Wilburn 1
Ryan Wilburn
Capstone
Bednar
1 April 2021
First Full Draft
For the December 2020 issue, Harry Styles, ex-boyband heartthrob, appeared on the cover of Vogue magazine in a blue, lacey, floor length Gucci dress. The cover received attention from far and wide, especially on social media. Vogue and Styles tweeted the cover image and a link to the cover article on November 13th, 2020 (Figure 1), sparking conversation among
Twitter users, both fans of Styles and those who found issues with the cover. I analyzed a set of responses on Twitter to Harry Styles’ Vogue magazine cover photo and the ensuing controversy over gender performance and masculinity. I followed Gillian Rose’s method of discourse analysis, Discourse I, and worked through the lenses of hegemony, hegemonic masculinity, and gender performativity to answer the following research questions:
1. How does hegemonic masculinity shape the way Twitter users respond to non-normative
presentations of masculinity, like Harry Styles wearing a dress for Vogue?
2. What does hegemony look like on Twitter and how might that differ from society as a
whole? What is dominant in this particular space?
In my experience as a Twitter user, the platform is used in an incredibly unique way. As a social media site, it affords a possibility of wide reach for posts, allowing people to connect with posts from users they have no previous connection with, even no mutual friends with. The short, quick post style allows users to post their responses to an original post with lighting speed and share that thought with their followers. This makes for a unique creation of discourse and that is
Wilburn 2 why I chose this platform for the site of my research. I was initially interested in identifying the ways normative ideologies of masculinity and gender are projected in a space like Twitter because as social media expands and adapts, users do the same and find unique ways to use the platforms, both for positive outcomes like the creation of community and validation of identity, but also in harmful ways, such as the spread of misinformation and the perpetuation of stereotypes and damaging social norms. Social media affords users varying levels of anonymity, allowing them to generate these responses without the social repercussions that might arise in physical interaction. In this case, users responded to Harry Styles’ performance and to other opinions stated on Twitter by other prominent figures. I argue that every user who commented on
Harry Styles’ Vogue cover did so in relation to hegemonic masculinity, regardless of the camp of responses they fall into, as hegemonic masculinity is what informs the thought processes of the users. I also believe that hegemony on Twitter takes the form of short statements of opinions or arguments, rather than deeper discussion because of the platform’s unique character limit.
Figure 1. Original tweet from @voguemagazine, including photos from Styles’ shoot
Studying Twitter and Social Media
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In order to identify how hegemonic masculinity and dominant ideas function on Twitter, we must understand Twitter as a platform and how it is studied in previous scholarship. Twitter, the popular social networking site known for its strict 280 character limit (previously 140) and wide reach of topics and posts, is at the center of many studies, including my own. Arvidsson et al find that Twitter allows public participation in virtual crowds, often fandoms of celebrities like
One Direction and identify that technological affordances, like “Twitter’s list of trending topics
[provide] the crowd with an objective and direction” (Arvidsson et al). Arvidsson et al and Brock both discuss the importance of hashtags as a way to engage in conversations occurring on the site, allowing users to identify with other users even if they are not following them.
Brock specifically studies identity formation among Black users, who make up what they call ‘Black Twitter.’ They argue that Black Twitter “illuminates Twitter’s role as a cultural communication medium…. allowing users to participate in open-ended community-building discourses in near real-time” (Brock 545). This unique attribute of Twitter that Brock notes is essential to my study of the platform, as that discourse is what occurred in response to Styles’
Vogue cover. As Brock identified what is considered hegemonic within a subsection of Twitter, I aim to identify what is hegemonic within the confines of the discourse surrounding Styles, even as those concepts may not be what is dominant on the site as a whole. Hoffman et al’s study of real-time Tweets in response to the medical drama Code Black provides a useful framework for methods of coding response and analysis of Twitter trends. Additionally, they found that the tweets they studied provided insight into discourse created by the viewership of the show.
Foote et al.’s study on Twitter reactions to Adrian Peterson’s suspension from the NFL for allegations of child abuse highlights a similar discourse of masculinity as I have identified surrounding Styles’ own masculinity. This study identifies a common theme among the tweets
Wilburn 4 studied of a “lament that American culture has grown increasingly weak” because of the actions taken by the NFL. (Foote et al. 276). Many of the tweets identified in their study bear significant similarities to negative comments about Styles I have identified for my own research. Foote et al. conclude that, in regards to hegemonic masculinity, “there is a significant risk that Twitter conversations can reify and rationalize problematic behaviors” (281). I believe that this finding is valuable to my study of how discourses surrounding masculinity are created and shared on
Twitter especially in reaction to what is considered a ‘hot button topic” a cisgender man breaking free from normative gender expression.
Although not focused on Twitter, but rather a different social media site, Morris and
Anderson find evidence that among the four male YouTubers they studied, YouTube enabled them to develop and exhibit “inclusive masculinity.” The young men represent an expansion of the traditional understanding of masculinity to include association with homosexuality without fear of homosexualization, association with femininity, and displays of inclusive masculinity, all in a casual way through their video blogs that are broadcast to thousands of viewers. Morris and
Anderson argue these YouTube stars’ authenticity and displays of inclusive masculinity are a major factor in their popularity among young audiences, which they suggest are becoming more inclusive (1213). Their analysis identifies social media as a possible site for the expansion of masculinities and applies to my question of the function of hegemony on Twitter.
The Who, What, Wear of the Controversy
Harry Styles was born in Worcestershire, England in 1994. During his school years, he formed a band with schoolmates, called White Eskimo (Biography). This would be the start of
Styles’ smashing success as a singer, musician, actor, and most importantly, teenage heartthrob.
At 16, Styles auditioned for the UK competition show The X Factor where he was thrust together
Wilburn 5 with four other solo auditioners to form the now iconic boy band, One Direction. The boys were known for their coordinating outfits, skinny jeans, and spectacular hair, although their styles changed throughout their years as a group. They checked all the boxes of a boyband, with their gushy romantic lyrics, loyal fanbase, merchandise in every form possible, and more money and fame than twenty-somethings would know what to do with (Lamont 2014). Together, the band produced five wildly popular albums, multiple world tours, a 3-D tour documentary, and garnered the attention of teenage girls worldwide before announcing a ‘hiatus’ in 2015, intended to only last a year (Cunningham). Having already lost one member, Zayn Malik, to a solo career, the other members began to release their own solo music and since 2015, they have each gone on to create full-length albums, go on tour, and maintain their boy band success.
Harry Styles’ own solo career took off, landing him wildly popular singles like “Sign of the Times” and two consecutive Billboard 200 No. 1 albums (Rolli 2020). His first tour, which sold nearly 1 million tickets, was proof enough that he could succeed outside of the boyband constraints (Rolli 2018). He was set to embark on another tour for his sophomore album Fine
Line but rescheduled due to COVID-19. Fine Line garnered Styles three 2021 Grammy nominations and one win, for “Watermelon Sugar”(Grammys). He also has a budding acting career, having starred in Christopher Nolan’s Dunkirk, currently filming Olivia Wilde’s Don’t
Worry Darling, and set to star in the upcoming My Policeman, directed by Michael Grandage
(“Harry Styles Filmography”).
Although Styles was often lauded as a fashion icon from the start, phasing through different styles during his time in One Direction, his style truly started to turn heads on his debut solo tour. His signature tour ensemble was eye- catching suits, but they were far from the skinny black tie looks he sported with One Direction. These suits, often custom-made, were covered in
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(Ceron).
For the 2019 Met Gala, which he co-chaired, Styles donned Gucci high waisted pants, heeled boots, and a sheer ruffled, lacy top and finished the “femme look” with rings, multicolored nails, and a single pearl earring (Donahue). Harry Lambert, Styles’ fashion right- hand since his days in One Direction, collaborated with Styles and the team at Gucci to create the look. Lambert says that Styles is always “keen to experiment with fashion and is never scared to try something new” which can be seen in the changes in his style over the years and leading up to the Vogue cover shoot (Pike).
Styles has made clear, through monetary support of LGBTQ+ nonprofits, waving pride flags at concerts, and even helping a fan come out to her parents, that he supports the LGBTQ+ community, but has never made explicit whether he identifies as part of that community (Singh).
In an interview, he opened up about outside questions regarding his sexuality. His response to those questions is a simple “Who cares?” He says he is “not sitting on an answer, and protecting it, and holding it back” and that “sexuality is something that’s fun” (Styles qtd in Lamont 2019).
He promises he is not “sprinkling in nuggets of sexual ambiguity to try and be more interesting” and that his choices of fashion, album covers, and more are stylistic choices rather than a statement about his sexuality (Styles qtd in Lamont 2019). Regardless of his sexual orientation or gender identity, his performances, the Vogue cover included, represent a queering of gendered ideologies as he breaks away from the hegemonic norms of gender and masculinity. Alongside other artists, he is part of a commitment to expanding the concept of what it means to be masculine or feminine and how identity is shaped on a public stage.
