media mattersDevelopment the GlobalForumforMedia &Development from Governance Perspectives onAdvancing ei matters media

Acknowledgements Internews Europe and the Global Forum on (GFMD) wish to thank the following people and organisations for their advice and support in compiling this publication: Sina Odugbemi, Eaimonn Taylor and Richard Rose, UK Department for International Development (DFID); Markus Dürst, the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC); Monroe Price, Director, Project for Global Communication Studies, Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania; Stanhope Centre for Communications Policy Research, UK; Communication and Information Sector, UNESCO; Annette Makino, Internews Network. Editor: Mark Harvey Associate Editors: Kathleen Reen, John West Assistant Editors: Susan Abbott, Antonio Lambino Editorial Support: Myriam Horngren, Jacky Davies Production Management: Myriam Horngren Production Coordination: Katy Pearce Design: Smith & Manz Design Partnership, Kyle Cassidy E-Distribution: Eric Johnson Printing: Images at Work, Publisher: Internews Europe

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Disclaimer Media Matters is an independent publication, published by Internews Europe on behalf of the Global Forum on Media Development (GFMD). The content of the Executive Summary and individual articles do not necessarily reflect the official views of Internews Europe, individual GFMD Steering Committee member organizations, the Annenberg School, DFID or the SDC.

Picture credits: Mark Edwards Still Pictures/Internews/Panos Pictures 2 MEDIA MATTERS 3 MEDIA MATTERS: contents Contents Section III: Section II: Section I: 109 103 95 89 81 76 66 59 55 50 45 35 28 22 19 7 5 Sasa Vucinic, MediaDevelopment LoanFund Affordable Capital:Turning Press Freedom Heroes intoEntrepreneurs, Strategies forMediaDevelopment, AnnHudock,TheAsiaFoundation University ofOklahomaCollege ofLaw Price, AnnenbergSchool,University ofPennsylvania,andPeterKrug, The EnablingEnvironment forFree andIndependentMedia,Monroe Challenges inMediaMatters:PractitionerExperiences and PeaceReporting Media Development A RoadMapforMonitoringandEvaluationinthe Annenberg SchoolforCommunication Antonio available indicatorsandintegrativeapproaches havetooffer?, A MonitoringandEvaluationToolkit forMediaDevelopment:Whatdo Index, MarkWhitehouse,IREX Measuring ChangeinMediaSystems:TheSustainability Group, UNDP University andDemocraticGovernance andHumanDevelopment,PippaNorris,Harvard Governance The RoleoftheFree Press inPromoting Democratization,Good the MDGs,Warren Feek,TheCommunication Initiative Moving Media:TheCasefortheRoleofCommunicationsinMeeting How MediaMatters:MeasuringitsImpact Challenges Convention,DanielKaufmann,World BankInstitute andDevelopment:AnEmpiricalPerspectivethat Media, Governance Christian Sandvig,UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign Access totheElectromagnetic SpectrumisaFoundationforDevelopment, MediaConsultant International Gender Inequality, MediaandDevelopment,Margaret Gallagher, Poverty, JamesDeane,CommunicationforSocialChangeConsortium Why theMediaMatters:RelevanceoftoTackling Thomas Jacobson,Temple University Media DevelopmentandSpeechinthePublicSphere, Communication andPublicInformation,UnitedNations Intercultural Tolerance, SashiTharoor, Under-Secretary Generalfor PressIntegrating Approaches Freedom toGoodGovernance, and Media Development. Network,Chair,President, Internews GlobalForumon Information Equality:theThird Revolution,DavidHoffman, Why MediaMatters:GlobalPerspectives Executive summaryandOverview Foreword Lambino II,AlexandraTebay andSarahBuzby, : Alpha OumarKonaré,Chairperson,AfricaUnion Sector, AlanDavis,InstituteofWar Section IV: 171 165 161 154 150 144 139 134 128 122 115 222 220 201 194 188 179 (2006 –2008) GFMD SteeringCommittee, RegionalForaandCoordination on MediaDevelopment,, , October2005 List ofOrganisationsthatattendedtheInauguralGlobal Forum and MyriamHorngren Selected Resources, LauraStein,KatyPearce Ellen Hume,UniversityofMassachusetts Mapping theMediaAsssistanceSector:Sector, Annenberg SchoolforCommunication Media Development:TheCaseforResearch, SusanAbbott, United NationsCapitalDevelopmentFund Participatory Diffusion or Semantic Confusion?,AdamRogers, Section 4:MappingtheSector:Literature, Surveys&Resources (IFJ) of Journalists Poverty Eradication,ChristopherWarren, Federation International Unions,Press FreedomThe NexusbetweenIndependentJournalists’ and Network into thePublicHealthAgenda,RonMacInnis,Internews Global Health–LocalNews:TheNeedtoBuildIndependentJournalism Broadcasters (AMARC) Access, Mar Community Radio:PerspectivesonMediaReachandAudience Panos Institute, Global Issues,Teresa Hanley, andMuraliShanmugavelan, JonBarnes FacilitatingLocalAnalysisof Media, DevelopmentandGovernance: Earthquake Zones,AdnanRehmat,Intermedia Crisis andOpportunityinthePublicSphere: Lessonsfrom Pakistan’s Andijan, Andrew CrisisGroup Stroehlein, theInternational Media DevelopmentinChallengingEnvironments: Uzbekistanafter TheNation,andtheSoutheastAsianPress Alliance Chongkittavorn, Staying Alive:MediaIndependenceinSouthEastAsia,Kavi Manana Aslamazyan,Internews Media AssistanceintheFormerSovietUnion:AJobWell done?, Freedom Watch and theRiseofIndependentMedia,IbrahimNawar, ArabPress Arab MediaLaggingBehind:Freedom ofExpression, LostCredibility Nuevo PeriodismoIberoamericano Development inLatinAmerica,JaimeAbelloBanfi,Fundación A RichComplexLandscape:ChallengesandAdvancesinMedia Development inAfrica,JeanetteMinnie,Consultant,ZambeziFox Ideological, Legal,EconomicandProfessional ObstaclestoMedia celo Solervicens,World AssociationofCommunityRadio

4 MEDIA MATTERS: contents 5 MEDIA MATTERS: foreword Foreword promotion ofdemocracy, the African Unionisthe and goodgovernance.” “ popular participation A centralobjectiveof in creating honest,transparent andaccountablegovernment. independent mediaininformingthepublicas akeyindicatorofprogress that thememberstateshaveformallyadopted theeffectiveness of for debateandthemediationofconflict.Itis no coincidence,therefore, is startingtoplayanimportantrole asawatchdog,andpublicplatform the continentthere are signsthatanewgenerationofliberalisedmedia (NEPAD) -adoptedbythememberstatesofAfricaUnion.Inparts development ofAfrica-theNewPartnershipforAfrica’s Development lynchpin orconnectivetissueofdemocracy. TheexperienceofMali to theseradiobroadcasts. Independentmediahasbeendescribedasthe reduced are saidtoavoidrecriminations from theirconstituentswholisten The mayorsofpoorlyperformingcommuneswhohavehadtheirbudgets performance review oftheirlocalcommunes. instance, communitystationsnowcoverindepththeannualofficial Mali,for vibrant independentradiosectorsinAfrica.InNorthern ‘Radio Bamakan’.Fifteenyearson,mycountryhasoneofthemost In 1991IwasprivilegedtolaunchMali’s firstindependentFMstation the heartofnewvisionforrevival and liesat Improving governance good governance. promotion ofdemocracy, popular participationand continent. AcentralobjectiveoftheUnionis for thesocialandeconomicintegrationof The AfricaUnion(AU)isAfrica’s premier institution certainly provides strong evidencetosupportthis. partnership fordevelopment. and multilateralagencies engagedonallourcontinentsintheglobal the policycommunityinAfrica,butfrom thefullrange ofbilateral concerted andconcrete response. Thisneedstocomenotonly from independent mediabring.Itmerits,therefore, careful analysisanda excluded from thepolitical,socialandeconomicbenefits thatfree and toseenocountry is implications forallpolicy-makersconcerned for themselvesandtheirchildren’. are atadistinctdisadvantagewhenitcomestobuilding abetterfuture sows theseedsofprosperity, and thosewithoutaccesstoinformation Shashi Tharoor, globalizingworld,information arguesthat‘inthe modern Goals. Thepublication the MillenniumDevelopment developmenttargets, international on progress towards the2015 healthy mediasystemsare making document thepositiveimpactthat It isevenmore ofachallengeto interference andrelevant tothegrowing needsoftheiraudiences. sector toremain andcorporate autonomousfrom government It isnoeasytasktocreate theconditionsforindependentmedia The UN’s leadcontributorto assistance intotheveryfabricofdevelopmentpolicy. media andcommunications presents acogentcaseforweaving media assistanceprofessionals, it academics withtheexperiencesof Blending argumentsfrom leading achievement inbothoftheseareas. M a t t e r s represents asignificant Alpha OumarKonaré, Chairperson,AfricaUnion M e d i a M e d i a M

M e d a i country isexcludedfrom t h oiia socialand the political, a significant implications t

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6 MEDIA MATTERS Foreward Executive Summary

Media Matters is about the central role of the media in effective development. Following a year long collaboration between media development practitioners and leading social, political and communications scientists, Media Matters presents five core messages to the international development community. The messages are grounded in academic rigour and the seasoned analysis of field professionals. Media Matters : Five Key Messages to Policy Makers

The New Governance Agenda: Independent media are integral to good governance. Media and press freedom indicators are being included in governance monitoring frameworks. But development 1 agency engagement in media and communications assistance remains fragmented and marginal. Media support needs to be mainstreamed far more effectively across both policy and practice.

Media, Governance and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): Independent media systems have a positive impact on governance, democratic transitions and the 2015 MDG targets. 2 A growing body of empirical evidence exists to demonstrate this. New communications technologies are reframing relationships between media, citizens and the state. Community media empowers those poorest communities who will benefit most from achieving the MDGs. However, research on the impact of media and communications on the poor needs to be strengthened.

Counterbalance to Extremism: Independent media systems that are inclusive and responsive to diversity play a key role in preventing the exclusion of voices that breed extremism. Healthy public 3 spheres can host a wide range of views which can dilute intolerance. Policy makers should increase support for media assistance programmes to widen access for moderate voices and balanced dis- course. And donors should engage systematically in media development in countries affected by extremism, as this threatens progress on the MDGs.

Media and Global Issues: the lack of local media coverage of the external driving forces of change on poor countries - international trade, climate change and global health for instance - is generating 4 deficits in governance through continued public disengagement in these issues. These deficits can be tackled, however, through concerted media and communications strategies, that include assisting developing country journalists to cover processes such as the next phase of the Kyoto Protocol.

Strategies for Healthy Media Systems: a global media assistance community exists that has its own history, experience base, metrics and research agenda. Development agencies need to engage 5 with this sector with more urgency in order to harness the proven contribution that media development can make to the MDGs; through established strategies such as support to media policy and legislation, the development of journalism associations, the provision of affordable capital, professional training and the capacity-building of indigenous media assistance organisations. MEDIA MATTERS: foreword MEDIA MATTERS:

7 In October 2005 the first global gathering of the media assistance sector took place in Amman, Jordan, under the patronage of King Abdullah II. The inaugural Global Forum for Media Development (GFMD) drew together over 425 representatives of media assistance organisations from 97 countries. Supported by a range of agencies and foundations including DFID, the SDC and the Ford and Knight Foundations, the GFMD also attracted high-level representation from the UN and the World Bank.

Media assistance aims to strengthen regional, national and local media systems and institutions in ways that serve the public interest. Examples of media assistance include support to regulatory reform, journalism training and media business management. It also covers support to community media, citizen journalism and media for sustainable development - on health and environmental issues, for instance - in ways that ensure that people are able to access information and to express their own opinions and priorities in the public arena.

Communication is a critical missing link in development policy and practice.

A major point of consensus at the GFMD was the need for the media assistance sector to argue more cogently for its place within the framework of international development. The pioneering work of the World Bank Institute had made the case for the role of the media in economic development in its publication ‘The Right to Tell’. The GFMD called for the role of media and media support strategies to be examined more broadly against the wider canvas of the development agenda, encapsulated by the set of international targets, the 2015 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Media Matters is the response to that call.

Media Matters has four key aims:

1 To help develop- 2 To highlight work 3 To flag key global 4 To map the media ment policy makers on the evidence of and regional trends assistance sector, its and practitioners the relationship and opportunities in growing body of understand the between media, media assistance; literature, and the relevance of vibrant, communications emerging international independent media and the development research partnerships systems to their agenda; that will help define wider goals; its priorities to 2015. MEDIA MATTERS: foreword MEDIA MATTERS:

8 Overview ei matters media Media Matters draws together thinking and analysis that covers the breadth and depth of the media development landscape. The opening section, ‘Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives’ gathers the work of several thought leaders on major trends that cut across both the communications and development policy arenas; this is followed by an examination of the current debate that is engaging researchers, development professionals and media assistance experts alike, namely ‘How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact’. The third section, ‘Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences’ presents a range of regional and sectoral case studies, and the final section forms a guide to cur- rent information sources and studies of the field of media support, in ‘Mapping the Sector - Literature, Surveys and Resources’.

Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives The rise of an information and communications economy and culture, and the relevance of 1 media and media assistance to international development, form the focus of this first section of Media Matters. How and why is media important in international development, and what contribution can it play in achieving the Millennium Development Goals? The Global Information Economy and Culture In Information Equality David Hoffman, President, Internews Network, describes how the new networked information economy is creating a new wave of egalitarianism that - underpinned by adequate investment and a pro-poor policy framework - holds enormous promise for social and political development. Shashi Tharoor, Under-Secretary General for Communication and Public Information, United Nations, outlines how new communications technologies are a key driver of globalisation, but also how the Information Divide runs across technology, gender, governance and content. He is concerned that the globalised media is dangerously lacking in authentic voices from the developing world. He calls for a media that recognises and embraces the diversity of the real world, warning that ‘the alternative to this recognition may be terrorism, which has so dominated our headlines in recent times.’ Theories of the Public Sphere and Young Democracies How media contributes to the development of democracy and to an inclusive public sphere is a vital question when considering the role of media in development. Thomas Jacobson, of Temple University explores this theme by looking at the challenges that young democracies face in developing the social norms and cultural processes that underpin deliberative politics, and the complex information flows that media systems need to facilitate if governments are to remain responsive to citizens. Jacobson characterises the latter as ‘a requirement that is related to, but separate from, the news media’s important role in facilitating governmental transparency and accountability. It is the additional requirement that media represent public opinion in a way that accurately expresses the voice of citizens across the full range of their interests.’ MEDIA MATTERS Overview MEDIA MATTERS

9

media. We suggestthisisnotthecase.’ community andtheWorld Bankcandolittleinthe fieldof the view‘thatinternational anddevelopmentprism.Herejectspolitical lens,butshouldbe lookedatthrough agovernance Institute, whoarguesthatfreedom ofthepress shouldnolongerbeviewedsolely through a This sectionendswiththechallengingoftenmythsby Daniel KaufmannoftheWorld Bank permission totransmit,buttheyhaven’t stolenanything.’ behind theseoperations‘are calledpiratesbecausetheydon’t havethegovernment’s use ofnewtechnologiesshouldbeencouraged.Henotes thatoftenthesocialentrepreneurs that accesstospectrumisafoundationofdevelopment, andthatunlicensedpro-community uses severalexamplestoexplore thepoliticaldynamicsofspectrumlicensing.Sandvigmaintains inclusion inthedevelopingworld,according toChristianSandvigoftheUniversityIllinois.He New digitalsystemscreate majoropportunitiestoadvancehealth,educationandsocial marginal, inconsistent,fragmented,unstrategicandshort-term.’ donor engagement,findingthattheresponses ofdevelopmentagenciesremain ‘generally advances andthelowstatusthatsupportforindependentmediahasintermsofinternational Deane welcomessuchdevelopmentsbutflagsthemajordiscrepancy betweenthesepolicy Transparency Fund. and account.’ DFIDhasbackedthisupbythecreation ofa£100millionGovernance to necessity to‘strengthen civilsocietyandthemediatohelpcitizens holdtheirgovernments White Paper, Work EliminatingWorld for thePoor, Poverty:MakingGovernance pointstothe Development(DFID)initslatest Inaddition,theUKDepartmentforInternational the governed’. and andthecriticallinkinaccountabilitychainbetweengovernment good governance on anannualbasisprogress onthe2015targetsofMDGs-citesmediaasa‘crucialpillar The 20063rd GlobalMonitoringReport(GMR)oftheWorld Bank,forinstance,-whichtracks totheirpopulationsinmeetingtheMDGtargets. and accountabilityofgovernments -nowunderlinethevitalimportanceofin-countryownership Report oftheUKGovernment OECD DevelopmentAssistanceCommitteeonAidEffectiveness totheAfricaCommission that astream ofagreements, declarationsandreports -from the2005ParisDeclarationof is discussedbyJamesDeaneoftheCommunicationforSocialChangeConsortium.Heexplains development andaccountabilityagendaininternational How mediarelates tothegovernance The NewAccountabilityAgenda address thecurrent andpotential role ofthemediaininfluencingsocialandgenderrelations. developmentcommunity,international ontheonehand,anditsfailure, ontheother, to agendabythe underlines thediscrepancy betweentheadoptionofgoodgovernance centrality ofGoal3theMDGs(GenderEqualityandEmpowermentWomen), she media, howcanthemediafulfilitswatchdogrole onbehalfofallcitizens?’Flaggingthe barely present inthenews.Sheasks ‘aslongashalftheworld’s citizensare somarginalinthe news storiesfrom 76countriesleadshertoconcludethat52%oftheWorld’s populationare women andmeninthenewsmedia,produced byWACC in2005.Theanalysisofnearly13000 results ofthe2005GlobalMediaMonitoringProject, asnapshotofgenderrepresentation of gender isbrought outstarklybyGenderandMediaexpertMargaret Gallagher’s overviewofthe The failure ofthepublicsphere tofulfilthatrole intermsofvoice,andrepresentation on

1 10 MEDIA MATTERS Overview ei matters media 2 How Media Matters: Measuring Its Impact Evaluating the impact of media, and of media assistance, on development outcomes is the focus of this section. The challenge of producing robust data to substantiate the claims of media development professionals and to guide policy makers in their investments in media assistance is a central issue for both groups.

The Great Evidence Debate

Many respected thinkers reject the notion of simple cause and effect linkages between media and development impact, according to research by a team from the Annenberg School of Communication, University Pennsylvania, who surveyed over 20 leading academics.

‘What would a physician reply if he was asked for empirical evidence that the nervous system ‘made a noticeable impact’ on the functioning of the human body?’ commented Claude-Jean Bertrand, Professor Emeritus at the University of ; and ‘What economic, social and political developments have occurred in the absence of media and communications systems?’ asked Richard Porter of the University of Illinois.

Warren Feek of the Communication Initiative picks up Porter’s theme by arguing that many of the major social or political movements of the 20th Century - from the suffragette movement in the UK to the, the Indian Independence Movement and the American Civil Rights Movement - took place in the context of private and public argument - debate, analysis, dialogue - that was generated by public and private media. He acknowledges that, however compelling these precedents may be, measurable impact data - and above all data relevant to the 2015 targets - is still needed. Feek links empirical evidence with each of the MDG targets and outlines eight key areas that need to be mainstreamed into international policy if the MDGs and effective poverty reduction strategy (PRS) programmes are to be achieved.

Testing the Impact of Liberal Media Landscapes

Pippa Norris, Harvard University and the Democratic Governance Group, UNDP, takes the empirical process several stages further. In presenting a detailed study of the link between media and good governance, she acknowledges the claims made by many that liberal media landscapes strengthen democratisaton and good governance. She concludes that even after deploying a battery of economic and social controls the study confirms ‘many of the assump- tions about the role of independent journalism. including the core argument that the free press matters both intrinsically and instrumentally.’ MEDIA MATTERS Overview MEDIA MATTERS

11 Indexing Initiatives and Standards of Good Practice in Monitoring and Evaluation

How to measure the development of media systems and their relationship with broader development indicators is a key question, and a number of contributors present possible instruments that are available to policy-makers and practitioners.

Mark Whitehouse of IREX presents the Media Sustainability Index (MSI) system that is in use in 38 countries in Europe, Eurasia and, most recently, the Middle East. The MSI allows the measurement of the development of the media consistently across time and between countries. Assessing five years of application of the MSI, Whitehouse states that initial concerns that the index would not be applicable between regions and widely diverse media systems – i.e. countries with dominant state broadcasters, others with strong private markets or with print or broadcast biases - have proven to be unfounded.

After reviewing the indicators applied by a range of organisations Antonio Lambino, Alexandra Tebay and Sarah Buzby, of the Annenberg School for Communication, propose an organising framework for monitoring and evaluation work at the macro level of the media development sector based around three categories: 1) Journalistic Practices and Management; 2) Industry Structure and Access to Media; and 3) Legal and regulatory Environments. They also propose a ‘toolkit’ approach to monitoring and evaluation methods, from which policy-makers and practi- tioners should draw selectively. They call for greater collaboration between media development professionals and social scientists stating that ‘bridging the practical and theoretical dimensions in media development is essential in making valid and reliable evidence - based claims with regard to the impact of media’.

Alan Davis, of the Institute of War and Peace Reporting (IWPR), argues for the creation of an assessment platform that can take in both the micro dimensions, for example individual media support projects, and macro dimensions, for example of entire media systems. He calls for a collaborative process to create good practice standards on the micro level, modelled on the Sphere project, which developed standards across the humanitarian sector in the 1990s. On macro level indicators, he calls for the creation of an index that might build on existing indices but would relate media sector influence on a scale to the six dimensions of governance as identified by the World Bank, i.e. i) voice and accountability; ii) political instability and violence; iii) government effectiveness;2 iv) regulatory quality; v) rule of law, and, vi) control of corruption. MEDIA MATTERS Overview MEDIA MATTERS

12 ei matters media Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 3 Cross Cutting Issues 1. Enabling Environment

Monroe Price, of the Annenberg School at the University of Pennsylvania, and Peter Krug of the University of Oklahoma College of Law discuss the interaction of formal law, administrative process and the broader enabling conditions for the effective functioning of healthy media sys- tems. Bad law is not the greatest threat to media freedoms, rather administrative acts which apply the law arbitrarily or beyond its proper legal boundaries. Moreover, audiences need 'a special kind of literacy..that encompasses a desire to acquire, interpret and apply information as part of civil society'. This is essential for the broader enabling media environment. However, more research is required to decode how the many elements of the enabling environment for independent media can be linked to phases of national political transitions.

2. Media Democratisation

How independent media contributes, or not, to democracy and governance is one of the most pertinent questions facing policymakers in this sector. Through a series of compelling case studies, Ann Hudock of the Asia Foundation presents a challenging analysis of the notion that independent and economically sustainable media necessarily or by definition contribute to democracy, and calls for new strategic measures beyond support to mainstream media in ways that give greater voice to marginalised groups. Hudock shows how the maturing of the democracy and governance field, the events of 9/11 and the emergence of new technologies that are threatening the pre-eminence of traditional media outlets have fundamentally altered the context for the provision of media assistance.

Marcelo Solervicens of the World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (AMARC) presents a dynamic picture of the growth of community radio as a medium for participatory communications and amplifying local voice. He suggests that three key developments are influencing the growth of community radio; the first being the growing crisis in the legitimacy of mainstream mass-media; secondly technological breakthroughs that are making local radio broadcasting more accessible through FM transmitters and satellites, and thirdly, the massive influence of the Internet. Solervicens suggests that community broadcasting is now a vibrant ‘global sector’, and a valid new information technology of the poor and marginalised. He shows how despite challenges of regulatory legitimacy, access to radio spectrum and economic sustainability, community broadcasting is uniquely placed to facilitate the achievement of the MDGs through its accessibility, affordability and ability to provide voice, information and identity to the poorest communities.

3. Journalism Representation and Press Freedom

The link between the poverty alleviation agenda and press freedom is explored by Christopher Warren of the International Federation of Journalists. He convincingly argues that core concerns of journalism unions around the world - such as collective voice, the promotion of professional- ism, safety and ethics, the combating of corruption, fair wages and labour rights - must be integrated into the poverty alleviation agenda in order to support press freedom and sustainable poverty alleviation. ‘Through supporting local journalists’ trade unions, press freedom is strengthened. And through strengthened press freedom, poverty alleviation becomes a more achievable aim.’ MEDIA MATTERS : Overview MEDIA MATTERS

13 4. Affordable Capital

The challenge of how local independent media remain financially and editorially autonomous in emerging democracies is examined by Sasa Vucinic of the Media Development Loan Fund (MDLF). He outlines the reasons why affordable capital is not available to media businesses, and the experience of the MDLF in tackling the issue of undercapitalisation through its US$50 million loan portfolio. He calls for such initiatives to be scaled up, as they represent a drop in the ocean of demand for low-cost capital from the sector. He further emphasises how access to external affordable capital and innovative financing instruments lie at the heart of ensuring the independence of the non-state media sector, as media companies need financial independence to remain as insulated as possible from local political and economic assaults. 5. Tackling Global Issues

Teresa Hanley, John Barnes and Murali Shanmugavelan, of the Panos Institute London, explore the many obstacles facing media in developing countries in covering global issues, such as climate change, international trade negotiations or global governance of ICT. They identify seven challenges facing Southern journalists in covering these issues - ranging from resources, access to information and the difficulty of crafting stories to meet their own editor’s demands. They conclude that the lack of coverage of these issues brings with it serious implications for governance and policy makers: ‘Limited media engagement may contribute to reduced public support for policy decisions which at first sight do not seem to be widely beneficial in the short term – such as the allocation of funds to enable adaptation to climate change - but are crucial in the long term, setting up a situation where development may be hindered.’

According to the World Bank’s Independent Evaluation Group, the global health sector has become the lead global sector in terms of mobilising of multilateral partnerships such as the Global Fund to Fight TB, AIDS and Malaria and Global Alliance for Vaccines and Immunisations (GAVI). However, Ron MacInnis of Internews Network explains how both global and national public health frameworks are doing little to develop the indigenous capacity of media professionals (journalists, editors and owners) to report on health in an informed and appropriate manner. He outlines a global survey of 422 organisations engaged in health journalism support around the world, and a series of country profiles undertaken by the Health Journalism Partnership (HJP), a consortium of Internews Network, Panos London and the International Centre for Journalists. The HJP found that 61% of journalism support organisations had budgets that did not exceed US$20,000 in 2005. The country profiles identified a number of needs that were holding back the ability of the media sector to generate informed local health focused news, feature stories and talk-show programmes. MacInnis cautions that addressing these needs will require considerable time and resources in what should be viewed as ‘a revolutionary way to put public health discussions in the hands of those most affected.’ 6. Media Assistance in Challenging Environments

Developing effective strategies for media assistance in challenging environments should be a priority, according to Andrew3 Stroehlein of the International Crisis Group. Despite the challenging in operating in contexts such as Burma, North Korea and Zimbabwe, he argues that policy-makers should not be diverted from developing concerted strategies that will create the conditions for balanced information flows when authoritarian regimes finally collapse. He takes the case of Uzbekistan and proposes a series of interim and preparatory measures for media assistance in the context of potential political crisis. He proposes that ‘rather than lament the lack of opportunities, policymakers ought actively and generously to pursue the lifeboat strategies that will help societies ride out the rough waters toward which they inevitably seem headed.’ MEDIA MATTERS : Overview MEDIA MATTERS

14 state control. government is applying directly or via proxies to consolidate government or via proxies is applying directly of ownership, taxes and buy-outs, for instance - that the of ownership, taxes and buy-outs, for media currently needs from the economic pressures - monopolisation the economic pressures from needs media currently Kavi Chongkittavorn East Asia of the Nation newspaper and the South transition period in 1990 were unable to see what protections independent unable to see what protections transition period in 1990 were relates how the authors of the Russian media law written at the start of the relates numerous hostile take-over bids. Likewise, Manana Aslamazyan, Internews hostile take-over numerous Russia, Media independence is being undermined by a potent combination of economic and Media independence is being undermined

• Natural disaster zones present particular challenges and opportunities in information and in information and opportunities particular challenges zones present Natural disaster this explores of Intermedia Adnan Rehmat communities. affected support to communications how this study he shows earthquake. In the 2005 South Asia a case study of issue through of the environment information state-controlled in the previously media assistance emergency higher by generating effectiveness, aided relief Province Frontier West Kashmir and the North to a diversity of performances in governmentthe public sphere and opened up responsiveness he also warns with donor funding horizons combined how short-term voices. However, of have undermined the proliferation government FM broadcasters of emergency closure earthquake zones. in the a time when intolerance is re-emerging moderate voices, at II. Regional Trends the media assistance landscapes experts to profile five regional Media Matters commissioned South East Asia. Although hugely Latin America, the Middle East, and in , the Eurasia, the following freedoms, themselves with highly uneven levels of press within diverse regions their analyses: emerge from trends key shared legislative measures. Thai language newspaper has faced most respected how Thailand’s Alliance relates Press MEDIA MATTERS : Overview : MATTERS MEDIA media matters 15 interpretation ofwhattraditionalvaluesare. between twogroups, theotherbeingdriventoahighlydefined onebeingWesternised, music.Theresultcarrying videoclips,danceandWestern isthecreation ofagrowing chasm Watch, aclashbetweenconservativeandreligious TVchannelsontheonehandand careers aspublicrelations officers, according toJeanetteMinnieofZambeziFoX. of staff, andare haemorrhagingexperiencedpractitioners,whoare pursuingmore lucrative investigative coverageare pervasive. replicated andscaledup,concertedsupporttotheprofessionals workingtoachievethemisrequired. negligible, remain isolatedandvulnerabletoreversal, andinorder forthemtobeconsolidated, funds are testimonytothe ministerinMalawiforthemisuseof resulted inthefirstimprisonmentofagovernment toaccountthrough thekindofinvestigativereporting toholdtheirgovernments that journalists such asthatofthevictoryMathichonnewspaperinThailand.Theefforts ofdedicated These advancesare occurringinthewidercontextofsuccessfuldefencespress independence, totheMDGagendaare beingmade. of centralconcern informed mediareporting oftherightschildren andadolescents,itisevidentthatimpacts Africatothegroundbreakingby GenderLinksinSouthern workinBrazilofANDI inincreasing five regions. • media. • established media. • • mass mediaoperatemore as‘power-players thanas servicestotheircitizens.’ between mediaandaudiencesheighteningaperception inthecontinentthattraditional isreframing therelationshipfor example,thatinmanypartsofLatinAmerica,theinternet Low pay for journalists, lowprofessional standards,Low payforjournalists, andinsufficient resources for There existsabodyofevidenceabouteffective mediaassistanceworkacross all Local mediaandlocalpoliticalculturalsystemsare runningbehindsatellite The riseofnewmediaiscorroding theeconomic modelsanddynamicsof The MiddleEastiswitnessing,according to Ibrahim NawaroftheArabPress Freedom From thesuccessofon-sitenewsroom trainingonelectionscoverageundertaken Jaime AbellooftheFundacionNuevoPeriodismoIberoamericano finds, oiiecag httesco sctlsn.Teegis lhuhnot positive changethatthesectoriscatalysing.Thesegains,although African newsrooms, forinstance,faceahighturnover public 16 MEDIA MATTERS : Overview ei matters media Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources A professional sector, with a presence in all the global regions, equipped with its own literature, 4 its own mapping processes and a growing set of research partners now exists. Adam Rogers, United Nations Capital Development Fund, tracks the history of scholarship on communications from the early classic work of Daniel Lerner and Wilbur Schramm in the 1950s and 60s. He traces two dominant theoretical frameworks - the diffusion theory, with its emphasis on mass media dissemination of messages, and the participatory model with accent on ‘horizontal methodologies involving access, dialogue and participation’. These two approaches are now being increasingly combined by practitioners, and should encourage development agencies to view media as an instrument of diffusion, participation and, finally ‘participatory diffusion’. An example of the latter would be the promotion and validation of good practice by communities through community radio. Rogers concludes that development agencies could do much more to strengthen independent media and to enhance their abilities to contribute to the realisation of the Millennium Development Goals. The media assistance field is now getting the survey literature it deserves according to Ellen Hume of the University of Massachusetts, who describes how a failure to identify media assistance as a distinct sector of development - and document media development interventions - once made assessments of the international landscape difficult. Work commissioned by the Knight Foundation has helped build a more accurate picture of the field, but much more is needed as ‘the history of media development, and evaluation of its merits is not being preserved.’ International needs assessments and research programmes are generating new partnerships. In Africa in 2006 , for instance, an unprecedented number of media practitioners, media assistance organizations, owners and academics took part in an assessment of the Africa media development landscape as part of the Strengthening Africa’s Media (STREAM) consultation facilitated by the UN Economic Commission for Africa. The initiative was supported by the Open Society Foundation and the UK’s DFID, who have also commissioned a major regional knowledge-sharing process, the Africa Media Development Initiative, a partnership of the BBC World Service Trust with a group of leading African universities and communications researchers. Global research networks, guided by social and political scientists are emerging that are starting to track the relationship between media and the international development agenda. Susan Abbott of the Annenberg School for Communication encourages both the practitioner and policy community to take advantage of their growing focus on the sector: ‘‘in making the case for why media matters, the growing interest of the research community and its international networks should be harnessed to advance the field for scholars, practitioners and policy-makers alike.” 4Mark Harvey, Editor, Media Matters MEDIA MATTERS : Overview MEDIA MATTERS

17 4 Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 19 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives the ThirdRevolution Information Equality: Section I:WhyMediaMatters:GlobalPerspectives “The democratisationofthe “The be theorganisingprinciple wealth ofinformationwill of the21stcentury.” will pushaside theoldproductive relations. of bothcapitalistandsocialist societies.InMarxianterms,theproductive forces revolution willoverwhelmandtransform thepolitical,economicandsocialstructures of the21stcentury. Thespeed,creativity and capitalaccumulationoftheinformation The democratizationofthe wealthofinformationwillbetheorganizingprinciple The third great egalitarian revolution holdsenormouspromise forsocialdevelopment. day valuationsofcompaniessuchasGoogleandSkype. history, aswitnessedintheSiliconValley explosionofthe1990s,and present little capitalandyethasaccumulatedonascale unprecedented inhuman remarkably free andunfettered. Initsinnovativestageitrequires astonishingly order toregulate andcontrol it.Itishighlyentrepreneurial and,atthesametime, havehadahard timetryingtounderstandandgetaheadofitin Governments growth ofpeer-to-peer technologies nowmarksthegrowth oftheInternet. nuclear attackbydistributingconnectionsequallyacross anetwork,andthe wasoriginallydesignedtodefeat command norideologicaldesign-theInternet through innovationandapplications.Byitsverynature, ithasneithercentral revolution. Itislessprescriptive thanitspredecessors, butisrapidlyspreading Today athird waveofegalitarianismisrising-theinformationandcommunication to adecrease inhumanfreedom. Communism, failedbycomparisoninthecreation offinancialwealthandled revolutions, hobbledbythebureaucratization andideologicalrigiditiesof in financialwealthandevergreater disparitiesinincome;whilethesocialist the democraticrevolutions, byincreasing humanfreedom, ledtoavastincrease revolutions ofthe18thcenturyandsocialistrevolutions ofthe20th.Ironically timesthetwogreat wavesofegalitarianismwereIn modern thedemocratic movements forsocialequality. wealth andprivilegehavebeenthestuff ofhistoryandhaveledtoperiodic itself mostefficient. Butthetensionsthatdevelopfrom theunequaldivisionsof private, individualcreation andaccumulationofwealththathumankindhasproven to thevagariesofNature associalanimals.Ironically, however, itisthrough the Through commonlanguagewesuccessfullycompetewithpredators andadapt through ouruseoflanguage.We donotfare wellasindividualsinNature. Humankind’s evolutionaryadvantageisourunequalledabilitytoorganizesocially technologies thatwillputmediaattheforefront ofchangeinthedevelopingworld. We are atthebeginningofaworldrevolution incommunicationsandinformation Committee, GlobalForumforMediaDevelopment David Hoffman, President, InternewsNetworkChair, Management information accesswillhave to focusonthedevelopment of localmediawheremost people gettheirnews.” “Efforts toimprove “Efforts technologies are centraltothisprocess, from Sustainable DevelopmentDepartmentofthe 4 which ‘linksthechallengeofensuringfood From traditionalmediatotheInternet. outcomes suchasimproved pricespaidfor A viewstrengthened bytheanalysisof 2 development through knowledgebuilding Can InformationandCommunications for MediaDevelopment,Amman,Jordan, and informationsharing.Communication E. Forestier, J.GraceandC.Kenny(2002) crops inruraleconomies,reduced prices http://www.fao.org/sd/CDdirect/CDan0017.htm 5 communications networkswithspecific ownership oftelevisionwithmeasures See correlation oflowerlevelsstate Benjamin Compaine,MITPress, 2001 facing acrisisorcreating amyth? Development asFreedom security inAfricatohumanresource of autocracy, ofpolitical rights,and Knowledge andInformationfor Food andAgriculture Organisation, Telecommunications Policy26refer to studieswhichalsolinkaccess Governance andDevelopment: Governance traditional mediatotheInternet.’ presentation attheGlobalForum Washington DC:TheWorld Bank of inputs,theexpansionSMEs Media OwnershipandProsperity T. NenovaandA.Shliefer(2002) health andeducationoutcomes Technologies bepro-Poor? An EmpiricalPerspective, in World BankInstitute(ed) and betterpublicservices. food securityinAfrica: (Djankov, S.,C.McLiesh, University Press, 1999 1 6 The digitaldivide: D KaufmanMedia, The RighttoTell 3 October 2005. Amartya Sen, , Oxford 18 countries. which poverty mustbecomecentraltoanydevelopmentstrategy, assurveysshow, remains afundamentalchallengeforhumandevelopmentandreducing information Amartya Senhaswrittenthat"freedom isthemeansandendofdevelopment". environment, exacerbatesproblems inpublichealth,andincreases poverty. increases corruption,fostersconflict,degradesthe and goodgovernance, unequal distributionofwealth. between thelevelofcorruption andnationalincomethecorresponding relationship ofcorruptionandpoverty. There are statistically relevant correlations In recent yearsagreat deal ofresearch andattentionhasbeendevotedto the media developmentindexthat wouldbeconsidered before awarding Bankloans. in developmentandthere isincreasing interest attheBanktocreate aglobal World Bank,inparticular, hasbeguntorecognize thecentralrole thatmediaplay in mediadirectly increase indicatorsofsocialdevelopmentacross theboard. The is themessage",nowmore than40yearsold,graduallysinksin.Improvements in itsownright,astheramificationsofMarshallMcLuhan’s dictum"themedium greater awareness thattheveryprocess ofopenmediadeservestobesupported agricultural orhealthextensionprograms. More recently, however, there isa means todeliversocialmarketingmessages,particular content,insectorssuchas donor communityasanadjuncttocommunicationsfor development,mediaasa From itsbeginnings,thefieldofmediadevelopmentwasseenbyinternational with itsvibrantnationaldemocracyandhalfmillionvillages,ithardly existsatall. with hundreds ofstationsinasinglecountry, whileinothers,mostnotablyIndia some inAfrica,forexample,thecommunityradiomovementiswelladvanced the situationisimproving butstilluneven:inmanycountriesLatinAmericaand better health,environmental awareness andpeaceful resolution ofconflicts.Here from traditionalbroadcast media-informationthat facilitates civicengagement, outlets provide publicinterest newsandinformation thatcitizensoftendon’t get perspective, thesecommunityradiostations,localprivatebroadcasters andprint development oflocalmediawhere mostpeoplegettheirnews. From adevelopment Any efforts toimprove informationaccess,however, willhavetofocusonthe part ofanysolution. and complex social same istrueinpublichealth, The andarelatively freecountry withademocraticformofgovernment press". Sen hasalsofamouslyargued,"nosubstantialfamineeveroccurred ina information space,conflictandxenophobiaare more likelytofester. AsAmartya repression. Where staterunpropaganda andmisinformationdominatesthe political freedoms, limitingaccesstoinformationisessentialgovernment lead totheiralleviation.Intotalitarianstatesandcountrieswithrelatively fewer in AfricaandAsiathatwillidentifythese"informationblackholes"and,hopefully, own languages.There currently are severalprojects tomapthemedialandscapes unable toreceive anyinformationatallfrom outsidetheircommunitiesin access forgranted.Butthere are manyplacesintheworldwhere peopleare In thedevelopedworld,withitsubiquityofmedia,wetendtotakeinformation from war, povertyandrepression andfree tofulfillourhumanpotential. begin tounderstandhumandevelopmentasameasure ofhumanfreedom -free and education-thesumtotalofhumandevelopmentisincreased. Further, we By increasing freedom -through elections,openmarkets,andaccesstoinformation about whetheritisincreasing ordecreasing. Much wassaidaboutthe"digitaldivide"andthere remains agreat dealofdebate link thegrowth oftelecommunicationsnetworkstoGDPgrowth inover 2 Unequal accesstoinformationinhibitsthegrowth ofcivilsociety political issuewhere accesstoinformationisanecessary 5 6 the environment, andeducation-any 1 But certainlypovertyofinformation 4 3 20 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 21 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives about economicdevelopment Paul Wolfowitz, President, World Bank without talkingabout “you reallycan'ttalk “you freedom ofthepress.” allocations onthegrounds ofpublicinterest. sector ofterrestrial broadcast, where natural estimates thatperhaps45countriesaround Financing InformationandCommunication 7 World SummitontheInformationSociety World: AWorld BankContributiontothe But even on the Internet, Freedom House But evenontheInternet, therefore thechance allowsgovernments scarcity demandseffective regulation and reduces transparency andresponsiveness This continuesmostconspicuouslyinthe the worldblockcontentinawaywhich Infrastructure NeedsintheDeveloping to control issuessuchasfrequency Washington, DC:TheWorld Bank. h Working Group onFinancingICT t t p : / / w / w p f w s 2 . f 8 0 r World Bank(2005) 0 e 0 e / d s o u m s s h m o a u n s . e h . o t m r g l

