilven between Liden and Stugun, and in the river Angermanalven between Solleftea and Str6ms vattudal and between Hoting and Asele. This region, which is perhaps the most important of all for the future, may be called the mid-Norr- land region. Of Sweden's actual four million turbine horse-power as yet only about 1,2 millions have been harnessed, in the Midlands 80 I/2 % of the power there ac-

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 139 cessible, in lower Norrland and Dalarna 15,7 %, but in upper Norrland only 7 % (36 b). Only a couple of falls are as yet harnessed in the river Angermanilven, and in North Norrland there are only the Porjus works (fig. 14, 15). The lower sections of the Ume and Skellefte rivers are as yet only harnessed to a small extent or not at all. The rivers Ljungan and Ljusnan are harnessed to a greater extent. On

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Fig. 14. The great dam in the river Luledilv at Porjus. the other hand the Torne and Kalix rivers and the greater part of the Pite river have as yet no turbines in their channels. The river Dalilven, whose northern and middle sections belong to Dalarna, is most harnessed, in the first place thanks to the power station of the state at Alvkarleby and that of Stockholm at Untran. Norrland contains by far the largest accessible power resources, and in the near future, when the power resources of South Sweden and the Midlands have been fully claimed, it will be the large reserve of power of Sweden. For the conception of the water-power of Norriand and its role for colonization, it is impottant that the electrotechnical inventions of recent years have made

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 140 H. W:SON AHLMANN it possible to transmit power long distances in a satisfactory way. Thus, with regard to Norrland we cannot from the situation of the power sources draw any definite conclusions as to the situation of the industrial communities dependent on them. Thus it is probable that power will have to be conveyed to the industrial districts of the Midlands from South and Central Norrland. The Alv- karleby system will also have to be reinforced with power from Norrland to sa-

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Fig. 15. The switch- and gear-house of Porjus. The first half part in the harnessing of the water-power. tisfy the demands made on it, and it is the same with Stockholm, whose power- works at Untran can no longer suffice if the industrial development is to continue in the same manner as during the last few years. The considerable amounts of power that exist, especially in the Central Norrland district, would allow such a transport, without neglecting the just claims on power of the home district. The following table (from 42) of the total power used in Norrland in 1913 for industrial work helps to furnish a somewhat better idea of Norrland's need of electric power. As is seen from this table as yet only about 20 % more water-power than steam-power is used in Norrland. Of the latter about 67,oo00 horse-power is used for the lumber-industry, while all other industries do not use more than 29,000 horse-power, of which about I5,oo000 have already been taken by Porjus and Alv-

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 141

Total power (in horse-power) used in Norrland for industrial work in 1913.

Heat-power Water- Lumber-in- Amount Amount C o u n t y dustry and Other of horse- of power wood-pulp- industries power power used tndustry

Norrbottens liin...... 5,754 5,363 14,225 19,588 25,342 Visterbottens i ...... 19,430 1o,059 361 10,420 29,850 Sm. North Norrland ...... 25,184 15,422 14,586 30,008 55,192 Visternornlands lin ...... 60,866 33,464 2,642 36,I06 96,972 Jiimtlands ..... 7,016 1,952 738 2,690 9,706 Givleborgs ...... 32,018 16,487 11,307 27,794 59,812 Sm. South Norrland ...... 99,900 51,903 14,687 66,590 166,490 Sm. all Norrland ...... 125,084 67,325 29,273 96,598 221,682 karleby. Because of this the experts on water-power say that in Norrland one cannot on the whole expect to find any great consumption of electric power by the electrification of already existing industry except the lumber and wood-pulp industries. The total needs of these industries in Norrland and Dalarna now amount to 72,000 horse-power. The sawmills need almost twice as much as the wood-pulp- factories, but because of the continuous development of the latter this will probably not be the case in the future. The amount of power needed by the lumber industry will probably also increase through the need of continually greater me- chanical arrangements and more careful use of the waste products. Now the Sundsvall district uses by far the greatest amount pf power, than the Hairn6sand and Ume districts. The Sundsvall district will probably also in the future be the greatest consumer of power, but because of the previously mentioned influence of the still economized state forests on the future lumber- and wood-pulp industries, it is to be expected that the district round Umea will claim rather more power than what is now the case. As these two industries are restricted to the coast district, power must be transported down there from falls higher up in the country. The communication advantages of the coast district are so great that other industries will probably also be placed there. It is thus probable or even certain that when the water power is harnessed, the interior of Norrland will not get the addition in colonization and ..industry that corresponds to power resources. Even with the previous assumptions of the increased needs of power for the lumber and wood-pulp industries, these will, however, be comparatively little in proportion to Norrland's great supplies of water-power. To utilize the

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 142 H. W : SON AHLMANN whole power new industries are needed. "The immediate future of the water- power of Sweden thus depends, a far as can now be judged, on its use for electrotechnical and electrochemical industry wich needs a great amount of power (23)." Thus the Ljunga works now use i8,ooo horse-power for one lime-nitrogen factory alone, and the enormous consumption of power of the Norwegian electrical industry is wellknown. Of the greatest importance for the conception of the present and future influence of this industry on the colonization conditions is the fact that in proportion to its consumption of power it needs a very small number of workmen. Thus it is calculated that for electrochemical industry 20 workmen will suffice per i,ooo horse-power. Yet a chemical industry of such dimensions that it can create considerable settlements may be expected. The places for this are, however, not decided. Yet we have every reason to expect that, when the transverse Forsmo-Hoting line is built, industrial communities for this electrochemical production will grow up along it or on the coast round the mouth of the river Angermanalven.

Communications. The above account of the nature and industries of Norrland shows thet the district possesses special qualifications. The more the water-power is harnessed, the more Norrland will be changed from a mere raw material colony to an industrial district with production of more or less manufactured goods. As yet, however, we are only at the beginning of this line of development. Its successful continuation depends on several factors; one of the most important is the communications. Because Norrland produces a great surplus of certain raw materials and semi-manufacture and because of its great deficit of food, the traffic to and from Norrland will always be very considerable (see p. 48). From this point of view the position of Norrland is disadvantageous, as the greatest length of the country is from north to south, so that its .short side borders on South Sweden, a mountain range shuts it off from the Atlantic in the west, and the long east coast with its natural centres at the Gulf of Bothnia is blocked by ice in winter. As has been mentioned before, the natural interior routes of communication of Norr- land depend on the valley-system and the drainage-system from NW to SW. Of less importance is the longitudinal regional division, particularly on the archaean plateau. The chief plan - if we may use that expression - for the communications of Norrland consequently consists of roads from the north-west to the south-east with places of concentration at the mouths of the rivers, and from these routes to the north and south. Of the latter the sea traffic in the Gulf of Bothnia was always the most important. In 1913 the total traffic returns by sea were 8,I million tons, while by rail the amount was only 3,7 million tons (43). The most important exports and imports of Norrland are heavy and bulky ores, timber