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Styles made history as the first man to appear solo on the cover of the 127-year-old publication, which has only featured men on its covers 10 times (Countryman). Vogue magazine was founded in 1892 as a “dignified authentic journal of society, fashion, and the ceremonial side of life” and has since showcased on its cover everything from actors to dogs to editors to athletes (Borrelli- Perrson). There have been a total of 7 editors of the magazine, including the current editor, Anna Wintour. Wintour’s first Vogue cover, in November of 1988 “broke all the rules” in her own words, by shaking up what was expected of a cover image; centering a model with windblown hair, stonewashed Guess jeans, and ‘effortless’ hair and makeup all alongside an haute couture jacket (Wintour). It is clear that Harry Styles’ appearance on the magazine’s cover was not the first time Wintour made unprecedented choices that turn the heads of readers; she has been doing this since her first day at Vogue.
A few notable players engaged in the online discourse that quickly popped up around the
Vogue cover, including Candace Owens. Owens is a Black conservative commentator, podcaster, author, and host of “Candace” on The Daily Wire. She is well known for her outspoken stances on political and social issues including feminism, the #MeToo Movement, Black Lives Matter, gun control, and climate change. She is involved with conservative organizations like Fox News,
Turning Point USA, PragerU, and is a vocal supporter of Donald Trump. Her #Blexit movement is aimed at encouraging other Black Americans to distance themselves from the Democratic party and align themselves with conservatives like herself (Panetta and Collman).
Owens was not the only conservative voice making their opinion known about Styles’
Vogue appearance. Ben Shapiro, another prominent conservative commentator, columnist, author, and host of “The Ben Shapiro Show,” also took to Twitter to comment. Similar to
Owens, Shapiro’s shows and Twitter conversations focus on political and social debates
Wilburn 8 surrounding abortion, immmigration, racism, and in this case, gender. Shapiro also uploaded two
YouTube videos to his channel about the topic, one being over an hour long and titled “The
Attack on Masculinity,” which featured Candace Owens.
These two commentators have a rich history of broadcasting their opinion on controversial matters and Styles’ masculinity is the most recent iteration. Recently they have both taken to the internet to express their distaste with rapper Cardi B. Shapiro tweeted about and made a video about Cardi B and Megan Thee Stallion’s hit track “WAP,” even going so far as to read the (censored) lyrics aloud and making claims about feminism and misogyny on his show
(Mamo “Ben Shapiro Reads...). Owens launched a string of tweets attacking Cardi B for her political “pandering,” which created a back and forth between the two about politics, intellect, and femininity (Mamo “A Timeline of Cardi B & Candace Owens' Political Debate”).
The bottom line is that both are quick to jump on whatever topic is ‘trending’ on Twitter in order to get their opinions heard. When Prince Harry and Meghan Markle’s 2 hour interview with Oprah aired, Twitter users were sharing clips, quotes, and even making niche memes from the event. Owens entered the conversation on Twitter too, claiming Meghan’s suicidal thoughts made her emotionally abusive and that she was “unstable [and] lying for sympathy” about what she claimed to have experienced in the Royal Family, including racism and mental health struggles (@RealCandaceO). As rapper Lil Nas X said after Owens joined the online controversy surrounding his song, music video, and merch release in March of 2021, “you know you did something right when she talks about it” (@LilNasX). Owens and Shapiro’s large platform on spaces like Twitter afford them the chance to spread their opinion on the latest controversy, but more importantly for their name to be crossing users timelines or even make it on the trending list.
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Styles’ positionality as a celebrity also makes this discourse interesting, as he is in the business of garnering attention, no matter how low key and anti-drama he may appear, so his choices are calculated and aimed at turning heads towards him, regardless of the nature of the reaction. The common phrase ‘all press is good press’ may even be evoked and in an era of social media discourses, all tweets are good tweets. Key players in the controversy like Ben
Shapiro and Candace Owens are in the same business and jumped at an opportunity to involve themselves in a trending topic. Other celebrities defended Styles on Twitter, including Jameela
Jamil, Zach Braff, Chasten Buttigieg and effectively inserted themselves into the public discourse as well, making a statement and garnering attention (Wong).These considerations are important as I move towards understanding how hegemony functions in this discourse, with the ruling class and dominant culture essentially at the center of the act.
Hegemony, Masculinity, and Gender Performativity
In order to understand reactions to Styles, a cisgender man, wearing a dress on the cover of a fashion magazine, it is important to first understand the concepts of hegemony, hegemonic masculinity, and gender performativity. I want to clearly introduce the concept of hegemony as originally theorized by Antonio Gramsci, outside of the specifications of hegemonic masculinity.
Understanding hegemony as a theory will guide my analysis as I identify when and how hegemony operates within the discourse surrounding Styles and how hegemony functions in a social media space like Twitter. Thomas Bates effectively conceptualizes Gramsci’s original theory of hegemony, which was based in Marxist political thinking and discussions of class and revolution (Bates). Hegemony, being the unwritten rules about how things function in the interest of a dominant culture, was used to explain why and how systems of power remain in place and posits that humans are ruled not by force alone, but also by ideas. Essential to
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Gramsci’s conceptualization of hegemony is that it can only function through the consent of the governed or led, and that consent is “secured by the diffusion and popularization of the world view of the ruling class” (Bates 352). When the world view of the powerful is deemed popular and considered the norm by those who the ideas suppress, they become powerful enough to suppress class struggle and make room for functioning class societies (Bates).
Beyond the context of gender norms, the original theory of hegemony is rooted in the creation of dominant ideas by a ruling class, the group who has the power and the means of production and/or communication to either explicitly or implicitly determine the “ideological unity” of the society (Gramsci in Bates 351). Gramsci was most concerned with the ruling class of society at large, particularly the way that ideologies of the capitalist class were dominant throughout society, where the ruling ideas are the ideas that maintain the power of the ruling class. Scholars since then have used the hegemony concept to show how ruling elites in different locations and discourses within a society can also be hegemonic, and have started to perform what would be best be called an intersectional approach to hegemony, where one’s alignment with or domination by hegemony is defined relationally to the groups to which one belongs, the same way scholars map how a person might be privileged in relation to people in one of their groups but dominated in relation to another, as in the way a gay black male would have more hegemonic privilege than a lesbian black female but less than a straight white male.
With this understanding of hegemony as the dominant ideas of a ruling class, I re- introduce the concept of gender to arrive at the theory of hegemonic masculinity. In terms as close to Gramsci’s original theorization as possible, hegemonic masculinity is the dominant set of ideas around masculinity and gender norms for men that dictates a sense of societal order in relation to gender and that survives through the continuous consent of society as a whole.
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R.W Connell, prominent in scholarship on masculinity for decades, together with James
W Messerschmidt, seeks to rethink the concept of hegemonic masculinity as it evolves. They suggest that hegemonic masculinity is dependent on the subordination of non-hegemonic masculinities but is not always adopted by the majority of men. Rather, hegemonic masculinity is identified as the naturalized ideal that men are expected to aspire to, and that is perpetuated by mass media and celebrated by society as a whole. Connell and Messerschmidt also identify that a
“constant process of negotiation, translation, and reconfiguration occurs” within the dialectic between hegemonic and non-hegemonic masculinities (844). These conceptualizations recognize the fluidity of masculinity and how men interact with hegemonic masculinity in a nuanced way.
In a similar vein, Connell expands masculinity to a bigger picture, studying the evolution of masculinity over time and throughout cultures, identifying that what is considered hegemonic and normative masculinity evolves based on power and dominance (Connell). This recognition is vital to an understanding of differing opinions on masculinity in our current society, with some claiming Styles (and others like him) are not manly, and others praising a rejection of strict gendered norms that to them seem to be worn thin in today’s culture.
Performing Masculinity
Because of Styles’ identity as a singer and performer, I find it valuable to draw on scholarly work and popular culture regarding how masculinity is constructed among male performers like Styles, both in those who preceded him and his male peers in the music industry.
Hansen investigates former One Direction member Zayn’s construction of masculinity post boy band, through his grown-up music video for “Pillowtak.”Hansen argues that Zayn uses heterosexual imagery and lyrics to reposition himself as undoubtedly heterosexual and masculine and distancing himself from the adolescent, pop boy band, homosocial image he carried as a
Wilburn 12 member of One Direction. If Zayn constructed his post One Direction masculinity through hegemonic masculine standards, how has Styles constructed his own masculinity after pop star life? Contrasting Styles and Zayn’s outward production of masculinity allows me to understand what dominant culture expects of Styles and how his act subverted that expectation.
Although Styles made Vogue cover history and sparked a dialogue about men in dresses, he was by no means the first man to bend gendered expectations of what men should or could wear. Shifting to those who came before Styles in terms of non-dominant performances of gender and masculinity, I arrive at two other iconic performers: David Bowie and Prince.