would havebeenunimaginableevenonlyadecadeago. world’s populationliveswithintherangeofmobilephonesignals,figures which now haveafixedlinetelephoneconnectionandthatasmuch77%ofthe will winout.AWorld Bankstudyestimatesthatabouthalfthe world’s households their reflexive attemptstocontrol information.Inthelongrun,informationfreedom benefit from thenewglobaleconomy, inwhichICTplaysaprominent role, and areRepressive pressed stategovernments tochoosebetweentheirdesires to media andthemainstream press, willplayasignificantrole inexposingcorruption. media. Thesenewsources ofnewsandopinion,whilechallengingtraditional formatsthathavehelpeddemocratizethe viral mediaandcitizenjournalism Digital informationandcommunicationstechnologieshavenowspawnednew development withouttalkingaboutfreedomofthepress." offers forglobalgrowth, tradeandsecurity. revolution oftheworldare minimal compared toeverycorner tothebenefitsit development communityand the international tive andresponsive andgive marginalizedand crop yields,improve more markets,reduce effec- corruption,makegovernment technologies havethepotentialtoprovide valuableinformationthatcanincrease therightinvestmentsandapro-poor policyframework,new communications With The informationrevolution holdsgreat promise foreveryaspectofdevelopment. and distributionbenefitsofthenewmedia. andtheirmediatotakefulladvantageofthefinancial,production journalists media developmentfield,there ismuchworktodoretrain traditional they musttransformourworkoneverylevel.Forthoseofusworkinginthe cannot justbebuiltasanotherproject silobymediadevelopmentorganizations; convergent application-represent thefuture foreveryone.Digitalapplications andavarietyof phones andSMStextmessaging,onlinecitizenjournalism developing worldformanyyearstocome;but"newmedia"ofallkinds-cell remain theprimarysource ofnewsandinformationformostpeopleinthe media" willcontinuetobecentraldevelopment.Radio,inparticular, will While newdigitaltechnologiesposechallengesfortraditionalmedia,"old issue ofcorruption.AsWolfowitz hassaid, media freedom isauniversalright;italsoprecondition fortacklingthecentral it wouldbeseenasinterferinginthedomesticpoliticsofsovereign states.But The Bankhasbeenreluctant inthepasttospeakoutonthisissueforfearthat homegrown independentmedia. bring. Soautocratsandcorruptpoliticianseverywhere seektosuppress their impunity outsidethebrightlightsandpublicexposure thatindependentmedia operatewith development. Corruptioncanonlyflourishwhengovernments leadtoeconomic andpolitical whichinturn transparency andgoodgovernance, making thecasethatstrong, independentnewsmediaplayakeyrole inpromoting World BankPresident, PaulWolfowitz, andseniorBankeconomistsare now 7 " you reallycan'ttalkabouteconomic private sectorof poor peopleavoice. 8 xedn this extending The costs to and independentmediais Intercultural Tolerance Governance, PressFreedomand Integrating ApproachestoGood an essentialelementof “Let usstartfromthe “Let assumption thatfree prosperous society.” any stableand in EastTimor, totakebuttwoexamples.Realizingthat, inorder topromote unity best toaidthedevelopment ofmedia,intheDemocraticRepublicCongoand Beyond theworkdonebyUN agencies,theUNitselfhasstruggledwithhow in thecountry. agency whichisalready usedwidelybyscores ofnewnewspapersandbroadcasters news create an editoriallyandfinanciallyindependentinternet-based journalists next doorinIraq,UNDPhasworkedwiththeReutersFoundation tohelpIraqi for press freedom guaranteesintheregion. Andinoneofitslargestprograms, a harshspotlightontherestrictions onindependentmediaandstrongly advocated vote count.IntheMiddleEastUNDP’s ArabHuman DevelopmentReporthascast oncoveringelections before, duringandafterthe workshops forlocaljournalists about everyweekinsomepartoftheworld-UNDPcountry offices organize democracies -UNDPandtheUN’s ElectoralAssistance Divisionworkonanelection if necessary. Andaspartofitsworkhelpingtoorganizeelections inemerging arethrough advisedhowtolocateit-anddemandit, localmedia,andjournalists records anddataotherinformationreadily and availablethrough theinternet program are whereby encouragedandhelpedtomakepublic governments pendent media.UNDP’s Unithasastrong "accesstoinformation" Governance countries, UNDPstresses theimportanceofprovisions forsafeguarding aninde- When providing adviceonconstitutionalandlegalsystemreforms indeveloping on independentmediadevelopmentindozensofdevelopingnations. UNESCO. Currently, theUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgram isactivelyworking Program -UNDPortheUNEducational,Scientific,andCulturalOrganization in theformofpartnershipsbetweenmediaorganizersandUNDevelopment The UNhasdonesomeusefulworkinpromoting mediadevelopment,muchofit future forthemselvesandtheirchildren. information are atadistinctdisadvantagewhenitcomestobuildingbetter world, informationsowstheseedsofprosperity, andthosewithoutaccessto essential elementofanystableandprosperous society. globalizing Inthemodern you. Soletusstartfrom theassumptionthatfree and independentmediaisan who givemuchcredence tothatmaxim.Whatyoudon'tknowcancertainlyhurt hurt you." There isasayingintheEnglishspeakingworldthat Global ForumonMediaDevelopmentinAmman,Jordan,October2005) Information, UnitedNations(Text adaptedfromkeynotespeechtothe Shashi Tharoor I trustthatthere mediaexpertsorpublicofficials are fewjournalists, , Under-Secretary GeneralforCommunicationandPublic "what youdon’tknowwon’t 22 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 23 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives INFORMATION ANDCOMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIESAT THEHEART OFAGLOBALIZEDWORLD “Freedom ofinformation “Freedom access thisinformation.” don’t havethemeansto is meaninglessifpeople of technology thatcouldserveasthebridge betweentherighttoinformation When wespeaktodayabout mediadevelopment,wedosostandingonaplatform access toinformationisnotjust ahighlydesirableaim,butalsoincreasingly achievable. -universal world -aofsatellitetelevision, ofcell-phonesandtheinternet meaningless ifpeopledon’t havethe meanstoaccessthisinformation.Andinour This wasanimportantstatementofprinciple.Butfreedom ofinformationis ideas throughanymediaregardlessoffrontiers." opinions withoutinterferenceandtoseek,receive impartinformationand to freedomofopinionandexpression;thatthisrightincludes freedomtohold hadtheright 19 oftheUniversalDeclarationHumanRights,that everyone "as anessentialfoundationoftheinformationsociety, andasoutlinedinArticle inNovember2006foritssecondphase,participatingcountries reaffirmed Nations conference heldin GenevainDecember2003,andwhichreconvened in At thefirst-everWorld Summit ontheInformationSociety, alandmarkUnited in theUNcharter, of this newglobalsociety-oraprocess thatactuallydeliversonthepromise made divisive force -onethatmerely addstothegapbetween havesandhave-notsin We do, however, globalizationbea havesomechoiceoverhowitevolves.Will tion Whether welikeitornot,anewglobalsocietyisundoubtedlyevolvingandinforma- to theneedsanddemandsofallpeople. is onlysustainableifitsbenefitsare feltallaround the worldandifitresponds or evenofeconomics.Itisafact.Andinthelongterm,newglobaleconomy In thetwenty-firstcentury, globalizationitselfisnotamatterofpoliticalchoice, deliver atolerablestandard oflivingtoallpeople. ifweareknow thatitisapowerfulforce to thatcan-andmustbeharnessed technology isamagicformulathatgoingtosolveallourproblems. Butweall one market,audience,people.Nowouldarguethatinformation technologies haveshrunktheworldand-inareal sense-madeitallone: oftheglobe.Newcommunications tables, glimpsesofeventsfrom everycorner newspapers andmagazinesbringtoourlivingrooms, andevenourbreakfast Nowhere isglobalizationmore apparent thaninthemedia.Television, radio, recall thistoday?Becauseboththeriskandpotentialforasolutionhaveincreased. of injusticefeltbythoselivinginpovertyanddespairaworldplenty. Why thatanexplosionofviolencecouldoccurasaresult ofthesense U Thant,warned More thanfortyyearsago,in1962,theUnitedNations’Secretary-General, assumption thatIthinkwecanallacceptasfact.We liveinaglobalizingworld. andmediafreedom. Letmeaddanother be usefulinanydebateongoodgovernance It isonthebasisofourexperiencethatIwanttoexplore severalparametersthatmay be sustainedbeyondourmission. we havestruggledtofindwaysensure theverysuccessfulRadioOkapecan from scratch,onceorder wasrestored. AndintheDemocraticRepublicofCongo while everythingwehadcreated wasdestroyed. We hadtostartagain,almost wewere forcedlocal peopletooperatethem.In1999inEastTimor towatch reliable independentsources ofinformation,webuiltradionetworksandtrained and peaceinformeddecisions-making,weneedtoprovide peoplewith and communicationtechnologiesare thenervesystemofthisnewsociety. "better standardsoflifeinlargerfreedom"? THE HAVES ANDHAVE NOTSOFTHEINFORMATION DIVIDE rnhRvlto,isa French Revolution, revolution withalotof iet,somefraternity, liberty, eouin unlikethe revolution, “The information “The and noequality.” causes, learn todispel fear,causes, learn about eachother. andabovealljustlearn torecognize hatredto seeourselvesasothers us,learn anddealwithits with theignorancethatsustains it.We willhavetoknow eachotherbetter, learn headlines inrecent times.Ifterrorism istobetackledandended,wehavedeal tothis recognition maybeterrorism,The alternative whichhassodominated our easier thaneverbefore to seestrangersasessentiallynodifferent from ourselves. table, through ourdailydose ofmediamustalsobecomeaworldinwhichitis A worldinwhichitiseasierthaneverbefore toseeorhearstrangersatourbreakfast other -languagenetworks. are alsowitnessingtheimpressive riseofAlArabiya,AbuDhabitelevision,and serves toprove thepoint. Indeed,AlJazeeradoesnotstandalone,becausewe media. Andweknowthatthisispossible.Thesuccess ofAlJazeera,forinstance, those partsoftheworldthatare, asyet,recipients ratherthanproducers, of One waytochangethisisincrease thenumberandvolumeofvoicesfrom fragility ofyourlivelihoodasnogreat significancetotherest oftheworld. or peripheral,yourreligious beliefsasincomprehensible andthreatening, andthe as sideissues,summedupyourcultureindeed lifethreatening asbarbaric -concerns Imagine iftheonlymediatowhichyouhadaccessdismissedyourmosturgent- The globalizedmediahasfewauthenticvoicesfrom thedevelopingworld. suffered andbeabletoexpress one’s suffering inthelanguageofjournalist. speaks English?" going around withhiscameraandcallingout, Edward BehrspottedaTV newsmaninacampofviolatedBelgiannuns, journalist First World language.AsfarbackasthefirstCongocivilwarin1960s, of thedevelopedWest. There isanoccasionalThird World voice,butitspeaksa whatpassesforglobalmediaisstilllargelythe television, radioortheinternet, century reflects theinterests ofitsproducers. Whetherweare talkingabout Equally important,there isalsoacontentdivide.Theglobalmediaofthe21st new globalmediathattheyknowwillhaveapowerfulinfluenceontheirlives. inthedevelopingworldfeeltheyhavelittlecontrol overthis even governments divide.Manypeople,companiesand of centuries.Andthere isagovernance yet togainfulladvantagefrom changesthatcouldultimatelyredress theinequalities than Africa’s 800millioncitizens.There isagenderdivide:womenandgirlsare bandwidth that 400,000citizensofLuxemburgcancountonmore international seventy percent oftheworld’s usersliveinthe24richestcountriesand internet There isatechnologicaldivide-theenormousgapinaccessthatmeans This dividehasmanyaspects. those withaccesstothebenefitsofthisbravenewworld,andwithout. What wehaveatpresent isaninformationdivide-enormousgapbetween fraternity, andnoequality. revolution, unliketheFrench Revolution,isarevolution withalotofliberty, some There are manyreasons forthis,butoneimportantreason isthattheinformation and itsrealization. Andyetthisnewworldisnotasaferormore justworld. In otherwords, itisnotenoughtohavesuffered: onemusthave "Anybody herebeenrapedand 24 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 25 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives GOOD GOVERNANCEORAFREEPRESS:WHICHCOMES FIRST? THE CHALLENGEFORMEDIADEVELOPMENT • • • • media thatis The challengeformediadevelopmentinsuchanenvironment istodevelop be reinforced. Where thishappensinnewsprogramming, narrativesthatare familiartendto rates canmeanthatprograms are pitchedatthelowestcommondenominator. We needtobecautious,becausethewinlargeaudienceswithlowliteracy regional issuesratherthandomesticones. andinternational material thatenlargestheirmarket-share across theArabworldandfocuson world. Thishasservedasaforce forpromoting Arabunity, asprogrammers seek pan-Arab marketwithmultiplechannelsavailablealmosteverywhere intheArab expansion inmedia,especiallysatellitetelevision,andthegrowth ofahuge It ispossible.AsImentionedpreviously, intheMiddle-Eastthere hasbeenadramatic thatsuppress themedia? due toconflictorsystemsofgovernance free expression hasneverbeenthenorm,orwhere thisfreedom hasbeenlost the sumofhumanknowledgeandboostsopportunityinsocietieswhere such So howdowebestencouragethegrowth ofamediaenvironment thataddsto question. Inmany placeswehaveseenhow themediacanbecome asubstitute orafree presswhich comesfirst-theinstitutions ofgoodgovernance -isavalid transparencyhas inpromoting andaccountabilityisbeyond doubt, government There isrightandwrong inboththesepositions.Whilethevitalrole themedia were established. of governance best, ignore and,atworst, inhibitthefreedom ofthepress untilsoundmechanisms wouldfollow,good institutionsofgovernance andthosewhopreferred to,at who wantedaquickandsubstantialeffort toestablishafree press, claiming that At someofthesediscussions,aninteresting conflictemergedbetweenthose the role ofthemedia. and aspecificitythathaslongbeenlackingindiscussions oftheimportance some yearspriortothewar, beenthesonofdictator-haslentanurgency unionhad, for pendent mediainacountrywhere theheadofjournalists’ But itisequallytruethatthisparticularproject -thecreation offree andinde- traditions oftheregion. it isessentialtoincludethosewithagenuineaffinity tothehistory, culture, and adequately represented insomeofthesefora.Ifsuch discussionistobefruitful, develop amediaculture inIraq.Unfortunately, Iraqisthemselveswere not These issueshavecometothefore recently indiscussions abouthowbestto reminding viewersoftheirrightsandobligations. empowering, reaffirming asenseofresponsible citizenshipby authentic, inreflecting theviewsofpublictowhichitisaddressed; and keepcomingback; totrusttheinformationtheyarecredible, receiving sothatviewerslearn change thechannel; attractive, sothatviewersinasaturatedmarketdon’t simply PARAMETERS FORMEDIADEVELOPMENTPROGRAMMES does notincludetheright “Freedom ofexpression “Freedom to falselycry ‘fire’ ina crowded theatre.” US Supreme CourtJustice to abetter, safer, andmore prosperous world,wemustacceptthatthere isno First, ifourefforts toassistwithmediadevelopment are togenuinelycontribute societies trembling onthebrinkofanapocalypse? But whatdowewhenthe verycourtsthemselvesdon’t exist?Whatabout must formpartofourmediadevelopmentprograms. acknowledged thatwhenthoselawsandrestraints donotexist,theircreation ‘fire’inacrowdedtheatre." the righttofalselycry Court Justiceoncesoeloquentlyputit, but fewdoubtthatsomelegalrestrictions are reasonable. AsaUSSupreme against slanderandlibel.We maynotlikethespecificsofsomethoselaws, andwriterscommentatorsisnot unfettered. Therejournalists are laws Even incountrieswithalongtraditionofensuringpress freedom, theworkof was owes somethingtotheirresponsible conductof"hatemedia"which,heexplained, ed, thepoliticalviolencethathaswrackedCôted’Ivoire overthelastfewyears comes tomind.And,asUnitedNationsSecretary-General KofiAnnanhasreport- The role playedbythemediaofbothsidesinfuellingconflictBalkansalso media isnotalwaysvirtuous. propaganda armoftheHutugenocidaires. Butclearly evennon-government ment. Ofcourse,itwasnotatrulyindependentmediaoutlet;was,rather, the Collines servedaterriblepurpose,anditwasnotthatofthelegitimategovern- representatives thatseemedinclinedtoseekpeace.RadioMille ofagovernment the genocidebeganRwandanpresident wasassassinated,alongwithother effective wayofcontrolling thepeoplethemselves. But inRwanda,evenbefore have longknownthatcontrolling theinformationthatpeoplereceive isavery occurred becausethemediawasinserviceofatyrant.Tyrants anddictators In thecaseofStreicher, itispossibletoarguethatthisabuseofthepower create anddestroyfundamentalhumanvaluescomeswithgreatresponsibility." Der Stürmer. Initsjudgment,theCourtaffirmed: sentenced NazipublisherJuliusStreicher todeathforhisanti-Semiticpublication victions were thefirstoftheirkindsinceAlliedTribunal atNuremberg in1946 conspiracy, crimesagainsthumanity, extermination,andpersecution.Thesecon- the 1994genocide.Thethree menwere convictedofgenocide,incitementto Tribunal forRwandatheirrole inincitingtheircompatriotstokillTutsis during Rwandan mediafigures were sentencedtolengthyjailtermsbytheInternational media can,sadly, sometimesprove tobe But letusalsonotpretend thatathrivingmediaisalwaysforce forgood.Afree than thosewithout.Freedom toseek,receive, impart,anduseinformationisvital. with accesstoinformationhavefarmore chanceofenjoyingthefruitsdevelopment of fundamentalhumanrightsandessentialtodevelopment.Thepeoplecountries of HumanRights;Anindependentandcredible mediaisessentialtotheenjoyment and immutablehumanright,setoutinarticle19oftheUN’s UniversalDeclaration To saythisisnottoadvocatecensorship.Freedom ofexpression isaninalienable toresponsiblemedia canbecomeadisastrous politics. alternative rewarded forbeing objective,andare notpunishedforfanningflamesofintolerance, are(some mightsayacaricature) not ofgenuinepoliticaldebate.Ifjournalists for democraticpoliticalexpression, withmediatalkshowsservingasafacsimile "fuelling thetensions,[encouraging]xenophobiaandincitingviolentacts." "hate media." "Freedom ofexpressiondoesnotinclude "The powerofthemediato Media professionals have On 3December2003,three 26 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 27 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives AFFIRMING OURDIVERSITY;ACHALLENGETOTHEMEDIA “There isonlyone “There and onlyoneevil, od knowledge good, ignorance.” Socrates to workmaketheworld safefordiversity. goal isessential,andincreasingly beingrealized. Butitisalsotimeforallofus have heard inthepastthat theworldmustbemadesafefordemocracy. That forms ofmediaare ableto flourishandcontendfortheirplaceinthesun.We and toguaranteethatindividualvoicesfindexpression, andthatallideas The onlywaytomeetthischallengeispreserve culturalfreedom inallsocieties challenge before themedia today. worth astheabilitytoeatanddrinksleepundera roof, isalsopartofthe affirming thatculturaldistinctiveness isascentraltohumanity’s senseofitsown nology. Ourglobalmediashouldbearthisfactinmind.Recognizing it,and more wealththantheirpresent, whoseculture ismore valuablethantheirtech- eties whoserichnessliesintheirsoulandnotsoil,pastoffers one style,orwayofdoingthings.Indeed,there exist,around us,manysoci- Fortunately, weliveinadiverseandvariegatedworld.There isnoonestandard, fundamental, universalhumanrights. its toleranceofdissent,celebrationculturaldiversity, anditsinsistenceon countriesbutinthecreation ofaglobalcivilizationthatisdefined by strife-torn regardless offrontiers, themediawillplayitspartnotjustinrenewal of ignorance." As Socratestaughtus, we willbecontributingnotjusttopeacein-country, butalsotoglobalsecurity. local voicestobeheard across ourglobalizedworld. Andifwecanachievethis simply besustainable.Itmustalsoseektoprovide thebestpossiblechancefor establishment ofasecond-classmedia.Whatassistanceisoffered mustnot this need.Soitisnotinanyofourinterests toprovide supportforthe been stronger. Apluralisticglobalmediacanplayasignificantrole infulfilling tolerance, understandingandaffirmation ofourcommonhumanityhasnever And finally, inaworldwhere peoplefearaclashofcivilizations,theneedfor we mustaskourselveshowtoaddress dilemmaslikethis. Arguably not,andifmediaprofessionals are totakeourresponsibilities seriously, orsetupabroadcast studio? independent judiciaryasitdoestotrainajournalist at ourperil.Doesittakethesameamountoftimetobuildalegalsystemandan questions abouttimingandprioritiesallocationofresources thatweignore as partofanintegratedapproach tonationbuilding.Butthisraisessometricky andpress freedomconcepts -goodgovernance -canandmustdeveloptogether, Ofcourse,thesimpleansweristhattwo institutions ofgoodgovernance. media cannotbedivorced from theestablishmentofsocialandpolitical enough tofocusonlyonthemedia.Thesurvivalofatrulyfree andindependent itisnot undoubtedly aidthecreation ofbetterinstitutionsgovernance, Second, althoughtheestablishmentofafree andindependentmediawill cannot substitute.Buttheycanhelp. people," understanding oftheworld.To beaforce forgood,themediamustbe rebuild needamediathat hasalocalfaceandvoice,reflects alocal "one sizefitsall" and outsiders-eventhemostskilledbest-intentioned If itcanhelppromote thevitalexchangeofideasandinformation for mediacontent.Countriesandsocietiesstrugglingto "there isonlyonegood,knowledge;andevil, " of the Speech inthePublicSphere Media Developmentand really auniversalgoalof “Is awesternstylepress “Is national development?” prerequisites ofdemocracy andculturalchangegenerally. Theseprerequisites thecultural at leasttwoimportantsets of problems. Oneofthese concerns In thecontextofmediadevelopment, Habermas’s workcanbeseenasaddressing (Habermas 1979,p.97). it,speechwouldbeimpossible and operatesthrough communication. Without a neversilentalthoughseldomredeemedclaimtoreason" ment evenifitisanagreement todisagree. Thistelos isa not alwaysagree, butspeech ofanykindassumesanorientationtowards agree- press accomplishtoservedemocraticends? Most importantly, whethercommercial, public,ormixed,exactlywhatmustthe needed. Isacommercial press enough?Whatabout publiclyfundedsystems? 1995; Nerone 1995).Butconsiderabledisagreement remains overexactlywhatis the effects ofbottomlineprioritiesinthemediaandalsoethnocentric(Bates Today thisanalysisofpress-state relations isconsidered dated,bothnaïveabout was promoted asthesystemyoungdemocraciesneededforsuccessful democracy. ownership ofmediawouldbeforbidden.Formanyyearsthelibertarianmodel Whereas a guaranteed byprivateownershipofmediacouldonlyexistwithinademocraticstate. exist. Forexample,the"libertarian"modelofpress inwhichfree speechwas generally, inwhichthesemodelscould inrelation tothekindsofgovernments the contextofcoldwaritclassifiedpress-state models,includingmassmedia era wasFourTheoriesofthePress (Siebert,Petersonetal.1963).Publishedin The definitiveEnglishlanguageanalysisofpress-state relations inthePostWWII Thomas Jacobson, argues thatunderstandingisthe causes someoneelsetopresume thisorientation,thoughasafalsehood.He But forHabermas,lyingitselfpreys uponunderstandingbecauseinlyingone intuitive inthefaceofcommonformsdeceit,manipulation, andsimplebias. "oriented towardreachingunderstanding." underlying speech.Theassumptionisthatthe structure ofspeechis Habermas arguesthatinallhumaninteractionthere isauniversalassumption But akindofimpressionistic accountofhiskeyideasmayserveforpresent purposes. world,andhencehisworkisformidablycomplex. to comebyinapostmodern sociologist JurgenHabermas(1984,1987).Answerstothesequestionsare hard Today themostwidelyacclaimedanalysisofthesequestionsisthatGerman styledpress reallyis awestern auniversalendgoalofnationaldevelopment,ornot? Both? Neither?Doesfree speechmeanprecisely thesamethingeverywhere? And, and Theater, Temple University Temple Theater, and "Soviet" model wassuitableforacommuniststateinwhichprivate Professor School of Communications Communications of School Professor "telos" of humancommunication.Individualsdo " Man bitesdog" Habermas’s claimmayseemcounter- "…gentle butobstinate, news? Civicjournalism? that isembodiedin 28 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 29 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives CULTURAL CHANGEANDTHEPUBLICSPHERE MODERNIZATION, ANORIENTATION TOWARD UNDERSTANDING, ANDTHEPUBLICSPHERE with otherperhaps abandoned, andwhattraditional practicesshouldbecombinedinhybridform traditional practicesshouldbepreserved, whattraditionalpracticesshouldbe contextualizing publicopinion.Thesemediacondition public opiniononwhat Yet allmediaandformsofexpression playarole ininforming,motivating,and ideas are expressed artisticallyandsomeare expressed inescapistentertainment. through Someofthese radio,television, film, andincreasingly overtheInternet. mediacirculateThe publicsphere ideas extends beyondnewsmedia.Modern therefore behandledinthepublicsphere, explicitly. that duringsuchperiodsofrapidchange,democraticcultural valuesmust the present andfuture, through andchoosing aprocess thatinvolvesbothlearning traditions ofthepastare filtered astheybecomecombinedwiththepracticesof The pointisthatthepublic sphere isabroad andsprawlingaffair inwhichthe clear thatdemocraticculture mustbeactively in youngdemocraciesundergoingmore rapidprocesses ofsocialchangeitbecomes has cometoseem tookplaceintheWest overaperiodofcenturies,democratic culturesuch learning embodiedinculturalinstitutions.Perhapsbecause social andhistoricallearning relationships inanoverlynarrow fashion.They, too,overlookthefullrangeof andthepublicsphere tendtofocusonpress-statestudies ofmedia,governance, Due inparttothecommonemphasisonscientificandtechnicalknowledge, toward understanding,andallcontributetothepublicsphere. consider theviewsofothersandcompromise, i.e.thehallmarksofanorientation Yet allthesediscourses,includingscience,share theabilityandwillingnessto are muchbroaderand hencetheculturalvaluesofmodernity thansciencealone. modernity. Democracy, justice,andhencedemocraticmediauserely onthemall, other words discussions,ordiscourses,ofmanykindsare prerequisites of social norms,infamilydiscussionsofchildrearing practices,inart,andmore. In the useof other usesofreason aswell.Reason,inhisview, includessciencebutextendsto scientistic viewofreason istoonarrow. results from Modernity thespread of viewed asthemainprerequisite ofmodernity. ForHabermastheemphasisona technological reason throughout society. From thisperspectivescienceisoften haveoftenfocusedonthespread ofscientificand Studies ofmodernization much more mustbeaccomplishedaswell. UN HumanRightsChartersuggests,withoutinterference. Butitisaspacewhere and thestate.Itisaspacewhere ideasmustbeexpressed, asArticle19ofthe for publicdiscussionthatexistshalf-waybetweentheprivatesphere ofcivilsociety problems canbeviewedinrelation tothe sake ofdemocracy, presuming thattheprerequisites are inplace.Bothsetsof repr actions with the acquire, andprotect, iftheyare tobuildsustainabledemocracies.Theotherconcerns represent thatyoungdemocraciesmust theculturalinstitutionsofmodernity specification of key stakeholders in media and democratic governance along specification ofkeystakeholdersinmediaanddemocraticgovernance interactions amongthesestakeholders.Thesekeystakeholdersandtheirinter- "good reasons" esent whatmustbeaccomplishedthrough communicationforthe "natural." "newer" in legaldiscussions,discussionsregarding preferred practices, includingspeech practices. But itisnot.Whenpress-state relations are observed "public sphere," "learned." It alsobecomesclear the figurativespace COLONIZATION OFTHECULTURAL LIFEWORLD CULTURE AND“UNIVERSALRIGHTS” understanding embodiedinspeechneverthelessestablishesauniversal birth. Butatthesametimehearguesthatunconsciousorientationtowards rights tofree speech,tolife,andothers,maynotbeuniversallypossessedupon Habermas’s approach tojusticeandrightsisadmitthatspecificrights,suchas of justiceandrights. tofindauniversalisticbasisuponwhich defendintuitions But heisstillconcerned each willcontinuetocherishsome,probably many, ofitstraditionalculturalvalues. of thefactthateachsocietywilltraveladifferent pathtoward developmentand value ofhumanlife,haveeverbeenfullyuniversal.Habermasistherefore mindful Anthropology teachesusthatnosubstantivevalues,evenfree speechandthe can sustainablechangebeachieved. collectively inart,entertainment,education,scholarship,andthepublicsphere, andchoosingisdoneconsciously among citizens.Andonlyifthislearning media owners andshareholders. Italso involvesmanipulationofthe leversof down ofpubliccommunication. Thisisnotsimplyamatterofgreed among Lifeworld colonizationisone importantcauseofthemuchlamenteddumbing the proper role ofpublic discoursewhichisorientedtoward understanding. when economicandadministrative reasoning, orientedtoward efficiency, replaces with histhesison discussion withinfamiliesandintheartworld.Habermas addresses thisproblem and withincommunities.Economicreasoning sometimeseventakesoverfor Economic justificationsoftentakeoverforpedagogicaldiscussions amongeducators displacing discussionamongpublicssmallandlargeas the basisforpolicymaking. imperatives haveintoomanyrespects takenoverasthebasisforpolicymaking, tration. IntheindustrializedWest, economicjustificationsandbureaucratic byadminis- put toonarrow anemphasis onmarketrationalityandgovernment take place.However, thelifeworldcanbedamagedwhenpowerful institutions Culture comprisesthe democratic legislation. accomplished through voluntaryreflection andcollective discussionleadingto forced unwillinglyfrom theoutside.Theadoptionof specificrightscanonlybe motivations comefrom culture aswellindividual experience, theycannotbe new lawsmustbeinaccord withthemotivationsofindividualcitizens.Because reason forthishybridizationisthatvoluntaryobservanceofthelawrequires that the moralviewpointwitheachsociety’s ownculturalpreferences. Thenecessary tradition. Nevertheless,specificandjustlawcanonlyariseasahybridcombining specific rightwhichcanonlybeadoptedfrom withinaculturalframeworkof There isadelicatebalancebetweenthemoralviewpointwhichuniversaland increasingly widespread apparently becausetheyembodythemoralviewpoint. rights," that theuniversalisticbasisofjusticeandrightsisnotasetspecific over thepast200yearsinhighlyvariedculturalcontexts.Hetherefore argues underlies strugglesforrightswhichhaveappeared more andmore commonly treated fairly, tobeunderstoodinone’s ownculturalcontext.Thisuniversaldesire viewpoint." but isinsteadasetofevolving This moralviewpointisexperiencedasthedesire tobeheard and "colonization ofthelifeworld." "lifeworld" in whichindividuallivesandcollectiveactivities "universalizable rights," Lifeworld colonizationoccurs rights thatare "universal " moral 30 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 31 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives STAKEHOLDERS INMEDIAANDGOVERNANCE legislative bodiesandcourts inthecore. in democraticcommunication mustfeedintoinstitutionalizeddiscoursesamong audiences. Theinformation andopinionsgeneratedamongallthesestakeholders civil societyleadersand,importantly, thepublicopinionindustryandmedia practiced bymediasystems but whichalsoinvolvespoliticians,lobbyists,influential The mediatedpublicsphere isamore organizedsphere ofpoliticalcommunication society. Themodeofcommunicationthere isevery-day-talkinepisodicpublics. interest groups express aquasiorganizedformofactivityamongcitizensincivil to the them, andfeedthemintoformalpoliticalbodies.Habermasrefers inthisregard Most generally, there mustbeamechanismtocollectideas,refine them,filter voice ofcitizensacross thefullrangeoftheirinterests. that mediarepresent publicopinioninawaythatmeaningfullyexpresses the transparency andaccountability.governmental Itistheadditionalrequirement is related to,butseparatefrom thenewsmedia’s importantrole infacilitating istoremain responsiveflows ifgovernance to citizens.Thisisarequirement that democracyrequiresby lifeworldcolonization,modern anelaboratesetofinformation Even iftheculturalprerequisites ofdemocracyare inplaceandare notundermined understanding thatdemocracyandvibrantculturalliferequire. becomesastrategicprocess devoidoftheorientationtowardsGovernance identity isstrippedofculturalcontext,andlongtermsocialviabilitysuffers. affected. Educationishobbledinitsabilitytotransmitsocialnorms,individual fully reflect socialinterests diminishes,manysocialsubsystemscanbeadversely When moneyandpowerare exertedbehindthescenesandmedia’s abilityto of theirown.Andthedamagingconsequencesare notlimitedtopoorjournalism. without plannedintentionasaresult ofbureaucratic processes thattakeonalife power bythosewiththecapabilitytodoso,sometimesintentionallyand conditions speaking openly on street corners isoflittlevalue.Allthepublic conditions speakingopenlyonstreet corners these linesfree However, andopendebatetookplaceonstreet corners. inmodern worse inafreeandopenencounter?(Milton,(1909-14)." Milton inhisAreopagitica, publishedin1644, "epistemic" value ofthepublicsphere, whichishiswayofsecondingJohn and associationalnetworkssuchascitizen of politicalcommunication.Socialmovements The centercolumnrepresents related arenas position betweencivilsocietyandthestate. occupies roughly amiddle, orintermediary, the figure showsthatthe publicsphere public sphere. Therighthand columnof political system(Habermas1996,p.356-8). or sluiced,intoparliamentsinthecore ofthe citizen discoursesfrom theperipherytobefed, to indicatetheneedforwildandoverlapping he borrows themetaphorofa public spheres andcore publicspheres. And Habermas refers toboth formal decision-makingbodies.Here value unlessitinformsthedeliberationsof discourse intheworldisofnodemocratic F i g u r e

1 " …who everknewTruth puttothe indicates thestructure ofthe When Miltonpenned "weak" "sluice gate" or peripheral IMPLICATIONS FORMEDIADEVELOPMENT and opinionprocessing byrelying onalargeanddiversecollectionofstakeholders. sphere suggeststhatthemediamust accomplishacomplexprocess ofinformation On thematterofwhatneeds tobeaccomplished,hisanalysisofthepublic mean preciselythesamething everywhere?" democratic ends?" must thepressaccomplishtoserve standard libertariantheory, and asked bywayofintroduction. that Habermas’s theoryaddresses twomainquestionsleftoverbythepassingof eventhisbriefandhighlyselective review ofkeyideasitispossibletosee With is pushedasidebytheinappropriate intrusionofcorporateandadministrativepriorities. themselves are underminedwhenevertheorientation toward understandinginmedia generally are endangered. Inotherwords, theculturalprerequisites ofdemocracy individual identities.Indeed,discoursesofactionorientedtoward understanding threatens socialintegration,transmissionofnorms,healthyformation culture through entertainmentprogramming aswellnews,colonizationalso a broader threat aswell.Duetothefactthatallmedia participateindemocratic But colonizationandthenon-representative information flowsitproduces comprise undermine thelegitimacyofdemocraticinstitutions. threatens to them, andfeedthemintothepoliticalsystem.Andthis,inturn, to undermineprocesses through whichmediacollect ideas,refine them,filter bypublicdiscoursethreatenstrative prioritiesintoareas thatshouldbegoverned system. Publicopinionaffects allthesamegroups thatprovide inputtothe the extentthatmediaandpublicopinionindustriesare bothpartofasingle The massmediahaveasignificantimpactonpublicopinion,andviceversa,to of thewaythatmediaselectissuestopublicize,chooseindividualsanalyze other stakeholders.Outputfrom themediaispublicopiniongeneratedbyvirtue from politicalpartiesandpoliticianswhohavemore accesstothemediathando as wellgeneralinterest groups, expertsandintellectuals.Inputalsocomes more detail.Inputintothemediacomesfrom specialinterest groups andlobbies F i g u r e

2 shows informationflowsinandoutofthemediatedpublicsphere in that theintrusionoffinancialandadminis- societies. Thecolonizationthesissuggests accuracy, andqualityinevendeveloped there isoftenasignificantshortfallinfidelity, colonization thesisindicates,hebelievesthat standards societiesmustfulfill.Andashis democracy comprisesastringentsetof tioning ofinformationflowsnecessaryto Habermas recognizes thatthehealthyfunc- they facilitate,are offundamentalimportance. representations, andthequalityofdiscussions Of coursethefidelityandaccuracyofmedia the interests ofothers. responding tothemediated expressions of ing innatelyheldinterests whilealso log inthemediatedpublicsphere, express- which allstakeholdersattempttoaffect dia- media, thusformingafeedbackcyclein And, "Does freespeech "What exactly, 32 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 33 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives “Producing representative “Producing and responsivepublic prducing shoelaces.” opinion isnotlike On thematterofspeechvalues,hesays citizens andinstitutionstoparticipateindiscursiveprocedures. must alsoplayaleadingrole intheevolution ofculturalnormsandskills,enabling And todothis,especiallyinyoungdemocracies,thepress andthemediagenerally priorities donotserveallsocial processes equallywell. Producing representative importance forimproving lifeopportunities through economicgrowth. Butmarket social reproduction, and it mustberesisted. Market rationalityisoffundamental culture, shouldalsoengagecontemporaryissuesofsocial change. cultural institutions.Andtheseefforts, whileincludingcelebrationsoftraditional thevitalityof should encouragenationaldevelopmentpoliciesthatharness organizations inaddressing collectiveissuesinculturallyresonant ways,and Media developmentefforts shouldtherefore engageartistsandartsbased reflected oncollectively. Theseculturalissuesincludematterslikespeechfreedoms. any case,butatleastsomeculturalissuescanbetaken updeliberatelyand the publicsphere isavital toolofculturalchange.Culture changetakesplacein range across includingculture. theentire Forthisreason gamutofcitizenconcerns and debateskillsorientedtoward understanding(notalwaysagreement!). processes dedicatedtotheacquisitionofdiscussion,analysis, community learning institutions, civicorganizations,localnon-profits, andothersingenerating and hopes.Mediadevelopmentinitiativesshouldtherefore involveeducational citizen participantsthemselvesandtestedagainsttheirownpreferences, traditions, another. Rather, suchprocedures canonlybeplantedasideasto betakenupby cannot be booths, privatelyownednewspapers,andelectionlaws.Democraticprocedures them.Theseprocedural normsareand societiesmustlearn asimportantvoting structures ofhumancommunication.However, asreal socialpractices,individuals fulfill, andpolicymakersshouldsupportdetailedresearch intothesefunctions. debates withfullawareness ofthecomplexprocedural functionsmediamust heated. However, globalforumsformediadevelopmentshouldhostsuch this challenge,includingthepossibleuseofpubliclyfinancedmedia,isoften to deliverthisqualityisachallenge.Debateoversuitableapproaches tomeeting and citizeninterests mustbeveryhigh,andbuildingthenecessary mediainstitutions The qualityofnewscoverage,analysis,responses topoliticalinstitutions not automaticallyfulfilledsimplybyvirtueofthemediabeingprivatelyowned. and themediaplayaconstitutiverole inthisdiscursiveprocedure. Butthisrole is can bedrawn. good one,thenafewspecificimplicationsofthistheoryformediadevelopment isa If thisaccountofhumancommunicationandtheinstitutionsgovernance excessive marketandadministrativepriorities. through speechorientedtoward understanding,whichmustbeprotected from engendering democraticnormsanddiscursiveskillsallcanonlybeacquired even European nations.Finally, thepublicopinionprocess alongwithprocesses and doesvaryascaneasilybeseenwhencomparingspeechprotections among always dependtosomedegree onculture. Themeaningoffree speechmust the moralviewpoint,healsoarguesthatembodimentofthisviewpointwill where. WhileHabermashopesfornotionsofjusticeandrightsthatare basedon 4 3 2 1 ) ) ) ) Lifeworld colonizationthreatens tounderminedemocratic legitimacyand discussedinthepublicsphere areThe concerns notlimitedtopoliticsbut The normsenablingdiscursiveprocedures mayreflect unconsciousuniversal The centralfeature ofdemocraticpoliticallifeconsistsindiscursiveprocedure, "transplanted" as brickandmortarinstitutionsfrom oneculture to " no" they are notthesamethingevery-

CONCLUSION REFERENCES yet tobebuilt. cultural institutions,i.e.theorientationtoward understanding,havesometimes the culturalprerequisites ofdemocracyembodiedin socialnormsandmodern However, inotherways,youngdemocraciesfacethegreater challenge.Forhere about thearbitraryexercise ofpoliticalpowerovermediaandabout corporatization. challenges are similarinyoungandmore mature democracies. Bothmustworry as hasbeenindicatedhere atleastbriefly. Incertainways,mediadevelopment environment. Theimplicationsofhistheoryformediadevelopmentare numerous, within atheoretical frameworkdefensibleinthecontemporaryphilosophical Habermas’s singularcontributionistorelate eachproblem totheothersystematically must berespected. Institutionscannotbetransplanted.Marketscanrunamok. Most oftheseproblems havebeenexplored invariouswaysbyothers.Culture employed inwaysthatfacilitatepublicdiscourseandwhentheseforces inhibitit. democracy contextstodifferentiate whentheforces ofmoneyandpowerare politically protected speech.Careful analysisisneededacross thevarietyofyoung resisting thepressure toequatemoneyandpaidcommercial advertisementswith include policiesrestricting consolidationofownershipaswellregulations democracy friendlypolicies.Thesewillvarybyculture andregion butshould cultural life.Mediadevelopmentworkatthebroadest levelshouldencourage impoverishment thatnotonlyattenuatespoliticaldiscussionbutunderminesvital them lessabletoreflect thefullrangeofcitizeninterests. Thedangeriscultural media prioritiestoprofit maximizationcanrigidifyandflattenmedia,making and responsive publicopinionisnotlikeproducing shoelaces.Enslavementof and solidarity. London,Verso. Habermas, J.(1992).Autonomy Boston, BeaconPress. tique offunctionalistreason. of communicativeaction:Acri- Habermas, J.(1987).Thetheory Boston, BeaconPress. and therationalizationofsociety. of communicativeaction:Reason Habermas, J.(1984).Thetheory of society. Boston,BeaconPress. Communication andtheevolution Habermas, J.(1979). of NorthwesternUniversity. in CommunicationsPolicyStudies Annenberg Washington Program and Ours.Washington D.C.,The Hutchins Commission,ItsTimes, Journalism withDemocracy:The Bates, S.(1995).Realigning IL, UniversityofIllinoisPress press shouldbeanddo.Urbana, communist conceptsofwhatthe responsibility, andSoviet authoritarian, libertarian,social Four theoriesofthepress:The Siebert, F., T. Peterson,etal.(1963). Illinois Press. the press.Urbana,Universityof rights: Revisitingfourtheoriesof Nerone, J.C.,Ed.(1995).Last Collier &Son. Classics.NewYork:Harvard P.F. Areopagitica. Vol. III,Part3.The Milton, J.(1909-1914). MIT Press. democracy. Cambridge,MA,The oflawand to adiscoursetheory facts andnorms:Contributions Habermas, J.(1996).Between 34 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 35 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives Tackling GlobalPoverty the RelevanceofMediato Why theMediaMatters: Consortium • • • • • • • development, principallyinfourways: development ofthemedia.Asthispaperwillargue,mediaplaysacriticalrole in This paperfocusesontherole ofmediaindevelopment,ratherthansimplythe than thosethatexistedinthe20th. series ofchallengestotherole ofthemediaindevelopment21stCentury for MediaDevelopment,factorsthatimplyarapidlydeveloping,starklydifferent A rich,complexsetoffactorsprovided thebackground tothefirstGlobalForum James Deane on therole ofthemediaand focusesparticularlyonfoursetsofissues: This papertherefore seekstoprovide adevelopmentcontexttocurrent debates people ontheplanetlivinglessthan$2aday. 21st Centuryandwhytherole itplaysmattersmosttothealmost3billion such, itprovided afresh opportunitytoreflect onwhythemediamattersin development strategieshadundergonesubstantialreview andrestructuring. As energy andcommitmenttotackleglobalpoverty, andatatimewheninternational The GlobalForumforMediaDevelopmenttookplaceatatimeofrenewed by muchofthemediaitself. organizations formanyyears.Ithasnotalwaysbeenapreoccupation shared are newbuttheyhavepreoccupiedNone oftheseconcerns development marginalisation canbefreely discussedandfeedintopublicdebate; In providing publicspacesandforawhere issuesof povertyand In reflecting theperspectivesofsuchpeopleinitscoverage; the marginsofsociety; In coveringissuesofrelevance tothoselivinginpovertyandat sense oftheirlives; In providing peoplewithaccesstoinformationthatenablesthemmake society, questionswhich mediaandsupport organizationsthemselves decade orso,raiseprofound newquestionsaboutthe role ofthemediain How theprofound changesinthecommunicationlandscape overthelast in current developmentstrategies; Why, perversely, mediaandcommunication supporthasfeatured so poorly poverty by2015; determining successorfailure inhalvingthenumberofpeopleliving Why therole ofthemedia isincreasingly acknowledgedasbeingcriticalin , Managing Director, CommunicationforSocialChange HARMONY AMIDSTDISUNITY: THECURRENTDEVELOPMENTDEBATE NOT MESSAGEBUTVOICE:WHYTHEMEDIAMATTERS The adoptionofthegoals- ofwhichhalvingthenumberpeoplelivingon means -formanyofthegoals -timeisrapidlyrunningout. goals is2015-whichmeans weare already almosthalfwaythere andwhich into oneoverarching developmentframework.Thedeadline formeetingthe global conferences ondevelopment andenvironment inthe1980sand1990s to bringtogetheraseriesofdisparateagendasandtargets developedatmajor Development Goals,asetoftargetsadoptedin2000. The Goalsare anattempt exception) havecommittedthemselvestomeetingeight Millennium (theUSisamajor the MillenniumDevelopmentGoals.Nearlyallgovernments The globaldevelopmenteffort isnowincreasingly structured around meeting multiplicity ofsometimessmall,giantdevelopment projects. donors, thousandsoforganizations,andmillionspeople were involvedina of athousandflowersbloomingindevelopmentassistance whenhundreds of place indevelopmentassistanceandstrategies.Goneare thedays have becomeincreasingly concerted,coherent and united. Arevolution istaking instability.increasing international Instarkcontrasttothis,efforts totacklepoverty discoursefocusedonthewarterror,international theclashofcivilisationsand We live in anincreasingly disunitedandfragmentedworldwiththedominant forays intocurrent developmentdebates,andcurrent developmentarchitecture. lives. Therole ofthemediaiscriticalinunderpinningboth.Thisrequires some beingabletoholdaccountthosewithresponsibilitycitizens forimproving their are designedtobenefitthem;thesecondisaccountability:importanceof • importance ofcountriesandsocieties two thatlieattheheartofcurrent developmentdebate:thefirstisownership– This paperwillnotrehearse allthesearguments,butwillfocusparticularlyonthe a trend thatisreflected elsewhere inthispublication. importance oftherole ofmediainproviding avoice forpeoplelivinginpoverty, because developmenteconomistsandanalystshaveincreasingly focusedonthe poverty saytheyneedmostifare toimprove theirlives.Itisimportantto increasingly important.Itisimportantinpartbecauseitwhatpeopleliving in povertyare reflected inthepublicdomainincludingthrough themediaisbecoming coverage isnottheonlyfactor. Theextenttowhichtheperspectivesofthoseliving secure mediacoverageofpovertyrelated issues.Thisiscritical,buttheextentof Most debatesovertherole ofthemediaindevelopmentfocusonstrategiesto a voice-sayinthedecisionsthataffected them. response wasthatpeople’s firstprioritywasnotmoney. Itwasthattheyneeded people livinginpovertysaidtheywantedandneededmost.Themostcommon In 2000,theWorld Bankcarriedoutthelargesteversurveytofindwhat to overcome olddebatesanddivisionsontheissue; How thedebateonrole ofmediaindevelopmentcanbereframed in responding to; orevencivilsociety)shouldbetakingthelead (rather thangovernments " owning" the developmentstrategiesthat 36 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 37 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives OWNERSHIP ANDPUBLICDEBATE and accountabilitylieat development agenda.” the heartofthisnew “Issues ofownership “Issues concerned withpoverty -healthserviceprovision, education,socialservicesand concerned now implementingtheirsecond PRS.PRSPsencompassmostarenas ofgovernment the foundationsoftheirnational developmentstrategies,andseveraloftheseare To date,61countrieshave adoptedorare intheprocess ofadoptingPRSPs as have founderedinthepast because theyhavenotbeenrootedinlocalownership". Bank, thethenPresident oftheBankstatedthat strategies. WhenPovertyReductionStrategieswere firstproposed bytheWorld having ownershipandbeingresponsible fordevelopingtheirowndevelopment A centralprincipleunderpinningthecurrent developmentagendaiscountries five totenyears. has beenmarginaltomostofthedevelopmentdiscourse andactionofthelast their ownperspectives,inenablingthemtoholdauthorities toaccount–thisrole those issuesinpublicdebate,enablingthemtospeakoutandcommunicate understand theforces thatshapetheirlives,inenablingthemtotalkanddiscuss communication ingeneralandofmediaparticularenablingpeopleto of thisnewdevelopmentagenda.Despitethis,therole ofinformationand than anytimeinhistory. Issuesofownershipandaccountabilitylieattheheart assistance withmore money, betterorganisationandmore urgentleadership In essence,then,westandatatimeofunprecedented opportunityindevelopment and parliamentsfortheirdevelopmentpolicies,strategiesperformance. enhancing donors’andpartnercountries’respective accountabilitytotheircitizens successful ornot,istheconceptof Paris Declaration,andheadingthelistofwhetherdevelopmentassistanceis for resultswithasetofmonitorableactionsandindicators." to and otherSeniorOfficials adhered andcommittedtheir countriesandorganisations agreement towhichoveronehundredinternational Ministers,HeadsofAgencies on AidEffectiveness. TheParisDeclaration,endorsedon2March 2005,isan coherent isreflected inmore recent agreements, particularlytheParisDeclaration This determinationtocoordinate developmentassistanceandmakeitmore within whichallbilateraldonorsagree towork. "owned" Reduction StrategyPaper(PRSP).PRSPs,whichare meanttobedevelopedand Wolfensohn inthelate1990s,theyevolvedintoanuglierjargon:Poverty Development FrameworksbyformerPresident oftheWorld Bank,Jim developing countriesthemselves.OriginallyconceivedasComprehensive much more closelytogetheraccording toasetofframeworksdevelopedby Donors, ledprincipallybytheWorld Bank,havecommittedthemselvestowork strategies toachievethosegoals. than ontheformer).Andathird wasthedevelopmentofmethodologiesand debt andimproving termsoftrade(progress onthelatterhasbeenfarslower the developingworldbysubstantiallyincreased developmentassistance,canceling 2005 G8SummitandLive8events-totacklingpovertyinAfricatherest of assistance. Asecondwastherenewed politicalcommitment-exemplifiedbythe less thanadollardaywasthefirst-onemajormilestoneindevelopment "continue toincreaseeffortsinharmonisation,alignmentandmanagingaid by developingcountriesthemselves,are designedtoformaframework "ownership". "Too manycapacitybuildingefforts The declarationisalsoaimedat At theheartof W H A T

H A S 9

With theSupportofMultitudes: to fightpovertythrough PRSPs, A Using strategiccommunication N Mozammel, M.;Odugbemi,S.; Y strategy onpovertyworking,

10 O DFID /World Bank,2005 See IstheWorld Bank’s F support ofmultitudes

Panos, and With the Panos, andWith T H I S

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W I • • • In general,analysishassuggested: of theWorld Bankitself.A2005 is aviewnotonlyofcivilsocietycriticsinmanycountriesandinternationally, but insufficient publicconsultationanddebatehasunderminedthatownership.This examples. Aboveall,theyhavebeenweakenedbyalackofownership,andthat togivejusttwo World Bankadviserscontinuetoshapepolicyforgovernments on variousaccounts-thatmacro-economic policyisnotopenfordiscussion,that and are consequently, inmanycases,failing.Theyhavebeensubjecttocriticism There isincreasing agreement thatPRSPshavesuffered from lackofownership, suchownership,arguedWolfensohn,ownership rested. PRSPswouldfail. Without policy andofpublicdebate,adebatewhichcouldprovide acentralpillaronwhich strategies. Theywere, inotherwords, conceivedasaproduct bothofgovernment public insociety, were tobetakenintoaccountinthedesignofdevelopment of poorpeople,togetherwiththosecivilsocietyorganizationsandthebroader they were alsodesignedtobethemechanismwhichensured thattheperspectives PRSPs were anessentialconditionforpoorcountriestoqualifydebtrelief, but fundamental process affecting more peopleontheplanet. safety nets,livelihoods,housingandsoon.Itisdifficult toimagineamore • • • • • for meetingthe centralMillenniumDevelopment Goalofhalvingpoverty by PRSPs are thecentralstrategicmechanism agreed bythedevelopmentcommunity ludicrously loworpoorlevelofcoverage. debate havehadtheirperspectivesaired inthemedia-hasrepeatedly showna debate, theextenttowhichthosewhohavemostwinorlosefrom apublic reported inthemedia,extenttowhichmediahasprovided aforumforpublic Analysis ofmediatreatment ofPRSPs-theextenttowhichtheyhavebeen media infostering proactive media.Thesamereport recommends thatitisessentialtosupportthe than strategic.Suchdebatecannothappenwithoutanengaged,informed, a fewworkshopsandseminars.Whatisworse,theyare usuallyadhoc,rather often mere publicinformationcampaigns,involvingtop-downdisseminationand major stakeholdersremains anissue.So-calledparticipatoryexercises are stilltoo information aboutthestrategiesbeingdevelopedandimplementedamong found, inamajorreview ofcommunicationstrategiesandPRSPs,thatalack T H

T H development andsectoralspecificissuessuchashealth,education andagriculture; corpstoreport oneconomic Lack oftechnicalskillswithinthejournalism Reporting whenithappensisdisengagedandformulaic; Very lowlevelofawareness ofPRSPprocesses withinmediaofPRSPcountries; Strategies to engage media have often not adjusted to new media environments; Strategies toengagemediahave oftennotadjustedtonewmediaenvironments; Urban biasofmedia; development related issues; Media outletsincreasingly demandingpaymentforcoverageof greater understandingand engagementbymedia; Lack ofinteractionbetweenNGO/CSOsandmediawhich couldleadto investigative andstrong coverage ofPRSPrelated issues; hindering andjournalists Poor relationship between government E

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T "a processofopenandinclusivenationaldialogue". H E

M E D I A ?