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 143 and wood-pulp, coal and coke, which will always need transport by sea. With the exception of the quantity taken by rail to Trondhjem and Narvik, all lumber is shipped directly from the ports of Norrland. From (tab. p. 144) one can state too that only 33,000 tons of wood-pulp are transported by rail, the rest by sea. Of the iron ore 3/5 go by rail to Narvik for further transportation by sea; the rest is exported via Lulea so that the railway transportations are only to be looked upon as intermediate. As the continued industrial development of Norrland will aim at mass production of export goods, and the centres of this development will remain on the coast, the communications by sea will probably always be incomparably the most important for the goods traffic. This is less the case with Halsingland and especially with Gastrikland than with the rest of Norrland, because the proximity of these provinces to the Midlands give their railway communications greater importance than those of the more northerly provinces. Jamt- land with its good communications with Trondhjem and the need of the Lapland ore fields of an icefree port also make these districts comparatively independent of the sea traffic on the Gulf of Bothnia. The disadvantages of the long period during which the Gulf of Bothnia is frozen are very great because of these conditions. True, the sea traffic on the ports of Norrland has increased greatly during the last few decades, but much still remains to be done to increase the possibilities of sea traffic and thus complete the development that the new railways seem to open. In order to open Norrland to passenger traffic and bring about closer connec- tions between its inhabitants and with the Midlands, railway communications are needed that can continue undisturbed all the year round independent of the ice conditions. For military and other reasons the Great Northern (Krylbo-Finland) was built at some distance from the coast (fig. 18). The country through which it runs was not well furnished by nature, had no dense colonization and had scarcely any possibilities of getting any in the near future. For this it was also important that the railway crossed the rivers within sections where there were neither lakes nor slowly flowing rivers suitable for elevating logs. Thus the most important article of Norrland floated past the railway on its way to the coast. When, later, the time was ripe for the harnessing of the waterfalls, the industrial districts on the coast were so developed that in most cases it was more advantageous or even necessary to convey energy from the railway district to the coast. The system of a main line in the interior, furnished with transverse lines, undoubtedly reduced the railway communications of the eastern plain and its towns to a secondary position. The Great Northern was completed as far as Ange in 1882.and was there put in contact with the transverse line through Jamtland that had been finished a year before. The Lingsele--Vainnias line was ready

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in 1891 and was continued to Boden in 1894. The need of the main line of transverse ones was satisfied by the opening of a private, standard-gauge railway from Givle to Falun in 1859. The Hudiksvall-Ljusdal line was finished in I888, the one from Ornsk6ldsvik to Mellansel in 1892, from Umea to Vannas in 1896, from Skelleftea to Bastutrask (in 1912) and Pitea-Alvsby in 1915. By the purchase and reconstruction of a couple of private lines Sundsvall (in 1885) and later on also S6derhamn were put into communication with the system of the state line. The transverse Gallivare-Luled line, completed in 1888, and the Gallivare-Riksgransen -Narvik line, completed in 1902, formed an exceedingly important link in the railway system, as these lines of traffic made it possible utilize of the iron ore fields. As will be further explained later on, Norrland has now entered upon a new period of very important railway constructions, which, thanks to the far-sighted policy of the state, ought to satisfy the needs of the interior communications of the country rather well for some time to come.

The export and import of NorrIand. The following table (summarized from 43) may be said to form an abstract of the economical life of Norrland. As appears

The export and import (in tons) of Norrland in 1913.

Export Import

By rail Goods shipped in By By rail Goods shipped in By across the ports for rail across the ports from across rail the south-rail the Nor- Nor- Swedish -hedishe foreign Total foreignfrom ther- Total

wardso border egian ports the south wegian border I --ports

Products of farmyard 322 22 234 I 579 4,832 1,257 2,480 1,700 10,269 Cereals and flour...... 334 32 2,668 - 3,034 33,604 566 80,560 26,426 141,156 Sugar and groceries... 169 149 539 857 3,626 309 21,375 6,252 31,562 Oils, tar, etc...... 3,171 I,199 2,329 2,818 9,517 3,292 68 18,987 5,302 28,599 Lumber ...... 68,169 64,355 465,ooo3,5oo,ooo 4,I37,514 - - - - - Wood-pulp, paper ... 9,703 23,925 31,834 685,ooo000 I,049,4621 3,082 - 5,632 391 9,272 Fertilizers (except lime) 6,128 - 277 Io,884 18,2891 667 167 14,734 15,267 32,049 Salt, sulphur, chemicals I14,640 5,154 28 20 I9,842:1 2,173 1,38I 7,967 59,683 96,743 Coal and coke ...... 150 - 1,380 1,4301 735 25,920 13,556 784,349 798,640

OresCharcoal ...... 1,644 3,274,499 49,039 401 1,7oo,ooo 69 4,976,5441 60,000 2,701 -- 2,664 o9,108 64,422 38,973- - 2,664106,096 Metals ...... 25,021 1,217 16,631 98,259 138,128 - - - - Other goods...... 12,701 780 11,969 227,563 253,013 62,242 24,443 281,577 68,944 437,2o6 Total I91,191 3,371,401I 590,290 6,024,535I10,177,41711 116,754I 56,775 51,29o 1,O07,287 1,692,0o6

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 145 from it, in 19I3 (representing a normal year before the great war) the export was about Io million tons and the import only 1,7 million tons or only 1/6 of the export. It is difficult to estimate the value of these quantities, but even a rough calculation shows that the export considerably surpasses the import from this point of view too. This circumstance should be viewed against the background of the total foreign trade of the whole country. In 1913 the export of Sweden amounted to 817 million kronor and the import to 846 million kronor. This shows that Norrland occupies a special position in Sweden, is her proper export district, whose mass-produce poises the foreign balance of trade and gives it such a comparatively small deficiency as 29 million kronor. The figures relating to the various groups of gods make a numeric summary of the previous account of the natural resources and their utilization. On the export side forest produce and ore are dominating, while the import side is do- minated by cereals and coal. In these figures is concentrated the economical geography of all Norrland!

The towns.

The towns are probably the most representative expressions of economical geography and the material stage of development of a district. They need a certain degree of specializing, a certain stage of civilization to arise. In our days, the days of industrialism and giant cities, the number and size of the towns always signify stages in the development of material organization and industrial production. A country with many and large towns - for instance England and Bel- gium - implies industrialism; a country with few and small towns -- for instance Ukraine - implies little industry, but may well be combined with a considerable production of raw material, especially if the natural distribution of the latter is spread als cereals and wood. The towns of Norrland are sensitive proofs of the commercial-geographical development and stage of this district. The number of inhabitants of the various natural sections (p. Io9) has previously been held up as a gauge of their different material importance. If the number of inhabitants of the towns and the municipal communities is added, the figures are still more representative.