Styles’ fashion choices bear resemblance to David Bowie’s 1970s looks: bold suits with nontraditional silhouettes, eccentric patterns, heeled boots, and other head-turning stylistic choices (Graff). Perrott analyzes Bowie’s music videos and Bowie- inspired performers to capture his iconicity as a performer through gender and gesture. They argue that Bowie’s
“alchemical approach toward creativity implies an experimental process that generates new cultural forms and opens the way for an endless array of alternate identity positions” (Perrott
530). This experimental process is still being replicated decades later in artists like Styles.
Bowie’s experimental performativity was catalyzing in respect to understandings of non- normative masculinities and gender.
Shortly after Bowie was stepping out in these looks, Prince was “making the world think about how a man or a woman should dress, pushing the boundaries of taste and acceptability,” wearing lace gloves, frilly shirts, sparkle vests, and a now-iconic smudged, smoky eyeliner
(Elan). In the 2000s, R&B artist Frank Ocean even shared that Prince’s on-stage performance made him feel comfortable with his own sexual identity because Prince displayed a freedom from “archaic” gender conformity (Spanos). But again, Styles is not alone among male
Wilburn 13 musicians today. Prince is often described as transcending Black masculinity, but Whiteneir argues that he simply offered an alternative presentation of Black masculinity, expanding what it meant to be a Black man through his performance as a Black man. Prince deliberately questioned and challenged “expected ideas of how Black men perform” and demonstrated that various performances of gender and masculinity can coexist (Whiteneir 139). Although Styles is a white man, the two performers similarly demonstrate this concept of expanded ideas of masculinity, suggesting that one man’s performance of non-dominant masculinity does not damage or threaten another man’s more dominant masculinity. These men were musicians and performers who set the stage for modern performers like Styles to continue this androgynous legacy.
Styles can also be compared to Bad Bunny, a 27 year old Puerto Rican reggaeton artist who is no stranger to flashy, bedazzled suits, painted nails, and other ‘feminine’ aspects of his style, all of which garner both positive and negative attention, especially from a Latinx audience.
Bad Bunny’s presentation of masculinity disrupts the tradition of machismo, or concepts of traditional masculinity, chivalry, and strength that much of his Latinx audience is familiar with
(Rosales). Although perhaps not monumental, Bad Bunny’s stylistic choices have meaning, especially within his genre and cultural background. For a recent music video, he dressed in drag, prompting him to share more about his personal identity: "I have always felt like there
[was] a part of me that is very feminine," he said, "but I never felt as masculine as I did the day I dressed up like a drag queen." (Bad Bunny qtd in Exposito).It is this idea that pushes beyond binary gender concepts and identity that seems to be prevalent among more and more young artists in a public way.
For example, Jaden Smith, a young Black rapper and actor, has been debuting in gender non-conforming clothing, including skirts, prom dresses at his prom, and has even created his
Wilburn 14 own line of clothing, intended to be gender-neutral (Moye). Smith represents the vitality of the movement of performers who continue to break gendered expectations of fashion. He claims that he wants to make changes now so that in the future, children who want to use fashion to shape their gender expression may not experience the criticism he has (Moye).
Young Thug is another Black male rapper who openly plays with gender expression, which is at odds with traditions of masculinity within his genre. He wore a blue designer dress, which bears a striking resemblance to Styles’, on the cover of his EP So Much Fun and even mentioned the dress in the track “Just How it Is” (Fu). In a campaign for Calvin Klein he claimed that he feels like “there’s no such thing as gender,” and that one can be a gangsta whether they wear a dress or baggy pants. Despite traditions of violence, hypermasculinity, sexism, and homophobia within the gangsta rap genre, there are male artists who subvert tropes of the genre, whether through expression of emotion and homosocial relationships with other men (Oware) or through statements like Young Thug’s that create space for their identities. Commented [1]: not sure if i should detail this research more- really interesting look at instances of black masculinity and homosociality in gangsta rap lyrics Arguably one of the most influential modern style icons is Billy Porter who has long been making bold spectacles of his fashion, especially on red carpets. The singer and actor was the first openly gay Black man to win an Emmy Award for lead actor in a drama and has continued to blow audiences away with his style (Ilchi). He states that his red carpet style is “undefinable” and “unpredictable,” but all of his looks have something in common: androgyny and the blending of styles (Ilchi). He repeatedly arrives on the red carpet in floor-length gowns, bright colors and florals, and flowing trains. His 2019 Oscars style combined a tuxedo top over a strapless velvet circle gown at the bottom, purposely playing with masculinity and femininity as a form of political art, in Porter’s own words (Allaire). He also goes on to further explain his fashion choices in relation to his identity:
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“I grew up loving fashion, but there was a limit to the ways in which I could express myself.
When you’re black and you’re gay, one’s masculinity is in question. I dealt with a lot of
homophobia in relation to my clothing choices...When I landed a role in Kinky Boots, the
experience really grounded me in a way that was so unexpected. Putting on those heels
made me feel the most masculine I’ve ever felt in my life. It was empowering to let that
part of myself free” (Porter qtd in Allaire).
It is not lost on some audiences that Porter’s identity as an openly gay Black man positions him differently than someone like Styles, who is white and despite assumptions made by fans, considered to be cisgender and straight. Styles was lauded by some for making stylized choices that many other people, most notably trans femmes and drag queens of color, “have been mocked, ostracized, beaten, and even killed for doing” (Askinasi). Many people do not see a white man like Styles as the poster child for gender-neutral fashion when openly queer people of color are not afforded the same praise for doing the same thing (Askinasi). This represents a different camp of responses to the cover, in which Styles is not being criticized directly, nor is his masculinity in question, but rather wondering just how revolutionary this representation is and who is overlooked when someone like Styles is praised (Rodgers). These responses constitute a rich aspect of this discourse that could be analyzed on its own, and therefore one that is outside the context of my current study.
Analyzing Discourse: Identifying themes, finding pattern, and discovering meaning
The theoretical frameworks at the center of my research are hegemony, hegemonic masculinity, and gender performativity. As I discussed earlier, hegemony as theorized by
Gramsci provides the basis of understanding for my research questions, as I analyze the discourse on Twitter in order to identify how hegemony operates in that space. Hegemonic
Wilburn 16 masculinity is an important expansion on that concept as my research object centers discourse regarding what masculinity is or isn't in the eyes of the users. Finally, Butler’s theory of gender performativity is a powerful concept that will guide my understanding of how dominant or hegemonic gender is created, performed, and perpetuated within the context of Styles and the emerging dialogue on Twitter.
Guided by Rose’s Discourse I, my analysis aims to identify key rhetorical themes within the discourse I extract from Twitter in response to the initial act of Harry Styles’ Vogue cover.
Rose provides detailed explanations of this method of analysis, starting with identifying sources.
My research object consists of 43 Tweets collected in response to an original post from either
@voguemagazine. @Harry_Styles, @RealCandaceO, or @benshapiro. My initial collection originated from a YouTube video that was made to outline the controversy, which included discussions on media outside of Twitter but focused mainly on Tweets (“Harry Styles
DRAGGED Over New Photos, Shuts Down Hater with 1 Tweet.”). The video itself is a complex text that could be analyzed as a media production itself, but I will focus only on the Tweets gathered from the video. I used Twitter’s advanced search tool to identify the Tweets from the video on the platform itself, which led me to other Tweets. I chose these specific tweets to be the focus of my research based on Rose’s guidelines that suggest identifying texts that are
“particularly interesting” instead of either statistically significant or randomly assigned. I chose not to include any Tweets that were succinct in their approval or disapproval of Styles as well as any that used harmful language and instead focused on those that will provide space for valuable analysis. I will reference the Tweets verbatim, so all grammatical errors have been left as is, and emoticons and photos included in the Tweet are represented by a description in brackets.
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It is important to note that discourse and discourse analysis have a variety of interpretations and methodological iterations. I focus on the Foucauldian definition of discourse and Gillian Rose’s construction of analysis called ‘Discourse I.’ Discourse, in Foucauldian terms, refers to “groups of statements that structure the way a thing is thought and the way we act on the basis of that thinking,” which shapes how we understand the world (Rose 187). Such a discourse coheres together into what Foucault called a “discursive formation.” To further this concept, a discursive formation is defined as the structural way meanings are connected together within a discourse (Rose). These definitions are at the heart of Rose’s Discourse Analysis I, which focuses on “the notion of discourse as articulated through various kinds of visual images and verbal texts,” in order to explore how viewpoints are constructed (Rose 192). Rose develops this method of analysis by providing the main goals and focuses of the analysis, examples, and guiding questions.