9 report publishedbytheWorld BankandDfid 10 38 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 39 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives IF THEMEDIAISSOIMPORTANT, WHY ISN’TITAHIGHERPRIORITYFORDEVELOPMENTORGANISATIONS? ON AWINGANDPRAYER? ANASSUMPTIONOFACCOUNTABILITY increasing concerns –includingamongmany increasing concerns issue islikelytobecometheresponse to 12 One bellweatherofjusthowcriticalthis HIV/AIDS organisations–ofmoneythat the AIDSpandemic.Rapidlyincreasing expenditure onHIV/AIDSisleadingto This wasanimportantandrecurring theme at the XVI International AIDS theme attheXVIInternational w Conference inToronto in2006. w 11 is inefficiently spentorwasted. w Report oftheCommission . c o m m i s s i o n London, 2005, f o r for Africa, a f r i c a . o r g governments willactinthebestinterests ofandbeaccountabletotheircitizens. governments All oftheseplansandstrategiesmakeacriticalcentralassumption–that possibly billions-ofpeoplelivinginpoverty. There are real opportunitiesandpotentialtotransformthelivesofmillions- of developingcountries,althoughprospects ofthislookincreasingly desperate. real. Someprogress mayevenbemadeinreforming thetermsoftradeinfavour few yearswill,itisproposed, increase substantially. Debtreduction isbecoming and practiceisintentonchangingthis.Developmentassistanceoverthenext The AfricaCommissionreport andmuchofcurrent developmentpolicythinking accountable todonorsthanrepresentativesofnationalinstitutionsandcitizens." lectively spendonsupportto mediainstitutionsandsupportefforts indeveloping There islittleornodataavailableonhowmuchdevelopment organizationscol- billion ontheplanetmaybe lost. to account,perhapsthelast,besthopeformakingareal changetothelivesof3 unacknowledged) pillarofthisstrategy. Ifthemediafailsin holdinggovernment function is,oncemore, a central (ifoftenand–atleastinthepast-strangely The importanceofanindependent,informed,engaged mediainfulfillingthat account bytheirowncitizens. iftheyare nottobeheldaccountbydonors,will governments, While fewpretend thatthis istheendofconditionality, theassumptionisthat best intheinterests oftheir ownpeople. expenditure ofthatmoney. They shouldsettheirownpriorities,astheythink decade; andthatthosecountriesshouldbelessaccountabletodonorsfor and otherincomebemadeavailabletodevelopingcountriesoverthenext In essenceitisproposed thatverysubstantialincreases indevelopmentassistance Africa and unsustainable.InoneofthestarkestconclusionsCommissionfor reached the conclusionthatplacingconditionsontheirfundingwascounterproductive what wasbestforthecitizensofdevelopingcountries,donorshaveincreasingly strategies are becomingmore coherent andorganized.Havingspentdecadesdeciding It is,indevelopmenttermshowever, becomingevermore critical.Mostdevelopment The importanceofthemediafortheseandmanyotherreasons isclear. systemandamechanismforensuringpressure action. warning forgovernment don’t occurindemocracies,largepartbecausethemediaprovides anearly policy andhasbeenformanyyears.AmartyaSenfamouslywrote thatfamines It isatthecore ofmostmediadebates.Itisattheheartmuchdevelopment beingheldtoaccountbyitspeopleisagiven. The importanceofagovernment willactinthebestinterest ofandbeaccountabletotheircitizens. governments pillar onwhichcurrent developmentstrategiesare founded-anassumptionthat education andsoon.Andverysimilarargumentscanbeappliedtothesecond can bemadewithmanyoftheotherMDGs-onHIV/AIDS,foodsecurity, on This ishowthemediamattertomeetingjustoneMDG.Very similararguments because thissystemissimplynotworking. played thatrole. Theresult isthatmillionsofpeopleare dyingtodayunnecessarily kind ofpublicdebatethatcanfosterownership.Themediaisnotandhas 2015. Theyare failingbecauseofalackownership.Themediaisvitaltothe 11 , pastdonorpracticehastoooften "left Africangovernmentsfeelingmore 12 further theirownpolicyagendas. to fostergreater accountabilityinthatcountry, orgreater participation,butto support tothemediasectorinanygivencountry, ismotivatednotoutofadesire ornationally,agencies, eitherinternationally theyare opentoaccusationsthat, added effect ofincreasing duplicationofeffort andofcapacity. rather thancollaboratewitheachother, sometimesunnecessarily. Thishasthe tions workingtosupportmediaindevelopingcountriesare forced tocompete and setofstrategiesisbadlyneeded,donorpoliciesensure thatthoseorganisa- where co-operationamongagenciesforacollectiveandmore coherent agenda minded organisations.Particularlyinthemediaandcommunicationsphere, of theirdonorpoliciesare activelydesignedtofostercompetitionbetweenlike- structure.equipped toprovide substantialmediasupportoutsidesucha government anywhere couldbetrustedwithsuchatask.Yet mostdonorsare lessand whoare meanttobecomemorethe samegovernments accountable.Nogovernment media intheinterests through ofpromoting publicaccountability ofgovernments form ofbudgetsupport.Itclearlymakesnosensetochannelsupportthe words, thepublicsphere. Thisisbeautifullycaptured byJurgenHabermas: creating ahealthy, pluralandvibrant environment forpublicdebate,orinother support isaimednotatenhancingoneparticularorganisation orinitiative,butin indicators withinshorttimeframesare usedtoassessimpact.Thebestmedia such asresults-based management. Thesehavetendedtoinsistthatquantitative donor supporttomediaisincreasingly fragmented,inconsistentandunstrategic. the individualinterests ofprogramme officers indonorcountrydesks.Forthisreason, institutional support,commitmenttomediasupportendsupdependingheavilyon possible. Thisisclearlysensible,butforasectorlikethemedia,withlittleoverall as level ontheassumptionthatdecision-makingneedstobeascloseproblem profound decentralisationprocesses. Decisionsonfundingare madeatthecountry this doesnothappeninthe mediaandcommunicationsector, andthere isno activities atcountrylevel.Despite therhetoricofcoherence anddonorharmonization, current developmentmonitoringandassessmenttools. measure, thehealthorotherwiseofpublicsphere isnotwellcaptured in The impactofaconfuseddinandunrulydebateisphenomenally difficult to possesses anopenflankvisacivilsociety, namelytheunrulylifeofpublicsphere". thepoliticalsystemthus Depending ondemocraticlegitimation,atitsperiphery talkandmediatedcommunication. confused dinofvoicerisingfrombotheveryday and publicdebatewithindevelopingcountries.There are manyreasons forthis. reduced staff ordowngradedprogrammes whichwere focusedonsupporting Indeed manydevelopmentagencies–both a lowpriorityondevelopmentagendas,underminingachievementofthe Italy in2004concludedthatmediaandcommunicationsupportstrategies A meetingofbilateralandmultilateraldevelopmentagenciesinBellagio, marginal, inconsistent,fragmented,unstrategicandshortterm. institutions foralackofsupporttothemedia.Theseare, however, generally developing countries,andgiventhisitmayappearperversetocriticizedevelopment countries. There are, itistrue,manyinitiativesdesignedtosupportmediain F F T S S F i o i e h i f r x c t u i s t r h o t r h d , mostbilateral,andmanymultilateraldonors,haveundergonerapid , t n , , evenwhendonorsare abletoprovide fundsdirectly tomediasupport h donors haveincreasingly movedtoevaluationmechanismsfocusedonsystems d there isextremely limited coordination ofmediasupport andcommunication , while most donors work in the name of international cooperation,many , whilemostdonorsworkinthenameofinternational , donorsare channellingincreasing inthe fundsthrough governments bilateral andmultilateral aeactively - have MDGs." "remain media " the 40 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 41 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives system thus at itsperipherythepolitical on democraticlegitimation, communication. CAN THEMEDIAPLAY THISROLE? namely theunrulylifeof rising frombotheveryday “the “the flank visacivilsociety, talk andmediated confused dinofvoice public sphere.” Jurgen Habermas possesses anopen Depending will activelyplacetheirownsupportwithintheframeworkofsuchaninitiative. articulate theirownagendaforsupport.Itremains tobeseenwhetherdonoragencies designed toenablemediaandcommunicationorganisationsinAfricadevelop currently supportinganunprecedented effort, theStrengthening AfricaMediaProcess, DevelopmentandtheOpenSocietyFoundationare Department forInternational interventionssuchasmedia support.TheUK less developedfornon-governmental indevelopingcountries,thesamemechanisms are far and guidedbygovernments the questionneedstobeasked abouttheextenttowhichmediaorganisations toaccount, the mediaexiststoactonbehalf ofthepublicinholdinggovernment hope, andmuchtosuggest despair. Ifdevelopmentorganisationsassumethat trawl ofsuchtrends indevelopingcountriessuggests there ismuchtoprovide the placeforacomprehensive analysisofmediatrends, butevenasuperficial in thefirstpartofthispaperisperhapscentralquestion facingus.Thisisnot domain. Theextenttowhichthemediaisableorwilling toplaytherole outlined It isnotonlythedonorswhoneedtoexaminetheirpolicies andpracticeinthis countries (andforthatmatterinothercountries)are abletoplaythisrole. arguably agrowing crisis that needstobeaddressed ifmediaindeveloping butafter yearsofinaction,itislateandthere is mayhavebeenturned, A corner the role ofmediaandcommunication. and multilateralagenciesare alsotakingarenewed andmore seriousinterest in designed tosupportmediaandcivilsocietyindevelopingcountries.Otherbilateral Transparency ofanewWhitePaperondevelopment Fundasacornerstone and Developmentannouncedanew£100millionGovernance International positive socialchange,isbeingrecognised. InJuly2006,theUKDepartmentfor fostering thekindofpublicdialogueandhealthysphere thatcancatalyse living inpoverty, toaccount,and enablingcitizenstoholdtheirgovernments ownership through publicdebate,increasing participation andempoweringpeople issue fordonoranddevelopmentorganisations,thatitscriticalrole infostering There are now, strong signsthat,afteryearsofmediasupportbeingaperipheral urgently inthemediasector. the evidencebaseforimpactofmediasupportneedstobedevelopedboth developing countries,suchastheStrengthening AfricanMediaprocess. Andsecond, the needsandagendasneedtobedevelopedasmuchpossiblefrom within However, whilethiscanbefostered andarticulatedbymediasupportagencies, and effective advocacystrategyaimedatdonorsbymediasupportorganisations. clearly twoprioritiesare obvious.Thefirstisamuchmore concerted,coordinated How theseandotherchallengescanbeaddressed are subjectsfordiscussions,but of theorganisationovermore complexbusiness ofsupportingmediasystems. result organisationalimperativesprioritisethebrandingandpromotion thatinternal many cases,thesamedepartmentsdealwithbothsetsofissuesinevitable debate andstrengthen mediaasavitalcomponentofhealthypublicsphere. In improve theirowncorporateprofiles, withefforts designedtofosterhealthpublic that isdesigned,inessence,toadvancetheirowndevelopmentagendasand absence ofclearer coordination andmore transparent strategies. the in have aclearstrategicdialoguewithdevelopmentanddonororganisations them,to extremely difficult formediaorganisationsandthosewhoexisttosupport clear responsibility withinthedevelopmentsystemformakingithappen.It F S i e n v a e l n l y t , h most developmentagenciesconflatecommunicationandmediasupport , whilethere are increasing mechanismsfordonorpoliciestobeinformed becomes Ed BruceGirard andSeanO’Siochru, UNRISD,2003, The otherinformationrevolution: mediaand Kunda Dixit,NjonjoMueandSilvioWaisbord in Communicating intheInformationSociety (www.lse.ac.uk/Depts/global/Yearbook empowerment indevelopingcountries, Some ofthissectionisdrawndirectly from previous articlespublishedbytheauthor. by JamesDeanewithFacksonBanda, substantially expandedbythisauthor 13 and othersinthe and updatedmore recently in London SchoolofEconomics These argumentshavebeen Society Yearbook 2002 full textavailableat www.unrisd.org. published bythe Global Civil , ) and are farmore complexthanspaceallowshere, butsomeare worthhighlighting information revolution" structure, contentandcharacterofthemedia.Thetrends shapingthis living onlessthan$2aday, isthatprompted bythesweepingchangesin swept mostofthedevelopingworld,particularlyinrelation tothe3billionpeople last twodecadeshasbeenoneoftechnology. Theinformationrevolution thathas The informationrevolution thathassweptmostoftheindustrialworldover people ofcompleteuninterest tomostadvertisers. themselves feelequippedorinclinedtoplaythisrole, particularlyinrelation to major exceptionstothistrend, ofwhichtheemergenceAlJazeeraisjustone). coverageandthesettingofnewsagendas(there areorganizations forinternational are news perceived tobepartial,biasedoratleastfundamentallyNorthern-centric renewed media’s andgrowing frustrationattheSouthern dependenceonwhat democratic countriesintheSouth,andparticularlywithincivilsociety, there isa politics;andinnewly on storiesofglobalization,tradeandinternational newsandinformation,particularly News Network(CNN),fortheirinternational providers, suchastheBritishBroadcasting Corporation (BBC),ReutersandCable divides withindevelopingcountriesbetweenrichandpoor, urbanandruralare growing. leading toamore commercial, advertising-drivenmediawhere informationandpower debate andcivicengagement,particularlyinthefieldofbroadcasting. Itisalso crowded andcomplexmedialandscape.Thisisopeningupnewspacesforpublic decade inmanypartsoftheworldhasledtoamuchmore democratic,dynamic, in or concern forpeoplelivinginpovertyandthose beyondthecity.in orconcern increasingly urbanbiased,consumerorientedmediawhich hasdiminishinginterest media, andanincreasingly dominanttrend tofocusonprofitability. Theresult isan shaped bythedemandsofadvertisers andsponsorswhopayforthenewlyliberalized evidence isgrowing that,ascompetitionintensifies, content isincreasingly being was initiallymarkedbyanupsurgeofpublicdebateon awholerangeofissues, But whiletheproliferation ofmediainthewakeliberalizationmanycountries countries brought abouta profound socialchange,muchofitpositive. greatly enhanceddemocratic debate,andhasinamyriadofcasesmany competitive marketamongmediahasbrought innovation,dynamismandoften marked byacollapse(orsometimesstillbirth)ofpublic interest media.Anew from theperspectiveofdevelopment, agrowing crisismaybeemerging,a Whenviewed often accompaniedbyphysicalassaultsandmurder ofjournalists. too are thecontinuingand increasing assaultsonfreedom ofexpression, too control overinformationhaveallcharacterizedthisrevolution.of government So and thesometimesrapid,agonizinglyslowornonexistentloosening titles across allmedia,adynamicinterplaybetweenoldandnewtechnologies debate, aresurgent communityradiomovement,aproliferation ofchannelsand tion overlittlemore thanadecade.Newfreedoms, ablossomingofpublic This isacomplex,contradictoryrevolution markinganextraordinary transforma- ofcommunicationwithincountries. networked andhorizontalpatterns and interactionbetweennewoldtechnologiesare prompting increasingly and politicalone. replace concentrationofmediapowerwithacommercial government-controlled national levels-issqueezingoutindependentmediaplayersandthreatening to F F S T i o e h r c u s i r o t r d , athoroughgoing liberalizationandcommercialization ofmediaoverthelast t n , developingcountriesare increasingly news reliant onpowerfulnorthern h d , newtechnologieshavebrought downthecostsofmediaproduction , growing concentrationofmediaownership-attheglobal,regional and are inconsistentandobviouslyvaryfrom countrytocountry, " other 13 : 42 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 43 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives important asjournalists in bringingdevelopment “DJs arebecomingas “DJs issues topublic attention.” continue tobemarginaldevelopment action.Andwewillcontinuenottoknow. part oftheirstandard countryassessmentsofdevelopment needs-theseissueswill and capacityopportunity tocommunicateinthepublicdomain-includingas organisations begintoaskmore andbetterquestionson citizen’s accesstoinformation we haveextremely limiteddataandresearch inthis area. Unlessdevelopment over thelastyears,answeriswedon’t really know. We don’t knowbecause how theextraordinary changesinthemediahaveaffected peoplelivinginpoverty whether andhowmediamatterstopeoplelivinginpoverty. Inessence, whenassessing confused andcontradictory, andthisisamplifiedbyourlack ofunderstanding current mediatrends, anddevelopmenttrends inrelation tothemedia,are also media inrelation tocurrent developmentpracticeandstrategy. Thisisbecausemost The aboverepresents, perhaps,aconfusedandcontradictorycritiqueofthecurrent orpublicinterestthrough criteria. anyjournalistic organization -developmentorotherwisethathasthe mostmoney, ratherthan created andthatpublicare receiving informationdeterminedbywhatever organization’s income,butfearsare growing thatanartificialmarketisbeing organizations isbecominganincreasingly criticalcomponentofsomebroadcast form ofpaymentforspotsorsponsorshipprograms -from development some radiostationsare developmentorganizationsanddonors.Income-inthe market byactivelyenteringit,andsomeofthemostconsistentcustomersfor Many developmentagenciesare responding tothe new commercialized media information dividebetweenurbanandrural,richpoor. being reflected inamuchbroader, deeperandperhapsmore fundamental some peoplecannotreceive asignalatall).Inthissense,thedigitaldivideis services (forexampleinagriculture) andoftransmittercapacity(meaningthat including (particularlyminorityormarginalisedlanguages),technicalextension oriented content.Astheydosooftencutbackonlesspublicservices, with theirbrashcommercial competitorsbyoffering more commercial andconsumer reduce budgets.Asaconsequencesomeare incrisis,andfeelforced tocompete are facingintensecompetitionfrom commercial organizationsasgovernments radio -whichretain thegreatest capacitytoreach ruralandmarginalizedpopulations, The formerstatemonopolybroadcasters andmediaorganizations–particularly are bynewsorganizations. are asoftensnappedupbythepublicrelations andadvertisingindustriesasthey schoolsinsomedevelopingcountriesare findingthatgraduates and journalism trainingisalsounderpressure,Journalism particularly withapublicinterest remit, and developmentrelated storieshavetraditionallyfallenwithinthiscategory. terms,are oftentreatedwhich intraditionaljournalistic asnonstarters?Poverty terms,butcanitbeexpectedtosurvive,letaloneincrease, forstories journalistic reporting maycontinueto surviveinpursuitofstoriesthatmatterconventional so routinely andasthecore oftheirjobdescription?Suchcourageandsuch beexpectedtoplaythisrole, letalonedo long andtowhatextentcanjournalists environment whichisnotonlypoliticallyhostile,buteconomicallyhostiletoo,how interests ofthepublic.Very oftentheylosetheirlivesinsuchaninterest. Butinan theworldovercontinuetorisktheirlivesinpursuitoftruth, Journalists or attentionfrom theireditors. outside thecapital,are findingitmore andmore difficult togeteitherresources want toexplore andinvestigatedevelopmentstories–particularlythosefrom whothemselves in bringingdevelopmentissuestopublicattention.Journalists to adjustthenewenvironment. DJsare becomingasimportantjournalists Communication fordevelopmentorganizationsandpractitionersare beginning THE MISSINGLINKOFDEVELOPMENTACTION bet ces understand able toaccess, development debatesare most towinorlosefrom “Unless thosewhohave “Unless and contributetothem, people willdie.” challenge nowistoplacethisissueattheheartofdevelopment action. for MediaDevelopmentsuccessfullyprovided oneimportantopportunity. The is urgentanditsoutcomecouldbarely bemore important. ThefirstGlobalForum exist toconfront, debateanddevelopresponses to these issues.Yet, thisdebate free, independentandgenuinelypluralmedia.Very fewotheropportunitiescurrently with supporting itself, particularlyfrom developingcountries,andbythoseconcerned agenda foraddressing theseissuesshouldfundamentallybeshapedbythemedia The have beenrelatively secondaryandconcertedactionhasbeenwoefullylacking. inthedevelopmentsector,prominent indebatesongoodgovernance butthey Andtheroleand orientedaround ofthemediahasbecomemore government. in 2005.Thesethoughare nottheplacesforthisdebatebecausetheyare driven like theWorld SummitontheInformationSociety(WSIS)heldin2003andagain there where are suchissuesare venuesinternationally raised,suchasatUNsummits debate. Theseissuesare arena. barely Itistruethat discussedintheinternational set ofstepsthatrecognizes theenormityofimplicationsthisissueand this paperperhaps;toexplore whatstrategiescanbemade;tobegindefinea public sphere more seriously. To contestanddisagree withtheanalysissetoutin ment toembracethecomplexandsometimesmessy"din"thatmakesup responsibility onthoseinthemediatodebatetheseissues,anddevelop- organisations ofwhatneedstobedone).There surely rests, ataminimum, (although there isincreasing consensusandclarityamongmediasupport Opinions maydiffer onthesequestionsandtheymayalsodiffer ontheremedies what itsownresponsibilities are? strategies? Surely themediaexistsinitsownrightandhastodetermine choosetostructure theirdevelopment adapt itself,becauseofhowgovernments Should itbeassumedthatthemediashouldhavetopayanyattention,letalone and unfair. Isittheresponsibility ofthemediatoassumesuchagrandioserole? This isaheavyresponsibility toplaceonthemedia,andisarguablybothmisplaced in theirhundreds orthousandsbutintheirhundreds ofmillions. and contributetothem,peoplewilldie.Theydie,astheyare dyingnow, not development debates-closetohalfofmankindare abletoaccess,understand market foradvertisers;andunlessthosewhohavemosttowinorlosefrom whole populationofdevelopingcountriesandnotjustthosewhoconstitutea play therole ofguardian ofthepublicinterest, unlessthepublicisseenas clusion ofmuchcurrent developmentpolicyisclear. Unlessthemediaisableto media todevelopmentpolicy. Atitsheartandputsimplistically, thelogicalcon- This paperhassoughttosetoutaseriesofproblems linkingtherole ofthe 44 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 45 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives Media andDevelopment Gender Inequality, potential roleofthemedia www.undp.org/women/docs/en-route-to-equality.pd in determiningsocialand address thecurrentand r-epe ifitdoesnot pro-people, “How candevelopment “How gender relations?” policy claimtobe A GenderReviewofNational Bureau ofDevelopmentPolicy, 14 MDG Reports2005. En RoutetoEquality: UNDP, 2005. New York: cited toexplain whypolicy-makersprefer toallocateresources to 'concrete' The amorphous,unquantifiable nature ofmediaprocesses andoutcomesisoften role ofthemediaindeterminingsocialandgenderrelations? policy claimtobe'pro-people' ifitdoesnotaddress thecurrent andpotential institutions overwhelminglyreflect the voicesofurbanelites-howcandevelopment removed of mostcitizens,andwhere from media thedailylivesandconcerns people are untouchedby media messages,yetwhere mediacontentisoftenfar poverty atthecentre ofdevelopment policyringshollow. Inaworldwhere few claim thattheMDGsprovide aframeworkthatplaceshumanrightsand characterises theMDGsthemselves.Butuntiltheseomissions are addressed, the UNDP review isindeedan unfortunateomission,andonewhichofcourse Ten yearsafterBeijing,the'silenceonrole ofthemedia'notedin2005 social andgenderinequality-poverty, education,healthand soon. the mediaalongsideissuesthathadlongbeenaccepted asmajorsignifiersof on media-SectionJasitbecameknownwasahistoricbreakthrough. Itplaced needed fortheadvancementandempowermentofwomen.TheBPA's section inwhichpriorityaction was media asoneoftwelve‘criticalareas ofconcern’ United NationsattheFourthWorld Conference on Women in1995,citedthe Platform forAction(BPA), adoptedunanimouslyby189MemberStatesofthe crucial factorsthatdeterminewomen'sstatusandgenderequality. TheBeijing have helpedtolocatemedia,informationandcommunicationamongthemost Decades ofresearch, level advocacyandpoliticallobbying attheinternational reports reviewedisanunfortunateomission. a situationthesilenceonroleofmediainoverwhelmingmajority equality inmanycountriesbygovernmentsandcivilsocietygroupsalike.Insuch sitivity towomen’s rightshavebeenidentifiedasmajorimpedimentstogender of women.Negativeportrayalswomeninthepopularmediaandinsen- media increatingorcounteringpopularmisconceptionsandnegativestereotypes It isamatterofconcernthatonlytwothe[78]reportsmentionrole to themedia,review hasthistosay(p.30,emphasisinoriginal): to fundamental issues that- fail tohighlightlinkagesbetweentheGoalsormakeconnectionswithwider - isatthecore ofalleightMDGs.Itconcludesthatthenationalreports generally ‘Gender equalityandempowermentofwomen’-specificallyaddressed inGoal3 Millennium DevelopmentGoals. 'gender review' ofallavailablenationalreports onprogress towards the In 2005theUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme publishedadetailed Margaret Gallagher although notheadlinedinthetargetsandindicatorsthemselves-are the changeprocess andtoachievementoftheMDGs.Inrelation , International MediaConsultant 14 The review startsfrom thepremise that NEWS: AMIRRORONTHEWORLD? Who MakestheNews:GlobalMedia London: World AssociationofChristian 15 The followingsectionsare basedon the executivesummaryof2005 www.whomakesthenews.org Monitoring Project 2005, Communication, 2006. by Margaret Gallagher, For thefullreport, see GMMP. • • • virtually invisible. that itdoesnot.Theworldweseeinthenewsisawhichwomenare It isoftensaidthatnewsprovides amirror ontheworld. ButGMMP2005shows sources, presenters andreporters -were covered inthe2005GMMP. sented by14,273newspersonnel.Altogether39,944people-including is about.Thestorieswere reported and(inthecaseoftelevisionradio)pre- included 25,671newssources -personswhoare interviewedorwhomthenews stories were monitored ontelevision,radioandinnewspapers.Thesenewsitems countries submitteddatathatwere analysedandcompared. Intotal12,893news 1995. Theundertakingisimpressive inscaleandscope.In2005groups in76 thathaveunderlinedtheGMMP sinceitsinceptionin These are theconcerns events are portrayed.Equally, itmatterswhoisleftoutandwhatnotcovered. who andwhatisselectedtoappearinnewscoverage,howindividuals throughout theworld.Intoday's24-hournewsenvironment, itmattersprofoundly News isthemajorsource ofinformation,facts,ideasandopinionforpeople of whomakesthenews,inwhatcapacityandwithlevelauthority. and meninworld'snewsmedia.TheGMMPprovides aunique,globalanalysis five yearssince1995,hassystematicallymonitored therepresentation ofwomen studyistheGlobalMediaMonitoringProject (GMMP)which,every international inequality insociety. Inthefieldofgender, themostfar-reaching andsignificant of document thewaysinwhichmediareflect andperpetuatepatterns activities with'measurable'results. Yet quantitativedatacanreadily befoundto • • homemaker (75%)andstudent(51%). newsmakers outnumbermalesinonlytwooccupational categories- but ascelebrities(42%),royalty (33%)oras'ordinary people'.Female or as'ordinary' people.Women makethenewsnotasfigures ofauthority, When womendomakethenewsitisprimarilyas'stars' (celebrities,royalty) it isthemalevoice(64%ofnewssubjects)thatprevails. Even instoriesthataffect womenprofoundly, suchasgender-based violence, 20%. Yet theseare thetopicsthatdominatenewsagendainallcountries. 14% ofnewssubjectsare women;andineconomicbusinessnewsonly only outnumber menasnewsmakers.Instoriesonpoliticsandgovernment news agenda.There isnotasinglemajornewstopicinwhichwomen Women's pointsofvieware rarely heard inthetopicsthatdominate abysmal. Foreverywomanwhoappearsinthenews,there are fourmen. heard andseeninthenewswere women,thesituation in2005remains female. Thoughthere hasbeenanincrease since1995, when17%ofthose subjects -thepeoplewhoare interviewed,orwhomthenewsisabout-are Women are dramaticallyunder-represented inthenews.Only21%ofnews spokespersons. Bycontrast,womenappear inapersonalcapacity- as eye in thenewsisoverwhelmingly male.Menare 83%of experts,and86%of As authoritiesandexpertswomen barely feature innewsstories. Expertopinion of politiciansinthenewsare women. the highestproportion offemalepoliticiansintheworld (49%)-only13% share oftheseoccupations ishigher. Forinstance,inRwanda-whichhas such aslaw(18%),business(12%)andpolitics(12%). Inreality, women's As newsmakers,womenare under-represented inprofessional categories 15 46 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 47 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives DELIVERING THENEWS • • • • • • • • is theleastlikelytobereported bywomen,withjust21%offemalereporters. and radio(52%)storiesonpoverty, housing andwelfare (51%).Sportsnews Female reporters predominate inonlytwotopics-weatherreports ontelevision and 7%ofpresenters are female. both newspresenters andreporters. Bytheageof50,only17%reporters valued thanexperience.Uptotheageof34womenare inthemajorityas get older. Forwomenintheprofession, ayouthful appearanceismore highly On television,femalemediaprofessionals disappearfrom thescreen asthey of storieswrittenbyfemalereporters in2005. newspapers. Thepress lagsfarbehindtheelectronic media,withonly29% Female reporters havegainedmore ground inradioandtelevisionthan by women-from 28%in1995,to31%2000,reaching 37%in2005. There hasbeenasteadyincrease inthepercentage ofnewsitemsreported body isoftenusedtotitillate. employed fordramaticeffect. Innewspapersandontelevision,thefemale In storiesoncrime,violenceordisaster, pictures ofwomenare frequently Women are muchmore likely(23%)thanmen(16%)toappearinphotographs. than from herownautonomousbeing,thatawomandrawsauthority. primarily from theirrelationship toothers.Itisfrom theserelationships, rather and valuedasautonomousindividuals,women'sstatusisdeemedtoderive women donotescapethisidentificationwithfamily. Sowhilemenare perceived and soon.Eveninauthoritativefunctionssuchasspokespersonorexpert, daughter, motheretc.;only5%ofmenare describedashusband,son,father identified intermsoftheirfamilystatus:17%womenare describedaswife, Female newssubjectsare more thanthree timesaslikelymalestobe sexual violence,domesticculturalpractice-are givenlittlecoverage. both sexes-accidents,crime,war. Topics thatspecificallyinvolvewomen- News disproportionately focusesonfemalevictimsineventsthatactuallyaffect of femalenewssubjects,compared with8%ofmalesare portrayedinthisway. Women are more thantwiceaslikelymentobeportrayedvictims:19% nearly three-quarters (72%)offemalenewssubjectsare under50. male newssubjectsare aged50orover. Butolderwomenare almostinvisible: Men goonmakingnewswellintotheir50sand60s:nearlyhalf(49%)ofall For women,agehasacrucialbearingonwhethertheyappearinthenews. popular opinion(34%). witnesses (30%),givingpersonalviews(31%)orasrepresentatives of by women),orartsandentertainment (48%). assigned tostoriesthatare downrighttrivial-celebrity news(50%reported issometimes under-valued,journalists andwomenreporters are frequently as suchinthehierarchy ofnewvalues.Asaresult, theworkoffemale Although many'soft'newsstoriesare important,theyare notalwaysperceived 'soft' storiessuchassocialandlegalissues(40%reported bywomen). are more32% ofstories).Femalejournalists likelytoworkontheso-called (where womenreportnews spectrumsuchaspoliticsandgovernment only report attheso-called'hard'Overall, malejournalists or'serious'endofthe JOURNALISTIC PRACTICE NEWS CONTENT • • • • • • and thechoiceofimages- all thesehaveabearingonthemessagesthatemerge From thestoryangleandchoiceofinterviewquestions, totheuseoflanguage practice. Gender portrayalinthenews istheresult ofmanyaspects ofjournalistic editorial staff -bothfemale andmale. approach tonewsselection andproduction requires thecommitmentofall becausethedevelopment ofamore gendersensitive only zone'injournalism, gender (in)equality. Itisimportantthatthisshouldnotbeperceived asa'female- dowritestorieson A smallrayoflightcomesfrom thefactthatmalejournalists approach tothedefinition ofnewsandnewsworthiness. absence ofagenderangleinstoriesthe'hard' newstopicsreflects ablinkered the newsagenda-contentreflects maleprioritiesandperspectives.The sofewwomencentraltothenews -particularlyinstoriesthatdominate With do sofewwomenmakethenewsatall-andwhatcanbedonetochangethat? Irrespective ofwhoreports thenews,however, thefundamental questionis:why to becomemore genderbalancedinthefuture. ifthenewsis mustbeconcerned because bothfemaleandmalejournalists 53% ofsuchstories.Thisissomethingtobewelcomedandencouraged, stereotypes andhighlight(in)equality-theydo.In2005menreported male reporters alsohavearesponsibility toproduce storiesthatchallenge that highlightissuesofgender(in)equality, are reported bywomen.But almost half(47%)ofthestoriesthatchallengestereotypes, andofthestories report 37%ofallnewsstories.However,than mendo.Femalejournalists Women report proportionately journalists more storiesongenderequality absent from themajornewstopicsofpolitics(3%)andeconomy(1%); in theoveralloutput.Storieswithagenderequalityangleare almostcompletely rights, familyrelations, orwomen'sactivism-topicswhichare barely visible highlight equalityissues,andtheyare concentratedinareas suchashuman News ongender(in)equalityisalmostnon-existent.Only4%ofstories stereotypes), sports(12%)andartsentertainmentstories(11%); gender stereotypes inthenews:celebritynews(16%ofwhichreinforces gender stereotypes. Three topicscontributegreatly tothereinforcement of News storiesare twiceaslikelytoreinforce (6%)astochallenge(3%) stories thatare attheperipheryofnews; violence, where womenare centralin16%ofitems,womenare centralin issues, HIV-AIDS -womenseldomfeature centrally. Apartfrom crime and female newssubjectsisrelatively high-education,child-care, consumer - politics(8%),theeconomy(3%).Evenintopicswhere thepercentage of Women are rarely centralinstoriesthatcomprisethebulkofnewsagenda proportion ofthetotal; in thisregion onlyonestoryinfivefocusesonwomen-stillaverysmall to thenewsin20%ofstories(23%Canada,19%USA).Buteven North Americastandsapartfrom theotherregions: here womenare central Very littlenews-just10%ofallstoriesfocuses specificallyonwomen. (20%). (25%) thaninstoriesreported bymalejournalists There are more femalenewssubjectsinstoriesreported byfemalejournalists 48 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 49 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives LESSONS FROMTHEGMMP www.dfid.gov.uk/wp2006/default.asp Making Governance Work forthePoor.Making Governance 16 Eliminating World Poverty: Department for International Department forInternational Development, July 2006. • • • • in thenews.Qualitativeanalysisofstoriescovered inGMMP2005foundthat: thus to promote good governance anddevelopment, thus topromote goodgovernance toaccountonbehalfofcitizens,and to -evenrudimentarilyholdgovernments the world,thismirror hasaverylargeandenduringblackspot.Ifthemediaare it comestoreflecting women,women'sviewpointsandperspectiveson ing theimportanceofcertaingroups, whilepushingotherstothemargins.When of theworldprovided bythenewsislikeacircus mirror. Itdistortsreality, inflat- news. Ten yearsafterthefirstGMMP, thissituationhasbarely changed.The'mirror' barely present inthefacesseen,voicesheard, theopinionsrepresented inthe deficit inthenewsmediaglobally. Women -52%oftheworld'spopulationare The 2005GlobalMediaMonitoringProject demonstratesaglaringdemocratic within thestructures, priorities andpracticesofthemediathemselves. work willbeneededtoredress theprofound genderinequalitiesthatpersist fulfil itswatchdogrole on behalfofallcitizens?Before thatcanhappen,much long ashalftheworld'scitizensare somarginalinthemedia,howcanmedia Inprinciplethisislaudableideal.Butas bility andencouraginggoodgovernance. accounta- civil society-isfrequently invoked asameansofensuringgovernment watchdog role ofthemedia -sometimesonbehalfof,togetherwith, development.The underpinning theUK's2006WhitePaperoninternational Goals alsoencompassthisconcept(MDG8).Itisintegral tothephilosophy national developmentplanningandpolicy-making.The MillenniumDevelopment hasbecomealmostasinequanonofinter- Commitment to'goodgovernance' media definitionof‘citizens’isinseriousneedrevision. though rare, practice. are ahearteningglimpseofgendersensitive journalistic - the'glassceiling'inemployment,unequalaccesstoresources, andsoon- Storiesthatfocusdirectlyinterests onaspectsofgenderinequality andconcerns. and aboutmen-inrelation toattributes,areas ofexpertiseandcompetence, prevalent assumptionsaboutwomen ways. Suchnewsitemstendtooverturn Some storiesdochallengestereotypes orhighlightequalityissuesinunexpected to enrichsuchassportsreporting -wasonegiganticmissedopportunity. its differential impactonwomen,menandfamilies-theseare missedopportunities includes onlymalesources; astoryaboutnationalunemploymentthatignores differentiates betweenwomenandmen.Astoryaboutdivorce legislationthat News reports frequently misstheopportunitytoanalyseissuesinawaythat of maleorfemaleexperience; language andimages,bytheemphasisthatisplacedoncertainaspects the roles ofwomenandmen-assumptionsthatare hiddeninthechoiceof in asubtleway. Thesestoriesusuallyembodyunstatedassumptionsabout Many newsreports uselanguageandimagesthatreinforce genderstereotypes of stories-includingsport,crime,violence,andevenpolitics; are plentyofexamplesthis.Sexistreporting extendstoaverywiderange Nor isitlimitedtothegratuitousdisplayoffemaleflesh-althoughthere Blatant stereotyping isaliveandwellinnewsreporting around theworld. 18 it wouldseemthatthe Development Spectrum isaFoundationfor Access totheElectromagnetic ACCESS TOTHESPECTRUM:NEWRULESINPLAYGROUND dont havethegovernment’s called piratesbecausethey “Purbo andMahatoare “Purbo permission totransmit, Australian Broadcasting toRemoteAboriginal For anoverviewofrecent similarefforts across stolen anything.” but theyhaven’t 19 For newscoverage,seeTewary (2006). 20 (Warlpiri MediaAssociation,2003). The media, seeSlater&Tacchi (2004). Warlpiri MediaAssociation 18 17 For example,leadingtothe This quoteisfrom Michaels Communities Scheme later received alicense. (1994, p.98). media development, taking nonoticeofourletters." conceptual conditionsforaccess tothisresource -theelectromagnetic spectrum- garage dooropenerstoaircraft radar. Thetechnical,legal,even notionaland cellular phonestoradiotelescopes, militaryradiostowireless pacemakercontrols, Raghav FMinterminglewith thoseofotherstationsandservices,from of allpossibleelectromagnetic radiation:theplayground onwhichthewavesof their destinations.Theelectromagnetic spectrum(orjust radiation thatcarriestheirmessagesofnews,education, andentertainmentto access totheelectromagnetic spectrum.Thesetransmittersproduce invisible or asproducers ofcontent, firststepbackandwitnessthattheseefforts require and RaghavFM.Before considering thestatusoftheseprojects asbroadcasters However, muchhaschangedinthetwentyyearsbetween Warlpiri broadcasts producers. for development" enough toconceptualizetheseprojects asfallingwithinthecategoryof that wereallydidcomeandaskfor video camera.Asonecouncilmembersaidontape, Council traveled290kilometerstoconfront regional educationofficials witha In onememorablemomentfrom theearliestdays,entire Yuendumu School organization, tangibleeducationalreform andotherself-developmentassistance. tional programming, andparlayedlocally-controlled televisionexposure intopolitical produced local,independentnewsbroadcasts, aired indigenouslanguageeduca- the Warlpiri aboriginalnation. signal, anentirely 1,000 -ontheedgeofTanami desertinAustralia.Thewaveswere atelevision In 1985,unusualwavesbegantopropagate from Yuendumu township-population Christian Sandvig, songs. HIV andpolioprevention information,andamixofBhojpuri,Bollywood,devotional India witharelated agenda.RaghavFMbroadcasts brief,locally-produced news, Twenty yearslater, RaghavFMMansoorpur1beganillegallybroadcasting inBihar, popular, award-winning content. development agenda,andwere initiallyillegal. of ples 19 many things:bothwere locally-initiated,hadnooutsidesupport,a Both RaghavFMandtheWarlpiri MediaAssociationcouldbeseenasexam- "unauthorized, unfunded,uncommercial,andillegal" and todiscussthemasindependentbroadcasters ormedia University ofIllinoisatUrbana-Champaign 18 leading toalargerindigenousbroadcasting movementand 17 Over thenextyears,Warlpiri MediaAssociation h rjc a enaclbae ucs in The project hasbeenacelebratedsuccess these things,asthe 20 In the1980sand1990s,itwas "We wantthisvideotoprove "spectrum" education department is ) istherange effort of "media 50 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 51 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives POLITICAL CONTROLOFTHE SPECTRUM THE RADIOSPECTRUM ever-expanding, thiscouldeasilylead totheconclusionthatmore channelsare If theabovesuggeststhat humancapabilitytousethespectrumhasbeen that everyonecanhavetheirownradiostation. previously thought,butthat channelsmightnotbenecessaryatall.Itcould the mediaintoquestion.Itisnotjustthatmore channelsmaybeavailablethan less helpful,throwing long-held ideasabouttheorganizationofbroadcasting and change. Theoldtrickofdefiningachannelorpassage nowappearssuddenly ofthe21stcentury,At theturn thenotionofradio spectrumcontinuesto definition ofpassagesforcommunicationallowingmore capacity. VHF television(channels2-13)succeededbyUHF(14-83), witheachnew changed. Forinstance,inNorthAmericaAMradiowas succeededbyFMradio, waves hasdeveloped,sotoothedefinitionofradiospectrumcontinually began radiowitheffectively onechannel.Asknowledgeabout manipulatingthese different passagesbyfrequency wasnotwellunderstood,andGuglielmoMarconi reception. Atthedawnofthisknowledge,separatingradiotransmissionsinto always dependsontheavailableknowledgeandtechnologyoftransmission the impositionofhumanorder onthespectrum.Thedefinitionofausefulpassage channels ofthetelevisionandfrequencies ontheradio.Thesepassagesrepresent which wecantransmit-ineverydaylifemostpeopleknowthesepassagesasthe It hasbeenhelpfultoconceptuallydividetheradiospectrumintopassagesthrough can beusedhasexpandedwiththehumanabilitytomanipulatethem. by jargonthanothertechnologytopics.However, thenoun Discussion ofthespectrumisoff-putting becauseitisevenmore heavilycloaked significance formediadevelopmentprojects, andmaynowbeinflux. some countries.Thisandmanyotherrulesofthisplayground havegreat digital applications,andnewlawsallowingtransmissionwithoutalicensein have beenwhollytransformedsince1985becauseofplummetingcosts,new "radio spectrum"orthe the electromagnetic spectrumthatcanbeusedforcommunicationiscalled how todesign,deploy, andorganizetransmittersreceivers. Thatportionof for transmittingandreceiving waves,combinedwithpoliticaldecisionsabout Radio isasmuchakindofphysicalwaveittheresult ofthehumancapability solely physicalphenomena;theyare alsopoliticalandtechnicalphenomena. The keypointtobemadehere isthathumancommunicationsystemsare not no gapsinthisspectrumandawavecouldbeinfinitelylongorshort. as footballfieldsandplanetsontheother. Asaphysicalphenomenon,there are Waves aslongatomsoramoebasitononeend,compared towavesaslong organized bythelengthofwave(asinwavelength,shortwave,microwave etc.). The electromagnetic spectrumisarangeorganizedbyfrequency -inotherwords, spectrum refers tohistoricalseatingarrangementsintheFrench NationalAssembly). political spectrum" telephones andradiosare designedtosendandreceive. Theconceptof electromagnetic radiation-thestuff thatthefamiliarantennasofourcellular indicate arangeofideas.Thespectrumusedforcommunicationisthe indicates arange,asthephrase"thepoliticalspectrum"issometimesusedto is arangeorganizedbyopinion(the " useful spectrum," but thedefinitionofwhichwaves "left" "spectrum" and "right" simply "the of this NON-MONETARY RADIOANDDIGITAL CONVERGENCE Radio pirateStephenDuniferhasrecently stations across theUnitedStates,inHaiti, distributed atransmitterkitfor$300-700 that allowsanaudiobroadcast radius 21 These kitshavebeenusedfornew For areview, seeHorvitz(2005). 22 This phenomenonisglobal. between 5and15miles. and inChiapas,Mexico. Mansoorpur payfortheradio setthatreceives it(about $5). equipment forRaghavFMcosts1/5asmuchtheamount thatlistenersin communication onitshead.According toaBBCestimate,thetransmission thetypicalthinkingaboutcostsof"mass" than adeclineinprice:itturns to buildhistransmitterfrom partsworth50rupees(aboutUS$1).Thisismore mercial, RaghavFMwasalmost non-monetary. RaghavMahatofoundouthow dissemination ofknowledgeaboutit.WhiletheWarlpiri project wasnoncom- Raghav FM.Thefirstisthedramaticimprovement inwireless technologyandthe vened inthetwentyyearsbetweenfoundationof the Warlpiri project and A numberofnewdevelopmentsinbothtechnologyand regulation haveinter- communication capacitythatcouldmeanmanythings,dependingonpoliticaldecisions. determine thesechoices.In2006,nationsare againatthebrinkofanexpansionin Careful attentionneedstobepaidthepoliticalandinstitutionalsurroundings that generally, itwasapoliticaldecision. the manifestdestinyofspectrumexpansion,satellites,ornewtechnology promulgation ofSesameStreet farandwideacross theTanami desertwasnot why wouldchildren stillspeakKaytetyeandWarlpiri? Ofcoursetheplanned andwayoflifeAftertheintroductionlanguage, ofSesameStreet intoeveryhome, English-language televisionwasadangertothepreservation ofAboriginalculture, the Tanami desertviaanewsatellite,Aussat.Theintroduction ofmainstream and newcapacity. Theyactedjustinadvanceoftheintroduction ofTVsignalsacross When theWarlpiri beganbroadcasting in1985,theywere afraidofnewtechnology means thatmore capacitydoesnotnecessarilymeanmore voices. political andlimitingdissentcontrolling speechisoftenthegoal. scarcity isonlyonereason toimposelicensing.Licensing wasandisexpressly than citizens,somesystemofallocationwasrequired. However, thisrationaleof between different signals.Sinceitisobviousthatthere are farfewerchannels limitations ofearlyradiotechnologythatcouldnoteffectively distinguish scarcity ofchannels.Theintroduction ofchannelsservedinparttomeetthe licensinghasbeentheperceived is oldnews.Onerationaleforgovernment This kindofcontrol overspectrumanditsdangerforthefreedom ofinformation having apublicvoiceinrepressive regimes. new broadcasters, forinstanceblockingtheunpopularandsubversivefrom intervenes tocontrol mediaandcommunication.Thelicenselimitstheentryof permission, intheformofbroadcast license,isaprofound waythatthestate permissionisaxiomaticintheregulation ofcommunication.This government they were using.Therequirement thatthosewhowishtotransmitmustfirstobtain not havepermissionfrom totransmitonthefrequency theirrespective governments spectrum wasavailableforthem,theywere breaking thelawbecausetheydid began theirtransmissionsaspirates.Thatis,despitethefactthatcapacityin this conclusionshouldbeputoff. TheWarlpiri MediaAssociationandRaghavFM services. More channelsmustmeanmore voices,andthatmustbegood.However, could easeentryfornewbroadcasters andpromote pluralismincontentand necessarily aboontomediadevelopmentanddemocratization.More capacity the features and organization of radio technology at the turn ofthe 21stCentury the features andorganizationofradiotechnology attheturn While theWarlpiri stationwasastoryabout cheap,newtechnology(videotape), they havedeclineddramatically inpricewhileoffering newabilities. not limitedtoold-fashioned analogradio.Whilenewdigitalsystemsare notfree, 22 This fallincostsis 21 That 52 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 53 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives A FIRSTQUESTIONFORMEDIADEVELOPMENT 26 25 See see 24 see http://www.n-logue.com/ http://www.free2air.org/ Proenza (2005,p.19-20). http://www.sctdv.net/ 23 See Werbach (2003). and forareview, see London. together withwired telephonelinestoextendserviceartistsloftsin permission tooperate.Inthelate1990s, and generallyawealthofshort-rangeradiostationsthatdidnotrequire government exempt" bandgavetheworldcordless phones,garagedooropeners,babymonitors, ference whentwouserswantedthesamechannel.Thisunlicensedor"license- and ashortrangeobviatedtheneedforlicensingtoprevent collisionsandinter- out overmanychannelsanddidnotrequire alicensetotransmit.Newtechnology experiment, theUSFCCalloweduseofdevicesthatspread theirtransmissions passage orachannelinthespectrumnowseemstobelessnecessary. Ina1983 are nowfundamentallydifferent. Asalludedtoearlier, theoldtrickofdefininga of atransformedspectrum. communication overshortdistances.Itbecameademonstrationofthenewrules allowedcheap,high-speedcomputer-to-computerAround 2000,Wi-Fi came onthemarketandusedthisregulatory easementinthespectrum. pioneer OnnoPurbowrites, popular sentiment,butthis sortofsecurityisuncertain.AsIndonesianWi-Fi sources haveproven popular enoughtosustainandprotect illegalpirateswith permission inonly4-6%ofAfrica.Sometimesnewinformation government project islegaland doesnotrequireIn contrast,buildingyourown Wi-Fi advance with lawsthatallowfree access tothespectrumonlyinpartsofglobalnorth. produced newpossibilities forcommunicationsystems,thishasbeencoupled treasury. Whileresearch andinvestmentinadvancedwireless technologyhas spectrum asalucrativepursethatcanbeusedtoextract licensefeesforthe theworldoverare usedtoimaginingtelecommunicationsandthe Governments While theseupstartshavepotential,thefuture isnotyettheirstomake. on theirown.Thoseinterested inmediadevelopmentmustact. forward isnottowaitfor theseunstoppabletechnologicalpotentialstounfold of mediadevelopmentisthen:godigital.Buttolaunch theseservices,theway and related technologies.Insomeplaces,goodadviceforthe social entrepreneurs efficiently thaninthepast-manymore systemscan cheaplycoexistwithWi-Fi these newwireless systemshavetheprospect ofusing thespectrummuchmore telephone, one-to-manyorone-to-onecommunication.More fundamentally, providerswireless offer Internet videoconference, audioandvideocontent,email, radios tocomputershasalloweddistinctionsbetweenapplicationsdisappear: changes thepolicylandscapeformediadevelopmenttoday. Connectingcheap communication systemsthatdidnotservethemwell.Itisthismarriage these groups tosupplementanddisturb(ifnotusurp)themonolithicmedia The happymarriageofcomputerswithcheapwireless equipmenthasallowed that havenopowerortelephoneservice. accessonrural,mountainousIndianreservationsto provide high-speedInternet ’s Tribal usessolarandgasoline-generator-powered DigitalVillage Wi-Fi voices. new and startedbuildingcheapunlikelycommunicationsystemsthatpromote overquicklytookthisindoor, short-rangeequipmentouttotheirrooftops world ($5.74/month), and Internet horoscope matching($0.69for40pages). ($5.74/month), andInternet officials (US$0.23/each),Englishlessons or medicalqueriestogovernment kioskproject offering,rural Internet amongotherservices,agricultural,veterinary, 25 In India,wireless allowedn-loguetolaunchanambitious,sustainable 23 "we runthe[equipment]without anylicensefrom Media developmentactivistsandentrepreneurs the 24 "Wi-Fi" "Wi-Fi" Free2Air patches Wi-Fi networks Free2Air patchesWi-Fi wireless Internet technology wireless Internet 25