The eastern plain with the coast zone 673,ooo inhabitants of which 134,000 in the towns and municipal communities The archaean plateau ...... 225,500 >> 15,8oo in the towns and municipal communities The silurian district ...... 104,700oo >> >> 16,400 in the towns and municipal communities The mountain district...... 16,500 >> o in the towns and municipal communities

Sum ,01oi9,700 166,200 in the towns and municipal communities

I O. Geografiska Annaler 1921.

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The eastern plain with its 66 % of the total population of Norrland has no less than 8o % of all townspeople, which shows its dominating economical-geographical importance better than anything else. The I5,800 inhabitants of the municipal communities of the archaean plateau for the most part belong to the iron ore districts in the north. The large woodland that produces the raw material, which to a great extent determines the towns of the eastern plain, has not been able to develop any town. This particularly throws light on the economical-geographical organization of our days; the character of the interior of Norrland as a raw-material colony with the coast as the seat of its partial manufacturing and exporting. They are the human figures that show the utilizing of the natural resources or the manifesting importance of the natural districts. The comparatively inconsiderable size and late development of the towns (the municipal communities excepted), shown by the following figures, characterize all Norrland as young with regard to modern material development.

The population of the towns.

e a r s 18oo 1865 900oo 1915 1920

The eastern plain ...... 14125 34,729 89,922 IO8,219 121,704 The silurian district ...... 150 1,8o8 6,886 9,672 13,321

As has formerly been pointed out on repeated occasions, Giistrikland differs considerably from the rest of Norrland. This is also valid with regard to townships. The great difference between Gaivle - which appears in original documents as a town ever since 1416 - and the other towns of Norrland is that from ancient times Giivle has had a "hinterland" which not only consisted of a farming district, grown forth from the mouth of the river as its centre, but which had also a considerable industry, which had to a great extent come from the south and west and was based on an ample supply of ore. This ore and the industrial district founded on it are the most primary or, at least, the most important facts regarding the economic geography of Givle. True, the exports from this industrial district originally went by Viisteras and Stockholm, but as for a long time towards the end of the Middle Ages the latter city was engaged in feuds that rendered trade difficult or quite impossible, Kopparbergs Bergslag had to find another route for its export. Then the natural route along the Gavle river to Givle was chosen. Thus the latter town became not only the port of the said hinterland, but it was also to "maintain Bergslagen", as charters and statutes have

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 147 it. Thus, contrary to the other towns of Norrland, Gavle may be said to have originated through a movement from within towards the coast. Though Kopparbergs Bergslag always retained its importance as a hinterland of Gavle, yet the immediate neighbourhood of the town within Gastrikland gradually grew to greater importance. It was - as G. Ekel6f (8) points out- at first exclusively a farming district, but even as early as in the I4th centery a mining district grew up at Torsaker and increased little by little. This was particularly the case after the smelting-house method and the forging of bar-iron were introduced in the reign of Gustavus Vasa. Contemporaneously with the development of this interior district went the development of Gavle. However, the town, like all the other towns of Norrland, suffered from the Bothnian restraint of trade. Yet the natural export route from Bergslagen and Gastrikland could not be completely stopped by prohibition. The reason both of the origin of the iron industry in this district and of its remaining and development there was the abundance of waterfalls in the rivers, suitable for harnessing (as is proved and described in a convincing manner by G. Ekel6f). This suitability was due partly to the situation of the falls along the road from Bergslagen to Gavle, and partly to their size, which was not too large, but just suitable for successive harnessing with the technical resources that were gradually developed. The development of the iron industry thus to a great extent follows that of water-power technics. The transition to a more intensive iron industry, using the power of larger falls, began in the I8th century, when the district itself was not able to yield the necessary quantity of ore, so that the latter had to be obtained from Bergs- lagen. Givle was the only town north of the river Dalalven, till Hiirndsand was founded in the year I585. Owing to its excellent geographical qualifications at the mouth of the largest and most densely populated river-valley of Norrland, Hairn6sand became the second capital. The natural advantages of the town were increased still more through the fact that the lower part of the river is navigable, and that its port conditions are excellent. Thus from ancient times Harn6sand has been a trade and bartering centre of Middle Norrland. Afterwards the place developed quite naturally without any intrusions from any private or public authority, until the stage was reached when its size and importance were such that municipal rights had to be awarded to it. Between Harn6sand and Gavle Hudiksvall gradually made itself conspicuous after being founded in I581. By its situation on a little river from the Dellen lake in the interior it corresponds to Gaivle, but on the other hand it lacks the extensively developed hinterland of the latter. Another point of interest for our ideas about Hudiksvall is the possibility, or even probability, that the river Ljus-

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 148 H. W:SON AHLMANN nan has lost its course at Ljusdal and should in reality discharge itself at Hu- diksvall instead of at Ljusne close to S6derhamn. Yet this hydrographic irregu- larity did not prevent Hudiksvall from being situated where the valley ends. In this it corresponds to Ornskildsvik, as will be shown further on. Sundsvall was founded by Gustavus Adolphus at the so-called K6pstadsbyn (in 1621). From thence it was, however, 3,5 km. to the port of St. Olof. The drawback of this long distance to the sea, proximity to which was a vital condition to the town, led to its being moved in 1649 and 1650 to the mouth of the Selinger river, where it still stands. Almost all the towns of Norrland have gone through a similar displacement towards the coast; and they still continue. In most cases the reason for this displacement is the silting of the estuaries, which is increased by the secular rise of the country. With the exception of Gavle, the only town whose position has not been altered, and that does not need any outport at the present time, is Harnosand, which was from the very first placed sufficiently far out. As we shall see further on, this situation has, however, provided the town with rival communities along the valley. From its new position half way between the neighbouring mouths of the rivers Indalsalven and Ljungan Sundsvall grew to command both these extensive rivers, while Harn6sand on its island could only command the river Angermanalven. The reason why Sundsvall was placed at neither of the mouths of the rivers is that the mouth of the river Indalsalven is occupied by a large shallow delta, while the river Ljungan is rapid in its lower part because it has lost its original course from Vattjom to the point where the present Sundsvall stands. Indeed, the shortest way to the chief section of the river Ljungan is by Sundsvall to Vattjom. In spite of these circumstances the personal initiative of Gustavus Adolphus was needed to carry out what nature had indicated and perhaps also meant but had not quite clearly brought about. S6derhamn had a hinterland richer in iron trade than those of the other towns of Norrland - with the exception of Gavle - and this may be said to give the town an intermediate position between Gaivle and the northern, "typical" towns of Norrland. In Norrland north of the river Angermanilven the most important places were the mouths of the Ume and Torne rivers. Already in the reign of John III (1569-1592) it was proposed to found communities with municipal rights at these places. The proposal was, however, given up because of the opposition of the so-called "bircarls" (24), and it was not till the reign of Gustavus Adolphus that Umea was founded (1622), as well as Lulea (1621) and Pitea (1621). Of these towns it is enough to say that they formed the centres of their respective hinterlands and exported the products of primitive farming and a still more primitive lumber trade and iron industry. Even in 1759, when it had 568 inhabitants,