As I stated before, my objects were sourced from a YouTube video but were chosen based on the merits suggested by Rose, which means I also chose to include other tweets I came across while on the platform that are of particular interest to the discourse. This part of the process, as noted by Rose, can be difficult, because connections between data and materials continue to emerge, so the container of the YouTube video was helpful in alleviating some of this difficulty in knowing when to stop the data collection process. Rose also suggests immersion into the research object, reading and re-reading before beginning the analysis (Rose 206). In terms of the analysis process itself, as laid out by Rose, I identified key themes, patterns, and keywords among the Tweets by reading and re-reading them. These guiding questions provided by Rose were helpful in finding meaning among those themes: “How are particular words or
Images given specific meanings? Are there meaningful clusters of words…? What objects do
Wilburn 18 such clusters produce? What associations are established within such clusters? What connections are there between such clusters?” (Rose 206). Another aspect of this process is allowing for new questions or interpretations to emerge throughout the analysis and incorporating those into the overall understanding of the research object (Rose 209). The other main points of analysis are identifying these strategies within the discourse: effects of truth, complexity, and contradictions, and invisible and visible details (Rose 214).
Rose’s method of discourse analysis focuses on immersion into the texts within your data set to uncover the structure of the discourse and within that intertextual structure, what key themes emerge, where claims to truth are suggested, what is invisible or visible, and where complexity and contradictions occur. I read through the selected tweets in order to identify these structures and create a code to identify themes. Through this immersion and coding, I was able to identify the complexities within the discourse and aspects such as claims to truth that emerge within rhetorical themes.
In order to understand more contemporary applications of Rose’s discourse analysis methods, especially in relation to social media, I reference Abdulmajeed and El-Ibiary’s study on communicative strategies of Egyptian political influencers on Twitter. They use the specific areas of analysis suggested by Rose ( intertextuality of those tweets, discursive formation, and regimes of truth) to identify the communicative strategies used in the Tweets they identified.
Although the subject matter of their research is different from my own, the structure of their methodology provides a model for how I use Rose’s Discourse Analysis in my own research. My analysis is also guided by similar analyses carried out by Foote et al and Duffy, especially as it relates to viewing Twitter as a site for research and gathering and analyzing the research object.
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As stated before, my research object consists of 43 Tweets, all originally tweeted between November 13th 2020 and December 2nd 2020. I coded the tweets according to rhetorical patterns I noticed across each of the individual Tweets. These themes are:
“strength/weakness” “comparison,” “typical gender,” “inspiration/influence,” “freedom,” and
“wussification.” All of the tweets are connected by an overarching theme, the question of “what is masculinity?” I also identified spaces within the discourse where, as Rose notes to pay attention to, there are inconsistencies, invisibility/visibility, and claims to truth, and those patterns are identified throughout my analysis. In a broad overview of the discourse, I defined two camps of identification with the act (Styles’ Vogue cover): the ‘yays’ and the ‘nays.’ those who praise Styles and his expression and those who criticize him. I recognize that this classification is an oversimplification of what is a nuanced discourse both on and offline and that there are camps of audiences who, as I mentioned before, are not criticizing the act so much as they criticize the societal stigmas still present for people of color and the white privilege Styles holds, as just one example. For this analysis I chose to focus on responses that were either critical or praising and find patterns within and across the camps.
What is Masculinity? No, Really!
A common thread throughout the Tweets in my research set is that the discourse is centered on the concept of masculinity and questioning what does or does not constitute masculinity. Judith Butler argues that gender reality is “only real to the extent that it is performed” through repetition of stylized acts that “either conform to an expected gender identity or contest that expectation in some way” (Butler 527). Butler also specifies that this performance of gender is “not a fully individual matter” but rather relies on “a set of meanings already socially established” and reproduced and reenacted by players throughout society (525-526).
Wilburn 20
This is not to say that individuals do not make their own choices in regards to how to perform their gender or their own feelings of gender identity, but rather suggest that gender is dependent on hegemonic societal expectations. A person can choose to ignore or challenge those expectations, but they cannot choose to have them not exist or be applied by other members in society. Butler identifies that there is a set of punishments reserved for those who perform their ascribed gender ‘wrong’ and a reassurance allowed for those who perform their gender
‘well’(528). This concept is vital to the core of my research, especially when analyzing reactions from those who see Styles’ gender expression as an attack on masculinity.
Everyone who registered their opinion on the topic out into the public sphere has made a statement on what they believe masculinity to be. As @AbbyJohnson puts it concisely but also vaguely, some commenters want to “bring back masculinity.” This rhetoric, that is similarly invoked in other tweets in the data set, assumes that masculinity used to be “here” but is now gone in some way and needs to be brought back. This is reminiscent of other nostalgic conservative laments, such as Donald Trump’s tagline,’ Make America Great Again’ which again suggests that greatness was lost and needs to be brought back. What causes the debate though is users’ varying opinions on what masculinity really is. In response to @AbbyJohnson,
@juliebethe shares their belief that “there are different ways to be masculine, just like there are different ways to be feminine” (Figure 2). Does Styles surrender his masculinity because he wore a dress or is he expanding the idea of masculinity beyond traditional concepts and gendered ideas of dress?
While it seems like the ideologies represented in my sample of Tweets have little in common with one another, the users have in common that they believe their ideology of how to
‘be a man’ or ‘be masculine’ is the right one and they are willing to debate with those who
Wilburn 21 disagree. All of these ideologies are based on hegemonic masculinity, whether agreeing with or dissenting from what dominant culture presents as masculinity.
Figure 2: Twitter exchange between @AbbyJohnson and @juliebethe in response to original
tweet by Vogue
“What the hell is wrong with these comments?”
The rhetorical theme of ‘freedom of choice’ was present within this discourse, but emerged only in tweets praising Styles and not those criticizing his masculinity. One user stated plainly that critics should “stop making ones clothes a deal. Wear what you want and let others do the same,” (@KimberlyAdamis). Another user thanks Vogue magazine and Styles for
“showing all people NO matter how they identify fashion is what you make of it” (@KDaloha).
In another tweet praising Styles, one user questions all of the negative comments in regards to the post, saying: “Why do people take others lives so personal ? Not your thing, move on
[Waving hand emoji]” (@THEGIFTOFGABY). This suggestion is part of a greater cultural conversation regarding the politics of freedom and choice. America is said to be the land of the free, but that takes on a variety of meanings in ideologies of choice and personal freedom.
Conservative cultural politics see identity as essential while more progressive cultural politics
Wilburn 22 see identity as performative. There is however, a disconnect between connservative cultural obsession with freedom that only extends to chosen facets of life, such as freedom from government control. The contradiction lies in the barrage of conservative comments on things like identity, gender performance, sexual orientation, while spreading a message of freedom and rights. In this instance, none of the well known conservative voices, Owens and Shapiro, or those who aligned themselves with them used rhetoric suggesting that individuals have the freedom to wear what they want and be who they want.
Instead of focusing on trying to identify what does or does not constitute masculinity, the users who invoke this rhetoric are encouraging others to simply mind their own business if they do not like what they see. I want to stress the importance of the absence of this rhetoric among
Tweets that were criticizing Styles.. Rose notes the importance of “reading for what is not seen or said,” as “invisibility can have just as powerful effects as visibility” (Rose 213). While every tweet in this data set expresses an opinion, these take the extra step to call out what they see as an absurdity in other users’ critical responses and suggest that they mind their own business.
However, Twitter would not survive if everyone took this suggestion. This platform thrives off of users not minding their own business and instead, sharing their opinion on whatever crosses their timeline. Even those users praising Styles and sharing their aligned opinions are not ‘minding their own business.’ Rose also identifies that the complexity and contradictions that emerge from discourse analysis are valuable to understanding the discourse itself. This is one of those contradictions. While there are extremes that are expressed on Twitter, such as the explicitly hateful comments I mentioned being present in response to Styles, Shapiro, and Owens, everyone who Tweets is taking part in sharing their opinion publicly, and everyone
Wilburn 23 who replies, even in agreement, is entering a discourse and essentially, not minding their own business.
(Do) Real Men Wear Dresses (?)
One of the themes that emerged in my analysis of the data set was a focus on ‘typical’ or
‘traditional’ gendered attributes and roles, coming from a variety of viewpoints. Some users found importance in turning away from these gendered expectations, while others were drawn towards what they believe to be behaviors exhibited by ‘real men.’ These notions of what ‘real’ men do or don’t do were also reinforced by rhetoric of strength and weakness.
An audience’s conceptualizations of masculinity and gender performance are heavily augmented by their consumption of media such as TV, music, social media, and even commercials. Sharrer and Blackburn’s research of the impacts of TV viewership on the cultivation of their understanding of gender roles concluded that men who viewed sitcoms and reality television more strongly endorsed traditional masculinity and gender roles than their female counterparts (Sharrer and Blackburn). Tollefson argues that commercials like Snickers’
“You’re Not You” campaign function on the basis of gendered stereotypes and hegemonic understandings of gender roles (Tollefson 40). Because these depictions of hegemonic masculinity in popular media are consumed so often by audiences, they are integral to the perpetuation of these dominant cultures of masculinity in other forms of media. Foote et al also identify themes of hegemonic masculinity in conversations regarding NFL player Adrian
Peterson, suggesting that professional sports are also a mediated site for the reproduction and consumption of traditional masculinity.