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Media, andTechnological Horizons.Minneapolis, Michaels, Eric.(1994).BadAboriginalArt:Tradition, European University:Budapest,Hungary. of activisminnewmediaenvironment.Central presented toRE:activism:Re-drawingtheboundaries Licensing, Convergence,andGlobalization.Paper Robert.(2005,October14).Media Horvitz, stolen anything. they don’t havethegovernment’s permissiontotransmit,buttheyhaven’t like theseneedencouragement.PurboandMahatoare calledpiratesbecause Onno Purbo’s networkorRaghavMahato’s JakartaWi-Fi Mansoorpoor1,projects celebrate thecommunicationofhealth,education,andpoliticalinformationon spectrum -accesswithoutafeeandadvancepermission.To truly developing countriesifthelawpermitsatleastsomeunlicensedaccessto to seizenewcapacitythrough digitalsystems.Thischanceisonlyopento television andradiostations,the2000shavepresented theworldwithachance questions aboutthemedia,andwhilespectrumpolicyisasimportanteverfor access tothespectrum?" tries, afirstquestionformediadevelopmentis, If mediaprojects promise tohelpalleviatesocialproblems indevelopingcoun- being jailed.” the government.Fortunately, theIndonesianmediahelpskeepusfrom 27 28 The politicsofspectrumhavealwaysunderpinned http://werbach.com/docs/RadioRevolution.pdf Accessed March11,2006. Paper. Washington, DC:NewAmericaFoundation. America Foundation/PublicKnowledgeWorking ANew Coming AgeofUnlicensedWireless." Werbach, Kevin.(2003). "RadioRevolution:The 15, 2006.http://www.warlpiri.com.au/pdf/bracs.pdf Communities Scheme(BRACS).AccessedonMarch Fire:TheBroadcastingtoRemoteAboriginal With Warlpiri MediaAssociation. (2003).FightingFire http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4735642.stm Accessed onMarch15,2006. DIY villageFMradiostation."BBCNews:SouthAsia. Tewary, 24)."Theamazing Amarnath.(2006,February United States.Chicago:Univ. ofChicagoPress. of thePolicyCommercialBroadcastingin Streeter, Thomas.(1996).SellingtheAir:ACritique ments/APCITY/UNPAN007779.pdf http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/docu- 15, 2006. Region AnalyticalReport#7779.AccessedMarch Administration andFinance(UNPAN) Asia&Pacific United NationsOnlineNetworkinPublic Review –InternetInfrastructureandInitiatives." Purbo, OnnoW. (2003)."AnIndonesianDigital " What aretheconditionsfor 54 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 55 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives Convention Perspective thatChallenges Development: AnEmpirical Media, Governanceand PRONOUNCEMENTS ARENOTENOUGH:THEPOWEROFDATA AND ANALYTICAL RIGOR “We theimportance suggest development andfreedoms development perspective.” from agovernanceand of viewingmedia and theireffect onthemedia,competitiveenvironment, andanumberof ment (forexample,freedom ofexpression), thelegalandregulatory environment structures. Similarly, assessmentsneedtobecarriedouton thepoliticalenviron- be collectedanddisclosedincluding accurateinformationonreal ownership widely publicized.Dataon the mediaindustryandatfirmlevelalsoneedto Muchofthisdataisavailable,buthasnotbeen media freedom andgovernance. comparableindicatorsof the developmentofcountry-levelandinternationally which canthenbeshared with clientsaround theworld.Thisincludes,forexample, are supportinginitiativesto collectandassessthecurrent stateofthemedia issuesaswell.We economic andfinancialdecisionsshouldapplytogovernance analysis andevidence-basedpolicy-makingthatwehave appliedtotraditional that militateforandagainstanopenmedia.We believethatthesamerigorous understand thestatusofpress freedom intheworldtoday, includingthefactors To makeaconvincingcaseanddevelopproperly designedinitiatives,weneedto andultimatelyeffective development. governance to informationanddevelopingafreer mediaasmajorcomponentsofgood upon request. Mostrecently, theBankhasfocusedonimportanceofaccess civil society, issueswith selectedcountries andworkingdirectly ongovernance officialsto diagnosecorruption,deliveringtrainingprograms and forgovernment raising awareness abouttheissue,conductingresearch, developinginstruments but thatthepoorwere mostaffected bytheseabuses. GraduallytheBankbegan were notonlysevere impedimentstotheeffective useofdevelopmentassistance, andcorruption By thelate1990sBankbecameaware thatpoorgovernance and strong institutions;andtheword for economicdevelopment.TheBankunderestimated theimportanceofgovernance management -reforms thataccording totheWashington Consensuswere essential purely economicissuessuchastradereform, privatization, orfinancialsector Until themid-1990s,World Bankbelievedthatitsmandatewaslimitedto Daniel Kaufmann , Director, GlobalPrograms,World BankInstitute " corruption" was notpartofourvocabulary. “A freepressisnot a luxurythatonly rich countries can afford.” initiatives exist;andmanyothers couldbecontemplatedinthefuture. field ofmedia.We suggestthatthisisnotthecase. In fact,anumberofongoing 10. freedoms whichrequire otherinitiativesandsupport. in generalterms,donotthemselvesguaranteemedia developmentandpress suggests thatelections,whileassociatedwithahigher degree ofpress freedom 9 . viability isessentialtoensure thatmediadevelopmentobjectivesare attained. objectives ofthemedia,itisalsoimportanttoviewas abusinesswhere financial it isimportanttorecognize someparticularcharacteristicsand(amongothers,social) its mandateandobjectives,thatitoughtnotbeviewed asan‘industry.’ Although 8. community radio,andsoforth). encouraged, aprocess thatcanbeaidedthrough new technologies(web,cell, This alsoapplieswithintheprivatesectorwhere more competitionshouldbe high levelsofownershipconcentrationare associatedwithlessmediaeffectiveness. is usuallyassociatedwithamore restricted andineffective media.More generally, rather beneficial.Theevidencesuggeststhecontrary:large-scalestateownership 7. restrictions), andoughtnotjustifyrestrictions onthetypeofownershipperse. they require rathernarrow andspecificareas ofcaution(ratherthanbroad Although there aboutconfidentialityandnationalsecurity, are legitimateconcerns media ownership,are oftenjustifiedonthegrounds of national securityconsiderations. 6. for instance,matterfullyasmuch. Information Acts,andthede-monopolizationoftelecommunicationsector, legal andregulatory frameworks,theeffective implementation ofFreedom of rules andregulations, buttheyare farfrom sufficient. Theapplicationofsuch absence ofpress freedom. Written lawsdomatterasthe‘dejure’ codificationof 5. enormously. is vastlyexaggerated.Thisnotthecase.Theevidenceindicatesthatitmatters 4. lessons, andhelpsinformfuture strategies. empirical analysisbasedonthisdataisimportant.Ityieldsevidence progress andmedia-related indicators,andthatthesolid madeongovernance unreliable andnotuseful.We challengethisnotionaswell,indicatingthe 3. only richcountriescanafford. to economicdevelopmentandgrowth. Infact,afree press isnotaluxurythat industrialization process andhigherincomes,ratherthanasacontributorinitself 2. development andfreedoms anddevelopmentperspective. from agovernance We reject thisview, andinsteadwesuggesttheimportanceofviewingmedia 1. a setoftenmyths(orpopularnotions)onpress freedoms, namely: open media.More specifically, ourevidence-basedapproach beginsbychallenging other factorsthathelpdeterminetheeffectiveness andviabilityofafree and Does holdingelectionsinacountryguaranteepress freedoms? Theevidence The mediaisnottobetreated asabusinessundertaking.Itissodistinctivein Significant stateownershipofthemedia,andsubsidiestoare often Broad press restrictions, includingOfficial Secrecy Acts,andlimitationstoprivate The writtenlaws‘onthebooks’are crucialdeterminantoftheexistenceor The Impactofpress restrictions oncorruption,poverty, and underdevelopment isscant,andthelimitedexistingdata Data onmediaandgovernance Press freedom shouldbeseenasanoutgrowth (orresult) ofacountry’s Freedom ofthepress oughttobeviewedfrom astrictlypoliticalperspective. The international community andtheWorld Bank candoverylittleinthe The international 56 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives 57 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 1: Why Media Matters: Global Perspectives please see:http://70.87.64.34/~intint/gfmd_info/pdf/GFMDoct05.pdf Kaufmann attheGlobalForumforMediaDevelopment,Amman,October2005, indicators,surveys,andexpertpolls-presentedaggregate byDaniel governance anddevelopment-including For thefullpresentation onmedia,governance partner countries,highlightingachievementsandactivelydiscouragingabuses. Finally, theBankhasbeencommentingpubliclyonmediadevelopmentsinour research andanalysisonmediadevelopmentratingsworldwideindicators. interference. Incollaborationwithotherorganizations,weare deepeningour competitive mediaandtelecommunicationsectors,withmore limitedstate such asMexico,andweare sharinggoodpolicypracticesforbuilding states, andincountriesimplementingfreedom andaccesstoinformationacts media management.We are alsoproviding supporttonascentmediainfragile and covered byotherinstitutions,suchasbusinessandeconomicjournalism To programs ontopicsnot helpdevelopmediacapacitieswedeliverlearning in povertyreduction strategies. efforts byincludingthemattheearlystagesofproject workincountriesand anticorruption,andpovertyalleviation important partnerinourgovernance, documents, anddecision-makingprocesses. We are treating themediaasan "practicing whattheypreach" Today theWorld Bankandotherdevelopmentdonoragenciesare In particular, the followingcanbehighlighted: by increasing publicaccesstoinformation, How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 59 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact Meeting theMDGs Role ofCommunicationsin Moving Media:TheCaseforthe Section 2:HowMediaMatters:MeasuringitsImpact building asreportafter when weseetheflowofnews official statementdescribea the wrongdirectionwhenit and officialstatementafter New strategiesareneeded. world generallyheadingin bewilderment aredoubled patterns needtochange.” Development investment comes to'achieving’the emerging fromtheUN “The frustrationand “The MDGs by2015. 3. 2. 1. This "case"hasthreecomponent parts: development communicationprofessionals globally. online networkthatnownumbersmore than58,000mediadevelopmentand from allovertheworldand [b]theviewsandopinionsfrom aninteractive, ences, strategicthinkingpieces,evaluationresults andotherrelevant themes Initiative onlineknowledgebaseofsummaries35,000 plusprogramme experi- case" havebeenprovided from both[a]thenowveryextensiveCommunication The followingargumentsandinformationuponwhich Idrawtomake"the and financingstrategiesaround theMDGs.Thesectorjusthastomakeitscase. agencyisframingtheirpolicy which weare walking:every majorinternational should notletthesectoroff thehook,however. TheMDGsare thelandscapeon and long–termgoalsembracepoliticalchange.Thisapparent disconnect communications: thelatteremphasiselocalagendasandcontexts,socialcomplexity present amismatchwiththeprocesses underlyingmediadevelopmentandstrategic decided, universalandtechnical,time-boundnon-political,forinstance–which The taskismademore complexbythenature ofthe MDGsthemselves-centrally targetsembodiedintheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs). of international sector encountersfurtherdifficulty inpresenting its caseforrelevance totheset line question:whatimpactdoesthesectorhaveonpeoplelivinginpoverty?The and communicationsfordevelopmentsectorrelates toansweringasinglebottom One ofthebiggestchallengesthatfacesprofessionals inthemediadevelopment The CommunicationInitiative Warren Feek The Methodologies thatunderpintheway theCommunicationInitiative works The Datafrom research andevaluations The Historyofthemajorsocial forces thathaveshaped thisworld , Executive Director, THE BIGCHANGES A "DDDAAAH"QUESTION “Whether welikeitornot “Whether measurable impactdata strongly webelievethat srqie.Anddata is required. that isrelevanttothe - andnomatterhow particularly needed.” what wedoworks- MDG targetsis course ofwhichheisasked Let’s imaginehavingachatwithMartinLutherKingJr, theCivilRightsleader, inthe needtochange. Development investmentspatterns when itcomesto‘achieving’-theMDGsby2015.Newstrategiesare needed. official statementdescribeaworldgenerallyheadinginthewrong direction emerging from theUNbuildingasreport afterreport andofficial statementafter The frustrationandbewildermentare doubledwhenweseetheflowofnews That response goessomethinglikethis: daughter givesmewhenIaskherwhatisinopinionaverystupidquestion. In myviewthisquestionqualifiesforthekindofresponse thatmy13yearold media -andotherformsofcommunicationhaveimpact?" technical expertsinotherfieldsandpolicymakersask effect onthecore developmentchallengesthatthisworldfaces.Manyfunders, we are challengedtoprove thatmediainterventionsandstrategieshaveadirect Like manypractitionersIamoftenfrustratedandbewildered byhowmanytimes more compellinganswerthanany media -intheIndianIndependencemovement.Thatsilencewouldprovide a small andlargemedia-publicprivateinformingmobilising as heconsidersthebestwaytorespond giventhevitalrole oftheIndianmedia- asked whetherthemediahaveimpact?Perhapsthistimethere issimplesilence about movingondowntheroad andchattingwithMahatmaGandhi.Heis So, ifallyougetfrom Martinisanadmittedlydreamy movement changedthisworldinverysignificantways. substantial partofwhichischanneledthrough themedia.Andcivilrights public argument:information,debate,ideas,dialogue,analysisandconvictions,a build orculturallyrelevant newtechnologysystemstointroduce. Justprivateand grand economicplantochangethediscriminatoryworld.Noequitydams change prejudiced socialnorms.Nofoodsupplementstoalterethicalstates. a strategywaspublicandprivatemediacommunication.Novaccinesto Just abouttheonlythingCivilRightsmovementhadgoingforitintermsof "daahhh"but response wouldNOT be itwouldbeanequivalentexpression. his sure am in somecountries, etc… company leadersonwhatthe anti-tobaccomovementhasdonetosmokingrates on anti-apartheidaction,indigenous communityleadersonlandrights,tobacco There are manyothersyou couldtalktoaswetravelthisroad: NelsonMandela essence shewouldmean"Daahhh!" question alongthelinesof: almost alwaysthrough amedia form.Iamsure thatEmilywouldrespond toour columns, highlightingprinciplesandcommunicatingtheir visionandideas- needed forpublicdebateandprivatedialogueonthese issuesbywriting They stagedeventsthatdemandedmediacoverage. created thespace Women didnotgetthevotethatisrightfullytheirsbyholding dinnerparties. shift tookplace.Themediawere centrallyinvolvedinthatshift. vote insomecountries.Butthefirst50yearsof 20th centuryaseismic was aleaderoftheWomen’s Suffragette movement.Manywomenstillcannot You moveontoaspiritualneighbourofMartin andMahatma:EmilyPankhurst " Hey, Martin,doyouthinkthatthemediahasimpact?" "Oh mydear…letmetellyouexperience"butin "daaahhh’ "Dddaahhh!" from anyteenager. "daahh" "Can youprovethatthe equivalent, how I 60 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 61 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MDG 3 MDG 2 MDG 1 NOW THAT THECASEISMADE N h 2 h t e : Gender : Education : Poverty P t t w o p t p : w s / : p / World BankInstitute-December2003 / e w a / by RitvaReinikkaandJakobSvensson r w p

see summaryandlinkstooriginalat w o e w Theory andEvidencefrom Indiaby Timothy BesleyandRobinBurgess Timothy f w r

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there isapersistent andfrequentlystrong associationbetweenexposure tothe protecting vulnerablecitizens". was that"Stateswithhigherlevelsofmediadevelopmentare more activein distribution anda5.5%increase incalamityrelief expenditures. Theirsummary in newspapercirculation isassociatedwitha2.4%increase inpublicfood responses.between newspapercirculation A1%increase levelsandgovernment States. Theirresearch reveals strong, significant,andpositivecorrelations relief related tothemostvulnerablepeopleandpopulationsinselectedIndian expenditures ondisaster the publicdistributionoffoodandstategovernment basic ofdevelopmentissues,hungerandfoodsecurity. InIndiatheylookedat A group ofLondonSchoolEconomicseconomistswere interested inthatmost that isrelevant totheMDGtargetsisparticularlyneeded. believe thatwhatwedoworks–measurableimpactdataisrequired. Anddata changes havebeen.Whetherwelikeitornot–andnomatterhowstrongly we not thehistoricalprecedents –nomatterhowcompellingandmajorthose What thefundersandpolicymakersappeartosaytheyneedisdetaileddata probably sayifyouaskedfordirections: Ahhh –no!AstheNewZealandbackcountryfarmerinmynativelandwould policy developmentandmonitoring? media andcommunicationperspectivebecomeanintegralcentralpartof will nowflowformediadevelopmentandcommunication?The So, thecaseismade!There isnoneedtogoanyfurther. Bigincreases infunding The ExecutiveSummaryof their paperstates: socio-economic status;age; rural-urbanandsoon. they controlled forthevariablesthatcoulddistortsuch findings:incomelevels; data asthebasisforanalysis. Inassessingthedataandmakinganalysis mass mediahadonpeople'sreproductive healthchoicesinAfrica,usingDHSS equally eminentcolleagueAkinrola Bankole,lookedattheimpactthataccessing Charles Westoff isaleadingdemographeratPrincetonUniversity. Heandhis Increased publicaccessto information (…)reduce[s] (…)corruptionofpublicfunds. effective education–acrucial componentindevelopment. dollars gottotheschools.Theresources are dramaticallyimproved formore initiative theonlymajorvariable,situationhadbeenreversed: 80%ofthe schools. 80%ofthosedollarsjustwandered away. By2001,withthenewspaper were striking:In1995only20%,onaverage,ofthefundsallocatedgottothose education –notintootherpeople’s handsthrough corruptpractices.Theresults toschoolsgotthoseforthepurposeof allocated bygovernment handling ofalargeschool-grantprogram -toensure thatthemoneywas newspaper campaigntoboostschools'andparents' abilitytomonitorlocalofficials' The World Bank’s PolicyResearch initiated Group assessedaUgandangovernment 1 "If Iwereyouwouldnotstartfromhere!" " The generalconclusion(…) isthat 2 In summary: MDG 5 MDG 4 the 1990Philippineexperience.WHOBulletin h h Hernandez, J.R.,deGuzman,E.,Dayrit,M., Hernandez, : Maternal Mortality : Maternal : ChildMortality Analytical Reports;byCharlesWestoff and t t by Zimicki, S., Hornik, R.C.,Verzosa,by Zimicki,S.,Hornik, C.C., t t p p h Demographic andHealthSurveys[DHS] : : / / / t / / t t w w 4 p t DMS. Vol. 72,1994.Pages409-419 h i I : w w 3 n m / i / n M

w w w p u k r a Fausto, A.,Lee,M.B.,Abad,M r i . . w n o b c c s 5 o o c s g v a w T o

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such skilled support significantly reduces maternal mortality.such skilledsupport significantlyreduces maternal intervention wasimplemented. We knowfrom manystudiesthatthepresence of under 20%atthestartof project to77%intheyearaftercommunication Assisted birthsbyprofessional healthworkersinthe project area increased from sensitive issue.Andtheresult mortality? related tomaternal domestic communicationbetweenhusbandsandwives onaveryculturally seeking behaviorduringpregnancy. Allindicatorsshowedsignificantlyincreased cation betweenhusbandsandwivesregarding pregnancy andtoimprove health- mortalityissues.Thegoalwastoincreaseclothing toaddress communi- maternal local mediaresources includingsongs,singer/storytellers(griots)andtraditional role -theamountoftheseincreases thatwere attributedtothemediawas0.54. of thecampaignhadtheirchildren vaccinated.Theyevenquantifiedthemedia had theirchildren immunised;42%ofmotherswhodidnothavetheknowledge 1989 and1990byafactorof0.77.64%motherswhoknewthecampaign under 2yearsreceived increased from 4.32to5.10.Coverageincreased between time jumpedfrom 32.2%to56.2%.Theaveragenumberofvaccinationsthatachild started ontimeincreased from 43.3%to55.6%andthenumberthatfinishedon increased from 54%to65%.Theproportion ofchildren whosevaccinationswere that campaign" assessed thatmediacampaign.Theyconcluded in supportofroutine vaccinationservices.AWHOcross-disciplinary research team the PhilippinesDepartmentofHealthconductedanationalmass-mediacampaign Reducing childmortalityisaveryimportantMillenniumDevelopmentGoal.In1990 an initiativeinMalicalled significantly achieve.Researchers attheBASICSproject investigatedtheimpactof mortalityisavitalissuethat isproving extremelyReducing maternal difficult to and intentiontostopchildbearingthatencouragessuchchange. contraceptionuse,fewerchildren horizons thattransfersto,inthiscase,modern of information.Itisthewaythatmediaopensupoverallpossibilitiesand to haveasignificanteffect. Itisnotnecessarytohearaspecificmessageorpiece What isinteresting isthatjustaccessingthemedia,inparticularradio,enough exposure toanymedia. regular exposure totwoofthosemedia,5.7foronetheand6.3no desire ameannumberofchildren of3.7;compared with4.2forwomenhaving Burkina Faso:Allwomenregularly exposedtoradio,televisionandprintmedia those mediaand7percentexposedtonomedia. and TVare currently usingcontraceptioncompared with9%exposedtooneof Zambia: 15%ofmarriedwomenwithnoeducationregularly exposedtoradio Some examplesofthedataproduced: both marriedandsingle" at marriage.Theseconclusionscanbegenerallyappliedtowomenandmen, addition, thereisevidencethatmediaexposurealsoassociatedwithlaterage the future,preferencesforfewerchildrenandintentiontostopchildbearing.In greater knowledgeanduseofcontraception,intentiontocontraceptionin mass mediaandreproductivebehaviourinAfricatheexpecteddirection;(…) the proportion offullyvaccinatedchildren ofages12-23 months [para 4ofExecutiveSummary]. "The GreenPendelu" which usesindigenouscultural, "significantly attributableto 5 3 4 62 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 63 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MDG 7 MDG 6: h Rand L. Stoneburner HealthandPopulation Rand L.Stoneburner Is UgandaUnique?byDanielLow-Beerand t : Environment t Evaluation UnitandCambridgeUniversity p HIV/AIDS : / / w w 6 B w e . h c h o a Health, CambridgeUniversity, t m v UK, 2004–seeSummaryat t s i p o t C m o see SummaryandLinksat 7 2 : u h / u S i 0 / r n a o l w 0

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circumstances andcontexts-includingtheveryimportantmediaresponse? extensive supportforcommunitiestodowhattheyknowworksbestintheir partners by65%.Onthebasisofsuchevidence,whyisthere notmuchmore from 21%to9.8%from 1991-98andthere wasareduction innon-regular sexual initiated Ugandancommunicationresponse. InUganda,HIVprevalence declined The media–nationaltolocal-were, ofcourse,acrucialpartthatlocally other situationswhere HIVhasdeclined:ThailandandtheUSGaycommunity. The authorsidentifiedsimilarhigherlevelsofcommunicationaboutHIV/AIDSin people withAIDSthrough socialnetworksinUganda,unlikethecomparisoncountries. for peoplewithAIDS.There were greater levelsofcommunicationaboutAIDSand response, initiatedatcommunitylevel,toavoidrisk,reduce riskbehavioursandcare found evidenceofabasicpopulationlevel,earlybehaviourandcommunication As anexplanationofwhyUgandadidsomuchbetterthanothercountries,they publication managedtoidentifywhattheprincipleforsuccesswas. efforts onHIV/AIDSthatproved somewhatsuccessful.ACambridgeUniversity more extensivelythanatpresent thestrategicprinciplesthatguidedearly continue onthecurrent trajectory. Onethingwecandoistoincorporatemuch widely availablevaccine.Bythenwhoknowswhatsituationwewillbeinif What doweaboutHIV/AIDS?Itwillbe20yearsbefore there isaneffective to promote the useofcommunalwaste dumpsandlatrinesby, forexample,the The GhanaUpperRegionWater SupplyProject had repeatedly (URWSP) attempted big environmental issuesletslookatsomebasic,local environmental concerns. communication process integraltotheoverallstrategy. Rather thanlookatthe So, itisinstructivetolookat whathappenswhenthere isnomediaand is justanotherboat. issues. Itisundeniablethatwithoutthemedia,Greenpeace’s RainbowWarrior communication whentheyhavetojustifytheimpactof the mediaonenvironmental What astrangefeelingitmustbeforthosepeopleinvolved inenvironmental watch SoulCity, reported thatthey alwaysusedcondoms. condoms. Incomparison,26%ofthosewhowatchtelevision, butdidnot Thirty-eight percent ofthosewhowatchSoulCitytelevisionalotalwaysused exposed toSoulCitywere alsomore likelytosaythey alwaysusecondoms. medium and28%withlowSoulCityexposure. Young respondents (16-24) Soul CityTVexposure saidtheyalwaysusecondoms,compared to31%with The evaluationfoundthatthirty-twopercent ofAfricanrespondents withhigh advisorypanel. - SoulCity4wasguidedbyaninternational priority onthorough andwellresourced evaluation.Thelargestofthoseevaluations of theSoulCityinitiativeinSouthAfrica.hasalwaysplacedahigh A verygoodexampleofpartnerresearch isthevery extensiveanddeepevaluation FAO, CalandriainPeru,ANDI–theChildRightsNewsAgencyBrazil. Programs, BBCWorld ServiceTrust, Africa, Exchange,MediaInstituteofSouthern HIV/AIDs. TheseincludeJohnsHopkinsUniversityCenterforCommunication research ontheimpactofmediadevelopment/developmentcommunication There are manyCommunicationInitiativePartnerorganisations thatdoexcellent 7 6 STRATEGIC ANDPROGRAMMATIC ACTIONFOREFFECTIVEINTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT MDG 8 h t h : Governance t t p t : Project Planning Centre DiscussionPaper p University ofBradford Developmentand / : / / w / / w w H w w y 8 g v w G W . c a i o e . o l c a Series 2No.20,byS.Kendie, 2 v n F m o t 0 e a e e World BankPolicyResearch m for SummaryandLinkssee i m r 0 c : r d see SummaryandLinksat

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address, and harness thevitallyimportantfactors ofleadership,community,address, andharness and theimportantdiverse waysinwhichthosevariedcultures understand, CULTURE: bearing theheaviestburden ofpovertyandrelated issues. edge andinformationgenerated withinthecommunitiesandcountriesthatare including, forimproved relevance andotherreasons, ahigherpriorityonknowl- KNOWLEDGE contribution ofthosemostaffected bypovertyandotherdevelopmentissues. VOICE Below areeightkeyareas: effective povertyreduction strategy(PRS)programmes. and mediaare required ingreater scaletoachieve theMDGsandtoimplement and quantify. Italsoneedstoidentifywhich ofthecore elementsofcommunications move beyondtheideathateffect ofcommunicationsisimpossibletomeasure exists, therefore. Thepractitionersectoranddonorcommunity alikeneedthento The datalinkinginvestmentsincommunicationstoimpactontheMDGagenda Islam's analysisalsoshowedthat Of coursethemediaisaprimevehicleforbettersharingofsuchdataandinformation. Just givingbetterdatatopeople",shesummarises, significant andpositivecorrelation betweentransparency andimproved governance". "information givespowertomonitorandmakegoodchoices"; Using twokindsofindicators,RoumeenIslamfrom theInstitutefoundthat worldwide. between informationflowsandgovernance, Economic ManagementDivisionatTheWorld BankInstitute,explored thelink A World BankPolicyResearch Paper, produced bythePovertyReductionand for freedom ofspeechandfreely availableinformation, andtransparency. better.better informationflowsalsogovern Themediaare maybethekeyactors nance orinstitutionalqualityinIslam’s paper. Itdemonstratesthatcountrieswith There isfurtherexplorationofthelinkbetweeninformationflowsandgover- of(...)making thisdatawidelyavailableispolicyadvicethatcanboosteconomicgrowth. markets boostsgrowth",whichsuggeststhat"advisingcountriesontheimportance dynamics appeartohavebeenjustplainignored. nications strategymeantthatissuesliketraditionaluseandfamilyhousehold quality andplacementof University ofBradford. WhilsttheGhanaWater Supplyproject focusedonthe from theCenterforDevelopmentStudiesinGhana,apaperpublishedbyThe and importantquestionswere simplynotasked.Thiswashighlightedbyresearchers The absenceofamediaandcommunicationstrategymeantthatsomeverybasic of mediaandcommunicationprocess. technical project, withanapparently simplesolution.Butthere waslittlebyway this project didnotimprove. Theproject beganandcontinuedasatop-down and hygienenorms,expectationsbehavioursinthecommunitiestargetedby subsidised provision ofsquattingslabs.Theseattempts"failed". Inthatsanitation : Increased spaceforandattention tothevoice,perspective,andcentral Improved waystoengagetherichculturaldiversityacross theglobe : Widened andexpandedknowledge informationsharing Widened "squatting slabs" " better decision-makingineconomicandpolitical the absenceofamediaandcommu- 8 "can helpcountriesdobetter." thus, there is"a 9 " 64 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 65 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact A TROVEOFPROVENEXPERIENCEANDMETHODOLOGIESTOBEAPPLIEDAT SCALE DEBATE countries. behaviour, andinclusioninorder toimprove theirfamilies, communitiesand LEGISLATION most affected bypovertyandotherdevelopmentissues. that increase thesubstantiveintegrationofviewsandperspectivesthose POLICY local context. national,and the issuesthatare ofpriorityimportanceineachinternational, BEHAVIOUR andATTITUDES and voices. pluralistic communicationenvironment with spaceforafullrangeoforganisations development community. Ensuring thatthisshiftoccursisthemosturgentchallengefacinginternational in development,andmainstream itacross theworkingsofalldevelopmentagencies. from itscurrent marginalstatustheuseofstrategic communicationsandmedia developmentthatwouldraise decision-makers inlocal,nationalandinternational For thistohappenatthescalerequired calls,however, foramajorshiftfrom by theMDGs. developmentissuescoveredto addressing povertyandtotheotherinternational necessary experienceandknowledgetoolsisready tomakeitscontribution The caseismade,Ibelieve.Furthermore, acommunityofprofessionals withthe guide theimplementationofinitiativesinformedbystrategiesoutlinedabove. and ishostingagrowing richsetofplanningmodelsthatcansystematically pieces ofstrategicthinking,gathered over75individualandsocialchangetheories, drawn from Ithasassembledover200 on-the-ground experienceandlearning. agencies? TheCommunicationInitiativehassummarisedover35,000experiences apply increased investmentsintheseareas bythedecision-makersindevelopment Does thepractitionersectorpossesscapacityandmethodologytosuccessfully and socialdimensionsofdevelopment. DATA action onthedevelopmentissuesofconcern. behaviours ofbothpeopleaffected anddecisionmakersinorder toaccelerate : Improved collection,sharing,andutilisingofdatarelated tothehuman : : More open,participative,andinclusiveprocesses ofpolicydevelopment Significantly expandedpublicandprivatedebatedialogueon : More effective legislation,includingonmedia,supportinga : Expanded focusonaddressing therelevant Development Good GovernanceandHuman Promoting Democratization, The RoleoftheFreePressin r Toward and anormativemodelofjournalism e s For a discussion of how alternative theories For adiscussionofhowalternative 11 p have evolvedinthenormativedebatesee For abibliographicguidetotheliterature o national development.’Communication n 10 Clement E.Asante.Press Freedom and meeting onWorld Press Freedom Day: s Paper originallypresented atUNESCO p i h v h on themediaanddevelopmentsee Westport, Conn:Greenwood Press. t M e Theory. 6(2);DenisMcQuail. 2001. marginalization andemancipation: p t Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet. T Media, Development,andPoverty n p - e O e U Development: AResearch Guide Political CommunicationTheory. Eradication, Colombo,SriLanka : P H. Shah. 1996. ‘Modernization, H. Shah.1996.‘Modernization, d For fullsetoftechnicalannexes / s T. Besley andR.Burgess.2001. P R / o i 13 s I a p L

C l D D Goran Hyden,MichaelLeslie i a

o _ European EconomicReview. t & a e e n I i r D and SelectedBibliography. n c U t v v New York: AnchorBooks. New York: AnchorBooks; d a a d = e e R

to thisstudypleasesee: l l t

2

l l . L and FoluF. Ogundimu. D h o o a u 12 1 _ 14 g e p p e n 8 S Amartya Sen.1999. Amartya Sen.1999.

e m m m e 9 E r n o s 9 C 45(4-6): 629-640. o e e c c l & T n n c e o y r I U 1-2 May2006. t t ,

. O London: Sage. a

o

o g R a a c f N r o s s y L

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Eds. 2002. F F / h i 2 D e c n r r e 0 i e e r O

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public debate,andhighlightingsocialproblems toinformthepolicyagenda. in theirwatch-dogroles, as wellasproviding acivicforumformultiplevoicesin stations facilitategreater byserving transparency andaccountabilityingovernance, strengthened inindependentnewspapers,radioandtelevision where journalists the secondstagedemocraticconsolidationandhuman developmentare andmobiletelephones.Oncemedialiberalization hascommenced,in Internet and TVchannels,aswellthediffusion ofnewtechnologiessuchasthe to awidervarietyofculturalproducts andideasthrough accesstomultipleradio control ofinformation.Thepublictherebygovernment receives greater exposure media toprivateownership,diffuses access,andreduces official censorshipand stage, theinitialtransitionfrom autocracyopensupthestatecontrol ofthe zation isthoughttobereciprocal (seeFigure 1).Thecore claimisthat,inthefirst relationship betweenthegrowth ofthefree press andtheprocess ofdemocrati- Human Rights,andtheAfricanCharteronPeoples'Rights.Thepositive 1948, theEuropean ConventiononHumanRights,theAmerican human rightintheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsadoptedbyUN The guaranteeoffreedom ofexpression andinformation isrecognized asabasic are theconsequencesforhumandevelopmentandalleviationofpoverty. and what extent free andindependentmediadoescontributetogoodgovernance paper willexplore howandtowhatextendtheaboveisindeedtrue, and channelofpoliticalexpression foramultiplicityofgroups andinterests. toallcitizens,andproviding apluralistplatform accountability ofgovernments expression, thoughtandconscience,strengthening theresponsiveness and process ofdemocratizationbycontributingtowards therightoffreedom of an unfettered andindependentpress withineachnation isessentialinthe through LockeandMadisontoJohnStuartMillhavearguedthattheexistenceof and humandevelopment? What istherole ofthefree press democracy instrengthening goodgovernance, Director, DemocraticGovernanceGroup,UNDP University; John FKennedySchoolofGovernment,Harvard Pippa Norris economic needs. enhances thevoiceofpoor peopleandgeneratesmore informedchoicesabout Thefreeencouraging responsiveness press, topublicconcerns. Sensuggests, inlow-incomecountriesby development outcomesand goodgovernance Amartya Sen’s argumentthatpoliticalfreedoms are linkedtoimproved economic process isalsovitalforhuman development.Thisperspectiveisexemplifiedby for democracy, amatterwidelyacknowledged,butthefinalclaim isthatthis Through thisprocess, manyobserversemphasizethatafree press isnotjustvaluable the absolutecore ofequitabledevelopment, becauseifyoucannot enfranchise the president oftheWorld Bank: 10 , McGuire LecturerinComparativePolitics, 14 James D.Wolfenson echoedthesesentimentswhen he was 11 A longtraditionofliberaltheoristsfrom Milton A freepressisnotaluxury. Afreepressisat 12 13 This 66 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact “A free press is not a luxury. poor people, if they do not have a right to expression, if there is no searchlight on corruption and inequitable practices, you cannot build the public consensus A free press is at the absolute needed to bring about change.” 15 core of equitable development, More liberal media landscapes are therefore widely regarded as strengthening because if you cannot democratization and good governance directly, as well as human development indirectly. These claims are commonly heard among popular commentators, donor enfranchise poor people, agencies, and the international community. But what systematic evidence supports if they do not have a right these contentions? Despite historical case-studies focusing on the role of the press in specific countries and regions, it is somewhat surprising that relatively little to expression, if there is no comparative research has explored the systematic linkages in this process. Much searchlight on corruption existing research has also focused on assessing the impact of media access, such as the diffusion of newspaper readership or television viewership, rather than press and inequitable practices, freedom. To explore these issues, Part I presents the analytical framework, develops you cannot build the public the core testable propositions, and summarizes the previous research literature on the topic. Part II outlines the comparative framework, evidence, and research design. consensus needed to This study utilizes a large-N cross-sectional comparison to analyze the impact of bring about change“ press freedom on multiple indicators of democracy and good governance. Freedom House provides the principle measure of Press Freedom, with annual data available James D. Wolfenson, former from 1992 to 2005. This indicator is strongly correlated with the independently President of the World Bank developed Press Freedom Index created by Reporter’s Without Borders, increasing confidence in the reliability of the Freedom House measure. Part III describes the distribution of press freedom and regional trends. Part IV analyzes the impact of this pattern. The regression models control for many factors commonly associated with processes of democratization and good governance, including levels of eco- nomic development, colonial origins, population size, and regional effects. The 15 James D. Wolfenson. 1999. results presented confirm that the free press does matter for good governance, ‘Voices of the Poor.’ and it is integral to the process of democratization. The Conclusion summarizes Washington Post, 10 November 1999, A39. the key findings and considers their consequences for strengthening development.

THE ROLES OF THE NEWSMEDIA AS WATCH-DOG, CIVIC FORUM, AND AGENDA-SETTER

16 For the classics in this account see In the late 1950s and early 1960s, early modernization theories assumed a fairly Daniel Lerner. 1958. The Passing of Traditional Society. simple and unproblematic relationship between the spread of access to modern Glencoe, Il: The Free Press; forms of mass communications, economic development, and the process of Lucian W. Pye. 1963. Communications and Political Development. democratization. Accounts offered by Lerner, Lipset, Pye, Cutright and others, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; suggested that the diffusion of mass communications represented one sequential Seymour Martin Lipset. 1959. ‘Some social prerequisites of democracy: step in the development process. In this view, urbanization and the spread of Economic development & political legitimacy.’ literacy lead to growing access to modern technologies such as telephones, American Political Science Review 53: 69-105; Donald J.McCrone and Charles F. Cnudde. 1967. newspapers, radios and television, all of which laid the basis for an informed 16 Toward a communication theory of democratic citizenry able to participate effectively in political affairs. Hence, based on a political development: A Causal model. MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MEDIA MATTERS American Political Science Review 61(1): 72-79. strong connection between the spread of communications and political development, 67 THE ROLEOFJOURNALISTSASWATCHDOGS OFTHEPOWERFUL older literature andheateddebatesaboutthe Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Endowment forInternational Carnegie ‘Bloodhounds orMissionaries:RoleDefinitions 27 Reports andPapersonMassCommunication, Oklahoma: TheUniversityofOklahomaPress. F C Global PolicyProgram No21Washington DC: P ’Censor Dot Gov: The Internet &Press Freedom.’’Censor DotGov:TheInternet f Annabelle Sreberny Mohammadietal.1984. Annabelle Sreberny o ‘The effect ofdemocracyandpress freedom role ofthemediaindevelopmentthatarose r r See ShanthiKalathil&Taylor C.Boas.2001. r Minneapolis, UniversityofMinnesotaPress. 20 o e i r t H e s m See Pippa Norris. 2000. A Virtuous Circle.See PippaNorris.2000.AVirtuous i ‘A free press isbadnewsforcorruption.’ c William Preston, EdwardsWilliam S.Hermanand E s o i 19 Ames, Iowa:IowaStateUniversityPress; I R g Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress. a

h J

u n p a A o For adiscussionofthecriticisms See alsoLouisEdward Inglehart.1998. l e n t International FederationofJournalists. International r 26 t

21 e n u t F T n p S o e ‘Political andmedialiberalization

See, forexample,casesdocumented p

T N d C o George A. Donohue, Philip Tichenor George A.Donohue,PhilipTichenor 23 h r t r t o p a and the International Press Institute and theInternational h : u n i

n r u e e n 'A Critical Analysis of International 'A CriticalAnalysisofInternational / r A. BrunettiandB.Weder B.2003. e of German and British Journalists.’ of GermanandBritishJournalists.’ q S e e d a / in thelate1970sandearly1980s The World Press Freedom Council t a w b Washington DC:Freedom House.

Reston, VA: World Press Freedom a d A p ‘A Guard DogPerspectiveonthe u on corruption:anempiricaltest.’ w P i i

Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. l i t Donald LewisShaw(eds).1984. n a g Glencoe, Il:TheFree Press p.60. n I

e

e P i s a i u n F o t

o w g n P

s

r e and theHumanRightsWatch. political corruptioninTaiwan.’ s a y t G o J t J i f

e r n

s h n c o e o n i

w i N h w e l 18 24 l s n i h u P a n l see HamidMowlana.1985. o

r o u u n by theIndexonCensorship d Leonard R.Sussman.2000. s y s t t E e u

Samuel Huntington.1993. l Leonard R.Sussman.2001. .

n n

w r t b s

r r h g M

i

F : T c w F i n p b F t

t e

n n a r t w e

o T w F h i r l C o d : t l a e a Robert L.Stevensonand a a l h s o Herbert I.Schiller. 1989. l S.K. Chowdhury. 2004.

e 22 r / h i n

e

M h e c s e e f r e

. / e l l 1 a R t w e 17 f e o 25 a

News FlowResearch.' Renate Kocher. 1986.

i

s w h n d t i x K. KyloonHur. 1984. U e o o 9 n a r C T E d e n

n e m p Daniel Lerner. 1958. I See forexamplethe t e

o t C U o d r 9 n f f d c n o w p N Role oftheMedia.’ o 93. Paris,UNESCO; o a d t d y : a e

o n o 8 m o i /

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d R d S / w w o Q : n a c N m

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w S s I / i t e t e o h 45(2): 115-128.

r : A o t

n t u Paris, UNESCO; . i

/ w e t a e

C m m i m m L

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n f n m e i i n I I w w e m f S

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o t n a d r n e O D. Fell.2005. i C s

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t t O w w o i r h

h

1801-1824; Committee. r t

S t et al.1995. e c t t n e r d C e . 1 o a C u u m e h r e e i e w i v u r s t m . w r i o s r v 9

o l u h w o o n n r a e c s 1: 43-64. r 875-893. e 365 378; A

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g g g e e n g n n d i l 0 a a 1 e y y s s A i t d n d 5 s / r / / , l , . . . . . : . , . . . . .

modify orsuppress newsstoriesunflatteringtotheregime. press to employedbytheinternational dissentandforced journalists internal human rightsobserversreport thatthestatehasmanipulatedmediatostifle for policymakers (strengthening government responsivenessfor policymakers(strengthening tosocialproblems). government for politicaldebate(facilitatinginformedelectoralchoices),andasanagenda-setter the abuseofpower(promoting accountabilityandtransparency), asacivicforum andhumandevelopmentwhere theyfunctionaswatch-dogover good governance, that thenewsmediaismosteffective instrengthening theprocess ofdemocratization, and thereby filter bothaccessandcontent. as ChinaandCuba,state-controlled service monopoliesprovide theonlyInternet tocensor onlinecommunications,butneverthelessinnations such governments corruption inthejudiciary, andscandalsinthecorporatesector. in power, byhighlightingpolicyfailures, maladministrationbypublicofficials, transparency,government accountability, andpublicscrutinyofdecision-makers In their‘watchdog’role, thechannelsofnewsmediacanfunction topromote wave’ experiencedinLatinAmerica,Sub-SaharanAfrica,andAsia. of theworld,andmajorsetbacksfordemocracywith‘secondreverse grew, facedwiththecomplexitiesofhumandevelopmentevidentindifferent parts process involvedaseriesofsequentialstepsgraduallyfelloutfashion.Skepticism By thelate-1960sandearly-1970s,however, theassumptionthatmodernization societies." participation (e.g.voting)whichwefindinalladvancedmodern the spread ofliteracy. Outofthisinteractiondevelopthoseinstitutions accelerates radio networks,andmotionpictures onamassivescale.This,inturn, development isfairlywelladvanced,doesasocietybegintoproduce newspapers, society. Notuntilthethird stage,whentheelaboratetechnologyofindustrial people, equipsthemtoperformthevariedtasksrequired inthemodernizing theorized:"Thecapacitytoread, atfirstacquiredDaniel Lerner byrelatively few regulations, legalrestrictions andstatecensorship. restrictions onpress rulersthrough freedom official tocriticizegovernment in Myanmar, SriLanka,andSaudi Arabia,amongothers,commonlyplaceserious scandals. and thereby exposeandhindermisuseofpublicoffice, malfeasance,andfinancial watchdogs promote decision-makingprocess, thetransparency ofgovernment nations withafree press. Thereason, theyargue,isthatjournalist’s roles as Brunetti andWeder, amongstothers,foundthatthere waslesscorruptionin Taiwan, haveexplored evidencefortheimpactofnewsmediauponcorruption. and historicalcasestudiesofdevelopmentswithinparticularcountriessuchas non-profit organizations,orprivatecompanies.Comparativeeconometricstudies, hold authoritiesaccountablefortheiractions,whetherpublicsectorinstitutions, can openthegovernment’s record scrutinyandcriticalevaluation, toexternal channel forthedisadvantaged. consolidate thepowerofmediaoligopolies,asmuchtoprovide ademocratic could beusedtomaintainautocracies,reinforce crony capitalism,andto was insufficient byitselftopromote democracyanddevelopment,asthesemedia growing recognition thatwideningpublicaccesstonewspapers,radioandtelevision and intimidation against journalists andbroadcasters. and intimidationagainstjournalists through oligopoliesincommercial ownership,andtheuseofoutrightviolence (such asstringentlibellawsandrestrictive official secrets acts),limitedcompetition television channels,legalrestrictions onfreedom ofexpression andpublication through ,stateownershipofthemainradioand official government regimes byindependent journalists, andtodetercriticismofthegovernment By contrast,control ofthe newsmediaisusedtoreinforce thepowerofautocratic by themediatoholdpartiesandleadersaccount‘kickingrascalsout’. classic checksandbalancesinthedivisionofpowers. Edmund Burke,the‘fourthestate’hastraditionallybeenregarded asoneofthe 23 In competitivemultipartydemocracies,voterscanuseinformationprovided 19 Access remains important,butthisstudytheorizes 27 Media freedom organizationsdemonstrate 26 It remains more difficult for 22 24 Investigative journalism In Malaysia,forexample, 25 Elsewhere governments 21 Ever since 18 There was 17 20 68 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 69 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact THE ROLEOFNEWSMEDIAASCIVICFORUM S P E A K 30 r 34 ‘Media proliferation anddemocratictransition Rakotovoavy, andH.S.Razafinimanana.2005. e I Organization forSecurityandCooperationin 29 c Arthur LupiaandMathewD.McCubbins.1998. See Jeremy Tunstall andMichaelPalmer.1991. p N o h T Europe on theOctober2000parliamentary See PeterDahlgren andColinSparks.1995. o m t 33 h Haggblade, B.Minten,M.Rakotojaona,F. t G r e P. Andriantsoa,N.Andriasendrarivony, S. p m t Cambridge: CambridgeUniversityPress. P s

P : G

o / / u r e / T 32 e Norwood, NJ:AblexPublishingCorp. l l n h w Urbana, Il:UniversityofIllinoisPress; i o l T N s t See, forexample,theReportby e i C t R e 28 M b in Africa:ThecaseofMadagascar.’ i c s w t 35 Alfonso Sanchez-Tabernero. 1993. c e c o a l

a p See for example the International See forexampletheInternational t a e C U w S. HughesandC.Lawson.2005. e m t w i l : l v o R i i o d /

elections inBelarusavailableat z o

‘The barrierstomediaopening W / m C i C . T n and theHumanRightsWatch. i n P i s a o w c n a O o o _ e i c h t u o s H o

T r e m m i w r w C p c

n r o h e e n Boston, MA:BeaconPress; s n m e l o o Robert McChesney. 1999. T p i m m

n w n n p d e

t c . Federation of Journalists. Federation ofJournalists. a n l h e o T e T New York: PriorityPress;

r

g e o

a i e u . Robert G.Picard. 1988. h o D n D t a c e d c r h a r t l r 35 i r O Anthony Smith.1991. e n C i g t Peter Dahlgren. 1995. f d t t s

i t c e e i c e s h c o t A

London: JohnLibbey. e adka.1997. Ben Bagdikian. i i a h s n o i s / e t

m M v v o h i p

c t / t n , o a London: Routledge; London: Routledge;

h M i g t

p m e e

t a i n / b h : p r l p o n

d e a / P p Leo Bogart.1995. m e r l s

t a a

in LatinAmerica.’ y e

e / m o E o

o c s

i i a

:

a M w t n P h / o

d d / O o o d e r s n p j n o P i n b / e a u e d

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c b

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22 (1):9-25. l t

N d ACE Project. w e w c r l M 2 M i

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r o r o o h p a n a u h i a e m o o t e m u p o p r r h e t c d i t n r r i l l s n l g g e m n p a y y s y e e e s s s s t f d / / / r / : : : . : . . . . . ; . . . .