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Lulea was not without a rather considerable export of butter. This, however, afterwards decreased, while the lumber export and partly also the export of bar- iron increased. The commercial legislation of the government from the i 6th to the middle of the 18th century had a great and unfortunately a very fatal influence on all the above- mentioned towns of Norrland. This was particularly the case with the so-called Bothnian trade restriction (9), during which Norrland was treated as an outfield of the privileged trade guild of Stockholm. If we sum up the economic-geographical position of Norrland just before the boom in the lumber trade in the middle of the 19th century, we shall find that the areas round the mouths of all the large rivers had given rise to towns, forming the anthropo-geographical centres of their respective drainage districts. Within these districts the farming of the eastern plain was first and comparatively best made use of, while of the forests on the archaean plateau only a small part was gradually lumbered. This verdict is still more valid regarding the water-power of the rivers. Thus the position and character of the towns of Norrland did not differ considerably from those of the South Swedish towns, nor had they reached a higher degree of importance. Except Gavle only Sundsvall and Harn6sand had got as far as close upon 4,000 inhabitants. It may be said that the peculiar features of Norrland had not yet appeared. But they were to appear with the founding of steam-saws, which, as before stated, gave rise to the modern lumber trade, thus developing the largest natural resources of Norrland: the forests. It was at the very mouths of the rivers that the floating logs arrived and were collected, but that was not exactly where the lumber trade districts arose. For the mouths themselves were to a great extent occupied by shallow deltas and sorting-basins. As both saw-mills and wood-pulp factories need good ports and wide space, they have been placed a little outside the very mouth, either in the archipelago in front of the former or on the shores of the bay in which the river ends. This is why the towns themselves - situated somewhat higher up along the river or at the mouth of a minor watercourse - did not become the seats of the saw-mill industry. Besides, the lumber trade could not find room within the town limits. Consequently the lumber trade districts of Norrland do not form definite and well-defined agglomerations of colonization but extensive territories, within which the original town is only the administrative office and centre of the trade. Sundsvall and HiLrn6sand are typical examples of this. Round the straits of Aln6, at Kringel Bay outside the mouth of the river Indalsalven (fig. 16), and at the estuary of the river Ljusnan there are a number of saw-mills that have around them settlements with a population of about 6oo00-8oo00 persons per square

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 150 H. W:SON AHLMANN kilometre. Of this extensive saw-mill district Sundsvall' (16,86i) is the centre. Its stylish and wellbuilt blocks of houses reflect the economic profits of the

THE SUNDSVALL SAWMILL DISTRICT

O~nmcie?~n*??.?/.-- I Iai~way? ? StLLdown samm- t wn rmuay lo odya-d . .H....y elo* ? bo on? ------or &-vll,

' uata'arr5

......

Ir vart .K-u bltadvi i

SUNDSVALL ? -i

Fig. 16. The Sundsvall district. (After G. Andersson.) industrial territories round it. The character of Hairndsand (Io,138) is similar, though this town holds a reverse position in relation to its saw-mill district, in

1 The figures within brackets denote the population of towns and municipal communities on Dec. 31 1919.

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 151 so far as it is situated outside the two industrial zones, that have arisen on both shores of the lower navigable section of the river Angermanilven. The decisive importance of lumber trade to Sundsvall and similar towns of Norrland is illustrated by fig. I7, which represents the population between the years 1830 and 1920 of Sundsvall and the two neighbouring divisions of Skan and Njurunda, within which the greater number of the saw-mills are situated. As we can see, the three curves follow one another. The speedy increase of population in the country as well as in the town begins about 186o and goes on till 1890, after

'kivLe

3 i00 .

10000 r III Nlunda

.6000 ------______

AiAXu4): 1510 10 1870 180 1890 1900 13100 1918

Fig. 17, The population of Glivle, Sundsvall and the two divisions of Sk6n and Njurunda. which time the rapidity of the development is considerably decreased. In 1885 the railway to Sundsvall was opened, a fact, however, that has evidently not had any noteworthy influence on the progress. It only confirms what has been said before about the small importance of railways to the entire timber trade. Owing to its position so far out in the mouth of the river Angermaniilven, Hiirnsand has now got rival communities along the navigable river after the situation of Hiirnosand for a long time prevented the rise of larger communities on spots predestined for such purposes, viz. where shoals and rapids end the traffic on the river. Thus Solleftea (2,491) at the first fall in the river did not become a town until 1917, though iron-works were founded there as early as in

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 152 H. W:SON AHLMANN the I8th century, and even then only because two regiments were stationed at the place. Nyland (520) is situated where the river ceases to be a firth and becomes a water-course. To this point also the almost continuous zone of sawmill districts stretches from the coast (fig. 4). The LJngsele--Hrn6sand railway has hardly been of greater importance to the latter town than to Sundsvall, i. e. it came. into existence merely as a confirmation of the increased communications that an already existing industry had created. Even if we are quite right in saying that the rivers have been of by far the greatest importance in the history of the towns, and that they are still of greater consequence to most of them than the railway, yet the latter has meant much to some of the communities of Norrland just as to all modern towns. The towns are always the centres of the communications. To Givle (37,222) and the district behind it the Gavle-Dala railway was to be of great importance. It gave the old route from Kopparbergs Bergslag an immensely increased importance and a considerably increased value, at the same time as it developed the natural resources of the hinterland of Givle. It is the water-courses that have retained the iron industry in this district thanks to their resources of power, and it is these, together with the communication conditions between the raw material districts of Bergslagen and the export districts, that have made this industry develop to its present great dimensions. The development to intensive industrialism has come to pass during the last few decades, and, as G. Ekelbf (8) points out, it has caused an increase in the population round the water-courses, while that of districts farther off has been decreased. With this there has arisen a more marked system of population lines, leading towards Givle as their centre. Now Gistrikland produces only a fractional part of the iron ore needed by its industries; the rest is brought by rail from the hinterland in Bergslagen. The importance of the railways in connection with the water-courses - especially the river Dalalven - and the water-power sources is clearly obvious through the development of the combined railway-junctions and iron-works of Borlainge-Domnarvet and Krylbo-Avesta in Dalarna and Storvik (1,643) in Gastrikland, and of the large industrial communities of Sandviken, Ho- fors and Forsbacka along the Gavle-Dala railway, and Gysinge, where the river Dalalven is crossed by the Gavle-Sala railway. Sandviken is not only the largest of the places just mamed but on the whole the largest industrial foundation of the country, with 2,230 workmen in 1913; around it there has grown up a town- like colony with about 8,400 people. It was not founded till 1862 for the manufacture of Bessemer steel and, as H. Nelson (12) points out, it attracted the population of the H6gbo iron-works, situated higher up along the river Jadrain. In 1864 Sandviken had only 500 habitants. Its own supply of water-power soon appeared insufficient, so that steam power had to be employed, until now electric