One user tweeted that Styles in a dress was evidence of “urban illness” and insists he should “ spend time with real men working on a cattle station and go hunting and camping a lot
Wilburn 24 more” (@pilligaprincess). Similarly, another user said, in response to Styles’ Vogue cover that they would “need a whole day of watching reruns of the A-Team, old Westerns, & action movies to get these images out of my head...[Face vomiting]. This world NEEDS masculinity now more than ever!!” (@TexGal4Life) (Figure 3). Once again, we see the rhetoric of a nostalgic conservative lament for a time when men were ‘real’ and a suggestion that the world needs masculinity in the form of traditional stereotypes mentioned in the tweet. Others used shared rhetoric regarding what they believe men’s roles should be, including “protect...provide... change their own tire” (@jenn51145443), “protect his family and his woman,” (@realonediva), and
“cut… down a tree and bring...the heart of a bear” (@SydneyLWatson). These phrases harken to traditional and stereotypical gender roles for men, (the protector, the breadwinner, the strong one in a relationship) that are part of their understanding of what is masculine and what makes a
‘real’ man. These preconceived notions of what makes masculinity are based upon hegemonic masculinity that reinforces ideas of stereotypical masculinity.
Figure 3: @TexGal4Life response to Vogue cover
Ben Shapiro claims that “boys are taught to be more masculine in virtually every human culture because the role of men is not always the same as the role of women,” reinforcing the
Wilburn 25 ideology that he and some other users share, that masculinity is based on traditional gender expectations that are different from those expected of women. In response to Styles’ photo,
Candace Owens tweeted a call to “bring back manly men” because “there is no society that can survive without strong men” (Figure 4). Here, Owens suggests that because Styles breaks traditional ‘rules’ of masculinity he cannot still be manly or strong. Once again, other users followed suit in the discussion of strength in regards to masculinity. In a tweet lamenting that men are no longer welcomed to display their “manliness”, @mellylissa13 believes that “men in dresses won’t make strong men in the future.” The rhetoric identified in these tweets reflects a strong theme of traditional masculinity that does not waver and seemingly cannot include traditionally feminine attributes, as seen in Styles’ fashion choices.
Figure 4: @RealCandaceO first tweet in response to the Vogue cover
Wilburn 26
Borrowing a phrase from Foote et al’s Twitter analysis of perceptions of masculinity in the NFL, the aforementioned rhetoric warns against the ‘wussification’ of ‘masculinity as we know it.’ For some, this ‘wussification’ threatens everyone’s masculinity because some men have found ways to expand what masculinity means for them. The fear of the degradation of society and hegemonic masculinity because some men wear dresses reflects the binary thinking at the root of this discourse. The dominant culture says masculinity simply is or isn’t and leaves no room for expansion or transcendence.
On another side of this discourse, users applauded Styles and identified what they see as strength in a different, but no less manly way. One user challenged “women who want a strong man” to “rethink [their] definition of ‘strong’ (@KimberlyAdamis) and another said “THIS is what a Strong Confident man looks like!!!” (KDaloha). In response to Owens’ claim that men like Styles are unstable, one user found men in the public eye who struggle “brave for calling out for help” and pointed out that “it’s ok for a man to need help and it’s ok for them to wear whatever the hell they want” (@oscharf101). For these users, strength is not defined by physical ability or traditional gendered performance, but rather by confidence and honesty in who they are.
Well, What About Jesus?
Another key rhetorical theme, identified in 10 of the selected tweets, is the use of comparison to make a point. This was used in tweets from users praising and criticizing Styles.
Many called out the fact that men wear “skirts or robes regardless of gender” all around the world, and have throughout history, often attaching photos to further their point (@USAntifa1).
One user even pointed out that “Jesus Christ wore what today would be known as a ‘midi dress’' and questioned “are you going to judge his masculinity as well??” (@katiadarlingx) (Figure 5).
Wilburn 27
This comparison identifies both historical and religious connections to the conversation about men’s clothing and gendered expectations. Another user points to more modern-day examples,
David Bowie and Prince who, as I described earlier, preceded Styles in transcending traditional gendered expectations, especially on stage (@THEGIFTOFGABY). However, Candace Owens believes these comparisons to performers like Freddie Mercury, Prince, David Bowie, and Kurt
Cobain, prove her point that “stable men do not wear ball gowns,” citing substance abuse and the glorification of struggle in Hollywood as the root of this instability in stars like Cobain
(@RealCandaceO).
Figure 5: @katiadarlingx response including a photo of Jesus
The theme of comparison was also used in response to Owens and Shapiro to flip their arguments in an attempt to delegitimize them or point out contradictions. Most notably, Styles, who is rarely active on social media, posted a photo of himself in a powder blue suit and a white, pleated, puff-sleeved blouse underneath, with the caption, “Bring back manly men”
Wilburn 28
(@Harry_Styles_). This was Styles’ one public ‘comment’ on the lengthy online discussion of his masculinity and the state of manliness today, and he chose to use Owens’ words against her.
One user responded to Owens’ plea to ‘bring back manly men' with this tweet, pointing out a contradiction in her logic, considering she is a woman of color who is operating successfully on a national scale: “By your logic: bring back submissive females that do not have jobs and can only take care of the home and have kids. Take away every single right of every single minority group ever because it wasn’t socially or politically normal back in the 1700s. It’s a two-way street” (@austinbaines). The two-way street is invoked again by a user who included a photo of Owens in a suit with the caption “this you? in a suit? i think you should be more feminine” (@kcharboneau30). Another user co-opts Shapiro’s tweet structure in an attempt to contradict him and claims that “ People with a stupid POV (such as yourself, The Left knows this) consider gender to be this huge thing that needs to have rules. Men have worn skirts and dress like attire since humans discovered how to make clothes,” (@RoamingWisp). This statement uses comparison to knock down Shapiro’s claim that Styles wearing a dress is an attempt to “feminize masculinity” (@benshapiro). These users are intent on identifying what they see as flaws in the logic of those making statements on what constitutes masculinity and by doing so identify themselves with the camp that does not consider gender to be a thing that needs rules.
Celebrity Influence, for Better or Worse
This key rhetorical theme is based on suggestions from users that what someone else has done or said is influential in some way, whether the user interprets that influence as negative or positive. I identified 9 tweets in my data set that use this rhetorical theme.
Wilburn 29
Many applauded Styles for his confidence, power, and for simply looking good in the dress (@Destana1xx, @KDaloha, @THEGIFTOFGABY). Three users thanked Styles specifically for being an inspiration or influence to their young sons, showing them “ it's okay to dress the way it makes you happy” (@littlecity413). One parent included a photo of their son playing outside, wearing a dress with dinosaur print, with the caption “As the mom of a beautiful
6-year-old son who loves wearing dresses- thank you” (@becca_dair). Another parent praised
Styles, for “helping peel away the stigma for great kids” like their 17-year-old son who “likes dresses” and “said he just likes what he likes and he'll love who he loves - no need to label any of it” (@dish_chicken). These responses represent the perceived impact of Styles’ purposeful transcendence of gender performance on a younger generation that is already doing what he has done publicly. There seems to be an expectation that an act like this from a celebrity like Styles will mean their children will not be picked on for what they wear. Whether or not this is true, these users identified Styles' influence, at least for themselves and their children, as positive and valuable.
Not all responses believe the influence possible by Styles and other celebrities is positive.
One user felt that children would be confused by seeing a man in a dress because “when children draw their stick like figure in school, they put the dress on a female” and asked “who do the put the dress on now, & who represents whose female or male” (@tuscansun60). Ben Shapiro argued that Styles’ appearance in a “floofy dress” is a “referendum on masculinity” and that “the
POINT of Styles doing this photo shoot is to feminize masculinity” (@benshapiro). These tweets represent again the fear that dominant masculinity will be degraded by the possible influence of such celebrities and public acts like this one. However, another user called out Owens for perpetuating “incredibly harmful...outdated expectations on men” ideas of masculinity, believing
Wilburn 30 her influence as a celebrity commentator would have a negative impact from which “men suffer, women suffer, & society suffers” (@FrangellBasora). Each of these users, regardless of their opinions, recognized the power of a platform like Twitter to spread information and ideologies that can and do influence those who come across them.
Tell the Truth, Man
I have analyzed the tweets in my data set to demonstrate that every user positions themselves in some way around hegemonic masculinity and what they see represented in their lives and particularly on their Twitter feeds. These positions can be seen as truth claims, as each user invokes some sort of “claim to truth, or to scientific certainty, or to the natural way of things” (Rose 209). Ben Shapiro invokes truth claims in the form of his interpretation of scientific certainty when he says that “The Left… tell[s] you that a man can be a woman e.g. despite no biological underpinning” (@benshapiro). This ‘claim to truth’ likely rings true with much of Shapiro’s audience who typically believe there are ‘only two genders’ and they should be expressed in a traditional fashion. Others stand strong in their belief in the ‘natural way of things’ in terms of gender roles and expression, especially evident in the analysis of users who define masculinity by traditional, hegemonic indicators, like physical strength and protection.