forum orwatch-dogroles. standards, canalllimittheroleand unevenjournalistic ofthemediainitscivic with thefailure ofregulatory reform, legalpolicieswhichrestrict critical reporting, fully-independent andpluralisticmediasystems.Broadcasting cartels,coupled example innationssuchasRussia,BrazilandPeruwhichhavefailedtocreate of televisionhasbeenreplaced byprivateoligopoliesandcrony capitalism,for caution thatthequalityofdemocracystillremains limitedwhere stateownership providing theessentialconditionsforinformedchoice. prospective policiesandleadershipcharacteristicsofpartiescandidates, provides citizenswithinformationtocompare andevaluatetheretrospective record, for competitive,free andfairmultipartyelections.Duringcampaigns,afree media as fairaccesstotheairwavesbyoppositionparties,candidatesandgroups iscritical in publicdeliberation.Thisrole isparticularly importantduringelectioncampaigns, society, inafairandimpartialbalance,thenmultipleinterests andvoicesare heard channels ofcommunicationreflect thesocialandculturalpluralismwithineach of autocratsacross muchofAfrica,facilitatingmultipartyelectoraldemocracies. has underminedtheolderstate-controlled mediawhichonceconsolidatedthegrip for example,Andriantsoaetalarguethattheprocess ofliberalization andprivatization for decision-makers, helping to make democratic governments more responsivefor decision-makers,helping tomakedemocraticgovernments In thesesituations,independent reporters canactasavitalchannelofinformation the scopeandnature ofanydisasterisvitalifofficials are torespond effectively. the deliveryofeffective emergencyrelief, timelyandaccurateinformationabout communicationsamongofficial agencieswhichhinderedand thepoorinternal overtheKatrinadebaclein theUnitedStates, by thedramaticfailure ofgovernment suffer from abreakdown intheusualchannelsofcommunication.Asillustrated Particularlyincasesofnatural disaster,makers ingovernment. publicofficials often about urgentsocialproblems todecision- andthereby channelingcitizens’concerns Lastly, thenewsmediaalsofunctionsasanagenda-setter, providing information each nation,orofmajormultinationalcorporationswithmultimediaempires. ownership ofthemedia,whetherinhandsbroadcasting oligopolieswithin but threats tomediapluralismare alsoraisedbyover-concentration ofprivate democratic consolidation.Stateownershipandcontrol isoneimportantissue, By contrast,where themediafailstoactasaneffective civicforum,thiscanhinder the majorissuesofday, andinformingthepublicabouttheirleaders. sphere, bymediatingbetweencitizensandthestate,facilitatingdebateabout Equally vital,intheircivicforumrole, thefree press canstrengthen thepublic personal dangerfrom warsorimprisonmentbythesecurityservices. inmanypartsoftheworldfacedailythreat of harassment, whilejournalists broadcasters andeditorshaveexperiencedintimidationor many journalists, their work.InColombia,SierraLeone,Liberia,ZimbabweandEgypt,forexample, that eachyeardozensofmediaprofessionals are killedorinjured inthecourseof exemplified bycampaignsinRussia,Belarus,andMozambique bias ontelevisionandradiohasfailedtoprovide alevelplayingfieldforallparties, are manycaseswhere electoralobservershavereported thatpro-government varied asGhana,SriLanka,Belize,India,Trinidad andTobago, andZambia. campaigns. Thisprinciplehasbeenrecognized injurisprudencefrom countriesas rather thanbeingopentoapluralityofpoliticalviewpointsandpartiesduring party,stations heavilyfavorthegoverning intheamountortoneofcoverage, as acivicforumremain deeplyflawedwhere majornewspapersandtelevision the public,reducing thediversityofnewsmediaoutlets. in thehandsofafewmultinationalcorporations,whichremain unaccountableto feared thattheprocess ofmediamergersmayhaveconcentratedexcessivecontrol 36 30 The role ofthenewsmedia 35 Contemporary observers 32 . InMadagascar, 28 29 31 If the There 34 It is 33 MEASURING PRESSFREEDOM II. DATA, INDICATORS, ANDRESEARCHDESIGN MEASURING DEMOCRACY ‘Political agency, responsiveness government ‘Conceptualizing andmeasuringdemocracy: Geraldo L.MunckandJayVerkuilen. 2002. 38 A usefulreview oftheseisavailablefrom C E o u m r o p p a e 37 r a a T. BesleyandR.Burgess.2001. n Evaluating alternative indices.’ Evaluating alternative t i

v E e c and therole ofthemedia.’ o

P n o o l i m t i i c c a

R l

S e t v u i e d w i e . 45(4-6): 629-640. s . 35(1): 5-34. House’s indexofliberal with databasedonannual research. Theyeachhave broad cross-national scopeandalengthytime-series, of democracycommonlyused byscholarsandpolicyanalystsincomparative based oncontesteddemocracy. These represent themostwidely-citedindicators Vanhanen’s indicatorofparticipatory compared inthisstudy:the PolityIVpr quality ofdemocracyinawiderangecountriesworldwide. attempts togaugeandmeasure systematic,validandreliable indicatorsofthe nance. SeeAppendixAforadescriptionofthese.Recent yearshaveseengrowing The dependentvariablesare indicatorsoflevelsdemocracyandgoodgover- tions includeCuba,Eritrea, ChinaandTurkmenistan. Fasa. Thecountrieswhichrankashavingtheleastfree mediabybothorganiza- opment, includingMaliandBenin,NicaraguaElSalvador, aswellBurkina freedom are classifiedbytheUNDPashavingonlymoderate orevenlowdevel- linkage betweenaffluence anddemocracy. Butothercountrieswithhighpress such asNewZealand,theNetherlandsandSweden,expectedgivenstrong highly onpress freedom byboththeseindicatorsare highlydevelopednations, confidence inthereliability ofthemeasures. Many of thecountriesscoringmost these organizationslargelyconfirmsimilarfindings,afindingwhichincreases differ intheirconstruction,datasources, andconceptualization. Despitethis, a fewoutlierswhere theorganizationsdisagree intheir rankings.Bothindices of thesesources, showastrong correlation across boththesemeasures, with just pendently produced byReporterswithoutBorders. The results ofthecomparison index wascompared withtheWorldwide Press Freedom Index,whichisinde- To checkwhethertheresults ofthismeasure proved reliable, theFreedom House 1992 to2004. contemporary nationswere availableintheFreedom Houseannualindexfrom scale foreachcountryundercomparison.Evaluationsofpress freedom in191 broadcast andprintmedia,theresulting ratings are expressed asa100-point Theassessmentofpress freedomto journalists. distinguishesbetweenthe violating press autonomy, includingcensorship,harassmentandphysicalthreats orprivateentrepreneurs,exerted bythegovernment andactualincidents decisions, is influencedbythestructure ofthenews is measured inthisindexaccording tohowmuchthediversityofnewscontent Freedom canbeusedasthestandard cross-national indicator. Press freedom To explore someoftheevidence,annualFreedom HouseindexofPress andthushumandevelopment. ernance expect thatgreater press freedom shouldhelptopromote democracy, goodgov- For allofthesereasons, where thepress iseffective intheseroles, wewould agenda-setter canalsopressure torespond tolocalproblems. thegovernment reporting localconditions at thegrassroots, andtherole ofthemediaasan functionasanintermediaryby accurately andinatimelyfashionwhenjournalists reason, aboutlocalproblems more theysuggest,isthat politicalleaderslearn proved more activeduringanemergencyinresponding tofood-shortages. case, andestablishedthatregional stateswithhigherlevelsofnewspapercirculation to theneedsofpeople.Forexample,BesleyandBurgessexaminedIndian the degree ofpoliticalinfluenceorcontrol, theeconomic influences eorc is democracy observations democracy, and Przeworskietal’s classification also widelyused,butthisis notemployedin oject’s measure ofconstitutional democracy, classifying regimes worldwide.Freedom industry, bylegalandadministrative 38 he esrsare Three measures 37 The 70 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 71 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact III. THEDISTRIBUTIONOFFREEPRESS MEASURING GOODGOVERNANCE ‘Democracy anddichotomies:Apragmatic 39 World BankPolicyResearch Paper2196. ‘Governance MattersIII:Governance ‘Governance David CollierandRobertAdcock.1999. Annual ReviewofPoliticalScience approach tochoicesaboutconcepts.’ 40 Daniel Kaufmann,AaartKraay, Daniel Kaufmann,AartKraay, Washington DC:World Bank. ‘Governance Matters.’ ‘Governance Indicators 1996-2002.’ www.worldbank.org; and Zoido-Lobaton. and M.Mastruzzi. 1: 537-565. May 2003. 1999. in North America, Western Europein NorthAmerica,Western andScandinavia,developednations in Asia. Althoughthecountries scoringmosthighlyinpress freedom tendtobefound around theworld,showingimportantcontrastswithin Africa,LatinAmerica,and extent. Themapillustrated in Figure 4breaks thecomparisondownbycountries press inothernationstheregion, thisregion lagged behindotherstoamarked foundinAl Jazeera,andmovestoliberalizethe and aggressive styleofjournalism states proving theleastfree. Despitethegrowing audienceforthemore independent regions whichalsoscored relatively highlyinfreedom ofthepress, withthe Arab longest-standing democracies.LatinAmericaandSouth-East Asiaproved the found intheindustrializednations,includingmost affluent economiesand the world.Asillustratedinfigure 3,asexpected,themostliberalmediawere ofpress freedomThe contemporarypattern showsconsiderablevariationsaround are robust irrespective oftheparticularmeasure which isselectedforanalysis. Gandhi, todoublecheckwhetherthekeyfindingsare confirmedandtheresults indicators ofdemocracyprovided byPolityIV, Vanhanen, andbyCheibub andthethree standardsented forthefiveKaufmannindicatorsofgoodgovernance this shouldbeevidentintheseindicators.Theregression analysismodelsare pre- important role accountabilityandresponsiveness, inpromoting then government of freedom ofthepress aspartoftheirconstruction. Ifthefree press playsan thatwere selectedincludedmeasuresnone oftheindicatorsgoodgovernance Itshouldbenotedthat one ofthebestavailablegaugesgoodgovernance. nations, suchasrepresentative surveysofpublicopinion, thesemeasures provide Nevertheless intheabsenceofotherreliable indicatorscoveringawiderangeof bias towards more favorableevaluationsofcountrieswithgoodeconomicoutcomes. of thejudgments,variationsincountrycoveragebydifferent indices,andpossible national ‘experts’,theuseofbusinessleadersandacademicscholarsasbasis prove unreliable forseveralreasons, includingreliance uponasmallnumberof predictable rulesforsocialandeconomicinteractions.Subjectivejudgmentsmay corruption reflect thesuccessofasocietyindevelopingfair, transparent and the difficulty ofconductingroutine businesstransactions. Lastly, perceptions of service from politicalpressures. Regulatoryqualityrefers topublicservicesand perceptions ofthequalitypublicserviceandindependencecivic efficiencycrime, andtheenforceability isgaugedby ofcontracts.Government effectiveness ofthejudiciaryandcourts,perceptions ofviolentornon-violent theindependenceand violence duetoactsofterrorism. Theruleoflawconcerns of the‘rulesgame’,continuityinconstitutionalpractices,andlackpolitical important asthisreflects theregular office, rotation consolidation ofgovernment regulatory quality, andlevelsofcorruptionineachnation.Politicalstabilityis assessed thedegree ofpoliticalstability, theruleoflaw, efficiency, government drawingonmultiplesurveysofexperts,that five indicatorsofgoodgovernance, et alfortheWorld Bank. developedbyKaufmann The studyalsodrawsonthemeasures ofgood governance main generalizationsholdirrespective oftheparticularmeasures whichare used. greater confidenceinthereliability oftheresults andwecanconcludethatthe measures ofdemocracywhichare employedforanalysis.Ifso,thenthisgenerates to seeifthefindingsremain robust andconsistentirrespective ofthespecific study, istocompare indicators, theresults ofanalyticalmodelsusing alternative and analyticalgoalsinanystudy. are bestjustifiedpragmaticallyintermsofthetheoretical framework is bestforallpurposes,insteadasCollierandAdcocksuggest,specificchoices ponents. Thereason toadoptmore thanonemeasure isthatnosingleindicator this studyasthemeasure containsfreedom ofthepress asoneofitscore com- 40 This datasetisbaseduponsubjectiveperceptions of 39 The mostprudentstrategy, adoptedbythis 72 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact Asia-Pacific, nevertheless some poorer developing nations, such as Mali, Benin and South Africa, also scored well on journalistic freedom. The relationship between economic development and press freedom is explored more fully in figure 5, which contrasts both factors. The results show a moderately strong correlation but there are also important outliers in this relationship. Hence there are a range of nations located in the bottom right-hand corner of the scatter- gram which are relatively affluent and yet with restrictions on an independent press, notably Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and Malaysia. In Singapore, for example, the People’s Action Party (PAP), founded and originally led by Lee Kuan Yew, has maintained its unbroken rule in government since 1959, despite a regular series of multiparty contests challenging their hegemonic status. One reason contributing to the ruling party’s predominance is their strong control of the press and news media, for example the leading newspaper of Singapore, the Straits Times, is often perceived as a propaganda newspaper because it rarely criticizes government policy, and it covers little about the opposition. The owners of the paper, Singapore Press Holdings, have close links to the ruling party and the corporation has a virtual monopoly of the newspaper industry. Government censorship of journalism is common, using the threat or imposition of heavy fines or distribution bans imposed by the Media Development Authority, with these techniques also used against articles seen to be critical of the government published in the international press, including The Economist and International Times Herald Tribune. Internet access is regulated in Singapore, and private ownership of satellite dishes is not allowed. Due to this record, the Reporters Without Borders assessment of Press Freedom Worldwide in 2005 ranked Singapore 140th out of 167 nations. By contrast, there are other nations which have low per capita GDP and yet which are relatively free in media communications, notably those nations located in the top-left quadrant of Figure 5. One example is Benin, which is widely regarded as a successful African democracy with constitu- tional checks and balances, multiple parties, a high degree of judicial independence, and a lively partisan press which is often critical of the government. Benin ranks 161st lowest out of 177 states in the 2003 UNDP Human Development Index, with a per capita GDP (in Purchasing Power Parity) of $1,115. One third of the population lives with incomes below the poverty level and two-thirds of the adult population is illiterate. Despite this, the country is categorized as ‘free’ by the 2006 Freedom House index, comparable to Argentina, Mexico, and Romania in its record of civil liberties and political rights. MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MEDIA MATTERS

73 IV. THEIMPACT OFTHEFREEPRESSONGOODGOVERNANCEANDDEMOCRACY www.stanford.edu/~wacziarg/papersum.html 41 42 RobertA.Dahl. 1998. J Alberto AlesinaandEnricoSpolaore. 2003. William Easterly,William SergioKurlat andRomain Christopher Clague,SuzanneGleasonand o Alberto Alesina, Arnaud Devleeschauwer,Alberto Alesina,Arnaud Size anddemocracy u Stephen Knack.2001.‘Determinantsof r Culture, developmentandinstitutions.’ n 43 a A lasting democracyinpoorcountries: Robert A.DahlandE.R.Tufte. 1973. l n

Wacziarg. 2003.‘Fractionalization’ o n f a

o E Haven, CT:Yale UniversityPress; l s f c

o S o n o Cambridge, MA:MITPress. f

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opment, ethnicdiversity, andthesizeofpopulation. poor nationsinex-Britishcolonies,evencontrolling forlevelsofeconomicdevel- office) arecontestation forgovernment most likelytoemergeandpersistamong Clague, GleasonandKnackreport thatlastingdemocracies(characterizedby ofdemocracyhasbeennotedbyseveralobservers;forexample temporary patterns colonial legacies.Anassociationbetweenthepasttypeofruleandcon- Power Parity).Themodelsalsocontrol of fortheeffects ofthehistoricalpattern levels ofeconomicdevelopment(measured byloggedpercapitaGDPinPurchasing withstood repeated testsinthesocialsciencesandaccordingly themodelsentered between wealthanddemocracyhasbeenalong-standingobservationwhich factors whichare commonlyassociatedwithpoliticaldevelopment.Therelationship evenusingmultivariateregressiongovernance, modelscontrolling formanyothers The keyquestioniswhetherpress freedom isrelated todemocracyandgood recent examinationofthisproposition. widely assumed,andAlesinaSpolaore haveprovided themostdetailed Ever sinceDahlandTufte, theideathatsizemattersfordemocracyhasbeen models alsocontrol fortheimpactofsizepopulationineachcountry. alization, basedonaglobaldatasetcreated byAlesinaandhiscolleagues. consolidation. Nationswere classifiedaccording tothedegree ofethnicfraction- divided societiesare widelyassumedtoexperiencegreater problems ofdemocratic ethnic heterogeneity isalsoentered intothemodels,ongrounds thatdeeply- wave, andindeedtobetheleastdemocraticregion worldwide.Thedegree of has beenleastaffected bythetrends indemocratizationsincethestartofthird entered intotheanalysis,sincemanyobservershavepointedoutthatthisregion consistent predictor of of consistent predictor Przeworski etal/Cheibub.Indeedtheimpactof ceptualization andmeasurement processes usedby PolityIV, Vanhanen, and indicator ofdemocracywhichisselected,despitemajordifferences inthecon- and socialcontrols. Theresults appeartoberobust irrespective oftheparticular associated withlevelsofdemocracy, evenafteremployingthebatteryofeconomic The results oftheanalysisinTable 1confirmsthatthefree press issignificantly potential forcitizenparticipationinkeydecisions. democratically,to govern forexamplethesmallerpopulation,greater the democracy outofanythefactorsundercomparison, 43 Smaller nationsare expectedtobeeasier the fiveselected indicatorsof The modelswere replicated for overall levelofdemocratization. is particularlystrong, giventheir above thelinewhere thefree press there are othercountrieswell offices. And major government free andfairelectionsfor the of democracy, suchasholding be expectedfrom otherindicators may bemore severe thanmight inthesenations ent journalism gesting thatlimitsonindepend- Guatamala andBangladesh,sug- the line,suchasRussia, tries whichfallquitefarbelow plot shows,there are afewcoun- any obviousoutliers.Asthescatter- goodness offitandtoidentify of democracy, toexaminethe figure 6,usingthePolityIVmeasure wasinspectedvisuallyin pattern even stronger thanwealth.The media liberalizationwasthemost 41 The MiddleEastisalso 42 The 74 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact good governance and again the results, presented in Table 2, proved significant and consistent. The models show that countries where much of the public has access to the free press usually have greater political stability, rule of law, government efficiency in the policy process, regulatory quality, and the least corruption. CONCLUSIONS

Overall the analysis lends considerable support to the claims of liberal theorists about the critical role of the free press, as one of the major components of both democracy and good governance. Nevertheless there are many questions remaining for future research. The analysis presented here has not been able to explore which of the three roles of the free press - as watch-dog, as civic forum or as agenda-setter - is most important in these rela- tionships. Plausibly, for example, the effectiveness of the press as watch-dogs should have the great- est impact upon stamping out corruption, while their function in calling attention to social problems should influence government effectiveness. It probably requires detailed case-studies focusing upon how the news media work in particular countries to flesh out these linkages. Moreover the limited cross-sectional analysis presented here cannot seek to disentangle some of the reciprocal relationships between the government and the media which may be at work, and time-series analysis of develop- ments over time would provide a more satisfactory handle on these matters. Lastly the analysis has not sought to demonstrate the indirect effects of the free press on levels of human development, as proposed in the last stage of the analytical model. Nevertheless it remains plausible, as many other studies suggest, that improving democracy and good governance will ultimately contribute towards the eradication of poverty, particularly by making governments more accountable and 44 responsive to human needs. The study therefore confirms many of the assumptions about the role of independent journalism, which are pervasive in liberal theory, including the core argument that the free press matters, both intrinsically and instrumen- tally. Policies which eradicate limits on the free exchange of information and communication, whether due to state censorship, intimidation and harassment of journalists, or private media oligop- olies, therefore have important consequences for those seeking to strengthen both good political and human development.

44 See, for example, Joseph T. Siegle, Michael Weinstein and Morton Halperin. 2004. ‘Why democracies excel’ Foreign Affairs 83(5):57-72; Adam Przeworski, Michael E. Alvarez, Jose Antonio Cheibub and Fernando Limongi. 2000. Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950-1990. NY: Cambridge University Press.

MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MEDIA MATTERS For a full technical annex to this paper, see: www.pippanorris.com 75 The MediaSustainabilityIndex Change inMediaSystems: Measuring WEAKNESSES INMEASUREMENTANDASSESSMENTTHEFIELDOFMEDIADEVELOPMENT a mediaassistanceprogram? across countriestodetermine if amediaassistanceproject the relativeneedsofvarious whether tobeginormodify “How candonorscompare “How measure changeinmedia countries whendeciding systems overtimeand n,how can donors And, is havinganeffect?” consistent methodology usedtoassessthe mediasystemsbetween countries? suited tomediadevelopment ordeservingofmore funds whenthere isno another. Canapolicymakerinthose conditionssaythatonecountryismore However, thescopeofeachassessment canvarywidelyfrom onecountryto assistance programs, theyusuallyundertakespecific assessments ineachcase. When donorsare considering thedevelopmentormodificationofmedia project ishavinganeffect? media systemsovertimeandacross countriestodetermineifamediaassistance or modifyamediaassistanceprogram? And,howcandonorsmeasure changein compare therelative needsofvariouscountrieswhendecidingwhethertobegin This causestwoseriousproblems fordonorsandimplementers:howcan field. and evaluationfacedbyotheractivitiesinthedemocracy andgovernance Yet, mediadevelopmentstillsuffers from manyoftheweaknessesinmonitoring as health,povertyreduction, anti-corruption,andeconomicdevelopment. societies, aswellanessentialcomponenttootherdevelopmentactivitiessuch seen asvitaltothesuccessfuldevelopmentoftransitioncountries,post-conflict US, European, andprivatedonors.Anindependentprofessional mediais the democracy, developmentandpost-conflictagendasofthemajor governance, agenda inthelate1980s,mediadevelopmenthasbecomeavitalcomponentof Growing from asmallandoftenoverlookednicheof thelargerdevelopment been viewedasasubjectiveexercise. application ofreplicable andquantifiableindicatorsonwhathasessentially professionals from eachcountrybeingassessedinthe process, andbyits of mediaasasysteminterrelated components,byitsinvolvementofmedia and themediathemselves.Theapproach totheMSIisdistinguishedbyitsview and measurement toolfordonors,policymakers,mediadevelopment implementers, out totheMiddleEastin2006,MSIhasproven itselfavaluableassessment and supportinginstitutions.Inusesince2001forEurope andEurasiarolling free pluralityofnewssources, speech,professional mediabusiness, journalism, The MSImeasures mediasystemsaccording tofivekey components(orobjectives): capture theareas professional deemedkeytodevelopinghealthymediasystems. sistently measure thedevelopmentofmediaacross timeandacross countriesand The MediaSustainabilityIndex(MSI)wasdevelopedtoaddress theneedtocon- Media DevelopmentDivision,IREX Mark Whitehouse , Director, 76 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 77 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact THE MEDIASUSTAINABILITY INDEX:MEDIAASASYSTEM THE DEVELOPMENTOFMSI 45 see www.irex.org/msi to as but alsooftenrely onothercomponentstodevelop.Thesecomponents,referred that cannotonlydevelopwithsomedegree ofindependencefrom othercomponents, time, specificquantifiableindicators fortheaboveobjectiveswere scarce. Existing In surveyingthecountriesof Europe andEurasiawhere IREXwasworkingatthe which countrieswere rated. and professional independentmediasystemandserved asthecriteriaagainst These objectiveswere judged tobethemostimportantaspectsofasustainable Supportinginstitutionsfunctionintheprofessional interestsofindependentmedia. 5. Independentmediaarewell-managedbusinesses,allowingeditorial 4. Multiplenewssourcesprovidecitizenswithreliableandobjectivenews. 3. Journalismmeetsprofessionalstandardsofquality. 2. Legalandsocialnormsprotectpromotefreespeechaccessto 1. The MSIapproaches mediaasa measure andpublishthefirstMediaSustainabilityIndex(MSI)in2001. IREX tooktheworkithaddevelopedandworkedwithUSAIDtorefine the Romania, letalonewhetherRomaniaitselfhadimproved. Beginningin2000, but onecouldnotdetermineifCroatia wasmakinggreater progress than sionalism. Attendeeswere allcollectingdataspecifictotheirindividualprograms of theequation-mostoftenpress freedom, attacks onmedia,andmediaprofes- country andsomeoftheexistingglobalorregional measures addressed onlypart be comparableacross countries.Measures were beingdevelopedcountryby given countryovertime.Additionally, itbecameclearthatsuchameasure must - indicatedaneedforsustainedeffort tomeasure themedia’s progress inany mediaprofessionals,Western localmediaprofessionals, donors,and implementers of assessment,monitoring,andevaluationwere discussedandallpresent - At severalUSAIDmediadevelopmentconferences organizedbyIREX,theissues programs, includingmedia. of democracyandgovernance of allprograms andinparticular, seekingtobringgreater rigortotheassessment the sametimeUSAIDwasinmidstofimproving monitoringandevaluation time andfoundthemlimitedfortheuseofmediadevelopmentprofessionals. At country’s specificmediasystem.We lookedatthevarioustoolsavailable In thelate1990s,IREXbeganworkingtodevelopatoolevaluategiven data alsochange,makingcomparisonsacross timewithinacountryverydifficult. priorities, andthechangingenvironment. Implementers’anddonors’evaluation over timetendtochangeinresponse tofundingfluctuations,changingpolicy little possibilitytocompare results across countries.Additionally, donors’activities and sinceprojects tendtovaryconsiderablyfrom onecountrytoanother, there is understandably require implementerstoproduce project-specific evaluationdata Successes are noteasilyquantifiablenorisiteasytolinkcauseandeffect. Donors independence. public information. "objectives" in theMSI,are asfollows: "system" characterized byinterrelated components 45 THE MSI–LESSONSLEARNEDAFTERFIVEYEARS and provides direction for itsfurtherimplementation,refinement, andexpansion. This provides abasisforunderstandingtheMSIand its strengths andweaknesses regions andhasrecently been completedintheMiddleEastandNorthAfrica. The MSIhasbeencompleted forfiveconsecutiveyearsintheEurope andEurasia system thattheyseeintheirwork. obstacles mediaprofessionals themselvesfacedaily, andthestrengths ofthe scores, providing examplesofeventsoverthepastyear, adescriptionofthe Country chaptersformakeyaspectoftheMSI.Theyadd substancetothe country chapter. the discussionwhichtogetherwithinputfrom IREXformsthecore ofeach specific eventsandincidents"behind"theirdata.Themoderatorwritesup convenes theparticipantsforadiscussionofscores andtheissues individually according tothecriteriaprovided tothem, anIREX-trainedmoderator each countryasacore componentoftheprocess. After scoringtheindicators One oftheuniqueaspectsMSIliesinitsusemediaprofessionals in time invariousformats,asbelow. Additionally, onecanpulloutdateforspecificcountriesorshowchangesover as belowwhere onecancompare countriesandcompare countriesacross time. for eachobjectivetoobtainthescore. Thisallowsapresentation ofdata objectives has7to9indicatorsratedonascaleof0-4.Theare averaged according toastandard setofcriteriaappliedtoeachobjective.Eachthe where indicatorsforeachofthefiveobjectiveswere scored bymediaprofessionals The MSItherefore soughttoovercome thesedataweaknessesbyadoptingasystem by mediaassociations. theworthofaparticularlaw,quality ofjournalism, theessentialservicesprovided ship, etc.).Otherdatawere more likelytobequalitativebytheirverynature -the often thecase,notconsistentlyavailable(e.g.,revenue ofmediaoutlets,owner- quantitative datawere oftenunreliable (e.g.,circulation ofnewspapers)ormore 78 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 79 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact METHODOLOGIES MSI ASASSESSMENTANDEVALUATION TOOL THE DESIREFORADDITIONALDATA MODERATORS ANDPANELISTS by contacting of methodologyisavailable 46 More detaileddiscussion to www.irex.org/msi IREX or referring . stagnation, or declineincertainobjectives. Itcanalsopointtofactors outsidethe specific donorproject. Onecanhowever correlate donorworkwithimprovements, do orintendtodo.Itdoes not directly andabsolutely measure theimpactofa At thesametime,itisequally importanttounderstandwhattheMSIdoesnot coursework MSI asatoolforevaluationandithasbeenintroduced invariousuniversities’ indicators.Manyotherimplementersusethe the MSIasoneoftheirgovernance into theirevaluationschemaforseveralcountriesandthe World Bankhasaccepted across timehaveproven tobeextremely useful.USAIDhasincorporatedtheMSI media foreachcountry, andtheabilitytocompare results across countriesand The combinationofreplicable data,thenarrativediscussionofstatus The MSIhasproven effective asanassessmenttoolfordonorsandimplementers. policy responses. right direction foracquiringadditionaldatatodevelopspecificprograms or an evaluativeprocess andpointsdonors,implementers,policymakersinthe circulation, etc.There isagrowing consensusthattheMSIisonecomponentof but room remains tosystematicallycollectdataonratings, advertisingrevenue, There are projects toacquire andpresent suchdata(e.g.,WAN newspaper data) indicated thatthere isadesire toobtainbasicdata, suchasmaybeavailable. incomplete orunreliable quantitativedata,policymakersanddonorshaveconsistently While theMSIwasconceivedasatooltomeasure mediasystemsinlightof underlying methodology. draft ofthecountrychaptermustbewell-versedinMSIandunderstand The moderator, whoconvenesandguidesthepaneldiscussionwrites anonymity topanelistsandconductedvirtualpanelswhencircumstances warrant. and ensuringthatthepanelisabletospeakfreely. IREXhasattimesgranted quality oftheproduct. Care mustbetakeninselecting arepresentative panel The qualityofthemoderatorandpanelistsforeachcountryaffects the market andotherswhere broadcast dominates. strong privatemediamarket,oneswhere printmediadominatetheindependent It hassucceededincountrieswithdominantstatebroadcasters, oneswitha measure across allcountrieshasstoodthetestof5yearsapplication. astandard is gathered andtheMSIexpanded,butconceptofapplying The methodologyisflexibleandcanbeadjusted,onaglobal and theindicatorsthere isanappr Middle Eastwhere theMSIhasbeenimplemented.Panelistsunderstandconcepts resilient andunderstandableacross the38countriesinEurope andEurasiathe and theirindicatorswouldnottravelwell.However, theyhaveproven remarkably bias initsconceptionofamediasystem,there thefiveobjectives were concerns or"American" While theMSIwasdevelopedwithoutanyintentfora"Western" eciation thatonecancompar basis, asmore data e acrosscountries. 46 CONCLUSION independence, andpluralityofsources. has proceeded -primarilyprofessionalism, from basicprinciplesofjournalism viewofmedia.Rather,a USviewofmediasystemnorgeneralWestern it data, andreview thosecontributingtothepublishedresults. Ithasnotimposed monitoring andevaluationwhilealsoallowingthemtochallengeresults, discuss development professionals, andpolicymakerstousetheresults inassessments, methodology, narrativediscussion,andannualapplicationallowsdonors,media tobeanessentiallysubjectiveprocessbelieve -mediadevelopment.Itstransparent methodology anddatainapplyinggreater methodologicalrigortowhatmany does notclaimtobeaperfectmeasure butratherseekstobetransparent inits The MSIhasproven aremarkably resilient toolformeasuringmediasystems.It move intandem. supporting institutionsare beingpressured. Allcomponentsdonotnecessarily improved, evenasfree speechandpluralityisrapidlydeclininginthemedia business ofmediahasnotbeenslidingbackwards asawholeandhasinfact since ittreats mediaasasystemofinterrelated components–itshowshowthe TheMSIhasalsocaptured manyofthenuancesinthisregressionjournalists. pressureseveral yearsduelargelytoincreasing government onmediaoutletsand and independentmediamarket.However, ithasslidbackwards overthepast years agoitseemedtobeonapath,ifattimeshalting,towards adeveloped considered. Asdiscussedabove,RussiahasseenadeclineinMSIscores. Yet, several The MSIalsoshowsthatthedurabilityofchangesinacountryneedstobe of improvement drivenfrom within. and developingaconstituencyformediafreedoms thatsetinmotionaprocess donors’ earlierworkinsupportingsustainableinstitutions,improving standards, even aftermostdonorassistanceended.TheMSIdoespointtothesuccessof Croatia haswitnessedimprovement overthelastseveralyearsinMSIscore, choices andbeyondthecontrol orscopeofmediadevelopmentprograms. yet haveseensteadydeclinesinMSIscores - theseare largelyduetogovernment Uzbekistan allhavehadexcellentdonor-supported mediadevelopmentprograms control ofdonorsthataffect themediaenvironment. Russia,Belarus,and 80 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 81 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact have tooffer? and integrativeapproaches What doavailableindicators Toolkit forMediaDevelopment: A Monitoring&Evaluation even establisheddemocracies “Press freedomisunderstood “Press differently inthevarious freedom inexactlythe do notinterpretpress parts oftheworld... Christina Holtz-Bacha same way.” directly assess theeffectiveness ofparticular mediaassistanceactivities (whichare these country-levelindicators donotprovide empirical datawithwhichwecan number ofthosepubliclyare availableinAppendixA. Itisimportanttonotethat While indicatorsdirectly pertainingtomediadevelopment are relatively scarce, a subsequently usedascategories forourproposed M&Etoolkitformediadevelopment. reflecting theoverarching goalsofthesector. Theseconceptual prioritieswere and scholars.Basedontheseindicators,weattemptedto extractconceptualpriorities that are eithercurrently availableorhavepreviously beenproposed bypractitioners In conceptualizingthistoolkit,wetookstockofmedia developmentindicators who willthendecide,inconsultationwithstakeholders,which toolstheywillacquire. should provide anassortmentofM&Eoptionstomediadevelopmentprofessionals needs ofaudiencesparticularM&Einitiatives.Thispaper arguesthatthesector opment reflecting broad prioritiesofthesectorasawhole,yetadaptableto one sizedoesnotfitall.Therefore, wepropose anM&Etoolkitformediadevel- not fitall.Afterall,inassessingtheeffectiveness ofmediadevelopmentinitiatives, The toolkitmetaphorcanbeextendedtomakeanadditionalpoint:onesizedoes of aparticularproject orprogram. array ofmethodsfrom whichselectionscanbemadebasedontherequirements sector shouldconceptualizeM&Eintermsofa programs andtomonitorevaluatetheirefficacy. According toPower, the considered astoolstoguidetheimplementationofmediaassistanceprojects and Learning, BBCWorld ServiceTrust,Learning, Amman, Jordan inOctober2005,Dr. Gerry 2005). DuringthefirstGlobalForumforMediaDevelopment(GFMD)heldin frameworks forwidedisseminationanduseontheground (Davis&Campbell, within themediaassistancecommunityhaveadvocateddevelopmentofM&E (M&E) initiativestogaugethesector’s effectiveness. Inresponse, practitioners institutions haveincreasingly emphasizedtheneedforMonitoringandEvaluation donor As themediadevelopmentsectorcontinuestoprofessionalize, international and University ofPennsylvania University ofPennsylvaniaLawSchool, Annenberg SchoolforCommunication, A n t o S n a i r o a

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T e b a y Power, Director, Research and "toolkit" ch methods consisting ofabroad should be JOURNALISTIC PRACTICEANDMANAGEMENT THREE PROPOSEDCATEGORIES FORTHEM&ETOOLKIT See Appendices B charts ofavailableandproposed 47 See indicators organizedunder Appendix A and of thesesources these categories C for summary for afulllist between factandopinion, among others(ibid.). diversity ofactorsandviewpoints; neutralityoflanguage;andseparation terms ofthefollowingcomponents: numberandtransparency ofsources; (measure) thefulfillmentof...qualitystandards" can observe Communication, November 22,2005)arguesthatthrough contentanalysis, content analysisofthemediaforqualitycomparisons. Christoph Spurk(Personal workconditions,gender issuesinthenewsroom, and investigative journalism, USAID (1999)arguesthatmeasures bedevelopedinorder toassessthestateof carried outbythestate,armedmilitias,orunderground organizations. and mediaoutlets;thelatterincludesinformationonwhether theseattacksare Reporters SansFrontières (RSF)provide informationonviolenceagainstjournalists website.CentreCentre and fortheProtection ForJournalists’ ofJournalists viewpoints inthemedia.ACodesofEthicsdatabaseis availableonInternational business management.IREXandFreedom House(FH)bothassessdiversityof based onthefollowingcomponents:free and speech;professional journalism; of violenceagainstthepress. quality IREXassessesthestandards ofjournalistic unions. Lastly,as press councilsandjournalists’ thiscategoryincludesassessments such It alsoincludesthequalityofinstitutionsthatprovide supporttojournalists, independence. andthedegree ofeditorialandjournalistic and trainingofjournalists, education This categoryincludesindicatorsrelated tothequalityofjournalism, the preceding indicators. exhaustive. However, theyreflect prioritiesofthesectorbasedonourstudy The categoriesproposed are notmutuallyexclusive nor are theycompletely and programs, whileaccountingforoverarching self-determinedgoalsofthesector. facilitate assessmentoftheeffectiveness ofspecificmediadevelopmentprojects Developing M&Eapproaches undertherubricofthisthree-category toolkitcan first-hand experienceincarryingoutparticularmediaassistanceM&Einterventions. propose particularmeasures oroperationalizations, avitaltaskbestlefttothosewith framework forthesector’s furtherconsideration.Inaddition,itisnotourintentto stakeholders, thisthree-category M&Etoolkitismeanttoserveasatentativeorganizing more importantly, furtherdeliberationamongthesector’s professionals andexternal Cognizant oftheneedforacomprehensive review ofavailableindicatorsand, (3) (2) (1) community’s consideration: we propose thefollowingthree M&Ecategoriesforthemediadevelopment publications relevant toamacro perspectiveofM&Einmediadevelopment, Based onourreview oftheindicatorsfrom alistoforganizations,authors,and sector-level priorities trends. Giventheirscope,theyareand international wellsuitedtoward identifying provide are cross-country levelcomparisonsusefulfortrackingnational,regional, usually targetedtonarrowly definedpopulations).Whatthesedatasources do Legal and Regulatory Environment Legal andRegulatory StructureandAccesstoMedia Industry Journalistic PracticesandManagement; of thesematerialsin 47 "we 82 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 83 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact CRITICAL PERSPECTIVESINMONITORING&EVALUATION LEGAL ANDREGULATORY ENVIRONMENT INDUSTRY STRUCTUREANDACCESSTOMEDIA • • requirements havebrought about development work,ThomasCarothers (1996)cautionsthatinsomecases,reporting As thedonorcommunitycontinuestoemphasizeevidence-based approaches to owners asregards theirlegalrightsandresponsibilities. US DOSarguesformeasurement andmedia oftheawareness levels ofjournalists Southeast Asia,andalongsideIREX,assessestheavailabilityofpublicinformation. and/or interventioninthemediasector. Coronel compares typesofpress lawsin punishment forpress offences. RSFandFHassessthe levelsofstateinvolvement RSF provides informationonfreedom ofinformation laws,censorship,and based onfreedom ofthepress, treatment oflibel,andfreedom ofinformation. A databaseofMediaLawsisavailableonICJF’s website.FHrankscountries arrangements andstateregulatory bodies. press offenses. Inaddition,thiscategoryincludesassessments ofmonopolistic andpunishmentfor and libellaws;legalrightsresponsibilities ofjournalists; freedom ofthepress, speech,andinformation;criteria forlicenses;censorship The componentsofthelegalandregulatory environment includethefollowing: of independentmediaoutletsandoppositionparties’accesstostate-runmedia. TheUSDepartmentofState(DOS)proposes trackingtheestablishment patterns. argues fortheneedtodetermineconcentrationofownershipandmediaconsumption given political,economic,andsecuritycontextsofvariouscountries.USAID(1999) (i.e. public/privatepartnerships)andthesuitabilitydurationoffundingassistance USAID (2002)proposes systematicevaluationofmediaassistancefundingmixes and broadcasters inBosnia-Herzegovina. Accounting Office report discussesaudienceshares ofindependentpublications Institute assessestheeconomichealthofmediaandUSGovernment vides informationonstateinvolvementandintervention.TheMediaMatters Sheila Coronel, RSF, andFHaccountfortypesofmediaownership.alsopro- geographic location,andliteracyrates. broken downbydemographicfactors,suchassocioeconomicstatus,race,ethnicity, of mediaaudiencesbasedonratingsorsubscriptions.Audiencescanbefurther proprietors. Mediaaccessincludescostoftoconsumersaswellthe also incorporatethepoliticalandeconomicinterests andculturalbackgrounds of of ownership,andthedegree ofdiversityamongtheowners.Thiscategorycan relationship thelevelofconcentration betweenproprietors andthegovernment, Media industrystructure includesstateversusprivatemediaownership,the impacts ofanoveremphasis onreporting quantifiableresults: Romania, Carothers (ibid., pp.114-115)enumeratesthefollowingnegative on theground. Forexample, inassessingUSAIDdemocracyassistance impressive reports versusadvancingsubstantive goals; reporting requirements haveresulted inproject planninggeared towards subtle, substantialfeatures; reductive outputreports focus onquantifiableaspectsratherthanmore " teaching tothetest" attitudes andbehaviors size P R O P O S E D

I N T E G R A T I V E

S O L U T I O N • • rigorously assessmediadevelopmentinitiatives,either individuallyorwhenused The broad rangeofmeasures thatcanbeincludedintheM&Etoolkithelp (e.g. Bamberger, 2000). weaknesses ofquantitative, qualitative,andmixed-modelmethodsofevaluation 2005). TheWorld Bankhasalsopublishedliterature thatexplores strengths and Communication forDevelopment(ICD)Programmes (Myers,Woods, &Odugbemi, research approaches, see DFID’s MonitoringandEvaluatingInformation effectively organizedanddeployed. Forapracticalandaccessibleguidetovarious There are manywaysinwhichquantitativeandqualitativeresearch toolscanbe with relevant expertise. from withinthesector, socialscientistsandpolicyscholars,otherstakeholders development interventionsrequire increased collaborationamongprofessionals research methodsandtakingaccountofthestructure andcontentofmedia Assessing therelative strengths andweaknessesofqualitativequantitative representativesand inputfrom bothlocalandinternational canbesolicited. revisiting inforthcomingbroad-based gatheringsofthesectorwhere feedback project-specific M&Einitiativescanbesubsumed.Certainly, theseprioritiesrequire using sector-wide indicatorstodrawoutconceptualprioritiesunderwhich The M&Etoolkitproposed earlierresponds toDavis’ lastrecommendation by a frameworkthataccountsforlinkagesbetweenproject andsector-wide interventions. methods; takingstockofbothstructure andcontentofinitiatives;constructing of indicators;usinganappropriate mixofqualitativeandquantitativeresearch monitoring andevaluationprocess; ongoinggrassroots participationinreformulation by offering thefollowingfiveM&Eprinciples:cultivatinglocalownershipof Alan Davis(2005)addresses theseconceptualizationandmethodological concerns and choosingappropriate research methods. of carefully deliberatingsectoralpriorities,conceptualizingindicatorsofsuccess, positions andtheircorresponding policypreferences underscore theimportance The dangersof support ofdiverseprogramming (ibid.). European countries’provision ofstatefinancingtopublicservicebroadcasters in freedom istheU.S.preference forfree marketsafeguards versusmostWestern freedom. Anotherexampleofdisagreement regarding thedefinitionofpress and statesupporttomediaoutlets(i.e.France)are necessarilyopposedtopress Bacha questionstheargumentthatpoliticalpartyownership(i.e.Scandinavia) of thePress andU.S.biases,Holtz- asanexampleofindicatorwithWestern press freedominexactlythesameway" in thevariouspartsofworld…evenestablisheddemocraciesdonotinterpret Christina Holtz-Bacha(2005)writesthat largest organizationswhichgeneratetheseindicatorsare basedintheWest. unrepresentativerisk ofadvocatinginternationally standards, especiallysincethe broad-based agreementWithout onthesector’s indicatorsofsuccess,werunthe Another criticalissueinvolvestheideologicalbasesofcompetingapproaches. S requirements, resulting inself-doubt. perception thatthedonordoesn’t trustlocalpartnersgivenoverly-detailed misstatement ofactualresults toconformdonorexpectations; "teaching tothetest" and overrepresenting particularideological (p. 2).CitingFreedom House’s Freedom "press freedomisunderstooddifferently 84 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 85 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact CONCLUSION freedoms ofspeechand media development require revisiting.” interpretations of of thepressin “Contending “Contending because theyprovide thebenefitsofbeingableto in conjunctionwithothermethods.Useofmultiplemethodscanbeemployed Categorizing thetoolkitinterms ofthethree areas discussedabovecanfacilitate priorities, weproposed three categoriesforanM&Etoolkitmediadevelopment. After reviewing availablemacro-indicators and identifyingatentativesetofsectoral at timeswhentheyare most likelytobeusefulindecision-makingcycles(ibid.). no more" (Grasso,2003,p. 512).Moreover, M&Ereports shouldbemadeavailable should include"justenoughevidencetodemonstrate the pointsbeingmade,but evaluators’ reports beasclearpossibletopre-identified primaryaudiences,and studies and/orwishtobuildin-houseexpertiseinthisarea shouldinsistthat OrganizationsthatcommissionM&E (ibid.,p.8). those interested intheevaluation" "conclusions inaformthatmakesthemmostunderstandable andusefulto IfM&Ereports are& Freeman,1987, tobetakenseriously, p.7). theymustcommunicate essential tokeepinmind Lastly, efforts shouldbemadetoward effectively communicatingM&Eresults. Itis the other. one hand,andtotheunderlyingobjectives Whenever possible,indicatorsofsuccessshouldberelevant toparticularprojects, on media developmentprofessionals cancreate M&Emodelsforvarioustypesofstudies. Through partnershipwithsocialscientistsandothergroups withrelevant expertise, exposure tocommunityradioandvotinglevelsinruralareas. different from thoseusedinacountry-levelstudyoftherelationship between newsroom capacity-buildingintervention,willemployaresearch frameworkvery and cross-country comparisonscanbemore useful. Asingleproject, suchasa particular country. Insomecases,broader indicatorssuchasnationaltrend data different approach togaugingtheeffectiveness ofthesectorasawholein agenda. Forexample,measuringthepossibleeffects ofasingleproject requires a The questionsunderpinningM&Eefforts, therefore, determinetheresearch data thatpertaindirectly toindividualmediaassistanceprojects andprograms. Sustainability IndexandFreedom House’s Freedom ofthePress donotprovide development initiatives.Asmentionedearlier, measures suchasIREX’s Media in termsoftheirusefulnessmeasuringoutputsandoutcomesmedia Second, varioustheoretical frameworksandresearch methodsshouldbeevaluated to accommodatedivergentpositions. is notpossible,perhapsthesectorcanadoptanM&Eframeworkflexibleenough to reach someformofagreement through broad-based deliberation.Ifagreement not universal(Holtz-Bacha,2005),weneedtoaskwhetherthesectorshouldattempt of clarifyingthesector’s M&Epriorities.Sincedefinitionsofthesefreedoms are of speechandthepress inmediadevelopmentrequire revisiting forthepurposes by dialogueonatleasttwolevels.First,contendinginterpretations offreedoms the applicabilityofanalyticalframeworksandresearch methodsshouldbeinformed Increased cooperationamongpractitioners,academics,andotherexpertsregarding used are considered andacknowledgedinreports. essential, therefore, thatthestrengths andweaknessesofeachM&Emethod methods showdivergentresults, wemustaccountfortheseinconsistencies.Itis does notnecessarilyreduce uncertainty(ibid.).Second,whenuseofmultiple Corollary tothispoint,useoftwoormore methodsthatresult insimilarfindings issues. First,biasesskewingtheresults ofonemethodmayalsoaffect othermethods. Shotland, 1987,p.2).However, weshouldalsobecognizantofthefollowing questions…" mentary and reduce uncertaintyregarding M&Eresults (Mark& "who needstoknowwhatandwhen?" of themediadevelopment " address differentbutcomple- (Morris, Fitz-Gibbon, sector, on REFERENCES Communication Research,Porto Alegre,Brazi International Associationfor Mediaand the pressworldwide.Paper presentedatthe freedom? Thedifficultyofmeasuring freedomof Holtz-Bacha, C.(2004,July).Whatis"good"press 507-514. 4, 24, American JournalofEvaluation, Reflections fromexperienceinlargeorganizations. Grasso, P. (2004).What makesanevaluationuseful? =16&year=2005 http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page to 2006.RetrievedAugust30,2006,from Freedom House(FH):ofthePress1980 (pp.141-165). Washington, DC:World BankInstitute. The RoleofMassMediainEconomicDevelopment prosperity. InR.Islametal.(Eds.),TheRighttoTell: Djankov, S.etal.(2002).Mediaownershipand Forum forMediaDevelopment,Amman,Jordan. Discussion Paper. PaperpresentedattheGlobal in MediaDevelopment:A Davis, A.(2005,October).Monitoring&Evaluation Philippine CenterforInvestigativeJournalism Access toInformationinSoutheastAsia.: Coronel, Sheila(2001).TheRighttoKnow: http://www.cpj.org/index.html Retrieved August30,2006,from of AttacksonthePressfrom2003to2005. 2005; JournalistsMissing1982topresent,Cases Killed from1992to2005;JournalistsinPrison Committee toProtectJournalists(CPJ): Washington, DC:World BankInstitute. Media inEconomicDevelopment(pp.225-245). et al.(Eds.),TheRighttoTell: TheRoleofMass transition: Thehegemonyofeconomics.InR.Islam Carrington, T. &Nelson,M.(2002).Mediain Endowment forInternationalPeace Washington, DC:Carnegie The LearningCurve. Carothers, T. (1996).AidingDemocracyAbroad: (pp. 1-36).Washington, DC:TheWorld Bank. and QualitativeResearchinDevelopmentProjects In M.Bamberger(Ed.),IntegratingQuantitative for integratingquantitativeandqualitativeresearch. Bamberger, M.(2000).Opportunitiesandchallenges make thesethebasisfordeterminingefficacy ofmediadevelopmentefforts. toolkit approach, thesectorcantakeleadinarticulatingitsownprioritiesand and accesstomedia,legalregulatory frameworks.ByadoptingtheM&E practicesandmanagement,industrystructure of mediaassistanceonjournalistic tial inmakingvalidandreliable evidence-basedclaimswithregard totheimpact Bridging thepracticalandtheoretical dimensionsofmediadevelopmentisessen- implementation, andevaluationstagesofmediadevelopmentinitiatives. the waysinwhichM&Ecanbeeffectively incorporatedintheplanning, Partnerships withsocialscientistsandotherexpertscanhelpthesectoridentify stakeholders. broad-based deliberationamongmembersofthesectorandexternal http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d05803.pdf State). RetrievedNovember 20,2005,from measures proposedbythe US Departmentof Measuring Results,July2005 (thisreportincludes Challenges ExistinImplementingU.S.Effortsand Independent MediaDevelopmentAbroad: US GovernmentAccountingOffice(USGAO): docs/hume_report.doc http://www.dec.org/partners/evalweb/topics/media/ 2002. RetrievedNovember20,2005,from Media Assistance:BestPracticesandPriorities,July US AgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID): overnance/publications/pdfs/pnace630.pdf http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/democracy_and_g June 1999.RetrievedNovember20,2005,from The RoleofMediainDemocracy:AStrategicApproach, US AgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID): http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554 Press FreedomIndex.RetrievedAugust30,2006,from Borders(RSF):2005WorldwideReporters Without International Development. Programmes. London,U.K.:Departmentfor Communication forDevelopment(ICD) Monitoring andEvaluatingInformation Myers, M.,Woods, N.,&Odugbemi,S.(2005). Park,CA:Sage. Newbury (1987). HowtoCommunicateEvaluationFindings. Morris, L.L.,Fitz-Gibbon,C.T., &Freeman,M.E. http://www.ghfund.com/WNIOverview.php Nations Index.RetrievedAugust30,2006,from Money MattersInstitute(MMI):2005Wealth of Jossey-Bass Inc. Methods inProgramEvaluation.SanFrancisco,CA: Mark, M.M.,Shotland,R.L.(1987).Multiple http://www.irex.org/msi/index.asp August 30,2006,from 2001 to2005MediaSustainabilityIndex.Retrieved International ResearchandExchangesBoard(IREX): http://www.ijnet.org/FE_Article/home.asp August 30,2006,from of MediaLawsandCodesEthics.Retrieved International Journalists’Networkonlinedatabases International CenterforJournalists(ICFJ): 86 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact APPENDIX A: SOURCES FOR REVIEW OF INDICATORS

• Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ): Journalists Killed from 1992 to 2005; Journalists in Prison 2005; Journalists Missing 1982 to present; Cases of Attacks on the Press from 2003 to 2005. Accessible online at http://www.cpj.org/index.html • Coronel, Sheila (2001). The Right to Know: Access to Information in Southeast Asia. Manila: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism • Freedom House (FH): from 1980 to 2006. Accessible online at http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=16&year=2005 • International Center for Journalists (ICFJ): International Journalists’ Network online databases of Media Laws and Codes of Ethics. Accessible online at http://www.ijnet.org/FE_Article/home.asp • International Research and Exchanges Board (IREX): Media Sustainability Index from 2001 to 2005. Accessible online at http://www.irex.org/msi/index.asp • Islam, Roumeen, et al. (2002). The Right to Tell: The Role of Mass Media in Economic Development. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Institute. • Money Matters Institute (MMI): Wealth of Nations Index 2005. Accessible online at http://www.ghfund.com/WNIOverview.php • Reporters Without Borders (RSF): Worldwide Press Freedom Index from 2002 to 2005. Accessible online at http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554 • US Agency for International Development (USAID): The Role of Media in Democracy: A Strategic Approach, June 1999. Accessible online at http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/democracy_and_governance /publications/pdfs/pnace630.pdf • US Agency for International Development (USAID): Media Assistance: Best Practices and Priorities, July 2002. Accessible online at http://www.dec.org/partners/evalweb/topics/media/docs/hume_report.doc • US Government Accounting Office (US GAO): Independent Media Development Abroad: Challenges Exist in Implementing U.S. Efforts and Measuring Results, July 2005 (this report includes measures proposed by the US Department of State). Accessible online at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d05803.pdf

APPENDIX B: PROPOSED MEASURES IN MEDIA DEVELOPMENT (BY ORGANISATION OR BY AUTHOR) MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MEDIA MATTERS

87 APPENDIX C:AVAILABLE MEASURESINMEDIADEVELOPMENT (BY ORGANISATION ORBYAUTHOR) 88 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact 89 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact Development Sector & EvaluationintheMedia A RoadMapforMonitoring the kindofunconditional authoritarian regimes, remains verymucha it nolongergenerates rallying cryforthose Tdy whereasthe “Today, support itoncedid.” right tofreespeech democracy anda working under litmus testfor Institute ofWar andPeaceReporting(IWPR) Alan Davis, macro project withalogical frameworkwhichshowsagoalofgoodgovernance the sakeofclarity, wemightimagine ourselvescollectivelyengagedupononebig It makesmostsensetobegin withthecollectivegoalandthenworkback:For development tothe‘world outside’. the clearinterest ofthesectortobeableprove thecriticalvalueofmedia individual project andthe collectivesectorlevel.Ultimatelyitis,ofcourse,in that helpsguide,informandimprove theimpactofourworkatboth The response should,therefore, betolaunchanoverdue process oflearning supporting itaswellquestionsoveritsactualrelevance andimpact. is therefore facingadoublewhammyofsorts:confusionoverthewisdom incite andinflameastheymightsupportdemocracyor theruleoflaw. Thesector mayjustaseasily ambivalence toward themedia andtheargumentthatjournalists societies isnotthesameasproving it.Thisissueisfurthercomplicatedbyagrowing Believing thatthemedia’s function and role iscrucialintermsofbuildingsustainable needs oftheworld’s poorandchronically ill. commitment towards addressing theimmediate,overwhelming andtangible moreover, awareness inconcertwithanincreasing ofandpublic international same timetoimprove andmeasure effectiveness. Thesechangeshappened, humanitarian aidsector, whichunderwentitsownrationalisationprocess atthe donors beganfocusingonthoseabletodemonstrateimpact,thetraditional Driven bypoliticalandpublicdemandsforgreater effectiveness andaccountability, regimes, itnolongergeneratesthekindofunconditionalsupportoncedid. a litmustestfordemocracyandrallyingcrythoseworkingunderauthoritarian the Communistbloc.Today, whereas therighttofree speechremains verymuch ago whenitwasidentifiedwiththestruggleforindividualandpoliticalrightsin outofthesamizdateraageneration The mediadevelopmentsectorwasborn irrelevancy inanincreasingly competitiveworld. or simplyunabletodemonstratebenefitwillfindthemselvesconsigned wherever possible;Fourthly,learning ifitisnotalready happening,thoseunwilling others; Thirdly, ifitisseriousaboutitsworkneedstodevelopandapplynew responsibleextends tothoseitaskstrustandfundwhoare to inturn to help,andinwhosenameitseekssecures support;Secondly, thisduty of itswork:Firstlyandmostobviously, ithasadutytodeliverthoseprofesses start prioritisingmonitoringandevaluationrooting itasacore competency There are atleastfoursolidreasons whythemediadevelopmentsectorneedsto Director ofStrategy&Assessment, and democratic development (see figure 1). If we were to continue the logical framework analogy, our project purpose would therefore be to develop media that is more effective in its support of that goal. Outputs would include building the skills and capacity of the media itself; ensuring the media is fully working to exploit the skills and capacity we provide –and finally, improving the media’s ability to impact and effect the governance and development sectors in their widest meaning.