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 153 power is obtained from Dalarna. This is a development typical of the district. The small waterfalls that were formerly suitable for harnessing gave the district its industry and retained it there till the development of industrialism began; After that they were quite insufficient, the neighbouring great water-power of the river Dalklven, and particularly Alvkarled, for the present supplies the power needed, but will certainly have to be reinforced from waterfalls i Norrland in order to guarantee the future of the industry within the old district. Besides being a source of power the river Dalalven is of great importance to the industry of Gastrikland on account of the large quantity of floating-log s that it transports from the forests of Dalarna. Contrary to what is the case with all other rivers of Norrland, the logs are - as was mentioned before - elevated more or less far from the mouth of the river. In a much higher degree than any other district within the flat country of Norrland the hinterland of Gavle has thus become the seat of a manufacturing of raw materials transported there. With Gavle has now also been incorporated Bomhus - sprung up on the south side of the bay after the saw-mill of Korsnas was situated there - and on the north side at the mouth of the Testebo river the suburb of Strdmsbro, formerly a distillery, now a considerable industrial community for textile goods. A little further outside Gavle on the south side of the Givle bay and along the Gavle-Uppsala railway the large saw-mill of Skutskir (fig. 9) is situated, which, together with the iron works of Bodarna and Harnis, forms a settlement with about 5,4oo inhabitants (22). If we now turn to the other "typical" towns of Norrland, we find in Ornskblds- vik (4,276) a town, to which the railway has also meant much - it may even be said to have been of decisive importance to it. As has been mentioned above, it is probable that the river Angermanalven has lost its original course at Asele; it should have ended somewhere about Ornskdldsvik. To a certain extent a system of roads made up for the loss that the place had suffered through the "carelessness" of nature, but the railway was able to compensate for it to a much greater extent. Ornsk6ldsvik became the commercial capital of a considerable part of the interior. For the town has not only grown to command the district that would have belonged to the river if it had not left its course, but it has extended considerably beyond it and now comprises the districts of the L6gd6 and Gide rivers as well as the upper part of the river Angermandilven. This may be said to be due to the absence of the limit that a river always draws up round itself. Though the town does not stand at the mouth of any large river, yet a big saw-mill, Domsj6, is situated immediately outside the town. To what has already been said about Umet (7,038), Skellefte' (2,977), Pitea (2,902) and Haparanda (2,645) it need only be added that Skelleftel, which was for a long time a centre of the trade with agricultural products was founded in

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1844 at a place that from ancient times had certainly occupied a central position in the neighbourhood, but that was on the whole uncultivated. Not till 1879 did it get its own jurisdiction and in 1892 town privileges. Though the town is situated on the large Skellefte river with its great water-power, it has not yet got any industry and very few Inhabitants. The Skelleftea--Bastutrdisk railway- line - completed in 1912 - gave back to the town part of the trading district that the Great Northern railway had cut off from it, but it was not able to give a stimulus to any industry. The more intensive lumbering of the state forests, the harnessing of the waterfalls and the new railway line (see p. I6o) will give the town a great future. The town, however, stands so high up along the river that silting and land elevation together with the need of a deeper channel have brought about the removal of the port to Ursviken, four kilometres outside Skelleftea. It is the same with Umea, where Sandvik out on the coast has become the out-port. Together with Holmsund, Lafon and Djupviken it forms a settlement with about 3,200 inhabitants, and is - as H. Nelson (22) points out --much more an independent saw-mill community than a mere out-port to Umed. Of no small importance to Umea are the regiments that have been stationed there because of its central position on the upper coast of Norrland. Even if these factors may possibly lose some of their importance to the town in the future, that future is secured owing to the position of the town at the mouth of the large Ume river and at the narrowest part of the Gulf of Bothnia, Kvarken, which forms the boundary between the southern and northern parts of the Gulf of Bothnia, where the communication conditions in winter will certainly remain more difficult than in the S. Bothnian Gulf (concerning the new railway lines see p. 16o.) Haparanda became a borough in 1827 and received town privileges in 1842. It was founded because of the change of the frontier to Finland by the peace of I809. It obtained an unsuitable position because of the idea that towns should be situated some distance from the coast. The town has never had any period of greatness and will probably not be granted one in the future. The change in all natural lines of communication, brought about by the great war, was needed to make Haparanda famous. However, the Lulea-Boden-Riksgrinsen-Narvik railway has had the most obvious and decisive importance for the population conditions in Norrland. When the Thomas method had utilized the Norrland ore-fields, a railway had to be built to bring them into communication with ports. Lulea (10,271) was nearest at hand as a Swedish town, but the quantity of ore was so large and the need of export of it so great that an ice-free Atlantic port had to befound too. Narvik was then the place, and Norrland got its second transverse railway line from the Gulf of Bothnia to the Atlantic. Within the district of this line LuleH was the only town, before the railway was built. But during its con-

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struction and afterwards there rapidly arose one community after another, so that now we meet from east to west: Lulea, Boden (6,241), Gdllivare with Malmberget (6,607), Kiruna (7,232) and in Norway Narvik. The history of Lulea is in some respects typical of Norrland, in others it is unique. John III:s plan to found a town at the mouth of the Lule river was frustrated by the opposition of the "bircarls", and it was not till the reign of Gustavus Adolphus that it was really founded at the so-called Gammelstaden. It is said that by that time the population of Norrbotten had risen to 8,ooo inhabitants. After a couple of years, however, Lulea had to be removed to the coast from Gammelstaden because of the unsuitable nature of the port conditions. In its new position the town afterwards maintains itself as a small place by being the centre of the primitive farming of the interior and its still more primitive lumber trade and iron industry. This long period of quiet stagnation is only disturbed by the commercial jurisdiction of the government, till a new era begins with the building of the railway in the eighties. As is seen from the accompanying table the population is increasing. The yearly average increase of the population in Lulea was considerable

I881-1885 + 54 persons; the building of the railway is begun I886-I89o + 272 > the Gaillivare-Lulea line is opened in I888 189I1-895 + 413 > 1896-I9oo + 532 > 1901-1905 -1x5 > the line to Narvik is opened in 1902 19o6-19Io + Io > 1911-1915 + 159 >) 1915- 1920 + 90 >> during the building of the railway and until all the necessary establishments at the new port on Svart6n just outside the town were ready, and the export began. After that fewer workmen are wanted than before, and consequently stagnation sets in. This becomes decline, when in 1902 the railway to Narvik is com pleted, the natural qualifications of which as an export port are superior to those of Lulea. The balance is changed as on a pair of scales where the ore-fields form the fulcrum. - During the last periods of 5 years Lulea again shows an increase. Whether this will continue in the future depends on the possibilities, previously mentioned, of founding large iron works along the railway. Ostersund (13,321) ranged as the only town of the interior of Norrland to the beginning of the 2oth century. But it has a separate position and quite a different history from the other towns. The comparatively rich agricultural district of the Silurian Zone had no town even towards the close of the i8th century