Although this user claims to just be sharing their “2 cents” their claim to truth about masculinity is that “clothes don't make a man. Attitude does. Confidence does. Character does. Intelligence does. Kindness does. Compassion does. Passion does. If you are only looking at the wrapper, then you aren't seeing what's really there” (@daniisok).
This ability to claim truth within a discourse is not unique to Twitter but the platform is a space where this is easier and in which these claims to truth, regardless of how true they are, are spread incredibly easily. An MIT study in 2018 found that false news traveled through the
Wilburn 31
Twitter world faster than true stories because those stories were 70% more likely to be retweeted
(Dizikes). In terms of hegemony, especially in regards to deeply ingrained, hegemonic concepts of gender, claims to ‘the natural way of things’ are particularly potent because they resonate with what society has been told about gender for generations.
Hegemony on Twitter
While there is no way to identify a set of dominant norms that rule all of a social media platform as diverse and widespread as Twitter, through my analysis and experience as a Twitter user I argue that there are certain behaviors that are dominant, regardless of the ideologies behind them. My understanding of hegemony on Twitter, or in a specific ‘side’ or discourse located on
Twitter is guided by Andre Brock’s research on ‘Black Twitter’ in which they identify how
Black Twitter users utilize the platform as a method of performance and space to create and cultivate their identity and community. My research is not confined by the race of users, but rather the discourse they choose to engage in: masculinity and gender. Twitter users use the platform as a space to share their opinions and thoughts and engage with others they encounter with differing and aligned viewpoints. Users like Ben Shapiro and Candace Owens rely on this feature of Twitter for their success, as it allows them to argue with people who disagree with their inflammatory comments in seemingly one-on-one conversation that is actually on display for anyone. They count on outrage in response to their opinions, which gives them a chance to battle with anyone who wants to fight, thus widening the reach of their posts to users who may not follow them in the first place. However, even the everyday Twitter user who is not a celebrity commentator can use the platform to engage in these conversations and enter into the discourse the same way Owens and Shapiro do.
Wilburn 32
My analysis reflects different ‘sides’ of Twitter that have entered into the discourse based on the presence of key characters like Styles, Shapiro, and Owens. A quick glance through the replies below any of these tweets will find many users who are mega fans of Harry Styles, which positions them in one “camp” from the start. Others come in support or alignment with conservative commentators Ben Shapiro and Candace Owens, who both have a wide following.
They have all come together in the digital space, however, to engage in discourse about masculinity and what it means that Styles is on the cover of Vogue in a dress. In this case, many users stated outright that masculinity is or isn’t certain things, while others made the umbrella argument that masculinity can encompass a multitude of things without going in-depth. These compact arguments and claims create an often inflammatory discourse not conducive of productive conversation or discussion. Because of the limited character count afforded by
Twitter and stream of consciousness style posting that is common, many users resort to binary arguments rather than complex, nuanced understandings of the issue at hand. This feature, unique to Twitter in particular because of its character limits, creates a space in which users must squeeze their opinions into a smaller space to have the most impact. Kokil et al. found that although uncivil political discussions on Twitter decreased after the change in character limit
(140 to 280), empathy and respect also decreased among the discussants. This data suggests that the brevity required by Twitter impacts the nature of discussions that take place on the platform, especially in regards to big topics such as politics or gender. Rather than ask questions and discuss the implications of Styles’ Vogue cover and the subsequent conversations about masculinity, users must condense their opinions into 280 character messages or disconnected threads of tweets that cannot possibly capture the nuances of such large concepts.
Wilburn 33
Some users, like Olivia Wilde, used short statements to share their opinion on the matter at hand, telling Owens “ You’re pathetic” (@oliviawilde). Another user followed suit, not giving their ‘2 cents’ on masculinity and gender expression but entering the discourse with their opinion, simply stating “i want to see harry bodyslam ben shapiro WHILE wearing the dress”
(@suuummaa). While succinct, these examples represent another way that users are able to be a part of the discourse at hand well within Twitter’s character limit that I believe is unique to the platform and is part of what users see as hegemony in that space. In a face to face discussion, such comments may not be accepted, but the norms of the platform create a space where these statements are included in the discourse and relevant to other users’ understanding of the action.
Twitter users rely on interactions outside of their usual circle to spread their message and make it ‘go viral.’ The ‘like’ and ‘retweet’ buttons are key players in the process of spreading a
Tweet, but so other users commenting below a tweet or quote retweeting it with their own thoughts, which spreads the message to their followers. Users who quote retweet an opinion they disagree with to state that they disagree with it effectively spread the original message further, which is exactly what big names like Candace Owens and Ben Shapiro rely on.
Because Styles’ Vogue cover was seen as controversial or ground-breaking, a discourse emerged that transcended the typical information silos many Twitter users exist within. The discourse was the meeting space between camps of users who may not have interacted with one another before because of their different viewpoints on things like gender performance or other common points of contention. Because Shapiro and Owens are conservative political commentators, users who do not align politically with their right-wing views may not follow them on Twitter and only see their posts when they engage with a ‘trending’ topic. As I mentioned before, rapper Lil Nas X, who is most famous for his hit ‘Old Town Road,’ was the
Wilburn 34 target of media controversy over his music video for ‘Montero (Call Me By Your Name)’ in
March 2021, which included ‘satanic imagery’. Much of the conversation evolved on Twitter, where Lil Nas X is typically very active. His video caught the attention of many conservatives, including pastors, government officials, Fox News, and commentators like Owens and even
Kaitlan Bennett. The controversy was another meeting place for users from a variety of political and religious backgrounds, and similar to the Styles conversation, resulted in a lot of back and forth and strong opinions shared on Twitter (Wicker). As I mentioned before, celebrities
(whether they step away from controversy once it erupts like Styles or feed the fire like Lil Nas
X) are all in the business of keeping themselves in the public eye and somehow profiting off the controversy, which Lil Nas X likely did, with over 50 million views on the video and a #1 spot on the all-genre iTunes sales chart (Cantor). This pattern is part of what keeps a platform like
Twitter fueled, with trending topics and controversies weaving in and out of the trending spotlight, drawing users into the discourse.
Conclusion
While the impetus of my research began with my love for Harry Styles and my own excitement seeing him on the cover of Vogue, it has evolved into an understanding of how and why Twitter works the way it does and how dominant constructions of masculinity inform the way users respond to an act like Styles’. I argue that hegemony on Twitter functions through the platform’s structure of short statements, opinions, or arguments, rather than deeper discussion.
Users like Styles, Shapiro, and Owens rely on the nature of the platform to increase their visibility and spread their message. I also argue that while there are different camps of Twitter users with different interpretations of masculinity, dominant ideologies of masculinity that are present within society are what drive this discourse. Even those who praise Styles are doing so in
Wilburn 35 relation to hegemonic masculinity, especially with ideas of expanding notions of gendered expectations. One tweet I identified in my data set shares a thought that is central to my argument and understanding of masculinity, especially on a social media platform like Twitter.
@KeeganLannon stated: “what I think Ben Shapiro and Candice Owen don't understand (or disingenuously ignore) is that all indicators of masculinity and femininity are mediated. There is nothing inherently masculine about clothing, and the Harry Styles' photo shoot highlights that.”
This Tweet expresses the importance of mediated understandings of gender that, as Butler says, is just the repetition of highly stylized acts that in this case, instructs what dominant culture says masculinity is or is not. Everyone who enters the discourse on Twitter comes in with a lifetime of hearing what is socially established as masculine and with that at the center, adds to the discourse with their own opinion in the form of a Tweet.
Another point of value in this discourse emerges in the form of the contradictory cultural politics of freedom, and viewing
Wilburn 36
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Wilburn 38
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Connell, R. W. “The Big Picture: Masculinities in Recent World History.” Theory and Society,
vol. 22, no. 5, 1993, pp. 597–623. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/657986
Connell, R. W., and James W. Messerschmidt. “Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the
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www.jstor.org/stable/27640853.
Countryman, Eli. “ Harry Styles Is First Solo Male to Cover Vogue: See the Photos.” Variety,
13 Nov 2020, variety.com/2020/music/news/harry-styles-vogue-cover-1234831358/.
Cunningham, John M. “One Direction.” Britannica, Updated 5 Aug 2020,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/One-Direction
@daniisok. “Clothes don't make a man. Attitude does. Confidence does. Character does.
Intelligence does. Kindness does. Compassion does. Passion does. If you are only
looking at the wrapper, then you aren't seeing what's really there. Just my 2 cents.”
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Twitter 25 November 2020, 7:03 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/daniisok/status/1331584339411410945.
@Destana1xx. “What the hell is wrong with these comments? Clothing has no gender, the toxic
society made it seem that way. Harry did amazing with these looks and I applaud him.”