Developing Figure 1 into a full log-frame may provide us with a useful debating and reference point for the sector, as well as prove helpful in testing the validity of large-scale projects before they move off the drawing board. It should even prove helpful to individual groups to locate, develop and justify their own work. Completing the log-frames would naturally require us to identify appropriate indicators and monitoring processes for each stage, as it would design three separate strands of activities to feed into and deliver the three separate outcomes. The activities themselves would comprise our individual projects that contribute to the whole. Unfortunately, log-frames are traditionally seen as external imposi- tions and hurdles to be overcome at the project submission stage: The level of discipline required usually results in us regarding them as inconveniences rather than as the critical planning mechanisms they really are. And yet, if we are really serious about assessment, we need to rehabilitate the log-frame and acknowl- edge it is as much an integral part of our toolkit as a spirit -level is to a builder.

ESSENTIAL M&E INTERVENTIONS

Having defined the area of our interest - from the project level through up to the collective impact we seek to have at the level of governance and democratic development - we can then determine three primary areas of activity to focus on in terms of measuring our effect (see Fig 2). M&E Interventions 1: The Benefit Transferred M&E interventions at point 1 in Figure 2 are among the easi- est to measure since they focus upon the straight-forward provision of skills, equipment, content or regulation at a project level. The transfer either happens or it does not. Skills can be measured, equipment tested, information produced and disseminated and regulation developed. Of course, even at this most basic of levels, the M&E challenge may require serious baseline research to ensure what is being proposed is

wholly relevant –be it training, equipment or regulation. SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MEDIA MATTERS 90 91 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact OBJECTIVE MEASURING facing adoublewhammy the wisdomofsupporting over itsactualrelevance “The sectoristherefore “The fsrs confusionover of sorts: it aswellquestions and impact.” M&E Interventions3 to itssuitabilityandtestimonialsfrom allthoseaffected andinterested parties. regulation, ourfocusmaybeonhowitisenforced, independentassessmentsas by thosetrainedandpossiblytheeffect ithasontheirnon-trainedcolleagues.With of training,thismightseeusmeasuringtheoverallqualitymaterialproduced the effect theyare havingintermsofdeliveringbenefits oroutcomes.Inthecase unionorthecomplaints’commission,weneedindicatorsmeasuring the journalists’ order tomaximizebenefits.Whentheissueistraining,regulation, thepress centre, everything savetheuseofequipment.Eventhenithastobeusedcorrectly in degree towhichnew-foundskillsorcapacityisactuallyapplied,problematic in area covered byM&E1isessentiallyclear, itislesssoinM&E2:Measuringthe If thestrategytodeveloppracticalwaysofassessingachievementswithin guide theplanningstagesof manyindividualprojects inthefuture. Insodoing,thistopdownapproachgreater couldhelp civic-drivengovernance. and economic strategies inM&E3-onemeasuring therole mediaplays inimproving political We mightthusconsidertryingto developtwinandcomplimentary governance. empowered ordinary citizensare, thegreater their abilitytohelpdetermine and militaryagencies,orbusiness.Thestronger civilsocietyandthemore thejudiciary,overall behaviourofauthority-beitthegovernment, lawenforcement forms partofgreater attempts toimprove accountability, transparency andthe hasbeendefinedverybroadly inFigureGovernance 2,toincludecivilsocietyasit anddemocracy,governance thegreater thepositionoursectorwillfinditselfin. greater thebenefitwecan deliverintermsofsupportingandfacilitatingbetter This istheconfluencewhere theinterests ofmanydonorsstarttoappear. The M&Eintervention3,welookatthe influencewehaveontheworldoutside. With M&E Interventions2 as isthevalueofinformationgeneratedandsuitabilityregulatory supportgiven. sector provides. Measuringthecapacityoforganizationsestablishedisalsocrucial acknowledging thatskillsprovision isonlyoneaspectofthedirect supportour managerial sideofthebusinessasitdoeseditorialsector. Similarly, weneed The needformore systematicandqualifiableskillstrainingappliesequallytothe to measure progress in skillstraininginawhollyeffective andobjectivemanner. culturally andregionally sensitive,thisshouldnotultimatelydetractfrom ourability ing according todisciplineandlevels.Whilecoursetestingmaterialswillbe abilities. We shouldthenconsiderdevelopingandharmonizingcoursesgrad- also valuableasadiagnostictoolinhelpingusdeterminedifferent needsand recipient andnottheprovider. Thecomparativenature ofobjectivemeasuringis which measure theimpactoftrainingprovided from thepointofview dardized andinter-linked trainingmodulesandobjectivemethodsofassessment of trainingprovided. There istherefore astrong casetoarguedevelopstan- without clearindicatorsrelating toeitherthelevelofskillsachievedorquality Subjective assessmentinareas where overallstandards are lackingmeansweare dependent uponsuccessintheNationalCouncilforTraining exams. ofJournalists In theUK,career progress withinlocalandregional printmediahaslongbeen As proficiency inlanguagescanbetested,sotooproficiency inmediaskills: ‘governance’, : TheBenefitApplied : The BenefitBeyond and theotherthatlooksat media’s abilitytosupport A PRACTICAL ROUTE FORWARD

Developing proper assessment systems, standards and mechanisms and ensuring they are rooted properly and adopted as best practice, will be a sustained process requiring proper research, consultation, debate and learning across the sector. It will also require the appropriate resources. With the parameters of the challenge and interest now broadly defined, practical work needs to start as a matter of urgency: Results will neither be immediate, nor will they be the product of any single organi- zation. Rather, the greater the process of collaboration and consultation, the more legitimate and relevant the process of developing new measures and systems will be. The next step is to identify and enable key drivers of this process to focus joint energies upon developing ways to monitor and evaluate work at both the micro and macro level. Given the urgent need for tools and mechanisms to measure each, there is no reason why work should not begin simultaneously upon both. These twin pillars are envisaged as a media and governance index designed to support and inform our work as a group and the development of a wholly practical guidebook aimed at individual organisations and practitioners working at the micro level. Other key pillars for future focus may include curriculum development and a training of trainers (TOT) institute to foster quality-controlled international standards in journalism teaching and development. The employees of separate organizations representative of the sector and comprising serious representation from Southern-based organisations should be the key drivers of this project. They should work jointly upon both pillars and in concert with steering/advisory groups comprised of nominated representatives from all other interested parties quite possibly including those beyond our sector.

MEDIA & GOVERNANCE INDEX

“The need for more The concept of an index which measures media’s ability to impact governance was developed by IWPR and floated as an idea at the Global Forum for Media systematic and qualifiable Development meeting in Amman in October 2005, as part of a possible strategy skills training applies to improve the collective impact of the media development sector. Whilst there equally to the managerial are existing excellent indices which measure media freedoms and sustainability (Freedom House and IREX respectively), we are presently unable to measure and side of the business as it determine objectively media’s influence within societies –and specifically its does to the editorial sector.” relationship to governance and overall development, country to country. The basic concept of a Media-Governance Index envisages a scale of influence that directly relates and feeds into each of the six dimensions of governance as identified by the World Bank: i) Voice and Accountability; ii) Political Instability and Violence; iii) Government Effectiveness; iv) Regulatory Quality; v) Rule of Law, and, vi) Control of Corruption. Given our stated belief that stronger civil society and individual empowerment are key aspects of ensuring good governance, it remains to be seen whether it can be fully incorporated under ‘voice’ or whether a seventh dimension of governance may be necessary. Scoring may be developed and delivered through a full range of aggregate indicators that would themselves be based upon a wide range of data sources and variables. These indicators will draw off existing and new data sources as well as results of substantial, wide-ranging and fully-weighted perception-based analysis. It is foreseen that such an index will look at the media as a whole – and might also break down scoring between state and non-state media. The index will need to be capable of measuring negative as well as positive impacts of media activity in the target country – producing a negative score where overall media behaviour is found to be working against governance and possibly even promoting conflict. SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact MEDIA MATTERS 92 93 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 2: How Media Matters: Measuring its Impact RISKS PRACTICAL MONITORINGANDEVALUATION HANDBOOK sector needstomoveforward ontheseorsimilarprojects asamatterofurgency. greatest riskisignoringtheclearandpressing factthatthemediadevelopment tools willthemselvesevolve andchangeovertime.Ultimatelyhowever, byfarthe the opposite.Creativity, andparticipation will drivethisprocess and the learning The intentionbehindthisproposal anddevelopingM&E know-howisprecisely prescriptive approach thatthreatens allinnovation andcreativity withinthesector. regard totheopinions ofthosewhomayfearsuchastrategywillleadtowholly fully withthedonorcommunity. Mostimportantly, itwillalsohave to paydue account oftheinterests and opinionsofstakeholders,project leaderswillconsult outside successesandexpertisewherever relevant. Aswellashavingtotakefull build thesetwinpillarswillconsequentlyincorporateknow-how andbuildupon Anyproject to ability toincorporatefullconsultation,participationand learning. The successofbothinitiativesdetailedabovewillbeheavily dependentupontheir in year2,andwillprovide abasisforseriousM&Etrainingacross thesector. impact measurement systemswherever relevant. Thebookwillbefurtherexpanded all relevant stakeholders–includingtheuseofparticipatoryapproaches andaudience practise. Fullregard willbepaidtoward ensuringassessmentmechanismsinvolving into aconciseyetcomprehensive bookthatprovides athorough grounding inbest evaluation andproject developmentexperience,willbelookingtodistilfindings of consultationandtesting.Theauthorswhothemselvesoffer substantialwriting, organizations–andwillinvolveafullparticipatory processfrom Southern-based proposed bookwillbeguidedbyasteeringcommitteewithsubstantialrepresentation standards andindicatorsinthehumanitariansector1990s.Theauthorsof the GFMD,itwilltakeasitsmodelSphere project whichdevelopedbestpractice the collaborationinvolvedinproduction process. at Aspresented byInternews The successofthebookwillinverylargepartbedeterminedbyitsrelevance and those involvingregulatory andlegalsystems. ways ofmeasuringtheeffect ofcontentandproduction-based projects aswell have actuallybeenapplied.Thefocuswillnotsimplybeontraining,butalso skills transference, skills anditwillalsoassistmeasurement ofhownewly-learned benefit tothoseinterested indeterminingthevalueofprojects focusingupon provide practitionerswithmuchneededadviceandpracticalsupport.Itwillbeof an interlinkedandcomprehensive toolkitofactivitiesandindicatorsdesignedto the mostrelevant andbeneficialprojects possible.Itsultimateaimistoprovide development practitionerstheworldover, tohelpensure theydesignanddeliver This isenvisagedasthefirst-everattempttoprovide apracticalguideformedia needed todeterminethedegree towhichthisisactuallypossible. the IREXMediaSustainabilityIndex.Aprocess ofdevelopmentanddiscussionis index couldcomplementandperhapsevenbebuiltontoexistingindices,suchas work already inprogress inrelated areas, itwouldbepreferable iftheresulting Given thatthisproject isdesignedasasectoralinitiative,andtakingintoaccount anddevelopment. institutionsworkinginthefieldofgovernance international community–particularlythose it isanimportanttoolforagentsoftheinternational cation andlogicinfuture project proposals. Theindexwillalsobedesignedtoensure effectiveness andchallenges,itwillpromote agreater degree ofdiscipline,appli- if so,inwhatwaysandwhichareas. Aswellashighlightingstrategicareas of and alike, demonstratingwhetherthemediaisfoundtobeimpactinggovernance Equally, theindexwillactasavaluablediagnostictoolfordonorsandpractitioners sector willapplyitself–seekingtocollectivelyimprove countryscores overtime. Most importantly, theindexwillactasanobjectivebenchmarkagainstwhichour How Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 95 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences and IndependentMedia Environment ForFree The Enabling Section 3:ChallengesinMediaMatters:PractitionerExperiences THE LINKBETWEENFREEANDINDEPENDENTMEDIADEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS COLLEGE LAW claim -certainlythegeopolitical claim-forunencumbered mediatotheirrole in Some maywishfree andindependentmediafortheir ownsake.Butmosttiethe are supportedbywhatsources ofpowerormoneyandwithwhatobjectives. whom. Putdifferently, whatnew oradditionalsuppliersinthemarketforloyalties public marketplaceofideas.Thequestionthenishowthe marketisopenedandto ensuring thatthere isaccess foragroup ofvoicesnotpreviously includedinthe as acriticalelementofthemonopolyoverpower. Inmanysocieties, reform means previous monopolyoroligopoly ofpower, includingthemonopolyoverinformation essence oftransitionstogreater democracyisthefragmentationordestructionofa (or evenprivatetosomeextent),intheproduction ofcontent.Frequently, the degree ofeditorialdiscretion, notsubjecttooutsideinterference whetherpublic ship bythestate.Media‘independence’goesbeyondthis, toindicateanoptimal The notionof enables mediatoadvancedemocraticgoals. It issignificant,then,toidentifycomponentsofthecomplexlegalprocess that environment") Media canonlymatter–wewouldargueinanenvironment (an the environment inwhichtheyoperate. the role ofmediaand,asaresult, forthinkingabout thedesignandstructure of at different stagesofdevelopment,require different strategiesforthinkingabout in whichtheyexist,thatmakethoselawsmore orlesseffective. Different states, of However, eachsocietyhasaclusterofactivities,interactions also oftenanalyzedanddiscussedwithattentionpaidmerely totheirwording. advanced forthecreation ofeffective anddemocracy-promoting media.Theyare are frequently lookedatinisolationandasinterchangeable partsthatare separately formation ofmedialawandinstitutionsisonethemostimportant.Laws the mediaexist.Shapinganeffective democraticsocietyrequires manysteps.The depends onthemodeofoperationpress andtheparticularcontextinwhich This volumeseekstoshowwhymediamatters.Butunderstandingmatters Peter KrugProfessorofLaw, UniversityofOklahoma Annenberg School,UniversityofPennsylvaniaand Project forGlobalCommunicationStudies, Monroe Price, ‘free’ that allowsforavigorous, demandingandinformativepress. Director, media relates toownership: somethingotherthantotalowner- laws andthesetting "enabling group ofvoicesnotprevi- that thereisaccessfora da.Thequestionthen ideas. reform meansensuring opened andtowhom.” public marketplaceof ously includedinthe is howthemarket “In manysocieties,“In are free andindependent mediatodevelopandinspire publicopinion. societies willcomefasterand withgreater publicsupport andinvolvementifthere Finally, onemightarguethattheemergence ofdemocraticinstitutionsintransition democracy, butartificialstepsare necessaryinmanytransition contexts. more prepared. Free andindependentmediamay organicallyariseinamature that whenthewatchdogandotherfunctionsare necessary, themediawillbe because oflackexperience.Startingthemediaearly ontherightroad means mation-providing andvalue-transmitting functionsintheearlydays,thatmaybe media donotperformthefunctionofeffective watchdog,ofengagingininfor- a buildingblockforthefuture stablesetofdemocraticinstitutions.Evenifthe free andindependentmedia earlyintheprocess oftransitionmayalsoprovide public supportthatare not whollydependentonthestate.Movingtowards in themarketplaceofideas,instrumentsforarticulating valuesandsummoning Assuring theexistenceoffree andindependentmediamayrequire providing, inculcating andtransmitting watchdog function.Insomemodels,themediahasaresponsibility toassistin participate inthepublicsphere tofunctionrationally, and,ofcourse,performa requires principallythatthemediaprovide sufficient informationforthosewho for struggleandbargaining." media that,asBakerputsit, that emphasizecitizenparticipation,forexample,wouldunderscore theneedfor demand somewhatdifferent functionsofthepress. ofademocraticsociety Visions As Professor C.EdwinBakerhaswritten,different conceptionsofdemocracy the societyasensethattheyare represented inthepublicsphere. an additionalfunctionofthepress, namelytoprovide tovarioussegmentsof Itmightbesaidthatthere isoften and toserveasawatchdogongovernment. political role: toenlightenthepublicsothatitiscapableofself-government, The Commissionalsoidentifiedsummarytasksthatare centraltothepress’s • • • • • considered different profiles ofthe media,nospecificmatrixofpress developmentcanbe reinforcing orfosteringdemocracy. Becausethere are democraticsocietieswith performance. Thepress coulddooneormore ofthefollowing: Press," The Studyofthelate1940sHutchinsCommission, of buildingdemocraticinstitutionstoproceed healthily. press inwhatkindofsocietywillperformthefunctionsnecessaryforprocess independence canhavemanygradations.Itisimportanttoknowwhatkindof "free andindependent" right tobeinformed. Provide "Present andclarifythegoalsvaluesofsociety"; Project Be in partbyobjectivereporting; events inacontextwhichgivesthemmeaning," Provide in thelimitedsenseofcarryingviewscontrarytotheirown; part thatpapersshouldbe "a forumfortheexchangeofcommentandcriticism," identified fivepossiblefunctionsascriteriafortheassessmentofpress "a representativepictureoftheconstituentgroupsinsociety"; "full accesstotheday’s intelligence," "a truthful,comprehensive,andintelligentaccountoftheday’s "essential" as partoftheproject ofdemocratization.Development media canitselftakemanyforms,andfreedom and "proper values." "aid groupsinpursuingtheiragendasandmobilizing On theotherhand,amore elitistversionofdemocracy "common carriers" thereby servingthepublic’s of publicdiscussion,atleast a commitmentevidenced "A FreeandResponsible and meaning in 96 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 97 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences THE LIMITSOFFORMALLAW THE IMPORTANCE OFTHEENABLINGENVIRONMENT mental sectorthatisvital: Perhaps itistheexistence estv,atanymoment, sensitive, contribute most-oreven of avibrantnon-govern- “It may neverbeknown may “It creation ofaculture organizations thatare what elementsexactly journalistic rights.” democratic values. to infringementsof essentially -tothe than anotherinparticularcircumstances andataspecific momentintime. democratic institutions.Itiseasier tosuggestwhatrangeofefforts ismore appropriate designed torender themediamore vibrantcontributorstoatransitiontoward It isdifficult, ifnotimpossible,tomeasure the effectiveness ofaspecificintervention that themediabeindigenous, forthedevelopmentofdemocraticinstitutions. necessity ofacertainkindmediastructure, sometimesincludingaprerequisite of particularformslawforfree andindependentmedia.Italsopresumes the The veryideaofanenablingenvironment formediareform assumestheimportance about thevalueandfunctioningoffree speechanditsoperationinthesociety. the role thatthemediacan play. Theprocess mustencourageariseinconsciousness laws mustbeenactedasadrama,teachingdramathat educatesthecitizenryin will certainly, alone,beinsufficient. Thepublicactsofdraftinganddebatingmedia the shelfofanothersocietyandpluggingtheminto processes oftransition society andevaluatedinthewaytheycontributetothis process. Taking lawsoff way. Theyshouldbeviewedsubstantiallyashelpingtoconstituteamedia–sensitive Media lawreform andotherstepsthatare takenmust beevaluatedinaspecific rights. that are sensitive,atanymoment,toinfringementsofjournalistic sectorthatisvital:organizations it istheexistenceofavibrantnon-governmental most -orevenessentiallytothecreation ofaculture ofdemocraticvalues.Perhaps the languageofopenness.Itmayneverbeknownwhatelementsexactlycontribute legal frameworkmaybehelpful.Manyare theauthoritarianregimes thatmastered mation. Goodmedialawsalonedonotmakeacivilsocietyhappen,though are easiertoidentifythanthosethatencouragetheproductivity anduseofinfor- society from allowingsuchaculture todevelop.The toolsofspeechrepression avails itselfofthem?Itiseasierandclearer toseewhatnegativestepspreclude produces acitizenrythatnotonlyhasthesources tobeinformedbutalso,infact, What isitthatmakesonesocietyopenandtolerantnot? print media,haddeclined. euphoria, insomesocieties,thezestfornewsaboutpublicevents,atleast increases atthenewsstand,asocio-culturalfactorofnoteisthatafterperiod enjoyed greater freedoms. press declinedprecipitously inpost-SovietRussia,eventhoughnewspapers environment istheresponse ofthecitizenry. Forexample, readership oftheserious respected andreceived. Inthissense,anotherimportantfactorfortheenabling the interactionbetweenlawandhowitisinterpreted andimplemented,howitis action betweenwhatmightbecalledthelegal-institutionalandsocio-cultural, Whatareimportant). aspects is true acr free, pluralistic,andindependentthemediacanbe(thoughallofthesestructural newsprint, orcontrol overthemeansofdistribution)rarely everdeterminehow alone (by subsidy,givers alone,orefforts bythehostgovernment deliveryof in questionmustvaluetherole thatthemediaplay. Lawalone,efforts ofaid- media willfunction.Forfree andindependentmediato sary forthedevelopmentofcivilsociety, buttheyalonedonotguaranteehow Laws thatcreate thestructuralunderpinningsforindependentmediaare neces- Though thishappenedinlargepartbecauseofprice oss theboard isthatthere isacloseinter- "work," the community vehicle bywhichgovernment simply provideyetonemore ADMINISTRATIVE PROCESS:FAIRNESS, IMPARTIALITY, ANDOBJECTIVITY RULE OFLAW “The ruleoflawdoesnot “The the powerofgovernment, principles thatconstrain oblige ittoconductitself can wieldandabuseits prescribed andpublicly according toaseriesof wsm oe;tothe awesome power; otay itestablishes contrary, known rules.” Neil Kritz restricted Theprocess forlicensingnews media alongbasictenetsoffairness. making thatitinvolvesthe exercise ofdiscretion However, thisfreedom mustbe decision making.Itisofcourse inherent inthenature ofadministrativedecision participants. Ruleoflawprecepts shouldpermeatethe fabricofgovernmental The administrativeprocess forall mustbegrounded inacommitmenttofairness that thepartieswithwhomtheydealare proper financialpartners. development ofcredit, and thecapacitytohavesecured interests ortoinsure entities dependonlawsrelating totheissuanceofownershipshares, the ownership andcontrol. And, ofcourse,astheybecomemore successful,these Broadcasters andpress property enterprisesdependonreliable rulesconcerning denied basedontheapplicationoftransparent andconsistentcriteria. opening ofaforeign bankaccount,thensuchalicenseshouldbeissuedor must operateassmoothlypossible.Ifaspeciallicenseisnecessaryforthe which itisimpossibletooperateasanenterprise.Allthelawsregulating business often quitesubstantialbusinesses.Theycannotfunctioninanenvironment in Effective mediaenterprisesare businessesaswell instrumentsofspeech,and apply thelawsarbitrarilyorare completelyoutsidetheboundariesoflaws. media freedoms comesnotfrom badlaws,butfrom administrativeactsthat fundamental principleof achievement oflegislativeobjectives.Therefore itmust operatepursuanttothis grounded inalegalbasis.Thepurposeofpublicadministrationistofacilitatethe under theirauthority. Theadministrativeactsofpublicinstitutionsmustbe Furthermore, publicadministrationmustconformtolegalnormsandactonly are unclear, confusing,orcontradictory. media independencemayhinderitbyincreasing thepossibilityofabuseifthey simplicity andclarity, dissemination,andaccessibilitylawsdesignedtofoster the languageandcontextofmedia-related statutesintermsoftherulelaw: legislative draftingexpertise.There are three mainbenchmarksforevaluating clear legalrules.Thus,great attentionshouldbedevotedtothedevelopmentof must beequippedwiththenecessaryassistanceandskillstodevelopcoherent, parent. Thosepublicbodiestowhichlegislativepowershavebeendelegated the conductofpublicauthoritiesandprivatepersonsmustbeaccessibletrans- In anenablingenvironment, thegenerallyapplicablenormativeactsthatgovern impartialityandobjectivity,administrative process offairness, andjudicialsupport. the ruleoflaw, ataminimum,incorporatesclarityandaccessibility, legalnorms,an ated withdemocracyandlegality, anditsfocusisverymuchonprocess. As Ruleoflawisthereforefundamental fairness. intrinsicallylinkedtovaluesassoci- The goalsofalegalsystemcommittedtotherulelaware predictability and according toaseriesofprescribedandpubliclyknownrules." principles thatconstrainthepowerofgovernment,obligeittoconductitself ernment canwieldandabuseitsawesomepower;tothecontrary, itestablishes ten, the statetoolstopursuelegitimatepublicobjectives.AsNeilKritzhaswrit- that impedesthefree exercise ofarbitraryrulewhileatthesametimeproviding Law canbeeitheraninstrumentofunbridledpublicauthority, oramechanism "The ruleoflawdoesnotsimplyprovideyetonemorevehiclebywhichgov- "legality." Perhaps thegravestthreat totheexercise of such, 98 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 99 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences THE LEGALENVIRONMENTFORNEWSMEDIAACTIVITY (1) effectiveness warrantattention: law isafactoreitherpromoting orimpedingnewsmediaindependenceand Four aspectsofthelegalenvironment inwhichnewsmediaoperateandwhere under theruleoflaw. And anindependent,effective judiciaryisessentialfortheoversightrequired substantive criteriathatare appliedimpartiallytoallparticipantsintheprocess. with theauthoritiesactingaccording toprescribed legalprocedural standards and outlets suchasradioortelevisionbroadcasters mustbeopen,objective,andfair, that hasthepotentialtoinfluencecontentindirectly; and vention bythepublicauthorities,eitherthrough Another setoflawsdealswithcontent-basedregulation, whichweviewasinter- alsorelatelicensing andaccreditation tothisquestionofeffectiveness. ofjournalists of personalprivacy, crimeprevention, andothergoals. information andinstitutions,withlimitedexceptionsfornationalsecurity, protection -controlledthose thatrecognize andguaranteepublicaccesstogovernment newsgatheringinclude condition ofnewsmediaeffectiveness. Lawsconcerning Newsgathering, akeyfunctionofthepress inademocraticsociety, isanessential nalists intheirprofessional activity, includingprotection against physicalattacks. use of access to the Internet bythepress, aswellbycitizensatlarge. use ofaccess to theInternet approval foruseofsuchfacilities.Anenablingenvironment wouldpromote the Service Providers, orspecific high transmissionfees,limited licensesforInternet through Restrictive stateshavesought waystorationaccesstheInternet, attractive toreaders. Thisisaquestionoftraining,availability, andcost. editors havesufficient access toinformtheirpublicationsandmakethemmore of theopennessasociety. and Onequestioniswhetherdomestic journalists Increasingly, isamajorindicator accesstotheinformation basesoftheInternet also akeyelementinanenablingenvironment. or privatepersons,andtheextenttowhichlegalsystem protects themis endure thethreat orthereality ofphysicalattacksuponthemfrom eitherpublic oftenmust thematterofphysicalsecurity: journalists The secondconcerns press freedom" jobsecurity,first relates tothematter of journalists’ andfocuseson their professional activity. There are atleasttwocomponentsofthiscategory. The Finally, there isanexaminationofissuesrelated in toprotection ofjournalists laws thatare influence. intendedtoshieldmediafrom external and therefore manipulationintheirapplication,orelse create theriskofexternal (that is,are content-neutralontheirface),butwhichhaveanincidentalimpact The third categorycompriseslawsthatare nottargeteddirectly ateditorialcontent whether anenablingenvironment exists. their methodsofenforcement represent ausefulyardstick bywhichtomeasure freedoms. and Thescopeofsuchcontent-relatedabuses ofjournalistic concerns conditions ofmarketentry, andregimes ofsubsequentpunishmentforperceived social, andindividualinterests, operatethrough forms ofpriorreview censorship, directly targetedatcontent).Theselaws,whichseektoadvancearangeofstate, actsthatare notgroundedmeans (governmental inlegislativeorjudicialnorms basis oflegislativeactsorjudicially-created norms)orthrough newsgathering; or the relationship between journalists andmediaowners. or therelationship between journalists (2) content-based regulation; "legal" (3) content-neutral regulation Laws concerning the Laws concerning means (thatis,onthe (4) protection ofjour- "extra -legal" "internal subsidy orindustry sectorsthatbiasoutput. them tobepotentialsubscribers –mediamaybecomedependentongovernment economy oravigorous economythatprovides workerswithsalariesthatallow aviableadvertising struggling mediahavemarked transitionsworldwide.Without support, thestateofeconomy ingeneralisalsosignificant.Financially To theextentthatindependence ofmediadependsonadvertisingorsubscriber interpret, andapplyinformation aspartofacivilsociety. in theconventionalsense,butliteracythatencompasses adesire toacquire, from it.There isaspecialkindofliteracythatmightbedemanded,notjust of theaudiencetotreat information wiselyandcriticallydrawinferences enabling environment. Indeed, mediaindependencemaydependonthecapacity that are availableare importantwhendiscussingthebroader elementsofan The characterofthecitizenryanditscapacitytousesuch elementsofthepress democratization process. a systemoflawsthatfacilitatethecontributionmedia canmaketothe citizen preferences are akeytothelong-termoperabilityofrulelawand This isanoutermostcircle oftheenablingenvironment: acircle inwhich living inafree society. foster tolerance,acceptance,andcomprehension ofthecomplexities broadcasters, andmotionpicture companiesinvest in campaignstoeducateand attitudes regarding free speechprinciples.Segmentsofthepress, largenewspapers, organizations acceptance speech normsare fragileeveninthemoststableordemocraticsystems,their rule oflawinthemediafieldhasitsowneducationalbenefits.Butasfree society hospitabletofree andindependentmedia.Theveryfunctioningofthe public understanding,perceptions, andpublicdemandthatundergirds a One importantelementoftheenablingenvironment iscontinuingattentionto unengaged inpubliclife,andwidespreadcorruption." unenforced orunjustlegalsystems,theabuseofexecutivepower, acivilsociety policymaking,unaccountablebureaucracies, nance ischaracterizedbyarbitrary processes, andastrongcivilsocietyparticipatinginpublicaffairs.Poorgover- ethos actinginfurtheranceofthepublicgood,rulelaw, transparent open andenlightenedpolicymaking,abureaucracyimbuedwithprofessional According totheWorld Bank, nance," The increased role ofcivilsocietymarksashiftfrom oversees legalconstraintsonstatepowerandtheaccountabilityofactors. Astrongthat are civilsocietyalsodemandsand independentofgovernment. appropriate andstableinstitutionsincreasingly relies onassociationsandgroups democraticsocieties,theprocess ofdeveloping sirable channels.Inmodern dishes thatare pointedtoprohibited satellitesorasatellitethatiscarryingunde- to democracy. Theserulesincludeprohibitions onsatellitedishesorpolicingof satellites, isanother The regulation ofaccesstosignalsfrom satellites,includingdirect broadcast highly censored seriesofwebsitesandservers. restricted toparticularphysical locations,andthecomputershaveaccesstoa other hand,theycan,andinsomesocietiesdo,maskapolicywhichaccessis cafescanbecomethenewcoffeehouses ofpoliticaldiscourse.Onthe Internet means ofgainingawidevarietyviewswithouttheintermediationstate. appears,atleastfortheelite,tobeoneofexpensive The Internet with governance involvingafarlargergroup ofparticipantsandplayers. with governance cannot be taken for granted. In the United States, non - governmental - cannot betakenforgranted.IntheUnitedStates,non like theFreedom Forumare constantlytestingthepublic pulseon "new technology" "Good governanceisepitomizedbypredictable, set ofruleswithimplicationsfortransitions "government" to "gover- 100 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 101 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences CONCLUSION environment isindigenous aetbcue ultimately, talent because, the answersmustalmost “The majorresourcefor “The enhancing theenabling always belocal.”always will lookforways tofurthertheprocess ofincipientchange.They will seek Many personswithinandwithout thestatewhofavordevelopmentofcivilsociety oppose thepublicpolicyassumptions thatunderliethiseffort executive branch.Inanysociety, there willbethosewhosupport andthosewho from aparliament,butotherformsaswell,including orders oractionsofthe What wemeanby"law"maytaketheformnotjustof legislationemanating culture ofcensorshiporits absence.Insomesocietiesthere islittleeffective law. which administersthoselaws,includingthecourts,regulatory agencies,andthe particular lawsthemselvesthatmustbeaddressed, buttheinstitutionalstructure In thisprocess, theconcept oftheenablingenvironment iscentral.Itnotonly media structures mayalsopromote theachievementofbroader politicalgoals. an enablingenvironment for independentmedia.Atthesametimethose development. Eachstepinpoliticalandlegaltransitions contributestothestateof some substantialandreciprocal waytothenature oftherelevant society’s political Thus, weassumethatthestepstoward anenablingenvironment are related in context inwhichtheselawsare developed. specific elementsofmedialawthatare partofmediareform andthelarger between mediareform andthegrowth ofdemocratic societies,examiningthe free andindependentmedia.We havesoughttoidentify therelationship reform. Theobjectivehasbeentoaskwhichstepsassistinthedevelopmentof for medialawreform, focusingontheenablingenvironment formedialaw Our effort hasbeentoidentifycertainkeyelementsofanenablingenvironment wouldordinarily becondemnedwithathome. for whichagovernment station, itmaybechargedwithprecisely thekindofcontent–baseddistinction makes contributionsbasedonthepoliticalapproach oftheprintmediaortelevision stations ratherthaninvestingininfrastructure. Ifadonorcountryorfoundation because ofsometheobvioushazards inherent in makingdirect paymentsto such aidintermsofapoliticalprofessional needs. projects). Thoseprograms providing greater direct materialassistanceusuallyarticulate instead providing mostlynon–materialassistance(training,advice, andcooperative Media programs financedbyUSAIDordinarily avoiddirect paymentstomediaoutlets, skills, andaddressing thelawandpolicyenvironments inwhichthemediafunction. building associations,givingattentiontomediainfrastructure, buildingbusiness and theformerSovietUnion,techniquesemployedincludetrainingjournalists, Europe objective voiceisneeded.Inanumberofcountriesincentralandeastern establishing emergencyradiostationsinconflictzoneswhere aneutraland There are entitiesthatspecialize,aswell,byregion. OneNGOspecializesin with newspapersandotherprintpublications. tions foster To some of organizationshavedevelopedthatspecializeinproviding technicalassistance. effective isthatanumber mediareform. Oneconsequenceoftheaidpattern and, followingthat,whattoolsexisttofacilitateanenablingenvironment for to askwhatformsofassistanceare mostusefulinstrengthening localmedia because, ultimately, theanswersmustalmostalwaysbelocal.Oneapproach is The majorresource forenhancingtheenablingenvironment isindigenoustalent demand are allelementsthatcombinetobringaboutsuchasituation. output. Education,literacy, tradition,desire, financialcapacity, andpublic media withoutapublicthathascontinuousappreciation oftheneedforits important, andtrustworthy. It is dif isavailable, a generalnotioninthesocietythatinformationaboutgovernment At itsbroadest, ofcourse,whatcountsisthedevelopmentacustomorattitude, extent, thisspecializationhasbeenalongindustriallines.Someorganiza- independent broadcasters whileothersare more expertindealing ficult tosustainexcellentfree andindependent These precautions are taken REFERENCES eds., Routledge,2001). Rozumilowicz, andS.Verhulst State (M.Price,B. Media. 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America, andPost-Communist Southern Europe,South Transition andConsolidation: Problems ofDemocratic Juan J.LinzandAlfredStepan, more democraticforms.Developmentofonewillhavetowaitday. related tothestagesofasocietyasitpasses,forexample,from statecontrol to Stone thatdecodeshowdistinctelementsoftheenablingenvironment canbe nature oftherelevant society’s politicaldevelopment.There isnotyetaRosetta steps toward changecanbespecificallyrelated insomesubstantialwaytothe Those committedtodevelopingfree andindependentmediahaveexplored how attention tothedevelopinginstitutionalstructure inorder tounderstandhowitfunctions. effectively fordesiredin lobbyinggovernment legislativesolutions;andongoing specialists from countriesthathaveundertakensimilarefforts; developmentofskills assistance ofmedialawspecialistsinthedraftinglegislation;consultationwith of howemergingeconomiclegislationwillaffect thedevelopmentofmedia; consideration include:theanalysisofcompetinglegislativemediamodels; In thespecificarea oflegalnormsandinstitutions,strategiesortoolswhichdeserve more comprehensively theneedforlegalstructures thatenablemediareform. havealsoencouragedasmallbutsignificant effort toaddress governments Western Institute, directly fostered thedevelopmentofindependentmedia.More generally, andtheOpenSociety established traininginstitutes.OtherNGOs,likeInternews Foundationhave these transitions.InstitutionsliketheIndependentJournalism in NGOs haveemployedavarietyoftechniquestoassistwillinggovernments means ofcommunicationinorder todisseminateinformation,opinions,andviews. 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EdwinBaker, "TheMedia Justice", supranote2,Chap.1 Transplants toTransformative Mertus, "FromLegal on 9September1999). by theCommitteeofMinisters (Adopted Information Services Communication and ConcerningNew Service "On UniversalCommunity Ministers, CouncilofEurope, 99(14), Committeeof Recommendation No.R 102 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 103 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences Development Strategies forMedia and governancefieldhas been seenincreasinglyas “Following theeventsof “Following promoting democracy hnee,democracy than ever, errs.Nowmore terrorism. /1 thedemocracy 9/11, the assumptionthat a counterbalanceto abroad iscrucialto of IllinoisPress, 2003);andMonroe Priceand Journalistic Excellence Journalistic Promoting IndependentMedia: assistance restson interests athome.” 2 served asconsultantstoUSAIDandassisted Media PowerinCentralAmerica(University Publishers, 2006);EllenHume’s strategic framework.Their2003bookisan ensuring security Peter Krug’s Notable amongthesenewercontributions and governance with theresearch thatinformedthe1999 2004); RickRockwellandNoreene Janus’ for DemocracyAssistance(Lynne Rienner 2002).Rick RockwellandNoreene Janus Missionaries: AmericanSupportfor (Washington, DC:USAID,1999).P. 2. Accountable Governance” outgrowth ofthatworkwithUSAID. for Free andIndependentMedia: Contribution toTransparent and to thefieldincludeKrishnaKumar’s “The EnablingEnvironment 1 of MediainDemocracy” Hudock, Ann, (Knight Foundation, The Media “The Role Strategies (USAID, help shapemediasectorsupport: The frameworksuggestedthatanswerstothree keyquestionscouldbeusedto to complement thestrategicframework. Almost 10yearsonthere isawealthofliterature basedoncurrent programs • • • • • • • • program were outlined: USAID’s ownengagementinthatarea, keyelementsofamediasectorsupport ing After reviewing therangeofglobalexperiencesinmediaassistance,andconsider- goodpractice. on international from experiencesacrossthat allowedpractitionerstolearn regions ortoreflect supported democracy. There were fewpublishedstudiesorcaseswithinUSAID that analyzedhowtheseefforts addeduptoanationalmediasectorthat experience ofproviding mediaassistancewithinUSAID,butlittlewrittenwork At thetimedocumentwaspublished,there were pocketsofoperational of USAIDstaff anditsimplementingpartners. field missionsaround theworld,andbenefitedconsiderablyfrom theexpertise media sectorsupport.Theframeworkdrew ontheoperationalexperiencesof development partnerswhowere thinkingaboutinvestinginandcarryingout "The RoleofMediainDemocracy". In 1999,USAIDpublishedastrategicframeworkwiththeambitioustitle The AsiaFoundation,Vietnam Ann Hudock, vibrant media) professional associations,andaneducatedreadership thatvalues and policyorganizations,mediawatchdogs,research institutes, Strengthening constituenciesformediasectorreform (includingmedialaw Shaping thelegalenablingenvironment Who iscommunicatedto? Who hasaccesstothemeans ofcommunication? Who holdspowertocommunicateinasociety? Supporting capitalizationofmedia Training andmediamanagers) (journalists Removing barrierstoaccess DPhil, AssistantRepresentative, 1 It wasintendedtoguideitsfieldstaff and 2 While research andpublicationshave the subsequentbookbasedonthatmaterial Mass MediainEconomicDevelopment, “Building InstitutionsforMarkets” entitled dtdb ome sa andpublished edited byRoumeenIslam contributions includeChapter10ofthe World DevelopmentReport2002, The RighttoTell: TheRoleof 3 Some ofthemostimportant by theWorld Bankin2002. and Times suggested thatblogsmight bemore powerfulinrestrictedTimes societiessuch whole tendstorepresent abroader viewpoint.Arecent articleintheFinancial lution maybelimitedbytheir fragmentation.Bycontrastmainstream mediaasa are notconnectedtooneanother, sotheirabilitytousher in aninformationrevo- courage peoplefrom trawlingthrough tofindwhatisrelevant tothem.Bloggers interest. Thesheernumbers ofblogscreates aglutofinformationthatmaydis- but notallare responsible, reliable sources ofinformation, orservingthepublic Blogs maybemore democratic inthattheyinvitefluidandopencommunication, stream media,evenifthey havechallengedorevenchangedthewayitoperates. But expression are essentialforstabilityandtheoverallhealthofexisting democracies. - someauthoritarian,otherssupposedlydemocraticoutlets forpeople’s non-violent concentration ofmediaownershipandinsidiouscontrols ofmediabygovernments report newsandexertpoliticalpressure. Inthewakeof9/11,andinface point forblogs’role alongsidethemainstream mediaandtheirpotentialabilityto was forced toapologizeforinadequatereporting. produced evidenceandargumentsthatthedocumentswere forgeriesandCBS question President Bush’s militaryservice.Conservativebloggers,however, power ofblogswhenhepresented documentson60Minutesthatcalledinto mass mediatoconsideritsownrole andoperations.DanRatherdiscovered the popular andinfluentialmeansofshapingpublicopiniontheyhaveforced democratic development.Forexample,sinceearly2001blogginghasbecomea sectors andchallengethepreeminence oftraditionaloutletsasinstruments Third the mediaandforsectorsupport. and civilliberties.Thesemore recent developments create newchallengesfor and provide politicalcoverforfurtherrestrictions on bothaccesstoinformation maytrumpfreeIn suchanenvironment, expression globalsecurityconcerns publicdiplomacy,for governments’ ratherthananindependentinstitution. The dangerthough,isthatmediaassistancewillfocusontheasatool is crucialtoensuringsecurityinterests athome. governance increasingly asacounterbalancetoterrorism. Nowmore thanever, democracyand fieldhasbeenseen Following theeventsof9/11,democracyandgovernance become more established,more hasbeenaskedoftheworkcarriedout. Second Global ForumforMediaDevelopment(GFMD). momentum tomediasectorassistanceasevidencedbytheconveningof fair elections,anti-corruptionandeveneconomicdevelopment.There isnowa goalsincludingfreehealthy mediasectorsupportsbroader and goodgovernance the sidelinesofacivilsocietysupportprogram oradvocacyefforts. Avibrantand Media assistancehascomeofageandisnolongerseensolelyasasub-setoron sector developmenthasemergedasacategoryofassistanceinitsownright. First providing mediasectorsupporthasshifted. There arethreefundamentalandsignificantwaysinwhichtheoverallcontextfor the originalframeworkwascrafted,however, haschangeddramatically. strategic frameworkin1999remain relevant. sharpened programs ontheground, thekeyquestionsposedinUSAID contributed tothedevelopmentoffieldmediaassistanceandhopefully " , the democracy and governance fieldhasmatured, and promoting, thedemocracyandgovernance media citizen journalists" , newandemergingtechnologiesbreak theboundariesoftraditionalmedia , and perhaps related, as the democracy and governance fieldhas , andperhapsrelated, asthedemocracyandgovernance assistance rests ontheassumptionthatpromoting democracy abroad as bloggershavebeencalled,willnotreplace themain- The broader contextwithinwhich 3 This scandalmarkedaturning 104 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 105 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences CONCLUSION: DEMOCRATIZING MEDIA effective way toapproach effective way democracy istoconsider can accessthemeansof how todemocratizethe disenfranchised groups media assistanceasa peaceful expression.” communications for “Perhaps themost means ofsecuring prepared forthe here, andsectionsofthistext,were initially their financialsupportandcomments Aspen Institute Project. Theauthorisgratefultobothfor media sothat 5 Research onthecasestudiespresented The EnablingEnvironment forFree (Washington, DC:USAID,2000). “Blogged Off” February 18/19,2006,W1-W2. 6 Monroe PriceandPeterKrug, Ford Foundationandthe and IndependentMedia for the2003StoneSoup on theoriginaldraft. 4 Trevor Butterworth, Financial Times, level of oversight the media can have over government functions. level ofoversight themediacanhaveover government discourse inthemedia, degree ofaccesspeople have toinformation,andthe media cancontributetodemocracy, considerationmustbegiventothequalityof not supportdemocracy. Inorder totrulyunderstandandappreciate howthe public mediaandhowitinteracted withindependentmediaorhowitdid nology, locallanguages,etc.).Theframeworkdeliberatelyleft asidetheissuesof channels thatare accessible tothegreatest numbersofpeople(appropriate tech- and urban-basedmediaconsumers,reflect abroad rangeofviews,using deliberately reach outtothe pooranddisenfranchised,movebeyondtheelite Absent from the1999framework ofmediasupportactivities,are programs that democratic institutionstoproceedhealthily." fortheprocessofbuilding of societywillperformthefunctionsnecessary and PeterKrugassert, may havemaximumimpactintermsofdemocratizing the media.Monroe Price support media landscape.Theysuggeststrategicopportunities where external The answerstothesequestionscanserveassignpostsonaroadmap ofthe • • • requires explorationofthree interrelated andfundamentalquestions: to account.Assessinghowdemocraticamediasystemisinparticularcountry views, supplyrelevant andtimelyinformationtocitizens,holdgovernments Democratic mediasystemsare onesthatprovide space forexpression ofdiverse possible todevelopmore targetedandmeaningfulprograms. drama andsong.Byspecifyingwhatkindofmediaadvancesdemocracy, itis and givevoicetothevoicelessthrough traditionalformsofexpression suchas Community radioforinstancewouldoffer localizedcontentandprogramming "mediation" New approaches are required thatlookbeyondthemediasectortosupport revenues whiledoinglittletoservethepublicinterest. on entertainmentprogramming todrawlargeaudiencesandadvertising suffers from corporateinfluence.Financiallysustainable mediamayrely heavily contribute todemocracy. control often Mediathatisindependentofgovernment "Independent" citizens withinformativeprogramming (ratherthansolelyentertainment). toaccount,fostersdebate,andprovidesfulfill itsrole inkeepinggovernments for peacefulexpression. Additionalfocusisneededtoensure thatthemediadoes the mediasothatdisenfranchisedgroups canaccessthemeansofcommunications assistance asameansofsecuringdemocracyistoconsiderhowdemocratize in supportingdemocracy. Perhapsthemosteffective waytoapproach media now issomeconsiderationofthelimitations mate goalwastocreate and recommendations forstrategicsupportrested onthenotionthatulti- be revisited andupdated.Namely, themappingofmediaassistanceprograms assistance, theframeworkitselfalsorested onsomeassumptionsthatshould While thecontexthaschangedsinceoriginalUSAIDframeworkformedia information notavailablethrough official channels. as IranorChinawhere theyallowpeopletopresent theirviewsandaccess Who isleftoutofthemediationprocess? Who ismediatinginformation? How isinformationmediatedinsociety? between citizens and government through alternative channels. through alternative between citizensandgovernment and "sustainable" "It isimportanttoknowwhatkindofpressin "independent" media doesnotnecessarilyorbydefinition and "sustainable" 6 "free" and media. Whatisneeded "independent" 4 media 5 C C Such supportcanpromote “Democratizing themedia “Democratizing A A takes onrealurgencyas disenfranchised groups. S S it givesgreatervoiceto peace andstabilityas E E