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 156 H. W:SON AHLMANN because during the Norwegian period Trondhjem was its capital and remained in that position even during the first years after the passing over of the province into Swedish hands. To do away with the Norwegian influence Ostersund was founded, where the main road from North Jaimtland passed across Fr6s6n, the ancient place of worship. The town was inhabited by a number of retail trades- men with the surrounding countryside for their customers. Yet it did not reach any real importance till after the building of the railway. E. Heckscher (12) has even by means of the accompanying table (completed from 9Io5 incl.) shown what a decisive importance the transverse Bricke- Trondhjem line has had both for the- countryside of jamtland and for the town of Ostersund. The yearly average increase of population was:

P e r i o d s Countryside of OPstersund Ji*mtland

85 -6o ...... + 826 + 67 61-70 ...... + 902 + 22 71-- 75 ...... + 988 + 70 76-80 (the railway completed in 1781) ...... + 1,416 + 156 81-85 ...... + 1,515 + 378 86-90o ...... + 1,355 + 117 91- 19oo 00 ...... + 940o + 153 o1- 05 ...... + 282 + 85 o6- o ...... + 783 + 195 11- 15 ...... + I,004 + 281 16-o20 ...... + 76o0 + 730'

The increased growth of the population during the last two periods may be said to due to the fact that the town has become the station of two regiments, and to the building of the Inland line, which will to a great extent increase the importance of the town as the communication centre of the interior of the whole of Norrland. The comparatively small importance of the railways for the other towns of Norrland and for settlement on the whole may be due to the fact, previously mentioned, that the Great Northern railway passes through what was formerly a wilderness and crosses the rivers within sections where rapids and falls make the elevating of the logs impossible and thus prevent the growth of lumber trade districts. Thus up to this day the Great Northern has been able to create only

1 A part of the Brunflo district with 2,142 inhabitants was incorporated with Ostersund in I918.

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND 157 such small settlements as Storvik (1,643) Ljusdal (1,844), Ange and Bracke. Boden has a unique situation owing to its strategic position. If we now try to sum up what has been said about the development of the towns in Norrland since the middle of the i9th century and characterize its position at the outbreak of the great war, we shall arrive at the following result: The lumbering of the forests has given the eastern plain and particularly its coast zone a great number of new industrial districts with a numerous population, at the same time as the already existing towns have grown, and four new ones have been added: Skelleftea, Ornskbldsvik, Solleftea and Boden. Except the two last named and Ostersnnd, the towns are situated on the coast, where the form a special zone. Outside of this zone, partly in the archipelago, the greatest number of lumber trade works have come into existence, and the out ports of the towns that are situated some distance up along the rivers also compose this outermost, first, zone of agglomerations. Inside the second zone, the zone of towns, we meet a number of small railway stations along the Great Northern line, situated partly on the eastern plain, partly on the archaean plateau. Of the firstnamed Boden is the largest place. But then the archean plain, which has remained a district for producing raw material, has still a very thin population. In the west we have, however, the fourth agglomeration zone: the town of Ostersund inside the Silurian district and north of it the old communication centres at the eastern ends of the great valley-lakes. This zone is now entering upon a new era of development by the building of the Inland railway line. In the north the iron-ore district with Gallivare and Kiruna can be said to join this most western zone of agglomerations. These four zones are parallel to the coast and the other com- longitudinal lines from Norrland to the old cultural countries in the south, prin- cipally the Midlands of Sweden. Inside each zone the places of the agglomeration are determined by the natural, pronounced, transversal lines of communications along the principal rivers. The increase in the population of Norrland to the end of the 2oth century has thus on the whole fallen to the eastern plain and within this especially to the coast zone immediately outside it. This increase of the population and the accumulation of old communites connected with it and the rise of new ones are not, however, as considerable as might be expected from the development of industrialism and the growth of the value of production. Thus the lumber trade, the most important industry of Norrland, cannot be said to have given rise to a colonization and an industrial settlement of really great dimensions. - We will now see which of the enterprises now being carried out or planned are most important for the future and development of Norrland. The most important question for the future development of Norrland is undoubtedly the communications. This large secluded region with its meagre na-

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 158 H. W:SON AHLMANN tural possibilities for traffic needs more railways, high-roads and water-courses, if its natural resources are to be used. Improved communications by land and water may to some extent modify the drawbacks to human life that are created by the

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With a laudable consciousness of these demands the government has decided to build the so-called Inland railway line and the transverse lines connected with it that will give the interior of Norrland a system of traffic routes. The plan of constructing a line through the whole length of the interior of Sweden from a place on the Boden-Riksgransen line via Ostersund through Dalarna to an ice-free port in Bohuslan arose about 9o00, and has gradually got so far that the distance from Ostersund to Vilhelmina and from Gallivare to Porjus is now open for traffic, while the section between Vilhelmina and Porjus is laid out and decided. Like the Great Northern the Inland line crosses the natural transverse river districts, so that it is as necessary to build transverse lines to this new main line as to the old one. It has now also been determined to build the three transverse lines of Forsmo- Hoting, Hallnis -Stensele and J6rn-Gubblijaure. These lines may even be said to be more important than the transverse lines from the Great Northern to the towns. In the first place, without these lines the Inland line would "hang in the air" as it were, and chiefly serve a strategic purpose that is doubtful after the issue of the great war, and secondly the Bothnian towns would be robbed of large parts of their natural hinterlands. We should always remember that the transverse division into zones according to valleys is incomparably the most important. It is along these zones that the transport is to be carried on from the raw material fields of the interior to the ports of the Bothnian. The goods traffic in a longitudinal direction will never be of such importance. The Inland line will thus in the main serve as a junction with the transverse lines as main lines. By passing along the Silurian district and the lake zone via the already chosen communication centres of Strdmsund, Hoting, Vilhelmina, Stensele, Storsele and Jock- mock, the special object of the Inland line will be still more increased from this point of view, in so far as it will be put into direct connection with the considerable traffic system of the lakes. These places will thus certainly grow in importance and size, a supposition already proved by the example of Str6msund (1,oI4). The railway is also a necessary condition for the cultivation of the districts within the Silurian and lake zones that are adapted to farming. The extention of the Inland line is thus from this point of view better than that of the Great Northern. Contrary to the latter, the Inland line crosses the water-courses at places suitable for elevating timber. Because of the cheap floating costs and the superiority of the coast district for export, the greater part of the logs will, however, probably even after the building of the Inland line pass the large lakes on their way to the mouths of the rivers, but we may ex- pext the rise of secondary lumber trade districts at the most suitable places. Thus even now a wood-pulp factory has arisen at Ulriksfors. As, however, those railway lines open up the extensive wooded districts by means of better passenger traffic, it may be expected that these forests ill be made available in