Twitter, 16 November 2020, 4:03 p.m.
https://twitter.com/Destana1xx/status/1328458750466863106
@dish_chicken. “Thank you for this! My 17 year old son likes dresses. I asked if he felt he was
gay/trans and he said he just likes what he likes and he'll love who he loves - no need to
label any of it, and I LOVE that!!! Thank you for helping peel away the stigma for great
kids like mine!” Twitter, 18 November 2020, 7:56 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/dish_chicken/status/1329242209238003714
Dizikes, Peter. “Study: On Twitter, false news travels faster than true stories,” MIT News, 8
March 2018, https://news.mit.edu/2018/study-twitter-false-news-travels-faster-true-
stories-0308
Donahue, Rosemary “ Harry Styles Looks So Pretty Wearing a Pearl Earring and Heels at the
2019 Met Gala.” Allure, 6 May 2019, www.allure.com/story/harry-styles-met-gala-2019-
pearl-earring-heels-nails
Duffy, Brooke Erin, “Manufacturing Authenticity: The Rhetoric of ‘Real’ in Women’s
Magazines,”The Communication Review 16 (2013): 132-154.
Elan, Priya. “ Prince: how his androgynous style influenced fashion.” The Guardian, 22 April
2016,www.theguardian.com/fashion/2016/apr/22/prince-how-his-androgynous-style-influ
enced-fashion
@elijahwood. “i think you’ve missed the definition of what a man is. masculinity alone does Commented [3]: use or lose
Wilburn 41
not make a man.” Twitter, 16 November 2020, 1:25 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/elijahwood/status/1328418900552269825
Exposito, Suzy. “Bad Bunny in Captivity.” Rolling Stone. 14 May 2020,
https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-features/bad-bunny-cover-story-lockdown-
puerto-rico-new-albums-996871/
Foote, Justin Gus, et al. “Adrian Peterson and the ‘Wussification of America’: Football and
Myths of Masculinity.” Communication Quarterly, vol. 65, no. 3, July 2017, pp. 268–
284. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/01463373.2016.1227347.
@FrangellBasora. “Yikes; truly, truly yikes. This is harmful to all people, Candace. This is
incredibly harmful. Men suffer, women suffer, & society suffers when you place these
outdated expectations on men. Stop trying to harm America and our progress.” Twitter,
16 November 2020, 9:07 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/FrangellBasora/status/1328354014455590912.
Fu, Eddie. “Young Thug Addresses His ‘JEFFERY’ Dress On “Just How It Is”,” Genius, 16
August 2019, https://genius.com/a/young-thug-addresses-his-jeffery-dress-on-just-how-
it-is
Graff, Gary. “ David Bowie's Fashion Evolution.” Billboard, 7 March 2013,
www.billboard.com/photos/1550592/david-bowies-fashion-evolution1
Hansen, Kai Arne. “ Fashioning a Post Boy Band Masculinity: On the Seductive Dreamscape of
Zayn’s Pillowtalk.” Popular Music and Society, vol. 41, no. 2, 2018, pp. 194-212. Taylor
and Francis Online, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03007766.2016.1242994.
@Harry _Styles. “Bring back manly men. [Photo of Styles in a blue suit with frilled sleeves].”
Twitter, 2 December 2020, 1:11 p.m.,
Wilburn 42
https://twitter.com/Harry_Styles/status/1334213571283091456
“Harry Styles Biography” Biography, Updated 2 Dec 2020,
www.biography.com/musician/harry-styles
Wilburn 43
“Harry Styles DRAGGED Over New Photos, Shuts Down Hater with 1 Tweet.” YouTube,
uploaded by Spill, 11 December 2020,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-98_uk7IhiA&feature=youtu.be
“Harry Styles Filmography” IMDb, https://www.imdb.com/name/nm4089170/
Hoffman, Beth L., et al. “Use of Twitter to Assess Viewer Reactions to the Medical Drama,
Code Black.” Journal of Health Communication, vol. 23, no. 3, Mar. 2018, pp. 244–253.
EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/10810730.2018.1426660.
Ilchi, Layla. “Billy Porter Doesn’t Call Himself a Fashion Icon.” WWD, 3 December 2019,
wwd.com/fashion-news/fashion-scoops/billy-porter-fashion-style-red-carpet-looks-12033
83007/
@JasOwens2021. “These are not just clothes - they are intentional effeminatization of men. No Commented [4]: use or lose
one looks at a burly Scott in a kilt and thinks it look effeminate - because it's not meant to
be. That picture is explicitly intended to be effeminate.” Twitter, 20 November 2020, 10:49
a.m. https://twitter.com/JasOwens2021/status/1329829133132689409
@jenn51145443. “The men in my life love being men-they protect, they provide and can change
their own tire-and I like it that way- Oh yeah, they open the door for me and I like that too.”
Twitter, 16 November 2020, 6:38 p.m,
https://twitter.com/jenn51145443/status/1328497711755128832.
@juliebethe. “There are different ways to be masculine, just like there are different ways to be
feminine.” Twitter, 15 November 2020, 1:31 p.m.
https://twitter.com/juliebethe/status/1328058063874629633.
@katiadarlingx. “Jesus Christ wore what today would be known as a “midi dress” are you going
to judge his masculinity as well?? [Picture of Jesus]” Twitter, 16 November 2020, 10:24
a.m. https://twitter.com/katiadarlingx/status/1328373340201955330
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@KDaloha “THIS is what a Strong Confident man looks like!!! Thank you @voguemagazine
and especially @Harry_Styles for showing all people NO matter how they identify fashion
is what you make of it. You are Gorgeous!!!” Twitter 16 November 2020 2:38 pm,
https://twitter.com/KDaloha/status/1328437199855972352
@KeeganLannon. “What I think Ben Shapiro and Candice Owen don't understand (or
disingenuously ignore) is that all indicators of masculinity and femininity are mediated.
There is nothing inherently masculine about clothing, and the Harry Styles' photo shoot
highlights that.” Twitter, 16 November 2020, 2:27 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/KeeganLannon/status/1328434612733874176
@KimberlyAdamis. “For those women who want a strong man, you may want to rethink your
definition of “strong”. Stop making ones clothes a deal. Wear what you want and let others
do the same. #harrystylesvogue #HarryStyles.” Twitter, 18 November 2020, 11:15
a.m. https://twitter.com/KimberlyAdamis/status/1329110874796167168 .
@kcharboneau30. “this you? in a suit? i think you should be more feminine.” Twitter, 16
November 2020, 7:03 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/kcharboneau30/status/1328504084358455296.
Lamont, Tom. “Harry Styles: ‘I’m not just sprinkling in sexual ambiguity to be interesting’.” The
Guardian, 14 December 2019,
www.theguardian.com/music/2019/dec/14/harry-styles-sexual-ambiguity-dating-normals-
rocking-a-dress
Lamont, Tom. “ One Direction: 'It's not a question of burnout: we enjoy it' – exclusive interview.”
The Guardian, 15 November 2014, www.theguardian.com/music/2014/nov/15/one-
direction-boy-band-exclusive-interview-
@LilNasX. “you know you did something right when she talks about it,” Twitter, 28 March 2021,
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2:26 p.m., https://twitter.com/LilNasX/status/1376254381482332160
@littlecity413. “Thank you for showing my 13 year old son it's okay to dress the way it makes
you happy. You are the kind of man I want my son to look up to. [Red heart]” Twitter, 13
January 2021, 9:09 a.m., https://twitter.com/littlecity413/status/1349373087695990784
Mamo, Heran. “A Timeline of Cardi B & Candace Owens' Political Debate.” Billboard, 10
September 2020,
www.billboard.com/articles/columns/hip-hop/9446762/cardi-b-candace-owens-political-d
ebate-timeline
Mamo, Heran.“Ben Shapiro Reads the Censored Lyrics to Cardi B and Megan Thee Stallion's
'WAP' & He Can't Handle It.” Billboard, 10 August 2020,
www.billboard.com/articles/columns/hip-hop/9432034/ben-shapiro-reads-censored-wap-l
yrics-cardi-b-megan-thee-stallion
@mantarayaloca. “eerrr... you are aware David Bowie went on to live a long and productive life
(he even got married... to a beautiful woman no less!) even with his lack of manliness and
all... it’s 2020... feel free to join us whenever…” Twitter, 17 November 2020, 4;47 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/mantarayaloca/status/1328832103362990082
@mellylissa13. “I miss the days where a man could show his manliness and it was welcomed.
Men in dresses won't make strong men in the future. [Disappointed but relieved face].”
Twitter, 2 December 2020, 3:57 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/mellylissa13/status/1334255472183029760.
Morris, Max, and Eric Anderson. “'Charlie Is So Cool Like': Authenticity, Popularity and
Inclusive Masculinity on YouTube.” Sociology, vol. 49, no. 6, 2015, pp. 1200–1217.,
www.jstor.org/stable/44016780.