S S Bridge Mercy CorpsCivilSocietyNewsletter well asvibrant T T Mali U U Partnership Breeds Partnership,” democracy.” forefront ofcommunityradioin and 7 D D Asia 10 The followingsectionisadaptedfrom atnCot “OasisintheDesert: Layton Croft, research assistance ofCalvertJones. Alfonso GumucioDagron, interview and Y Y Sri Lanka 8 11 with theauthor, August4,2003. E-GOVERNANCEININDIA : : COMMUNITY RADIO: has notseensuchaproliferation radio stationsin of communityradios,but This informationon South Africa This sectionbenefitedfrom the independent mediaconsultant. 9 3 (SecondQuarter, 2001):7. There are 4,000community programming isadapted have beenthepioneers. from BillSiemering, have beenatthe Latin America Gobi Wave Africa Nepal The . . in partnershipwithLandO’LakesandPACT. economic developmentproject fundedbyUSAIDandmanagedMercy Corps was partoftheGobiRegionalEconomicGrowth Initiative,afive-yearrural lations torelevant economicinformation.GobiWave, asthestationisknown, enterprise, demonstratesthepowerofconnectingpreviously unreachable popu- The GobiWave InformationCenter, Mongolia’s firstindependentregional media media, newrealms ofpossibilitiesare openinguptofosterdemocraticmedia. entertaining programming, allforanannualbudgetof$8,000. a day, Gobi Wave serveslocalneedsthrough acombinationofinformativeand andsolicitedsupportfrom thesepartners.Onair 12hours and localgovernment) institutions(includinglocalNGOs,businesses, tionships withlocalandinternational and technicalassistancetohelpthestationgetunderway. forgedrela- Journalists with criticalinformationtoimprove theirlives.TheGobiInitiativeprovided training sustainable mediaenterprisethatcouldprovide herders andotherGobipeople theradiowascreatedgroup asanindependent,financially ofGobijournalists, with acomputer, modem, andsomebackuppower, intheDharvillages. initially establishedtwentyinformationkiosks,eachequipped The government Dhar villagers,about60percent ofwhomliveunder thepovertyline. totheisolated the aimtobringinvaluable information, andimproved governance team calledtheGyandootSamiti, theproject launched aregional Intranetwith inlate1999.Managedbyanoperational by theMadhyaPradeshgovernment project commissioned Gyandoot isacommunity-based,government-to-citizen focus ofmediaassistancefrom supportingonly contribute todemocracymore sothanthemainstream media.Bybroadening the to accomplishoutsidethemainstream media,andinsomecases,howthesecan community radio.Someoftheseprovide powerfulindicationofwhatispossible Already examplesexistofdonorssupportingnon-traditionalmechanismssuchas media sectorsupport. Assistance fortheseoutletsormodesofexpression shouldbeseenasintegralto forms ofmediationandcommunicationthatpromote andsustaindemocracy. cratic society, more attentionneedstobegivenuncoveringandfosteringother Just asbloggershaveproven tobeanadditionalsource ofmediationinademo- ness. information toimprove responsive- their livesbyensuringgreater government populations, providing them withinformation,andenablingthemtousethis The Gyandootproject offers anothermodelofconnectingpreviously underserved is aninstrumentthateasilyadapted. offers localizedprograms inlocallanguages,usesinexpensive technology, and Community radiooftenworkswhere otherradioormediadonot,becauseit it broadcasts. Wave hasprogramming thattouchesoneveryaspectoflifeintheregion where community airwaves. in LatinAmericaandotherregions where privatization threatens spacefor challenges nowforcommunityradioisthelegislativeenvironment, particularly complementary localformofpublicservicebroadcasting. Oneofthemain 11 Established intherural,impoverishedDharregion ofcentralIndia, 10 9 As such,communityradiocanbea 7 Established ontheinitiativeofa "independent" 8 and In short,Gobi "sustainable" 106 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 107 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences INDEPENDENT COMMERCIALMEDIA the lackofpublicawareness aboutGyandoot www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/bnpp reprint ofthePhiladelphiaInquirer’s civicdia- Philadelphia Inquirer “CitizenVoices ‘99” public opinion.Theconclusionsinthestudy 17 study forinformationabouthowtheproject limited. Atthestart,Centeradmitsthat look.html. Formanypersonalexamples,see the villagescouldbesurveyedtodetermine relying onjustthosesurveys,therefore, are logue onthe1999mayoralelection,spon- The World BankGroup pointstothis2002 Details ofthisproject were takenfrom the http://www.gyandoot.nic.in/gyandoot/out- meant thataverysmallsampleofusersin is faring,butthestudyitselfsomewhat Indian InstituteofManagement,“An not statisticallyvalid,andshouldonlybe 16 14 District ofMadhyaPradesh,India.” See http: The GyandootExperimentinDhar tions/working_papers/wp160.pdf. considered ausefulglimpseintohow Center forElectronic Governance, Center forElectronic Governance, sored bytheEditorialBoard andthe Indian InstituteofManagement, Development Institute,2002),20. Gyandoot isgenerallyviewed.See Technologies andGovernance: (Ahmedabad, India:2002),8-10. “An EvaluationofGyandoot” “Information Communication http://www.gyandoot.nic.in. (Ahmedabad, India:2002),7-8. Seeds ofE-Volution” //www.odi.org.uk/publica- Evaluation ofGyandoot” “Digital Empowerment: Gyandoot’s homepage, Philadelphia Compact. 15 (London: Overseas Anwar Jafri,etal., /Gyandoot.PDF. 12 Soutik Biswas, (2000), 13 Ibid. by thenumberofrequests forservicesflowinginfrom Gyandoot’s intranet. departments were oftendisorganized, inadequatelyequipped,andoverwhelmed revealedinto thestateofaffairs thattherelevant onthesideofgovernment (though generallysuperiortowhatitwasbefore Gyandoottookoff). Enquiries andlocalDharcommunities,government’sgovernment response wasstillslow while Gyandoothadsubstantiallyimproved theflowofinformationbetween conducteditsstudyayearlater,Electronic Governance thestudiesshowedthat, The PhiladelphiaInquirer presented education, jobs,neighborhood quality, safety, andbettergovernment. discuss theissuesthatinitial forumsrevealed tobe mostonpeople’s minds: project gathered hundreds ofcitizensinfollow-up forumsthroughout theyear to The PhiladelphiaInquirer Editorial Board’s providing more thanentertainment,andbyreflecting abroad rangeofviews. Commercial mediaalsooffer examplesofhowtoservedemocraticinterests by a week,and10percent within15days. responses toservicesrequested,government 25percent received responses within dents whohadusedthekioskfrom three villagesin Dhar, received immediate Development Institute(ODI)inmid-2001foundthat40percent of481respon- respond effectively totheGyandootsystem.AstudyconductedbyOverseas attempted tosolvethetrickierproblems relating to the government’s inabilityto Having addressed powerfailures andconnectivity, theproject designershavealso power outages,connectivity, response. andgovernment themainproblemsCenter forElectronic forGyandootincluded Governance, a World Bank-commissionedstudyconductedinthesummerof2002by encountered severaldifficulties thattheSamitiiscurrently tackling.According to projects usingIT,Like manypioneeringgovernment-to-citizen Gyandoothas response. village hadwaitedsixmonthswithoutagovernment pump mechanicpromptly arrivedtoremedy theproblem. Before Gyandoot,the village’s aresponse lackofdrinkingwatergarnered withintwodays,ahand thirty-nine households,acomplaintfiledthrough thecyberkioskregarding the increasing thetransparency Inonevillageof andresponsiveness ofgovernment. but alsoopportunitiesforfilingpublicgrievances,registering applications,and cyber kioskstoinclude,notonlyinformationaboutthemarketandjobavailability, local needs.Usingthatinput,theSamitiexpandedservicesoffered atthe public opinionabouttheviabilityandusefulnessofcyberkiosks,totrack communities itserves.To thatend,villagemeetingswere heldregularly togauge As Gyandootgrew inpopularity, itevolvedtomeetthechangingneedsof responses toemails. disappear intoinefficient bureaucratic channelsnowseeimmediategovernment Underserved villagerswhosecomplaintsaboutdeliveryofpublicservicesusedto armed withup-todateknowledgeofprevailing marketpricesfortheircrops. As aresult ofitsefforts, previously uninformedfarmersnowcometomarkets designed tocaterlocalneedsandbecost-effective andlocallysustainable. Covering nearlyhalfthepopulationofdistrict,informationkioskswere a civicdialogueonthe1999Philadelphiamayoralelection. 12 "choice frameworks" 15 But bythetimeCenterfor "Citizens Voices ‘99’" 14 on theseissues,modeled 17 The CitizensVoices 13 project promoted 16 18 frameworks seehttp: For more informationontheseissue //www.nifi.org. represent arangeofvoicesandprovide platformsforfree expression. As aresult, there isagreater needfordynamic,democratic information islimited. as itfacespressure messagesoritfindsthataccessto topromote government as vibrantdemocracy. Democratizingthemediaisbecomingevermore pressing disenfranchised groups. Suchsupportcanpromote peaceandstabilityaswell Democratizing themediatakesonreal urgencyasitgivesgreater voiceto pages andthewebsiteofPhiladelphiaInquirer. Thebroadened dialoguewascapturedconcerns. inavarietyofwaysthe required thecandidatestoreframe theircampaignstorespond tocitizens’ Citizen forumssuchasthesechangedthediscourseofmayoralraceand Citizen Voice’s participantsquizzedthemayoralcandidatesinatelevisedforum. compare theirviewswithwhatthemayoralcandidateswere saying.Agroup of deliberate onwhatshouldbedoneaboutthefiveissuesinPhiladelphiaandto At anIssuesConvention,CitizensVoices participantsusedtheseframeworksto benefits, costs,andcore values. Each issueispresented asasetofdistinctchoices,eachwithitsownlogic, on theguidesusedbyNationalIssuesForums. 18 media thatcan 108 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 109 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences Heroes intoEntrepreneurs Turning PressFreedom Affordable Capital: M E D I A self-sustainability “I deliberatelydo “I context achieving rftbe inthis profitable; not say thatthey not say is alreadygood

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B U S I N E S S a business. sake ofregaining balanceinthisarticle-torepeat thefirstsentence:mediais But, justafterputtingonpaper theprevious paragraph, Ifeltanurge-forthe environment. Theyparticipateinsettinganddefining thenationalagenda. economic development,treatment ofminorities,distribution ofwealthandthe corruption anddealwiththeissuescriticaltocountries intransition:health, and theeconomicaffairs of anationtopublicscrutinyanddebate.Theyexpose economies. Theygiveavoicetotheotherwiseunheard andopenthegovernment process andthepoliticallife ofthenation,andforfunctioningmarket They provide theinformation neededforcitizenparticipationinthedemocratic professional mediacompany isaprerequisite foranyfunctioningdemocracy. and developovertimeintoaninstitutionalculture. Theexistenceofthistype -that startwiththeirowners,leadersandcore journalists, and ethicaljournalism social institutions,withasetofprofessional values-acommitmenttotruthful are commercial enterprises,theyare muchmore thanthat:theythemselvesare for thesocietiesinwhichtheyoperate.Whileindependentnewsorganisations I assumethatnoonewilldisputemediacompaniescarryspecialimportance the transitionfrom newsoutlettobusiness. companies whichhaveshonebrightlyforashorttimebutfailedtomake foundingexcellentnewspapers,radiostationsandTV of great journalists outlet orguaranteethesuccessofamediabusiness.There are countlessexamples Unfortunately, couragealoneisnotenoughtoensure thesurvivalofanymedia one’s lifeforone’s fellowcitizens’righttoknow. abuses ofpowerandsuppression ofhumanrights;and,aboveall,couragetorisk Courage totellthetruthinhostileenvironments; couragetoreport objectivelyon always bethegreatest qualityshared byleadingindependent journalists. the developingworldinromantic andheroic terms, toimaginethatcouragewill Personally, likeeveryoneelse,Iprefer tothinkabouttheindependentmediain sports stadium,thefundamentalandplainfactisjustthat:mediaabusiness. different typeofbusinesstoproducing shoes,runningabankorbuilding While everyonerecognizes andagrees thatproducing newspapersisavery S a s a

V u c i n i c , Director, MediaDevelopmentLoanFund THE ANSWER,INMYMIND, ISSIMPLE:BYPROVIDINGABUSINESSSOLUTION -AFFORDABLECAPITAL. ACHIEVING THEHOLY GRAILOFSELF-SUFFICIENCY and togrow. Anundercapitalised company hasminimalchances ofsurvival.Inthis panies inemergingdemocracies needcapitaltobeproperly launched,todevelop Like businessesofanykind in theNorth-from Finland toCanada-mediacom- solid businessesaround the core valuesofindependentjournalism? the mostoftheirdedicationtoobjectivityandaccuracy byassistingthemtobuild mediasupportcommunityhelpnewsoutletsmake be: howcantheinternational sine quanon-thatithastobeself-sustainablethenext logicalquestionwould So, ifweagree ontheimportance androle ofthemediaenterpriseandcondition achieving self-sustainabilityisalready goodenough. meet. Ideliberatelydonotsaythattheyhavetobeprofitable; inthiscontext be abletoachievetheholygrailoftheirmarketYang nature andmaketheends to successfullyresist unduepoliticalandotherinfluences,mediacompaniesmust an independentmediacompanymustbeself-sustainable.To besociallyrelevant, editorial independenceand,therefore, theproper socialrole ofamediacompany: Given thisbackground, wisdomwouldclaim,there isonlyonewaytoensure that influenceto adecentwage,orevennotatall,whichmeans may beunabletopayjournalists tolosehisorherobjectivity.journalist Insomecases,strugglingmediacompanies objectivity from theinside.Itisnotsimplyalackofmoralstrength thatleadsa ultimate goal-bankruptcyatall.Itisenoughifitunderminesamediacompany’s pressure doesnotevenneedtobethateffective; itdoesnotneedtoachieveits Severe financialpressure canpushthecompanyintobankruptcy. But,inreality, this media company."financial strangulationstrategies"whichcanbethrown atastubborn punitive lawsuitsforallegeddefamation,there isawiderangeofwelldeveloped advertising from acriticalnewsoutlet,tobusinessmenorpoliticiansbringing just aseffective. bigbusinessoradvertiserswithdrawing Rangingfrom governments, and mediabusinesses-theyare alsocertainlymore difficult totraceandperhaps These dayseconomicassaultsare farmore commonthanviolentattacksonjournalists and otherinterests orvestedpolitical war isbeingwagedagainstindependentmediabygovernments operate" are simplyassassinated.Inother, muchmore fortunatecountries,asilent and"notwillingtoco- whoare seenas"stubborn" In somecountries,journalists – thatspecialrole themediacanplayinasociety-bringswithitevengreater challenges. As ifthisdualnature were notalready difficult enoughtomanage,their and marketYang, allpackedintooneinstitution. same timetheyhavetorunthemarketrace,justasanyotherplayer. SocialYing on onesidetheyhavetomeetthedemandsoftheirsocialrole, whileatthe enterprise, thedualnature ofmediacompaniesforces themtofaceahugechallenge: By virtueofsuchanimportantsocialrole beingplacedinthebodyofacommercial lead tothemclosingtheirdoorsnomatterhowimportant,uniqueandbravetheyare. of themarketand,ifnotsuccessfulinfacecompetition,ruleswillinevitably totherules bytherulesofmarket,havetoliveandcompete according are born to playbut,nevertheless,attheendofday, mediaisabusiness.Mediacompanies True, itisaveryspecifictypeofbusinesswithanenormouslyimportantsocialrole "just bend" (or both) seeking tocontrol theflowanddistributionofinformation. the editorialcoveragecanbecome-tosomeirresistible. " social Ying" 110 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 111 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences A RESPONSETOTHESHORTAGE OFAFFORDABLECAPITAL likely tobethesortthat I otcss theonly mostcases, “In available financingis comes withstrings attached.” led to a significant circulation decline. With thecompany facingbankruptcy,led toasignificantcirculation decline.With be finalisedby4pmeveryday, which madeitlesscompetitiveand,asaresult, capital bycarfordistribution. To meetthedistributiondeadlinepaperhadto printed thedailyinatown 100 kilometres awayand delivered thepaperto gulation. Forsixmonths,the newspaper’s publishingcompany-PetitPress - In doingso,itprovided one oftheclassicexamplesattemptedfinancialstran- printing houseinBratislavarefused toprinttheindependentdailynewspaper In 1995,underpressure ofSlovakia, every from thethenauthoritariangovernment it isamazinghowmuchcanbeachievedwithevenasmall loanorinvestment. building adamorhighway, and$50million cangetyoualongway. Infact, Financing thedevelopmentofamediacompanyisnot ascapitalintensive safest areas ofcredit provision. can claimontheircredit card business,whichisconsidered tobeoneofthe of surprise the to - losses opera and about$4.5millionininterest anddividends.Duringthewholedecadeof equity investments),collectingmore than$20millioninprincipalrepayments has provided $50millioninlow-costfinancing(intheformofloans,leaseand companies in17countrieshavebeenfinancedthedevelopingworld.MDLF Since MDLFwasestablished,more thana100projects for54independentmedia allow themtoreally servetheirsocialrole. enterprises from makingthe of theindependentmediasector. Thisshortageofcapitalispreventing media affordable capitalisthecore problem andthemainobstacletodevelopment The MediaDevelopmentLoanFundsubscribestothephilosophythatalackof only stopbeingpartofthesolution,theybecomeproblem. positive socialchangebecomealliesofvestedinterests. Andindoingso,theynot and lackofaffordable capital,independentnewsoutlets thatwere aforce for orinterests. Everyday,concerns duetonothingmore thanfinancialpressures financing onoffer willbedependentontheeditoriallinesupportingfinancier’s a contract,orpoliticianlookingforsupportivemouthpiece.Eitherway, the might beoffered towin byabusinesstryingtocurryfavourwiththegovernment available financingislikelytobethesortthatcomeswithstringsattached.Funds financial institutioniswillingtoprovide affordable credit? Inmostcases,theonly So whatoptionsremain foraradiostationthatneedsnewtransmittersifnoregular or conditionloansonprohibitive interest rates. not surprisingthatcommercial lenderseitherrefuse toprovide financingoutright and withmanycompetitorsunderlittlepressure toprovide itis genuinereturns, from ayoungbusinessinsectorwithpoorrecord ofeconomicperformance, companies haveeverbecomeviable.Whenpresented withaloanapplication provide investmentorcredit. Inmanycountriesfew, ifany, independent media Or there maybelesssinister, perfectlylegitimatebusinessreasons forrefusing to funds toanewsbusinesswhoseobjectivitytheauthoritiesviewashostile. byprovidingLocal financialinstitutionsoftenwillnotriskprovoking agovernment capital issimplynotavailabletomediabusinesses.There are manyreasons forthis. are thesame.Butfactisthatinalmostalltransitionalcountries,affordable respect, thebusinessofproducing sausagesandthebusinessofproducing news tions, only3%ofthetotalamountloanedandinvestedwere writtenoff as "real bankers". "quantum leap" This isabetterresult than somebanks to self-sustainabilitywhichwould SME. US$50 MILLION:ADROPINTHEOCEANOFDEMAND access tothe wide rangeofaffordable loans,equityfinancing,angelandventure Try toimaginehowtheindependent mediasectorwouldlooklikehaditopened to makeitavailablemedia companies. in thedevelopingworld: determinationofthosewhocontrol affordable capital the successofAirbusand stillstruggling-for-survival independentmediasector So, itishard toresist theconclusionthatthere isoneobviousdifference between more visible:halfoftheworld nowfliesAirbus. (and grants)ahostofconcessionaryloans.Adecadelater, results couldnotbe wants toassistthedevelopmentofastrong aeronautical industry, itsetsaside newly establishedandprofitable smallbusinesses.WhentheEUdecidesthatit later theresults ofthisinvestment becomeobviousintheformofhundreds of to localentrepreneurs viaalocalbankactingasanintermediary. Severalyears small andmediumsizeenterprisesinanyonecountry, itprovides low-costcapital private sectorarmoftheWorld BankGroup wantstoassistthedevelopmentof FinanceCorporation(IFC),the agencies, knowthiswell.WhentheInternational new discovery. financialanddevelopment aswellinternational Governments, would contributetoitsrapiddevelopment,onecanhardly claimtohavemadea By sayingthatproviding low-costcapitaltoanysector, includingthemedia, assistance, itsuddenlymakeslooklikeadrop ofwaterinanoceandemand. countries inwhichtheindependentmediasectorwouldbenefitfrom thiskindof the biggerpicture anddividethissamenumberofdollarsbythe media sector. Itmightappearsignificantatfirstglance.Butifyoutakealook of $50millioninaffordable capitalwhichMDLFhas provided totheindependent underestimate theglobalneedforthesefunds.Analyseasecondfigure media companytoachieveself-sustainability, weshouldnotbedeceivedand But, nomatterhowsmallthecapitalneedsmightbetoassistoneindividual advice, MDLF’s equityinvestmentinthisproject was$400,000. 14 millionlistenersalloverIndonesia.Inadditiontospecialisedtechnology radio networkhasgrown tolinkmore than450radio stations,withmore than a day-from newsandinformation,toeducationentertainment-whilethe Today, radionewsagencyKBR68Hproduces more than18hoursofprogramming generated inthiswayare splitbetweenthenewsagencyandmemberstations. advertising timetothenewsagency, whichitsellstoadvertisers.Revenues only thosepartsoftheprogramming theylike,allforfree. theyprovide Inreturn, created inJakarta.Eachmemberstationisfree topick,chooseandbroadcast radio networkwhichtheywouldfeedwithnewsandinformationprogramming vative ideawastolinktheexistinglocalradiostationsalloverarchipelago intoa KBR 68H,thenation'sonlyindependentradionewsagency. Theirbrilliantlyinno- formed the opening-upofmediainIndonesia,asmallgroup ofjournalists lasting impactcomesfrom Indonesia.AfterPresident Suharto’s resignation and Another exampleofhowarelatively smallinvestmentcancreate hugeandlong- Petit Press nowpublishesmore than30publicationsandemploysover550staff. the authorities,from largefinesandcourtcasestoattacksbytheintelligenceservices. found financialstrength, SMEwasabletosurviveawholerangeofintimidationby reinstated, itsnew- SMEwascompetitive againandthecirculation shotup.With theusualdeadlineof10pm to normal–infact,evenbetterthannormal.With refurbished printingmachineandinstalleditinBratislava.Suddenlythingswentback Petit Press tookaloanfrom MDLFof$350,000topurchase asmallsecond-hand 112 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 113 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences NEEDED: NEWFINANCIALINSTRUMENTSANDSERVICES GOING BEYONDDUEDILIGENCE Investment Notes"intheUnited States.AnyUScitizencannowpurchase this Earlier thisyear, MediaDevelopment LoanFundissuedtwotypesof"Free Press may indicateawayforfinancial marketstoprovide the capitalthatisneeded. good newsisthatthefirst financial instrumentswere recently introduced that news isthatthere isnomarket willingtoprovide thistypeoffinancing.Yet the The simpleanswertothisquestioncontainsbothgood andbadnews.The eventually beableandwillingtofulfilit(ifbusinessprospects really exist). that marketsshouldbeabletorecognise thisneed(ifitreally isthere) andshould tothemarketprovide uswiththeneededcapital?Generalwisdomsays turn simple -accesstoaffordable capital-andifitissomarket-driven,whydon’t we If theanswertoproblem ofthedevelopmentindependentmediaisso relationship hasended. most outofthefinancing,italsoleavesalastinglegacyoncefinancing support withtheborrower. Notonlydoesthishelpmediacompaniesgetthe tance organisationsandthedevelopmentofacloserelationship ofadviceand Thisrequiresplatform fortheirjournalism. long-termcommitmentbymediaassis- press freedom heroes intoentrepreneurs, enablingthemtoestablishanenduring to helpthemediacompanymakemostofitsloan.Thechallengeisturn specialized consultingandeventechnologyassistance-shouldbemadeavailable building inbusinessdevelopment,generalandfinancialmanagement,butalso monitored andothertypesofsupportassistance-inparticularcapacity But providing affordable financingaloneisnotenough.Anyloanmustbeclosely lasting viabilityoftheoutlet. provides forrepayments throughout theloanperiodand,ultimately, forthe plan willproject future businessperformance,setting outaroadmap that lender’s support-mustalsodevelopadetailedandrealistic businessplan.This management. Before anyfinancingisprovided, the mediacompany-withthe well asthecompany’s financialpositionandthevisioncapacityof qualityofanewspaperorbroadcaster,nity tocloselyexaminethejournalistic as A detailedinvestmentprocedure andextensiveduediligenceafford anopportu- media companyandwhichcanevencontributetoitsclosure. a loanthatcannotberepaid, onethatbecomesanunbearableburden fora is notfollowedinidentifyingaborrower, there isalways the dangerofproviding carefully examinedbefore embarkingonlendingand,ifaproper vettingprocedure When itcomestoimplementation,politicalandeconomicconsiderationsmustbe problems ofallmediacompanies. However, itcanbeaharshmedicationandisnotthesolutiontosustainability forinterestsdiscipline inorder andloanrepayments. togenerateadequateearnings focus onmeetingtheneedsandinterests oftheiraudiences,andenforces fiscal strategy forlong-termmediaassistance.Itencouragescompaniesto When theconditionsare right,loan-makingandequityfinancingisanideal an additionalbenefit. success story. Andthe capital. There wouldbenoreason foritnottobecomeanAirbus-typemarket "social Ying" of amediacompany’s nature wouldcomeas press freedomheroesinto “The challengeistoturn “The nrpeer,enabling entrepreneurs, enduring platformfor them toestablishan their journalism.” its future withoptimism. become atrend thattheindependentmediasectorwillhaveareason tolookat affordable capitaltoindependentmedia.Itisonlywhen attemptslikethese tion, andtheyhavethepotentialtosignalawholenewapproach toproviding But eveniftheseare justthefirstsmallsteps,theyare madeintherightdirec- left tostandalone,are notlikelytobringabouttheradicalchangethatisneeded. early tosay. Forthetimebeing,theseare justthefirstisolatedattemptswhich,if media inthedevelopingworld?Couldthisbeabeginningoftrend? Itistoo markets are warmingtotheideaofproviding affordable capitaltoindependent Could thesefinancialproducts beunderstoodasthefirstsignthatfinancial and sellitanydayoftheweekonZurichstockexchange. Francs, butthemostappealingcharacteristicofthisproduct isthatyoucanbuyit pendent mediathrough MDLF. TheminimuminvestmentinVoncert is100Swiss social component,as20percentoftheinvestmentwillbereinvested ininde- resultThe fortheinvestorisasimplebond-likeproduct thatincludesasubstantial ment amount)withaninvestment(theremaining 80%)inaVontobel swapnote. combines aloantoMDLFataninterest rateof1%peryear(20%theinvest- responsAbility MediaDevelopment", this unusualpartnershipisthestructured financialproduct provider responsAbility andtheSwissDevelopmentAgency(SDC).Theresult of partners: SwissprivatebankVontobel, Zurich-basedsocialinvestmentservices cial instrument,which-inadditiontoMDLFbrought togetherthree additional In Europe, MDLFhasbeeninvolvedintheissuingofamuchmore complexfinan- proceeds canbeusedforinvestmentsinnewspapersonly. note wasissuedincooperationwiththeWorld AssociationofNewspapers,and can beusedforinvestmentsinanytypeofmedia,whilethesecondinvestment and 10years.ThefirstinvestmentnotewasissuedbyMDLFaloneproceeds of 3percentyear;theterminvestmentcanbeanythingbetween1 MDLF willpayoneachnoteisdeterminedbytheinvestor, limitedtoamaximum bond-like investmentproduct. Theminimuminvestmentis$1,000;theinterest listed ontheZurichstockexchange.Voncert "VONCERT 114 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 115 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences Development inAfrica Professional ObstaclestoMedia Ideological, Legal,Economicand where countryconstitutions rs,butatthesametime press, that fundamentallybreach and/or thefreedomof recognise eithertherights frameworks andpolicies, retain andexerciselaws of freedomexpression quagmire offragmented constantly trappedina and contradictorylegal “The practiceofmedia “The in Africa istherefore these rights.” International FreedomofExpressionandMediaConsultant Jeanette Minnie, party -afew months aheadofthecountry’s nationalelectionin2004. They exposedhowfundsfor astateoildeallandedupinthecoffers oftheruling instance ofpre-publication censorshipoftheirnewspaper sincetheapartheidera. walking around, buthavebeenembroiled incourtbattles,includingthefirst walking around. intheSouthAfricanentryare Thethree alsostill journalists forachange,isstillfree, aliveand of cleaningupcorruption-andthejournalist, first cabinetministerinMalawitosuffer thisfateunderanewpresidential policy to payforhiswedding.Hewassubsequentlycharged, convictedandjailed-the funds ministerwhousedgovernment the corruptionandfraudofagovernment August byentriesfrom Malawi andSouthAfrica.TheMalawianstoryexposed Award in11Africancountrieswasjointlywon forInvestigativeJournalism But there islightattheend ofthetunnel.The2006MISAJohnManyarara new andslightlylessconvenientwayofstayinginpower. in practice.Insomeinstancesthese‘smokescreen’ democraciesare simplythe multiparty democraticsystemsinvariouscountriesexistname,butare subverted breach theserights.Inabroader contextitispartof thesamemalaiseinwhich of thepress, butatthesametimeretain andexercise lawsthatfundamentally constitutions recognise eithertherightsoffreedom of expression thefreedom and/or fragmented andcontradictorylegalframeworkspolicies,where country The practiceofmediainAfricaistherefore constantly trappedinaquagmire of the mediaare settled. these basicideologicalcontestationsaboutthedemocraticrightsandrole of freedom anddevelopmentofthemediainAfricawillnevertrulyflourishuntil checks andbalancestosafeguard thepublicagainstabusesofpower. Media executive, parliamentandjudiciary, playanimportantoversightrole inproviding the opposition"andnotasanindependent"fourthestate",thatalongwith the media.Privatelyownedmediaisfrequently as" perceived bygovernments resources aswellcontestationabouttherole andprofessional standards of problems existisnotindispute,fuelledbothbyalackoftechnicalandfinancial Conditions forthepracticeofmediavarywidelyinAfrica.Thataplethora Zambezi Fox: ONE AFRICA,DIFFERENTMEDIALANDSCAPES 1990’s that would imposeastate-controlled mediacouncil whowouldmakethe ofBotswana hasnotwithdrawndraftlegislationfrom thelate the government state control ofthemediaalwaysloomsinbackground, becausetothisday, competition betweenthestate andtheprivatesector. Furthermore, thespectre of in economictermsthere definitelyis.Thisisastraightforward exampleofunfair In legaltermsthere maynotbeastatemonopolyofthe mediainBotswana,but margin, andtherefore alsoattractsthebiggestsliceofadvertisingcake. Unsurprisingly, itisthebiggestcirculating newspaperinthecountrybyabig Botswana, however, hasnocoverpriceandisdistributedfree ofcharge. therefore havetobesustainedbyadvertisingincome.Thestatedailyin is ahard reality intermsofconsumerismmanyAfricancountries.Newspapers very low. Buyinganewspaperversusbuyingfood,orpayingfor publictransport, Cover pricesofprivatenewspapersinBotswana-dictated bymarketrealities are distributes throughout the country. circulation tooutlyingtownsandruralareas. Thestate owneddaily, bycontrast, financial limitations,alsodistributemainlyinsidethecapitaldistrictwithverylimited only, and oneprivatetelevisionstation.Thenewspapers,becauseof There are twoprivatelyownedratiostationsthatbroadcast inthecapitaldistrict wanes according tothewhimsofcabinetministersandseniorstateofficials. controlled. Theextentofitseditorialindependencewaxesand government media. Thestate-ownednationaltelevisionandradioservicesare nevertheless it enjoysavibranteconomy(butunderpressure currently), andarelatively free a countrywithpopulationofonlyhalfmillionpeople.ByAfricanstandards, and pluralmedia.There are anestimated13newspapers and4broadcasters in threat becauseofeconomicpracticesthatthreaten thesustainabilityofadiverse In neighbouringBotswana,itisatotallydifferent story. Mediadiversityisunder views. and thecapacityofpublictoexpress alternative should VOPlosethecase,thiswouldhaveseriousimplicationsforallthree stations based outsidethecountryonshortwaveormediumsignals.Nevertheless, Zimbabweans), allbroadcast programmes intothecountry from transmitters Voice ofthePeople,Voice ofAmericaandSWRadioAfricaintheUK(staffed by signals intothecountryfrom transmittersbasedoutsideofZimbabwe’s borders. But three broadcasters foundaloopholeinthelaw. Itisnot illegaltotransmit and radio)are licensed. applications from suchstations,onlythestatebroadcasting stations(television to communityorprivatelyownedradiostationsinthecountry. Despitenumerous hassteadfastlyrefused tomakeanybroadcastinggovernment licensesavailable In theiropinion,theywere notbreaking anylaws,althoughZimbabwe’s broadcasting illegallyinthecountryandare nowfightingforsurvivalinthecourts. andtheboard -10peopleinallhavebeenchargedfor of thejournalists which hedid,spendingfivedaysindetention.Masuku,nowoutonbail,some held indetentionashostagestoforce theDirector togivehimselfupthepolice, staff andmembersoftheboard were laterarrested. Administrativestaff wasinitially months later. Theywere raidedagainin2005andJohnMasuku,theDirector, some for thisoffence. Despitesuchmassiveintimidation,VOPwasbackonthe in early2002andthenbombedAugust2002.Noonehasbeenarrested orcharged People (VOP)communityradiostationinZimbabwewasraidedbytheauthorities well known.Itisequallyoppressive inrelation tobroadcasting. TheVoice ofthe The suppression andstateclosure ofprivatelyownedprintmediainZimbabweis air three 116 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 117 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences THE REALITIESFORCOMMUNITYMEDIA hipro,Botswana Chairperson, confused aboutwhata public broadcasteris.” “Our politiciansare “Our Press Council Pemal Dube, programmes on aprivatelyownedorpublic broadcaster assistedbylistenersgroups?" Do allthesecommunitiesreally needaradiostation - orperhapsonlyafew development is90%about acommunityandonly10%aboutradio. whether communityradios play asignificantrole indevelopment."Community because exploited." ofunpaidvolunteers-whoareoften of full-timestaffthatusetheservices own orcontrolthesestations.Theyareoperatedandcontrolled byasmallnumber Africa arenothingmorethanmusicjukeboxes.It’s rubbishthat communities is verycriticalofmanystationsinthissector. Veteran SouthAfricancommunityradiopioneerandconsultant,ZaneAbraham, to meetingthedevelopmentneedsofthese80ormore stations. national mainstream private mediacompanies.ButtheMDDAisnowhere close print mediaprojects) towhich variousforeign donoragenciescontribute,andby Development Agencyassiststhemtosomedegree withfunding(includingsmall depend onforeign donoraid.InSouthAfrica,astateMediaDiversityand Unlike privatecommercial radios,thesestationsfaceabattleofsurvivaland The sustainabilityofcommunityradiosinAfricaisgenerallyanissueconcern. from thestatebybecomingfinanciallydependentonstate. community radiosinSouthAfricawill,oralready are, losingtheirindependence state forbroadcasting equipmentandtechnology. Itisfeared thatincrementally by fundingcertainformsofprogramming. Theyalsoreceive subsidiesfrom the The stateinSouthAfricaisalsowadingheavilyintothearea ofcommunityradios from bigchainsofretailers, whichindividuallythey would notbeabletowin. this associationnegotiatecollectivelyforbigadvertisingcontracts,instance historically dominantprivatesectormediacompaniesinthecountry. Membersof newspapers toprevent themfrom beingswallowed upbythefourlargeand association istoprotect pluralismanddiversitybyproviding capacitytosmall media competitionbetweenthestateandprivatesector. Anotheraimofthe u of state ownershipoftheprintmedianeverexisted.Thisisanotherexample media. ThisisaveryworryingdevelopmentinSouthAfrica,where, untilr (municipalities),claimingtheyare aformofpublic owned bylocalgovernments this country. Oneoftheiraimsistoopposesmalllocalnewspapersthatare small independentlocalandcommunitynewspaperswasrecently establishedin emerging. Forsimilarpurposestothatproposed forBotswanaanassociationof its peacefultransitiontomultiracialdemocraticrulein1994,worryingtrends are regardedIn SouthAfrica,internationally asabastionofdemocracyinAfricasince the statenewspaperismajormarketcompetitor. they don’t, manyofthemmaynotsurviveinasmallmarketcountrywhere of theirnewspapers,aswellcollectivelynegotiateforadvertisingcontracts.If the purchase ofpaper, theprintingcostsoftheirnewspapersanddistribution houses toestablishconsortiums.Inthesetheycouldpoolresources inrelation to One strategytocountertheproblem wouldbeforsmallerprivatesectormedia public broadcasteris". Botswana’s (non-state)Press Council, public broadcasters. Butaccording toPamelaDube,thechairpersonof has beenenactedtotransformthestatebroadcasters (televisionandradio)into retained andthemediainline.Legislation inastateoflimbo tokeepjournalists rules forprofessional mediapracticeinthecountry. Thislegislationisdeliberately "the communityradioisthe warmestplacetheyknow". Many poverty-strickenvolunteers agree toprovide theseunpaidservices "our politiciansareconfusedaboutwhata "Many communityradiosinSouth He alsoquestions ecently, nfair In relation to ownership he recommends a hybrid model that combines ownership by a private business investor/manager with substantial community involvement in the choice of programmes and voices of the station. Such models have existed for some time in West Africa and have emerged in countries such as Zambia (Breeze FM) and in Malawi (Capital Radio which broadcasts in 3 regions of the country). The latter two stations are owned and managed by small business entre- preneurs, but provide extensive programming aimed at rural and poor communi- ties and co-produce and broadcast cross border programming that saves on costs, for instance in relation to HIV and AIDS. Other financial obstacles to media development in Africa include the high import duties payable on equipment, onerous limitations on foreign ownership in many countries, which inhibit investment in the media, and the absence of media development funds to assist media entrepreneurs in Africa. Media owners and journalists however, warn that such funds should not fall under the control of governments, because of the danger of political control. Two such models exist in the sub-region of Southern Africa. Zambia benefits from a Media Trust Fund for development of media houses and the Southern African Media Development Fund (SAMDEF) provides assistance to privately owned media houses in any of the 14-member states of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). It makes use of a revolving loan fund to finance media development on favourable loan terms and has invested US$30 - million in media enterprises over the last 10 years. Some of these include joint ventures such as a number of newspapers purchasing and sharing a printing press (Angola and Mozambique). In many instances SAMDEF also provides - tailor made in-house training for its clients to address weaknesses in the development of business and management systems. A number of other training institutions in Southern Africa also provide training in media management. These forms of training are essential with respect to journalists and others who start newspapers without any media business skills and in harsh economic environments with limit- ed advertising markets. These are limited even more in instances where the state applies pressure to businesses not to place advertising in the privately owned press, but in their own state-owned newspapers and broadcasters.