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 160 H. W:SON AHLMANN a speedier as well as a better and more rational way than if no railway were built. This is particularly true of the estates belonging to the state through which the Jbrn-Gubblijaure line will pass (23). Consequently there is every reason to believe that lumber industry will develop at Skelleftea and the great resources of water-power will be taken into use. For the same reason we may expect an industrial development round Umea in connection with the Hallnas-Stensele line. Both the Inland line and the transverse lines will also undoubtedly promote charcoal-burning to a great extent. The largest percentage of its products will probably for the future be conveyed to the Midlands of Sweden, even when an iron industry develops in the district round Lulea--Boden The transverse Forsmo-Hoting line will attain special importance for the harnessing of water-power. It passes through the Middle-Norrland district which - as mentioned before - is best supplied with power, and where no less than 220,000 H.P. seem possible to obtain. Even if part of these are transported to the Mid- lands of Sweden, it is probable that a considerable amount of power will be taken into use within the district for chemical industry of such great scale that it will be of importance to the whole lower part of the river Angermanalven. On the whole the Inland railway and its transverse lines will increase the exchange of goods between the interior on the one hand and the coast zone and South Sweden on the other, and thus it will play one of its most important parts in victualling the interior of Norrland. The towns of the coast zone will, however, simultaneously lose part of their hinterlands, as was the case after the building of the Great Northern railway. Thus Ostersund will take some parts of the trade of Sundsvall and Hirn6sand. To Ornsk6ldsvik the new railway system will probably be exclusively disadvantageous, in so far as this town will not get any transverse line and has no river. On the countrary, its neighbouring towns Harn6sand and Umeat will probit largely. The private Eastern railway from Gavle to Hairn6sand will probably also have an advantageous influence on the towns along the coast up to Harndsand. This line will, however, satisfy the local traffic needs rather better than those of the great distant traffic, and it will be of importance for a more intimate communication between the towns and their surrounding industrial districts. Gavle, being the southernmost and biggest town, will probably gain the greatest advantage from the line. Of planned railway-lines besides those mentioned above, especially the line from Ostersund past the Kringede rapids and Hammarforsen to Ragunda on the Great Northern line seems to have prospects of being carried out. In that case the continuation from Ragunda to Sundsvall would only be a question of time. In the plan for the electrification of the whole system of state lines Norrland (38) is divided into the following three power-station districts: i) Porjus, comprising the Svartdn-Riksgransen line, 2) Ume alv, comprising the lines down to Ltng-

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms ECONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NORRLAND. 161 sele and 3) Indalsalven, comprising the lines to S6derhamn. Those of Halsing- land belong to the power-system of the river Dalkilven. According to the cal- culations that have been made of the consumption of power, this will only amount to an insignificant percentage of the quantity of power available, so that, as far as Norrland is concerned, no intrusion need be made into the amount for industrial purposes. The electrification of the railway system of Norrland will spread life and motion in the wide area. The mere fact that the time for travelling will be much shortened, will be of importance for the more intimate communications ofNorrland with the south parts of the Sweden, both from a purely economic and from a general point of view, in so far as it contributes to the shortening of all distances and the decrease of the consequent seclusion that is attached to Norrland and increases its "want of comfort". Concerning navigation, it has been previously pointed out that it will continue to be of the greatest importance to the export and import of Norrland. Of the most important exports of Norrland the ore of Norrbotten has had its possibillities of export satisfactorily arranged by way of Narvik, whose weak point is, however, that it is a Norwegian port and not a Swedish one. The lumber trade has long been accommodated to seasonal shipping, which does not seem to .be of any disadvantage either to producers or consumers. When competition in this market increases, and the consumers want a more constant supply, unbroken ship- ment will be needed. To a more or less great extent this is also true of other Norrland produce. The competition with the ice-free ports of Norway also calls for as extensive measures as possible, especially as it has been found that the railways are not able to take over the transport that cannot go by sea in winter. Only from the province of Givleborg do the railways take some goods of the blocked shipping in winter. The power of creating traffic that new and improved possibilites of communication possess, should also be remembered. As a final verdict it may be said that shipping is on the whole of such vital interest to all Norr- land that an improvement of it is necessary for the continued development of the country. A means of improving the winter shipping is the procuring of ice- breakers for the ports, as well as for the channels in the open sea, where drift- ing and crammed ice forms perhaps the greatest obstacle (43). Norrland would thus follow in the footsteps of Russia and Finland with their large sea ice-breakers that keep the channels to Libau, Baltischport and Hang6 open. If the light- house and signal system is arranged in conformity with ice-breaker navigation, the traffic might be extended over another two months of the winter, at least on the ports south of Kvarken (43). If, finally, we sum up what has been said about the last stage of the development of Norrland, which has now only begun, and what may be expected from its continuation, we may say in the first place that the industrialism that began II. Geografiska Annaler 1921.

This content downloaded from 137.99.31.134 on Mon, 27 Jun 2016 10:05:39 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 162 H. W:SON AHLMANN. at the middle of the 19th century will be still further developed, advance towards a still greater convertive activity and increase in importance totally as well as relatively. The most important factor for this is the utilizing of the third great resource of Norrland, the water-power. Part of its energy will probably be transported to the Midlands of Sweden, another part will be conveyed from the interior to the coast zone, while a third part will be claimed by the industry in the neighbourhood of the power-source. Thanks to the first fact the character of Norrland as a district producing raw material and power will be kept up and increased; owing to the second the importance of the coast zone will grow, and the formerly established distribution of work between the difiereilt natural districts of the country will be intensified; thanks to the third fact scattered industrial districts will grow up. As, in addition, the lumber trade needs more people in the forests, and the railways open thoroughfares with certain centres of communication, the interior of Norrland will be opened to colonization.

CONTENTS.