Moye, David. “ Don’t Tell Jaden Smith He Can’t Wear A Dress.” HuffPost, Updated 28 March
Wilburn 46
2018, www.huffpost.com/entry/jaden-smith-wear-dresses_n_5abbb1e1e4b03e2a5c78480e
@oliviawilde. “You’re pathetic.” Twitter, 15 November 2020, 10:13 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/oliviawilde/status/1328174367017037829
@oscharf101. “ Because they are brave for calling out for help... it’s ok to need help every once
in a while... it’s ok for a man to need help and it’s ok for them to wear whatever the hell
they want.” Twitter, 17 November 2020.4:17 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/oscharf101/status/1328824488620855297
Oware, Matthew. “Brotherly Love: Homosociality and Black Masculinity in Gangsta Rap Music.”
Journal of African American Studies, vol. 15, no. 1, 2011, pp. 22–39. JSTOR,
www.jstor.org/stable/43525407. Accessed 1 Apr. 2021.
Perrott, Lisa. “Bowie the Cultural Alchemist: Performing Gender, Synthesizing Gesture and
Liberating Identity.” Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, vol. 31, no. 4, Aug.
2017, pp. 528–541. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/10304312.2017.1334380
Pike, Naomi. “The Inside Scoop On All Of Harry Styles's "Unexpected" Met Gala Looks.”
Vogue- Miss Vogue, 7 May 2019, www.vogue.co.uk/article/harry-styles-met-gala-outfit-
details
@pilligaprincess. “Just another example of modern urban illness. He needs to spend time with
real men working on a cattle station and go hunting and camping a lot more.” Twitter,
November 16 2020, 5:52 p.m.
https://twitter.com/pilligaprincess/status/1328486148130308101
@RealCandace O. “I don’t know who needs to hear this but if a woman threatens to kill herself
and your unborn child, you are in an emotionally abusive relationship.” Twitter, 8 March
2021, 2:29p.m., https://twitter.com/RealCandaceO/status/1369022403414798337
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@RealCandaceO. “Meghan Markle is less than 25% black. Her son is less than 12% black. Her
and Harry implying that everything that happened to them is because of her blackness is a
sickening level of scapegoating. What Harry is doing to his family (who cannot respond) is
unforgivable.” Twitter, 8 March 2021, 6:35am,
https://twitter.com/RealCandaceO/status/1368903134962200576
@RealCandaceO. “Tucker always nails it. If you believe Meghan Markle is a victim, you’re an
idiot. There’s really no other way to say it. Bad press over bridesmaid dresses does not
make you want to kill yourself and your unborn child unless you are: A) Unstable B)
Lying for sympathy C) Both” Twitter, 10 March 2021,
https://twitter.com/RealCandaceO/status/1369677093974519813.
@RealCandaceO. “There is no society that can survive without strong men. The East knows
this. In the west, the steady feminization of our men at the same time that Marxism is
being taught to our children is not a coincidence. It is an outright attack. Bring back
manly men.” Twitter 14 Nov 2020, 1:16p.m.,
https://twitter.com/RealCandaceO/status/1327691891303976961
@RealCandaceO. “ Since I’m trending I’d like to clarify what I meant when I said “bring
back manly men”. I meant: Bring back manly men. Terms like “toxic masculinity”,
were created by toxic females. Real women don’t do fake feminism. Sorry I’m not
sorry.” Twitter, 16 November 2020, 8:46 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/RealCandaceO/status/13283486305673093
@RealCandaceO. “Newsflash woke idiots: when you send me pictures of Freddie Mercury
and Kurt Cobain dressed as women to prove your point, you are actually proving mine.
Stable men do not wear ball gowns. The end.” Twitter, 17 November 2020, 2:00 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/RealCandaceO/status/1328790050591617038
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@realonediva. “It’a incredibly hot to have a man that is rooted in reality and in the truth. To be in
the arms of someone Who protects his family and his woman by knowing what is going on
around him. Men have one job and they are blowing it.” Twitter, 16 November 2020, 3:16
p.m., https://twitter.com/realonediva/status/1328446792157986817.
@RoamingWisp. “Because People with a stupid POV (such as yourself, The Left knows this)
consider gender to be this huge thing that needs to have rules. Men have worn skirts and
dress like attire since humans discovered how to make clothes[photos of men wearing
dress like attire] .” Twitter, 17 November 2020, 1:07 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/RoamingWisp/status/1328776824764022784.
Rodgers, Daniel. “Just how revolutionary is Harry Styles’ Vogue cover?” Dazed, 19 November
2020,www.dazeddigital.com/fashion/article/51147/1/harry-styles-vogue-december-cover-
dress-gender-fluid-gucci-tyler-mitchell
Rolli, Bryan. “ Harry Styles Has Weathered the Post-Boy Band Storm Better Than Most.”
Consequence Of Sound, 11 January 2020, https://consequenceofsound.net/2020/01/harry-
styles-solo-career/.
Rolli, Bryan. “Harry Styles' Monstrous Solo Tour Sold Nearly 1 Million Tickets And Raised
$1.2 Million For Charity.” Forbes, 19 July 2018
www.forbes.com/sites/bryanrolli/2018/07/19/harry-styles-monstrous-solo-tour-sold-nearl
y-1-million-tickets-and-raised-1-2-million-for-charity/?sh=62c0a6316d62
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Rosales, Vanessa. “In pink, florals and short shorts, Bad Bunny champions a new masculinity.”
CNN Style, Updated 19 Nov 2019,
www.cnn.com/style/article/bad-bunny-fashion-machismo/index.html
Rose, Gillian, Visual Methodologies: An Introduction to Researching With Visual Materials, 4th
Edition (London: Sage, 2016)
Singh, Olivia. “ 9 times Harry Styles was a champion for the LGBTQ community.” Insider, 4
June 2020, www.insider.com/harry-styles-supported-lgtbqia-community-2018-7
Spanos, Brittany. “Frank Ocean: ‘I’m a Proud Prince Fan (Stan) for Life’.” Rolling Stone, 21
April 2016, www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/frank-ocean-im-a-proud-prince-fan-
stan-for-lif e-169712/
@suuummaa. “i want to see harry bodyslam ben shapiro WHILE wearing the dress.” Twitter, 16
November 2020, 7:06 p.m., https://twitter.com/suuummaa/status/1328504824015564801
@SydneyLWatson. “I don't understand why this is controversial. Men wearing dresses and
acting feminine isn't attractive to a huge portion of women. Cut me down a tree and bring
me the heart of a bear instead. [Ok hand].” Twitter 16 November 2020, 1:17 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/SydneyLWatson/status/1328401810273480711.
@TexGal4Life.“I'm gonna need a whole day of watching reruns of the A-Team, old Westerns, &
action movies to get these images out of my head…[Face vomiting]. This world NEEDS
masculinity now more than ever!!” Twitter, 14 November 2020, 2:16 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/TexGal4Life/status/1327706998637535233.
@THEGIFTOFGABY. “Love this so much! I see power, freedom and confidence. A la
@DavidBowieReal @prince and so many others. If men are threatened by a hottie in a
dress, maybe they are the ones with masculinity issues. Why do people take others lives
Wilburn 50
so personal ? Not your thing, move on [Waving hand].” Twitter, 19 November 2020 7:39
a.m., https://twitter.com/THEGIFTOFGABY/status/1329419020530049025.
@tuscansun60. “When children draw their stick like figure in school, they put the dress on a
female. Who do the put the dress on now, & who represents whose female or male. Imagine
the confusion going on in their minds.” Twitter, 16 November 2020 6:56 p.m.,
https://twitter.com/tuscansun60/status/1328502247806832643
@USAntifa1. “You intentionally overlook the traditional clothing of ancient civilizations, who
wore skirts or robes regardless of gender [photos of traditional clothing worn by men].”
Twitter, 17 November 2020, 11:58 a.m.,
https://twitter.com/USAntifa1/status/1328759382662914048.
@voguemagazine. “"There’s so much joy to be had in playing with clothes. I’ve never thought
too much about what it means—it just becomes this extended part of creating
something.": Read our full December cover story starring @Harry_Styles here
http://vogue.cm/Pdns6GQ.” Twitter, 13 November 2020, 3:16 p.m.
https://twitter.com/voguemagazine/status/1327359624803209228
Wicker, Jewel. “Lil Nas X has last word as controversy erupts over 'devil-worshipping' video,”
The Guardian, 30 March 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/mar/30/lil-
nas-x-montero-call-me-by-your-name-twitter
Wintour, Anna. “ Honoring the 120th Anniversary: Anna Wintour Shares Her Vogue Story.”
Vogue, 14 August 2012,
www.vogue.com/article/anna-wintour-on-her-first-vogue-cover-plus-a-slideshow-of-her-
favorite-images-in-vogue
Wong, Curtis, M. “Celebs Defend Harry Styles After He Gets Attacked For His Vogue Cover
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Dress.” HuffPost, 16 November 2020. www.huffpost.com/entry/celebs-defend-harry- styles-vogue-cover-dress_n_5fb2deeec5b6 f79d6019f4e