Page Introduction ...... 97

The natural conditions as qualifications for the industries ...... 98 Composition of the rock ...... 98 Morphology and natural districts ...... o... IoI Climate ...... Io6 Population condition ...... o8 The industries of Norrland ...... I Agriculture ...... 2 Forestry and lumber trade ...... 18 Mining ...... 132 W ater power ...... I36 Communications ...... 142 Export and import of Norrland ...... I44 The towns ...... 145 Contents ...... 162 Litterature ...... 163

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I. AHLENIUNS, K.: Angermanalfvens flodomrade. Uppsala I903. 2. AHLMANN, H. W:SON: Hufvuddragen af nedre Indalens morfologi. Ymer 19I4. 3. ANDERSSON GUNNAR: Om de fysiskt-geografiska fdrutsittningarna f6r bebyggelsen i J~mtlands fja~lltrakter. Ymer 1904. --: Timmertransporten pa de svenska vattendragen och dess geografiska f6rut- sittningar. Ymer 1907. 4. - --:Den svenska skogshandteringens f6rutsdttningar och framtid. Meddelanden fran Handelskammaren i Karlstad. Arg. V. Karlstad 1916. 5. ASKERGREN, TH. A.: Den svenska trivaruhandteringen under tidigare Ar. Skogsvards- f6reningens tidskrift 1917. Bil. I. 6. ANRICK, C. J.: Ny karta 6ver Sveriges Akerareal. Ymer I919. 7. BOETHIUS, B.: Ur de stora skogarnas historia. Stockholm I917. 8. EKELOF, G.: Studier 6fver Gavleans hydrografi och samband med vattenomradets ekonomiska geografi. Meddelanden fran Hydrografiska ByrAn 9. Stockholm 1918. 9. FYHRWALL, 0.: Om det bottniska handelstvanget. Akad. afhandl. Uppsala 1882. - -: Bidrag till Gefle stads historia och beskrifning. Gefle I901. i o. De GEER, S.: Befolkningens f6rdelning i Sverige; karta och beskrivning. Stockholm 1919. i -. - : Sveriges landsdelar. Ymer 1918. I2. HECKSCHER, E. F.: Till belysning af jdrnvigarnes betydelse f6r Sveriges ekonomiska utveckling. Akad. Afh. Stockholm 1907, I 3. - - Produktplakatet och dess f6rutsattningar. Hist. Stud. tillignade Harald Hj~rne I908.

14.I5. -- -:-: SvenskaOm utf6rselbevis produktionsproblem. f6r svensk spannm.l. Stockholm Ekonom. 1918. Tidskrift i911. I6. HELLSTROM, O.: Sveriges flottningsviisende. Skogsvirdsf6reningens Tidskrift I917. Bil. i. I7. HELLSTROM, P.: Norrlands jordbruk. Norrlindskt Handbibliotek VI. Uppsala & Sthlm 1917. 18. HESSELMAN, H.: Skogsbruk och trivaruindustri i Angermanland. Svenska Turist- f6reningens arsbok 1920. I9. HOGBOM, A. G.: Norrland. Norrlindskt Handbibliotek I. Uppsala a Stockholm 1906. 20. - -: Nagra statistiska betraktelser 6fver niringslif och yrkesf6rdelning i Vi2ster- bottens lin. Skogsvirdsfbreningens tidskrift I917. Bil. I. 21. LtaECK, S.: Norrlands industriella utveckling och kommunikationer, Svenska vatten- kraftf6reningens publikationer 0o6 (1919: 2). 22. NELSON, H.: Geografiska studier 6ver de svenska sttdernas och stadslika orternas hige. Lunds universitets arsskrift. N. F. Avd. I. Bd I4. Lund 1918. 23. NORRMAN, S.: Tvirbanor mellan inlandsbanan och stambanan genom 6fre Norrland, ekonomisk-statistisk utredning. Sthlm 1614. 24. NORDLANDER, : Om birkarlarna. Hist. Tidskrift I906-07. 25. ODHNER, C. T.: Bidrag till svenska stidernas och borgarstandens historia f6re 1633. Akad. afhand. Upsala i86o. 26. RUDBECK, T. G.: F6rsbk till beskrifning dfver Sveriges staider. Stockholm 1855

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27. SAHLIN, C.: Den svenska jirnhandteringens nuvarande tillstand och dess nirmaste framtidsutsikter. Jern-Kontorets Annaler 1909. 28. SERRANDER, M.: Karta 6ver vattenkraftstillgangarna i Sveriges stdrre vattendrag. Sv. vattenkraftf6ren. publ. 66 (1915: 12). 29. Sveriges land och folk, historisk-statistisk handbok utg. av J. Guinchard. Sthlm 1915. 30. Sveriges statistiska Centralbyras skrifter och Arsb6cker. 31. Sveriges jordbruk vid I9oo-talets b6rjan utgifven af W. Flach, H. Juhlin-Dannfelt och G. Sundberg. G6teborg i909. 32. THOMASSON, E.: De svenska staidernas f6rdelning i stapelstider och uppstider. Akad. Avhand. Lund 1858. 33. WIDEN, J. och L&MARK, K.: Den norrlindska f6rbudslagstiftningen och dess verk- ningar. Stockholm 1913. 34. WOHLIN, N.: Den jordbruksidkande befolkningen i Sverige 1751-1900. Emigra- tionsutredningen. Bil. IX. Sthlm i9o9. 35. - -: Det svenska jordbrukets inrikes avsittningsf6rhallanden. Stockholm I914. 36 a. AMARK, K.: Utvandring och niiringsliv i Norrland. Broschyr utg. av National- f6reningen mot emigrationen. N:r 4. Stockholm 1912. 36 b. - -: Sveriges monterade vattenkraft. Utgiven av Kommerskollegium. Stock- holm I919. Ymer 1919. 37. OSTMAN, H.: Norrlands ekonomiska utveckling sedan midten av i800oo-talet. Natio- nalf6reningens mot emigrationen Skrifter III. Stockholm 19II. 38. OFVERHOLM, I.: Elektrifieringen av Sveriges statsbanor. Svenska vattenkraftf6r- eningens publikationer. i o. (1919: 6). 39- Jarnviigsstyrelsens skrivelse den i i febr. 1916 angaende fortsattning av inlandsbanan jimte anliggning av tvirbanor mellan densamma och norra stambanan. 40. - -: Den 17 mars 1917 angaende dels inlandsbanans striickning mellan Stor- sele och Jokkmokk, dels tvirbanor mellan inlandsbanan och norra stambanan. 41. Malmkommissionens och Jirnkontorets utredning angaende kolvedtillgangen i Norr- land och Dalarna 42. Vattenkraftssakkunnigas betinkande, Stockholm 1918. 43. Vintersj6fartskommitt6ns f6r Norrland betiinkande. Stokkholm 1918. 44. Kolonisationskommittens betinkande. Stockholm 191I8. 45. Den svenska Cellulosaindustriens utveckling och nationalekonomiska betydelse. Fest- skrift utgiven av Svenska Cellulosaf6reningen. Stockholm 1918. 46. Den nordiska triivaruindustrien. Statistiska tabeller och kartor uppriittade av Svenska Trivaruexportf6reningen 1914.

After the treatise has been written and partly set up the following work has been published: 47. OXHOLM, A.: Swedish forests, lumber industry and lumber export trade. Dep. of Commerce. Spec. Agents. Ser. N:o 105. Washington 1921.

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