IF IT’S NOT OF THE STATE, IT WILL BE OF THE POLITICIANS

A plethora of laws constrain media from holding governments and other powerful interest groups accountable in Africa. These include a swathe of criminal defama- tion and so-called "insult" laws under which a large proportion of journalists are prosecuted. The litany of such detentions and prosecutions from the Africa Office of the International Federation of Journalists (IFJ) and the Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA) cross my desk at least twice a week. Below is a standard example:

"The IFJ today called for the immediate and unconditional release of Maman Abou and Oumarou Kéïta, editor and editor-in-chief of the independent weekly newspaper Le Républicain. The two journalists, who are accused of publishing false news and slandering the State of Niger, have been in detention since Friday August 4. They were arrested in relation to an article published on July 28 and written by Oumarou. The Prime Minister, Hama Hamadou, was said to be ‘courting’ the Iranians intensively at a point when the Western chancelleries and companies are likely to be shut down. On June 21 the private newspaper, L’Opinion, was banned from appearing on the newsstands, following the publication on June 21 of an article considered to be defamatory and injurious to the Head of the State and his family. On July 5 the editor MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences6 MEDIA MATTERS of L’Opinion, Zakari Alzouma, was arrested after publishing another weekly magazine 118 119 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences SKILLS ANDTRAINING of instances. have beenestablishedbyquantitative andqualitativemonitoringinanumber do. Substantialimprovements tothenumberofwomen voicesinthemedia toapplytheirskillsafterwards andcheckthatthey They expecttheirjournalists quently takeadirect interest in,observeandevenparticipateinthetraining. to thetrainingthatwilltake placeandhaveasayinthecontent.Theyconse- last foronehour. Butinbothinstanceseditorialexecutivesfirst havetoagree Insmallernewsrooms theymayonly such coursescanlastforawholemorning. newsrooms, withdramatic results. Inbigmediahousessuchasstatebroadcasters, have startedpioneeringtheconceptoftrainingthattakes placedirectly inside AfricanEditorsForum(SAEF), Africa(MISA)andtheSouthern of Southern spanning 14countriesknownasGEMSA,whichalsoincludes theMediaInstitute Africa,knownasGenderLinks,and analliedsub-regional network in Southern sceptical attitudesofeditorstothese,anetworkgender andmediaactivists Cognisant oftheproblems andthe associatedwithoff sitetrainingofjournalists limelightafewyearsago-comestomind. in theinternational of training ‘hotspot’status,extremely little "North" orwhodonotenjoyinternational media houses.Inothercountriesthatlacknaturalresources interesting tothe them. Butthisattitudetakesplaceatthetopendofmore strongly resourced andtryingtoimpartadvancedbeatspecificknowledge educated journalists insteadofhiringuntrainedorpoorly and trainingthemtobecomejournalists, hire subjectexpertssuchasuniversityeducatedeconomistsandenvironmentalists, ofstaff intheirnewsrooms.turnover Insomecountriesthemediaisbeginningto skillstrainingtoaddressthey really thehigh needisongoingbasicjournalism offer andlocalNGOs,whileeditorsoftensaywhat byagreat manyinternational or ‘HIVandAIDS’.Insomecountriesthere are agreat manysuchcourseson course takesplaceabout‘theenvironment’ or‘elections’‘changemanagement’ Some alsobecomeirritablewhenthelatest won’t release staff togooncourses,becausethesedisrupttheirworkschedules. totheirjobs.Manyeditors return implement newskillsoncethesejournalists but takelittleinterest inthecontentandmakefewattemptstoassessor onshortcourses, make profits. Editorsinmanycountriessendtheirjournalists aboutstandards,Many ownersare aslongtheircompanies nottooconcerned incremental trainingandlackofqualitycontrol withinthemediabothplayarole. development seminarsandworkshopstestifytothisperception. amounts ofdonoraidoverthelastdecade.Discussionsatmanymedia low, bythemselvesandoutsideobservers,despitetheinjectionofsubstantial The professional inAfrica are standards generallyregarded ofjournalists as political spectrumintheirpersonalcapacities. private media.Manymediahousesare ownedbypoliticiansfrom across the more sophisticatedmeasures. InMalawithisincludespoliticalownershipof censorship practicessuchasclosingdownnewspaperandradiostationsto andpoliticianshavemovedawayfrom crude Some Africangovernments to thelegalcustomsandtraditionsthatprotected monarchs inmedievalEurope. ministers andforeign dignitaries.Theirlegaloriginswindthrough colonialismback ‘Insult’ lawsprevent themediafrom criticisingheadsofstate,othergovernment press conference,tojailjournalists". called L’Opinions. LastMay, thePrimeMinister, HamaAmadou,threatenedduringa journalists orotherdevelopmentstakesplace.SierraLeone-briefly journalists ‘flavour ofthemonth’ Lack ofstructured theme specific CURRENT INITIATIVES HIGH STAFF TURNOVERANDLOWPAY oa Gs whileeditors local NGOs, courses onofferbyagreat often say whattheyreally often say journalism skillstraining “In somecountriesthere “In many internationaland turnover ofstaffintheir are agreatmanysuch need isongoingbasic to addressthehigh media training:Report newsrooms.” and Gender Link’s AnnualReport (March 2004–February2005). Gender electionsandthe 19 February 2005 Gender Links. training tookplace6-8weeksbefore nationalelections,butnotinall. (but notinall)countrieswhere engendered media,electionsanddemocracy The representation increased in2004/5some ofwomeningovernment of tacklingthe continent’s challenges and whoare increasingly developingcross - organisations whohaveor are growing significantinstitutionalcapacityinterms rich andlargetapestryofindigenous Africanmediafreedom anddevelopment existsasurprisingly approaches,there Whatever theoutcomesofthese international they are communicatingwitheachothertoexplore mutualsynergies. and policyinAfrica.Althoughtheseinitiativesare takingplaceindependently, the transformationofstatebroadcasters intopublicbroadcasters andmedialaw through anumberofAfrican universitiesintoissuessuchasmediaownership, A third initiativeisthatof the BBCWorld ServiceTrust whichisconductingresearch the mediadevelopmentandassistancesector. Development (GFMD)thatseekstogiveorganisedrepresentation andvoiceto one constituentregional leg ofthenewandemergingGlobalForumforMedia A separateinitiativeistoestablishanAfricanForumfor MediaDevelopmentas develop aframeworkofstrategiesforstrengthening Africa’s media(STREAM). the UNEconomicCommissionforAfrica,supportedbyDFID,inaproject to practitioners, owners,trainersandindigenousmediaassistanceorganisationsby for mediadevelopmentinAfrica.Oneisacontinent-wideconsultationof Four significantdevelopmentsare currently takingplace toimprove theprospects owners inthisregard. associationsneedtobestrengthened significantlytotacklemedia Journalists’ leave indroves topursuemore lucrativecareers aspublicrelations officers. regardjournalists theirjobsasonlytemporaryandmore experiencedpractitioners overofstaff translatedintomoneydownthedrain.Many because thehighturn become ratherscepticalaboutinvestingmoneyinthetrainingofjournalists, inAfrica.RecentlyaWorld Bankofficialgranted tojournalists saidtheyhad One ofthereasons innewsrooms forhighstaff isthelowlevelsofpay turnover the the 366newsrooms oftheSADCregion bytheendof2007inaproject knownas for.These organisationsnowintendtoconductnewsroom traininginnolessthan venue andnooverheadsare involved.Onlythetrainershavetobepaid toone the costoftransportingandaccommodatinglargegroups ofjournalists and inthemedia.Onsitetrainingisverycosteffective becauseitdoesnotinvolve entitled toequitablerepresentation asmuchanyothergroups ingovernment more thanhalfthepopulationinAfricancountriesanddemocraticallyare Such developmentsare worthnotinganddebatingbecausewomenconstitute in SouthAfricaandfrom 17%to25%inMauritiusandSwazilandoverthisperiod. another level,womensources inelectioncoverageincreased from 13%to22% At and SouthAfricasignificantlyincreasing the numberofwomeningovernment. or notsignificantly. Outcriesinthemediaresulted inthepresidents ofBotswana courses occurred incountrieswhere thenumberofwomenMPsdidnotincrease subjected tofurtherstudy. Otherpositiveoutcomesinrelation tothesetraining early todrawanyconclusions,butsuchcourseswillbereplicated infuture andbe "Media ActionPlanonGenderandHIVAIDS" (MAP) ledbySAEF. 19 It istoo 120 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 121 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences organisations ingeneral: Association ofNewspapers,K.Prescott Low, oncesaidaboutpress freedom improve Africancooperationinthisrespect. AsaformerPresident oftheWorld African Freedom ofExpression Organisations(NAFEO)wasrecently establishedto few quickresults. Sustainedsupporttothissectoriscrucial.TheNetworkof attempting medialegalreforms. Theseare essentialandlong-termstrategieswith of speech,tofightforthesefreedoms through publicawareness campaignsand still largelyrests onAfricanmediapractitionersandcitizenswhosupportfreedom In relation tomediafreedom andtheaccountabilityrole ofthemedia,burden identity andownership. initiatives,toenforce theidealsofAfrican over theseandotherinternational border, linkages.Theyare sub-regional castingajealouseye andinternational "They aredoingGod’s work". America Media DevelopmentinLatin Challenges andAdvancesin A RichComplexLandscape: KEY CHALLENGES:MEDIA CONCENTRATION, INFORMATION CONTROLANDPRESSURESON JOURNALISTS and willbuyanewspaper a maximumoftentimes. the regiondoesnotreach Access totheInternetin CD inthelegalmarket Latin American citizen Latin American citizen isdailyexposed than onebook,seesless than onemovieatthe more thantenpercent to opentelevisionand oee,theaverage However, O erybss a ayearlybasis, “On naeae buysless on average, iea buyshalfa cinema, of thepopulation. radio services.” Mastrini andBecerra will buyanewspaper amaximumoften times. AccesstotheInternet inthe sees lessthanonemovieat thecinema,buyshalfaCDinlegalmarketand "On ayearlybasis,Latin American citizenonaverage,buyslessthanonebook, the artofstorytellingfortheircommunities. whilst dedicatingthemselveswithgrowing investigationand interest tojournalistic forpublicinterest, whoare keenonethicsandjournalism of editorsandjournalists, ofmediacompaniesandthepersonal commitmentofanewgeneration ernization mediamovement,thegrowing signalsofrenewalcommunity alternative andmod- Hope resides intheprogressive strengthening of civilsociety, theriseofavigorous andsustainabledevelopmentinLatinAmerica. to contributegoodgovernance There isbadnewsandgood newswhentalkingaboutmediaandtheirpotential poorest communities. mass mediainbigcities,andofveryweakthecountryside of commoncharacteristics,suchastheexistencesophisticatedandprofitable itsdiversity,the mediasectoritself.Within mediaintheregion showanumber The unevendevelopmentofLatinAmericansocietiesisclearlyreflected in times greater thanthatof20%thepoorest. income inequalityworldwide:20%oftherichestpopulationhasan20 line. Asadreality isthatLatinAmerica,considered as awhole,hasthehighest alleviated poverty. Onaverageover40%ofthepopulationlivebelowpoverty citizenship, through participationinpoliticalprocesses. Norhasitsignificantly has notyetempowered vastsectorsofthepopulationinfullexercise of corruption, impunityandviolence.Unfortunately, thedemocratizationprocess andinclusion,thefightagainst achievement ofhigherlevelssocialfairness growth andintegrationintocompetitiveglobalmarkets,povertyeradication,the enforcement ofhumanrights, economic consolidation ofdemocraticgovernance, Latin Americansocietiescontinuetofacenumerous challenges.Theseincludethe Since theoverthrow ofthemilitaryregimes oftheSeventies andEighties, with theparticipationofcompetingpoliticalparties. languages andcommonculturalroots, havebeenelectedinregular elections, Americas, withtheexceptionofCuba,thatshare theSpanishandPortuguese At thestartof21stcentury, ofthetwentycountries thegovernments Fundación NuevoPeriodismoIberoamericano Jaime AbelloBanfi, Executive Director, 122 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 123 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences “According todatafrom support fordemocracy fluctuating over50%. aioaóer,the Latinobarómetro, decade 1995-2005, and aminimumof A greatpartofthe indicator ismostly maximum of63% democracy bythe stagnation ofthis ranges betweena representation of attributed tothe with mostyears 48% duringthe 20 cultural industriesinLatinAmerica” Guillermo MastriniandMartinBecerra, media.” “Structure andconcentrationof (Prometeo, BuenosAires, 2006) Journalists andTycoons.Journalists media to undermine the reputation of journalists, aswelljudicialharassment. media tounderminethereputation ofjournalists, sources giftstoreporters, andaccesstodifficult creation journalists, oftrash conditional allocationofpublicity contractstiedtopublicbudgets,withdrawalof position ofthebiggernetworks, pressures from major commercial advertisers, the allocationofradioand TV broadcasting licenses, protection ofthedominant fashion, notonlywiththreats andviolence,butwithsuchtacticsasfavoritismin In manypartsofthecontinentitisstillsometimesexerted inapre –modern or newsmanagementisanelegantwaytocallthiskind ofinformationcontrol. teams topersuadeorimposetheirsideofthestory. Strategiccommunication but direct producers ofinformationthemselves,usingtheirwebpagesandPR business,andpressuregovernments, groups are notjustsources forreporters, control information.Asin otherpartsoftheworld,politicalparties, Latin Americaisalsothestageforareal battlebetweenmediainterests to Colombia, Peru,Brazil,ParaguayandsomeCentralAmerican countries. media inLatinAmerica,especiallytheperipheralandborder regions ofMexico, forces promote crimes,assaultsandthreats againstcriticalandindependent war ofoldauthoritarianregimes. Liketheirautocraticpredecessors, thesenew gangs, drugtrafficking andillegalmafiashavereplaced theferocity ofthedirty and judges.Corruptpoliticianspolicemen,armedillegalgroups, urban censorship are frequent, facilitatedbytheoccasionalcomplicityoflocalauthorities crimes remain unsolved,andactsofaggression, intimidation anddefacto America. Fivemore havelosttheirlivestoprofession in2006.Mostofthe werewithout Borders, killedin2005CentralandSouth sevenjournalists side theprotective umbrella ofbigmediaenterprises. According toReporters provinces farfrom thepoliticalandeconomiccapitals, where theyoperateout- workinginthe of theprofession. Thisisespeciallytrueinthecaseofjournalists whodotrytoworkundertheethicalprinciples dangers facedbythosejournalists come from concentrationandtheensuinglackofpluralism,butalsofrom the speech are guaranteedintheconstitutionsofregion, difficulties notonly Even thoughstatecensorshipisathingofthepast,andpress andfreedom of and diverseeconomicinterests ofthemediaowners. has beencausedbypossibleconflictsbetweenthenewsagenda,andwide gathering anddistribution.Thelatter - with alossofindependenceininformation topics andinterests ofcivilsocietygroups, regional andethnicminorities,along sity incontentandpointsofview, theexclusionfrom thenewsagendaofvoices, The structuralconcentrationofmediainLatinAmericahasledtoalackdiver- 90% oftheaudienceandpotentialadvertisingmarket42millionindividuals. instance, twonetworkscontrol theTVmarketbetweenthemselves,accessing (Argentina) -are theleadingplayersofregional market.InColombia,for conglomerates -Televisa (Mexico),Cisneros (Venezuela), Globo(Brazil)andClarin the continuouserosion ofstateinterventioninthecontrol oftheseactivities.Four investors,themigrationofcapitalfrom oneindustrytoanother,international and deregulation andprivatizationofthesector, whichallowedtheincorporationof concentration ofthemediawasconsolidatedaftertwodecadesliberalisation, Mastrini andBecerra,theauthorsofaboveanalysis,alsohighlightthat more thanseventypercentofthemarketandaudience" that thefourtopcompaniesineachmarketdominate(asaregionalaverage) the phenomenonofahighlyconcentratedownershipstructurewhichmeans Furthermore, lowlevelsofaccesstomediainLatinAmericaareaccompaniedby average citizenisdailyexposedtoopentelevisionandradioservices. region doesnotreachmorethantenpercentofthepopulation.However, the . 20 amendments totheCriminalCodecameinto Venezuela’s establishes detailedregulations forthecon- 21 For example,stationsdeemedto“condone desacato provisions, Venezuela ignored the nation” are subjecttoheavyfinesandcan and buckedacontinentwidetrend toward Commission onHumanRights(IACHR) they mayforfeittheirbroadcasting license media. TheLawofSocialResponsibilityin messages “contrarytothesecurityof "Laws passedsincelate2004haveintro- increased penaltiesfordesacato,criminal recommendations ofthe National Assembly defamation, andlibel.Bybroadening its seventy-two hours;onasecondoffense or incite”publicdisturbancespublish be ordered tosuspendbroadcasting for Human RightsWatch, World Report duced onerous newrestrictions onthe for uptofiveyears….InMarch 2005, Radio andTelevision, approved bythe tent oftelevisionandradioprograms. http://www.latinobarometro.org/ force whichextendedthescopeof 2006, page213;www.hrw.org desacato Latinobarometro the repeal ofthistypelaw." 22 23 Publisher by More informationonthe (disrespect) laws,and in December2004, InterAmerican UNDP available on: , 2004 Venezuela. threaten freedom ofthepress, asisthecaseoflawoncontentsadoptedin as anexcusetojustifyhostileregulatory initiativesonthepartofStatethat demands forgreater haveserved socialresponsibility formediaandjournalists andthemedia.And cases ofabusethatmaybecommittedbyjournalists effective andreliable judiciarysystemstotimelyandappropriately punishthe Mostofthesecountriessimplydonothavesufficiently media andjournalists. solidarity with,andrespect (beingeroded alittlemore everyday)towards the intolerance are notenoughfortheLatinAmericandemocraciestoretain the initsfightagainstcorruptionand achievements ofinvestigativejournalism Nevertheless, risksfaceddailyintheexercise ofpress freedom, orthe Ecuador, CalderónandRodríguezinCostaRica. Argentina, AlemáninNicaragua,SalinasdeGortariMexico,Gutiérrez in denouncing thecorruptionofPresidents suchasFujimoriinPeru,Menem American mediainrecent timeshavebeenwrittenbyinvestigativejournalists the electedandtheircronies. SomeofthebestachievementsLatin In thecapitalcities,asource ofpermanenttensionistherelationship between According todatafrom Latinobarómetro, sacrifice democracyforreal economicprogress surpasses 50%. roots are notdeep;tothepointthatproportion ofLatinAmericanswillingto report statesthat,althoughdemocracyhasextendedwidelyinLatinAmerica,its themost.Thesame determine surveys,andconsequentlyinfluencegovernance group surveyedsaidthat the mediashapepublicopinion,disqualifypeople, which servesparticularinterests andhasreplaced judgesandpoliticalparties.The are frequently perceived asanuncontrolled powerthatgoesbeyondnewsgathering, while recognition forthe power ofpublicinstitutionsdidnotreach 50%.Media the mediaasseconddefactopowerbehindprivateeconomic power(at79.7%), in thesecountries,65.2%ofatransnationalgroup ofopinionleadersidentified (2004), containsrevealing data.Whenansweringaquestiononwhoexertspower 1995-2005, withmostyears fluctuatingover50%.Agreat partofthestagnation between amaximumof63% andaminimumof48%duringthedecade A UNDPreport, perceived more aspower-players thanasservicestotheircitizens. This hashighlightedatypicalLatinAmericanproblem: traditionalmassmediaare arrogance, partialityorhumanmistakes,thatare journalism. sofrequent inmodern comparison ofversions,theaudienceisbecomingmore demandingonidentifying the possibilitiesofdirect accesstodiverseflowsofinformation,thatallowthe all contentisbeingunderminedbyalackoftrust. With credibility ofjournalistic radio andtelevisionnetworks,whichare stillveryprofitable businesses,the Although thepopulationremains connectedtomedia,especiallythebig was oncetheprideofmetropolitan newspapers. traditional logicofproduction andtheeconomicmodelofqualitymediathat practices andfinancialmanagementofmedia,byprogressively underminingthe America hasbeguntoupsettherulesofgame,byaffecting professional in Latin audiences. Asinotherpartsoftheworld,sprouting oftheInternet way intheregion: theprogressive reframing oftherelation betweenmedia and The eroding legitimacyofthemediaisonedimensionatransformationunder education ofthepublicontheirrightsascitizensandconsumers. ethics,self-regulation ofthemediaand establishment oftraininginjournalism are theworstsolutionforLatinAmericancontext,incomparisonwith 21 Legal efforts toenforce principlesofsocialresponsibility inthemedia " Democracy inLatinAmerica:Towards ademocracyofcitizens" 23 the supportfordemocracy ranges 22 124 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 125 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences PATHWAYS TOPROGRESS:COMMUNITYRADIO,NEWMEDIA ANDJOURNALISMSUPPORT INITIATIVES communication collectives,17communication collectivesdealingwith sexualand most conflictedareas, theMagdalenaMedio,AREMAGNethas22young people flict, publicservicesprovision andothertopicsofcommunity interest. Inoneofthe radio stationswithanagenda centered armed con- ontheeffects oftheinternal and otherethnicalminorities. traditionally marginalisedcommunities,suchasruralworkers, indigenousgroups radio provides channelsfor culturalrecognition anddemocraticparticipationfor the hostilityofbigcommercial broadcasting enterprisestoit.Community the restraints onitimposed byformerstatecontrol havebeenreplaced by medium,although America. Communityradiohasbecomeavibrantalternative An interesting dynamiccan beobservedinthemediasectorsofmostLatin to compensateforthenarrow remit ofthemarket. To ensure this,weneed institutionsandprojects supportingmediaandjournalists well-managedmediaenterprisesfacilitating editorialindependence. turn, Thisrequires, in ralistic environment withavarietyofmediaactingindependently. practices,inanopen andplu- possibility ofattainingprofessionalism injournalism constitutional guaranteesoffreedom ofexpression in theregion, butalsoonthe Attaining theseobjectivesdependsnotonlyonthetotalenforcement oflegaland tion ofcitizenshipandseesaccesstoinformationasarightthepopulation. system isneeded,onethatabletocontributeinasignificantwaytheforma- thiscontext,theexistenceofahealthymedia Within democratic governance. Latin Americaislookingforawaytoattainsustainabledevelopmentand responsibility ofthemediaisopeninglittlebylittle. communication mediaandsociety. Debatearound transparency andsocial and executiveslackanadequateunderstandingoftheresponsibility between transparency, clearguidelinesandnorms.Manyexpertspointoutthatowners a professional core ethicsandstandards withinmediabusinesscharacterizedby needtobesupportedby has alotofweight.Theethicsindividualjournalists panies andnarrow advertisingmarketsinwhichbypublicinstitutions These issuesare associatedwithalowlevelofmanagementwithinmediacom- nology andequipmentthanonsupportingimproving humanresources. until now. ItistruethatmediacompaniesinLatinAmericainvestmore ontech- investing intrainingprograms promoting qualityinnewsprocesses hasbeenminimal informationtosociety.journalist Thepercentage ofmediaenterprisessystematically to facethedemandsofthisprofession andthechallengeofproviding quality difficult workingconditions,onehastoaddthelackofsufficient trainingforjournalists istoselladvertisingalongwiththeirsearch fornews.Ontopofthe only alternative withoutworkcontracts,whose it isfrequent tofindradioandtelevisionjournalists or servingastransmittersforprintingwhateverbenefitstheirsources. Inprovinces, pressures andotherrisks,self-censorshipcorruptionsuchasavoidingdenunciations from lackofproper workingconditions,whichreinforces theirvulnerabilityto are badlypaidwithtemporaryornon-existentworkcontractsandsufferjournalists Another problem affecting mediaperformanceinLatinAmericaisthatmost the credibility formerlyenjoyedbytelevisionnetworks. "caudillos". Butmediahavealsopaidtheprice,ascanbeseeninerosion of of theparties,massnon-involvementinpoliticsandtoascentpopulist media. of thisindicatorismostlyattributedtotherepresentation ofdemocracybythe These havecontributedtothetrivializationofpolitics,lossprestige For example,Colombiahas around 460community ANDI -AGÊNCIADENOTÍCIASDOSDIREITOSDAINFÂNCIA(NEWSAGENCYFORCHILDRENRIGHTS),BRASILIA, BRAZIL. states throughout Brazil,andisalsobeingreplicated inotherLatinAmericancountries. influence onpublicpolicyformulation. Thisexperienceisbeingextendedtoallthe topic, andsupportingsocial actors inorder tobeableactandacquire theproper solutions. Inthisway, ANDIcontributes toformingBrazilianpublicopiniononthe way, withanincrease of45%inthenumberarticlesfocused onthesearch for 161,807 articlesin2004.Thequalityofcoveragealso increased inasignificant adolescence inBrazil:from 10,700articlespublishedinnewspapers1996to has contributedtotheriseincoverageoftopicsrelated tochildhoodand andthepromotion ofincreased,journalists diversesources ofinformation, ANDI and change.Through the monitoring ofmedia,mobilizationandqualification culture where communicationisconsidered astrategictoolforsocialmobilization which childhoodandadolescencerightsare considered apriority, andaninstitutional ANDI’s culture in missionistocontributethedevelopment of ajournalistic America are thefollowing: inLatin Among themostinteresting experiencestosupportmediaandjournalism development exceptforthoseinterested indefendingfreedom ofspeech. Latin Americahasnotbeenapriorityforthemaindonorsfocusingonmedia and fundsprovided byinter-governmental organisationsoperatingintheregion. other areas ofmediadevelopmenthavebeenfinancedthrough localresources Most oftheprojects undertakeninjournalist’s education andtrainingin operating attheregional levelalongwithtraditionalownersandworkersunions. the promotion Someofthemare ofqualityandsociallyresponsible journalism. organizationsdedicated to almost allcountrieshavecreated newjournalists’ commit themselvestoinvestingineditorsandreporters. Inthelastfifteenyears, enterprises experiencing democratictransitionprocesses. Step-by-stepjournalism There training,especiallyinthosecountries isagreat demandforjournalism among theleadersinthiscampaign. have adoptednewlawsforcitizens’accesstoinformation.Mediabeen in PeruandtheObservatoriodaImprensa inBrazil.Agreat numberofcountries monitoring observatoriesandcritiquenetworkshaveappeared, suchasCalandria therighttoinformationandcitizens’participationinmedia.Media journalists, throughout thepolitical performanceofmediaand theregion concerning During thelastdecadeastrikingacademicandpoliticaldebatehasbeengenerated generate conceptualorinformativevalue,togainoutreach andcredibility. taking advantageofthefactthatnocorporateconnectionisneededinorder to andnewinitiativesdare tosearchjournalists fornewnarrativeandbusinessmodels, reportages. isaterrainforglobalexperimentationwhere LatinAmerican TheInternet have limitedcoverageandare devotedtoinvestigativeandnarrativejournalism As aresult, magazinesandothernewmediahaveappeared inprintmedia.Theystill through thecreation ofpublicforumsandthemonitoringelectedofficials. conflict victims)tobecomeoneofthemechanismsforcitizenparticipation its role asamediatorforresolving dailyproblems (suchasgettingwheelchairsfor public opinionawareness intheregion. Communityradiohasinthesecasessurpassed of seen theinaugurationofseven(7)localnewsreports whichstrengthen theprocess It accounts in80%ofthemunicipalitieslocateditsarea ofinfluence. radio broadcasts. Asaresult, thenetworkhasmanagedtoaccessfinancialpublic reproductive health,8collectivesoncitizens'communicationandschoolsfor has also 126 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 127 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences CONCLUSION KNIGHT CENTERFORJOURNALISMINTHEAMERICAS,UNIVERSITYOFTEXASAT AUSTIN,USA. PYS -INSTITUTOPRENSAYSOCIEDAD(PRESSANDSOCIETYINSTITUTE),LIMAPERU. CARTAGENA, COLOMBIA. FNPI -FUNDACIÓNNUEVOPERIODISMOIBEROAMERICANO(IBERIANAMERICANNEWJOURNALISMFOUNDATION), Millennium Development Goals that guide the international developmentagenda. Millennium DevelopmentGoalsthatguidetheinternational accountability,governance, sustainable development,povertyeradicationandtheother and strengthen theirabilities tofulfilarelevant role inthequesttoachievegood enterprises andcivilsocietyorganisationsalike.Theyshare adeterminationtoenhance field showstheexistenceofagreat interest andresponse, coming from practitioners, quality.journalistic Whathasbeendoneinrecent yearsinthe mediadevelopment transformation ofprofessional andentrepreneurial practicesinthesearch for results from their actionsonmediadevelopment,focusedgeneratingapositive and partnerwithregional andlocalLatinAmericanorganizations,toobtaintangible improving. Thistrend funderswiththeopportunitytosupport provides international However itssocietiesare opening,civilsocietyisgrowing is stronger andgovernance Latin Americaisavibrantcontinentjugglingbothproblems andopportunities. trainingwiththeacquisitionoforganizationalcompetences. combining journalist withasupport cated tofightforfreedom ofspeechandtotrainjournalists organizations, indifferent LatinAmericancountries. Theseorganizationsare dedi- sustainable - The Centerhasbeensupportingthecreation oflocal,independentandself inLatinAmerica. supporting program toinvestigativejournalism a monitoring networkinseveralLatinAmericancountriesanddevelops studies, andpromotes debateontherole ofthemedia. It carriesoutsituationreports inseveralLatinAmericancountries,develops IPPYS isanassociationpromoting freedom ofinformation andindependentjournalism. andcoverageofsocialpoliticalissues. investigation, narrativejournalism fortopicssuchasethics,journalistic demand from LatinAmericajournalists experiences andknowledgeexchange.FNPIhasfoundthatthere existsabig organized byFNPI,in38citiesofthecontinent,generatingabignetwork all overLatinAmericanhaveparticipatedinnearly200workshopsandseminars its annualawards. SinceApril1995,more than4,000reporters andeditorsfrom Spanish andPortuguese,FNPIoperatesitsprograms ataregional level,including the possibilitiesoffered bythelinguisticcommunityofregional languages, reporters, through extendedconversationsofveryhandsonnature. Thanksto ethics andthenutsboltsoftheircraftwithLatinAmericaneditors or more andeditors from where allovertheworlddiscuss leadingjournalists and president, GabrielGarcia Marquez. FNPIorganizesworkshopslastingaweek practices,withapedagogicalmodelinspired byitsfounder quality injournalistic andthesearchFNPI worksfortheprofessional for developmentofjournalists The institutedirects a vigorous specialized model Independent Media Credibility, andtheRiseof Freedom ofExpression,Lost Arab MediaLaggingBehind: DEMOCRACY, FREEDOMOFEXPRESSIONSANDMEDIASYSTEMSINTHEARABWORLD democracy whencitizens are deniedtheirrightto nonsense totalkabout Arab worldshouldgo political reforminthe speak withoutfear.” “Media reformand adi ad Itis hand inhand. in region: semi-open, semi-closed,and fully closed. .Loosely, wecandefine three categoriesofinformation environment The statusoffreedom ofexpression andqualitymediaisnotevenacross the organizations. and others),NGOsinternational should begivenalotofattention bymediapractitioners,donors(governments development intheArabworldbasedonfreedom ofexpression isapriorityand in allcountries,withoutexceptionalbeittodifferent degrees. Theneedformedia professional accordingly standards mirror andethicsofjournalism thesedeficits In allfourareas, the22countries oftheArabworldsuffer seriousdeficits.The and professional organizations; andafairindependentjudiciary. access tocommunication;freedom ofassociationintheformtradeunions Freedom rests ofexpression onfourfoundations:accesstoinformation; inturn without fear. Democracycannotbeestablishedwithoutfreedom ofspeech. nonsense totalkaboutdemocracywhencitizensare deniedtheirrighttospeak Media reform andpoliticalreform intheArabworld shouldgohandinhand.Itis media world. will arguethere isadangertheycreate anunrealistic rosy imageoftheArab change, muchofitpositiveintheinformationlandscaperegion, thispaper havebroughtthere isnoquestionthesechannels,andthearrivalofInternet, TV channelsthathaveappeared intheArabWorld in thelastdecade.Butwhile then bombedbytheUnitedStates,issimplybestknownofover100satellite 21st centurybelongstotheArabWorld. AlJazeera,firstpraised,thenlambasted, The mostsinglefamoustelevisionoutletintheworldfirstfewyearsof Ibrahim Nawar, Chief Executive,ArabPressfreedomWatch (APFW) 128 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 129 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences THE QUANDARY AROUNDMEDIATRAININGPROGRAMMES about deepculturalnorms fractured andantagonistic ii oit,bothofwhich civil society, diversity athigherlevels.” prospects ofthegrowth democratic politiesand eae,dfeec,and difference, debates, oilsae damaging social space, base levelofconsensus at somelevelrelyona to underlieandframe “Media reflectthis “Media tool inthehandsofpolitical power. positioned tofightforfreedom hasalways beena ofthepress. Badjournalism experiences inEgypt,Morocco isbest andJordan showthatgoodjournalism The to embarkonseriousplans tobuildagoodbaseofprofessional journalists. wait fordemocracytoarrive andfreedom ofspeech to beimplementedinorder because ofrestrictions. But thecounterargumentexiststhatdonorsshouldnot from trainingcannotbeusedintheworkplace plain thatwhattheyhavelearnt whoreceive oftencom- traininginareasJournalists suchasinvestigativejournalism media systemsuchasEgyptorMorocco. question willarisefrom time totime,evenincountriesthatenjoyasemi-open ment assistancetoSyrianstatecontrolled newspapers,radioandTVstations.The Trust andtheThomsonFoundationthathaveprovided mediatraininganddevelop- examined againsttheexperienceoforganizationssuch astheBBCWorld Service organizations inclosedmediasystems,suchastheoneSyria.Thisneedstobe One questionthatisoftenaskedwhethertoprovide assistancetomedia great courageindoingtheirwork. very poor. andtheir Thisisnoreflection onthequalityofindividualjournalists dards, ethicsandindustrialrelations ofthemediain bothIraqandSomaliaare duemostlytothelackofsafety.journalism, Consequently, theprofessional stan- central statehasleftthecountrywithadiminishedcapacitytoproduce good with regard tothefragmentationofbroadcast media,asthedestructionof count asoneofthemore successfulinAfrica.ThesituationIraqisverysimilar chiefs, aswellanentirely deregulated telecommunications industrywhichhasto dozens ofnewmediaoutletsprotected bywarlords, religious groups andtribal inSomaliahasresulted intheemergenceof collapse ofthecentralgovernment Somalia andIraqcannotbejudgedeasilybecauseofthechaoswar. The entirely closedsystemsincludesSyria,LibyaandSudan. Oman, aswellYemen, , AlgeriaandMauritania.Thelastgroup of Arab Gulf-SaudiArabia,,,Qatar, theUnitedArabEmiratesand Lebanon andPalestine.Thesemi-closedgroup includesthesixcountriesof Among countrieswithsemi-openmediasystemswecancountEgypt,Morocco, delivered bythemedia. the expenseofpeople’s, whoinmostcasesfallvictimstothepoliticaldiscourse The mediadiscourseinmostArabcountriesmirrors theaspirationsofrulerat policy dedicatedtoglorifyingthecountry’s rulers. monopoly oroligopoly, adegree ofrestrictive medialaws andadegree ofmedia case scenario,themediasystemisrestricted byadegree ofstateorprivatesector No Arabcountrycanclaimtohaveafullyopenmediasystem.Eveninthebest policies transpar the integrationofICTs intoproduction, thedegree ofcompetition,market other factorsmore directly related totheactivitiesofmediasector, suchas professional organizationsandanindependentfairjudiciary. Then, there are suchastheavailabledegree ofaccesstoinformation,communication, externals We candothisconsideringanumberoffactors.First,there are themajor and ownershipconcentration. ency, modelsofownershipandadministration,training,medialaws MEDIA CONCENTRATION PRINT ANDBROADCASTMEDIA:TWOLEVELSOFREGULATION DEFINING ‘DEVELOPMENT’OFTHEARABMEDIA NEW TECHNOLOGIES,MESSAGES? The Lebanesecivilwarfrom 1975to1990andthecollapse ofthenationalmedia of state-controlled mediahaveopenedthewayfor newmediaconglomerates. monopoly. Oilmoney, privatizationprograms, satellitetechnology andthedecay Media concentrationinthe Arabworldisslowlyreplacing theagingstate the potentialtoreach the masses. traditional policy, asbothcross sovereign boundarieseasilywithmediathathas cafesisposingaseriousthreatThe spread tothis ofsatellitedishes andInternet potential, suchasradio. time asdoingeverythingtoprevent thespread oftechnologieswithpopulist magazines forexamplewhichbydefinitionengageonly theliterate,atsame less concern aboutwhatcanbedescribedas less concern intheirpolicyofregulating themediashow far By contrast,Arabgovernments state radioandtelevision(examplesfoundinEgypt,Morocco, Tunisia andJordan). and politicalprograms are prohibited unlessnewsare boughtorborrowed from the under statecontrol. EvenincasesthatallowedprivateradioorTVstations,news main powerwithinthemedia,andare accordingly heavily regulated andmainly in theregion. Becauseofthehighilliteracyrate,radioandTVstationshold andhasadeepimpactonmediapolicy fact wellunderstoodbyArabgovernments One ofthemainfeatures oftheArabworldishighrateilliteracy. Thisisa because ofbudgetconstraints. from lowITandtechnologicalstandards, asthestate isnotspendingasmuch Ailing mediaorganizationsincountriessuchasSyriaorLibya,bycontrast,suffer political reform ordemocraticchange. technology andmachinerypaytheirstaff well.Butnoneofthatisrelated to followed thesuperficialinterpretation. Theyprovide theirmediawiththelatest Rich ArabGulfstates,loadedwithmoneytospendonmediadevelopment,have national dialogueaboutdemocracy, socialandculturalchange. of engaging media developmentcreates free, independent,pluralandefficient mediacapable meaningful social, economicandculturalenvironment. Thesecondisdeeperandmore of technology, machineryandsalaries,inisolationofthesurrounding political, superficialsenseofproviding bettermaterialcircumstancesa modernist interms Media developmentintheArabworldcanbeinterpreted intwoways.Thefirstis by extremists asmuchliberals. and regressive thinking.Inthesamemanner, isusedasavibranttool theInternet has brought tothefore someliberalthinking–justasithasrevived conservative be usedforprogressive orregressive ends.ThenewageofsatelliteTVstations Technology andsatellitetechnologiesmay isneutral.NewandadvancedInternet and looksatthewiderprocess around media,tryingtoensure that the generalpublicinpoliticalreform andproviding asolidbasefor " elite media", newspapers and 130 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 131 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences THE IMPACT OFSATELLITE MEDIA:ATALE OF TWO FORCES 1991 brought withittheideaofestablishing ideEs racsigCnr (MBC) Middle EastBroadcasting Centre International (UPI) International ailing Americannewsagency the firstSaudisatellitetelevisionstation, London 1978markedthebeginning Saudi Research andMarketing Then, thetelevisedwarofIraqin of thenewSaudimediaempire.. The Saudisalsoboughtthe 24 The establishmentofthe around thesametime. United Press in . currently fail tofulfiltheirsocialandpolitical remit. combination ofallthese and otherinitiativesbesides,mediaintheArabworld up involvement,genuineand honestcompetitioninthecommercial space,ora grate different strandsof society, community-levelmediatoencouragebottom- Public ServiceBroadcasting, builtcarefully outofstatecontrol toreflect and inte- frame debates,difference, anddiversityathigherlevels.Whetheritisgenuine rely onabaselevelofconsensusaboutdeepculturalnormstounderlieand the growth ofdemocratic politiesandcivilsociety, bothofwhichatsomelevel Media reflect thisfractured andantagonisticsocialspace,damagingprospects of and reading gossipsabout popstars. popmusic while theotherisfondofwatchingvideoclips,listening toWestern dedicated tolisteningtapesoftheHolyQuran,religious speechesandfatwas, -styleclothes.Onegroup Western is fashioned hairstylesandwearmodern dress thatisostentatiously Islamic,incontrasttothesecondgroup whosport reveal thisstrikingdivide.Onegroup self-consciouslygrows beards andadopts countryside inTunisia, Egypt,Morocco, Jordan orevenintheGulfregion, will a veryparticularinterpretation ofwhattraditionalvaluesare. Anytriptothe andanotherisbeingdrivenaggressively towardsone isbeinglargelywesternized The result isthecreation ofadeepdividebetween two largegroups ofaudience, (amongst youthhungryforsex),gayculture, music. danceandWestern opposite sideotherradioandTVchannelsare promoting sexualisedvideoclips serious efforts tore-establish aculture ofauthorityandobscurantism.Onthe the mindsofviewerstowards socialandpoliticalconservatism.Theyare making Al -Majdnetwork,Haqiqa,Iqra’aandAnwarare driving theheartsand Arab world. A deepculture dividehasemergedfrom thespread ofsatellitemediainthe Saudi’s mediaempire hasbeenbuilttobuypoliticalinfluenceintheArabworld. opposition andlaunchingattacksoncountrieshostiletoSaudipolicy. Inshort, foreign policyandSaudiculture, protecting theSaudiroyal familyandregime from The SaudiexpansionintheArabmediaisgeared forthepromotion ofSaudi launched thefirstArabiclanguagedailyonlinepaper Moroccan OthmanbinJellountobuyMarroc SoirGroup). TheSaudiOmeiralso specialised satelliteTVchannels)andMorocco (OthmanOmeir’s dealwiththe dealwithstate-ownedtelevisiontobuyout They alsoboughtintoEgypt(anART agreements andstocks(Al-MustaqbalTV, LBC,Al-Naharnewspaper). the overseasSaudimediaexpansionreached outtoLebanonthrough partnership AdvertisingAgencyandadistributionnetwork.Inaddition, and Marketing,Tihama and Television MBCNetwork,al-ArabiyaNewsChannel,SaudiResearch (ART), people andcompanieshadgainedcontrol ofOrbitNewsNetwork,ArabRadio By thestartof21stcentury, theSaudiroyal family, theiraffiliates andfront news agencyandhugeproduction anddistributionfacilitiesacross theworld. than adozenofnewspapers,satelliteradioandTVstations,aninternational control ofanoverseasandtransnationalmediaempire thatconsistedofmore Arab world.Inamatterofjustoverdecade,theSaudisfoundthemselvesin encouraged theSaudistostartahugemediadrivebasedphysicallyoutside structure, inwhathadbeentheArabWorld’s mostadvancedmedialandscape, 24 On theonehand,conservativeandreligious TVchannelssuchas "elaph.com" in 2001. GROWING FREEDOMOFEXPRESSION,BUTJUSTNOT AT HOME NEW MONEY, NEWMEDIAANDOLDSYSTEMS foreign policy, whichisoftencontroversial withintheArabWorld. with regard tocorruption, powerstruggleswithintherulingfamily, orQatari will keepablindeyeonwhat maybehappeninginsideQatar, itssponsor state, publicopinion.Butit Palestine, where Israelstandsinthecourtofinternational For example,AlJazeerawill dealboldlywiththesituationinLebanonor people athome. relating to freedom ofspeechismainly dedicatedtodealingwithpan–Arabissuesor in publishedoraired materials. Onehastorealise, however, thatthisdegree of double challenge:theadvancedtechnologyanddegree offreedom exhibited newspapers andmagazineshavepresented theoldlocalArabmediawitha Satellite radioandtelevisionstationsoverseas-based Arabiclanguage prohibiting monopolyandencouragingcompetition. of creating ahealthypublicsphere. TheArabworld needsanti-trustlaws against diversityinthemedia,faircompetitionanddistortprocess monopolies ofmedia–buttheyshouldbothbefoughtagainst.Theyplay This newkindofmediaconcentrationhasstartedtosupercede theoldstate influence ontheLebanesemedia,ashaveSyrians. media hasfallenvictimtopoliticalinfluenceandoilmoney. Saudishavealotof Al -Alamtelevisionstation.Oncethereal mirror of theArabworld,Lebanese aggressively challengedbyALJazeera,ManarandtheIranianArabiclanguage Saudi Arabiaisbyfartheleaderwithitsmediaempire. Buttheyare being as amarketleaderinthemediacompetition. and afacilitieshouse(OctoberMediaCity),ratherthanexercising direct control softer positionofcontrol overitsmedia,asaserviceprovider (theNilesatsatellite) two countries,inbothprintandbroadcast. TheEgyptianstateoccupiesaslightly tarian regimes inSyriaandLibyaare stillincontrol ofmostthemediainthese Meanwhile, runninginparalleltothemediacontrolled byoilmoney, thetotali- building itsownmediaempire. Arab Gulfstatesthathasnotjoinedthedrivetobuypoliticalinfluencethrough real force behindtheeditorialteam.Infact,Kuwaitisaloneamongoil-rich the is Sheikh Youssef al-Qaradhawi,generallythoughtofasaconservativecleric, Sheikh HamadBinThameristheChiefExecutiveofAlJazeeraandhisold in1996,controlled financiallybytheEmirofQatar.was born Hisentrustedman (BBC -Orbit)satelliteTVstation.Itwasagainstthisbackground thatalJazeera project tobuyouttheBBCteamthatpreviously workedinthejointventure the BBCArabiclanguagemagazineintoaweeklyedition,partofbigger of thestocksmonthly"Almushahed"magazine.Theaimwastodevelop 1990s, theywentintopartnershipwiththeBBCWorld Serviceandboughthalf enough moneytocompeteregionally, theQatarisfollowedsuit.Inmid- Dubai) andhugemediaprojects (DubaiMediaCity).Oncetheyfelthad players. Thisdesire waslatertranslatedintosatelliteTVnetworks(AbuDhabiand Maktoum showedstrong desire duringthe1980stobecomeregional media media power. TheEmiratesmostinfluentialrulingfamilies,AlNahiyanand Saudi oilmoneywasnotaloneinseekingpoliticalinfluencethrough acquiring "other" Arab countries rather than dealing with issues of concern to the to Arab countriesratherthandealingwithissuesofconcern teacher issues 132 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 133 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences SO WHAT DOESTHISMEAN? objectives offoreign donors. expression putsdonorforeign policyinquestionandcastsdoubtsaboutthereal reform. supportofregimes knownfortheirviolationsoffreedom International of the mediahandinwith thebroader process ofencouragingpolitical objective andmanageriallyefficient. Foreign donorsshouldlookatdeveloping Independent mediaorganizationsshouldbefinancially transparent, editorially agencies toadvertisewithindependentradioandTVstations. prohibited. Thisrestriction shouldberemoved inorder toencourageadvertising Arab countriesviatheso-calledfree mediacitiesbutterrestrial transmissionis an unfairlicensingsystem.Atthemomentsatelliteuplinks are allowedinsome The righttobroadcast should notberestricted bylawtobigcompaniesor isto openthebroadcast sectortofaircompetition. possible. Thealternative willresist control, aslong as noteasysincesomegovernments of government the Arabworld.Thefirstandmosturgentreform istotakethissectorout are manyreforms thatneedtobeintroduced todevelopthebroadcast sectorin performance, theystillsuffer from genuineinability towinpublicsupport.There of themhaveundergonesomerelatively drasticoperationstodeveloptheir officials.are Althoughsome runonpoliciesandbasisdrawnupbygovernment andtheirservices Arab radioandTVstationsare mostlyownedbygovernments to sustainsuccess andfightingthrough toughmarketconditionsinorder ment andadministration, suchaseditorialmanagement,modelsofmanage- many otherareas ofconcern There are Marketingstaff needtodeveloptheirprofessionaljournalism. skills. theskillsofobjectivereporting andinvestigative needtolearn Journalists skills, andtraintheireditorialstaff toaccessdifferent sources ofinformation. subscription businessmodels,ontheeditorialsidedevelopforeign language Theyneedtodeveloptheiradvertisingand a listofprioritiesandurgentneeds. To andmediamanagementshouldprovide developthesenewspapers,journalists Sharq al–Awsat. to beablecompetewithcross-border printtitles,suchasal-Hayatandal- daily Assabah,andmanyothertitlesintheprintsectorneedtobedeveloped the AlgeriandailyElkhabar, theEgyptiandailyAlmasryal-Youm, theMoroccan Print outletsatthenationallevelwhichare genuinelyindependent,suchas mirrored inthemedia. in Egypt,Morocco andLebanoneveninSaudiArabia,whichisinevitably also thesocialandpoliticalstrugglethathaspushedlineformore freedom independent mediawithanewspirit.So,itisnotonlythetechnology, but forces opposingArabregimes hasencouragedlocalforces toprovide the but toputthisrole intherightcontext.Furthermore, theriseofdemocraticpolitical to denythepositiverole ofthecross-border Arabmedia,bothprintandbroadcast, old barriersandtoopenanewhorizonforfreedom ofspeech.Thatisnot of freedom ofexpression andmediaprofessionals alikewithtoolstobreak the technologieshaveprovidedbefore advocates thesatelliteage.SatelliteandInternet The marginoffreedom ofexpression couldneverhavestayedaslowitwas streams thatappearonsatelliteTVscreens. compensated forbytheuseofchatrooms anddebatingsaloonswhichtext In caseslikethis,wecanseethatthedeficitinfreedoms inmainstream mediais on theregulationofeconomic Soviet Union:AJobWell Done? Media AssistanceintheFormer THE EMERGENCEOFANINDIGENOUSNGOSECTOR NEW MEDIALEGISLATION FORANEWERA from theeconomictoolsthat could notprotectthemedia nuty Thereforethelaw industry. relations withinthemedia were subsequentlyusedto needne ratherthan independence, oee itconcentrated However , “The Russianmedialaw, journalistic andeditorial consolidate statecontrol: oooiain taxes, monopolisation, was oneofthebest. on theregulationof and buy-outs.” Internews Russia required tenyearsinthe future. Therefore thelaw couldnotprotect the media procedures andprotections ofeconomicrelationships ofthemediamightbe period oftransition(1990– 1991),theauthorscouldnotforesee whatkindof economic relations withinthemediaindustry. Written rightatthestartof andeditorial independence,ratherthanontheregulation of of journalistic However, likethelawsinothercountries,itconcentratedon theregulation Fedotov, Yuri BaturinandYuri Entin-wasoneofthebest. create themselves.TheRussian medialaw, writtenbythree legalexperts-Mikhail necessary togivepermissionfornewmediasystems ariseandtheywould which hadneverexistedduringthedaysofUSSR. It seemedthatitwasonly legislation. Thisprovided the basisfortheappearanceofnew, privatemedia, At thebeginningof1990s,allFSUcountriessponsored newmedia laws ofdevelopmentindifferent countriesoftheformer Sovietempire? point ofviewhistory-relatively shortperiod?Isitpossibletoidentifyparticular and disappointment.Whatwere theachievementsandfailures ofthis-from the ed inalltheseprocesses are, 15yearslater, boundbyfeelingsofdissatisfaction Can weconsiderthejobconcluded,awelldone?Manyofuswhoparticipat- of freedom ofspeechanddemocracy. standards andpromoting journalistic industries, introducing ideas international support themthrough transferofknowledgeandexperiencetheirownmedia donorswerebuilding ofthesenewlyindependentstates.Western willingto have apassionatedesire tochangesocietyandhelptheirfellowcitizensinthe few staff educatedinmediadisciplines,noexperience,andmoney, butdid media monopolieswere thousandsofsmalllocalmediacompanies,whichhad these wasstrivingtocreate itsownnewmediasystem.Replacingtheoldstate empire wasaccompaniedbytheconstructionofnewstates,andeachone these countriesfrom thebeginningof1990s.Thecollapsegreat the countriesofFSU.Hundreds ofAmericansandEuropeans haveworkedin implemented byforeign NGOswhichopenedtheirownrepresentative offices in at profits – non former SovietUnion(FSU)forthelast15years.Duetoabsenceofindigenous Media developmentactivitieshavebeencarriedoutontheterritoryof Manana Aslamazyan the outsetofthisprocess, theseprojects were largelycreated and , Director General, 134 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 135 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences enthusiastically accepted of thetransitiontoward culture intheplaceof into thesenewmedia a totalentertainment “The globaltendency “The balanced newswas immediately and communities.” very weakinTajikistan, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan,Belarus andMoldova. However, theyare almost non-existentorelse Armenia, KyrgyzstanandKazakhstan. to speakofthedevelopment ofasystemmediaNGOsinRussia,Ukraine,Georgia, Yet theseprocesses tookplaceslowlyandunevenly. Today, after15yearsitispossible good practiceinitiativesandgainedgreater financialsupport. did provide assistancetosuch organisations.Theygrew inexperience,ideas, were nolongerheadedby foreigners foundations butbylocalactivists.Western a fewyearsofgreater numbers oflocalnon-commercial organisations-which many domesticspecialistsinthearea ofmediaassistanceledtothecreation after Western donors.LocallegislationonNGOsandthegrowing professionalism of andseveralUkrainianassociations,but they,(MART), too,were largelyfundedby AssociationofRadioandTelevisionBroadcasters (RANV),the International and thefirstRussianassociations-AssociationofIndependent Foundation, foundedontheinitiativeofRussiancinematographersin1991, beginning ofthe90s.Theobviousexceptionswere theGlasnostDefence Very fewlocalNGOswere independentlycarryingoutmediaassistanceatthe (Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan,Tajikistan) thelegislativeprocess movedfarmore slowly. developed almostparalleltothedevelopmentofnewmediasystems,inothers organisations incertaincountries(likeRussia,Ukraine,Georgia,Armenia) sector wascompletelyundeveloped.Althoughthelegislationonnon-commercial At thattimeintheFSUthere were notonlynoindependent media,buttheNGO help overcomeingrainedhabitsofsevendecadesstate-controlledmedia." USAID Russiafocusedonjournalismtraining,theclearest,mostobviousneedto centralized economiestowardmarket-democraticsystems.Intheearliestyears, any experiencewiththetransitionsofsuchlarge,entrenchedpost-totalitarian unique challenges.NeithertheRussiansnorWestern donorcommunityhad Soviet RussiaandtheCommonwealthofIndependentStates(CIS)presented (including east-centralEuropeafter1989)providedsomesharedlessons,post- conditions andexperimentation.Whileotherpost-authoritarianmediatransitions "USAID mediaassistancestrategiesinRussiaevolvedresponsetorapidlychanging experience ofmediaassistance.AsUSAIDanalystKrishnaKumarwrote later the donors,norimplementers,thoseonreceiving end,hadany thirsty forinformationandadvice.Oneshouldalsonotethatatthistime,neither andmanagerswhowere useful totheyounggenerationofnewjournalists transfer theirexperiencewasgenuine,andpracticalindeed were documentarymakers andmanagers.Theirdesire foreign to journalists, at thattimeconsistedchieflyoftheorganisationseminars,where thetrainers a genuinedesire tohelpsociety, andalittleexperienceinmanagement.Projects by youngforeign enthusiasts,withsomeknowledgeoftheRussianlanguage, contract competitions.Therepresentative offices oftheseNGOswere usuallyrun resources donors’grantand tosubmitproposals to,andwin,theinternational by existingAmericanandEuropean NGOswhichhadtheknow-howand McArthur Foundation,financedsuchaidwork.Theseprojects were carriedout foundations suchastheOpenSocietyInstitute,Ford Foundationandthe institutionssuchasUSAIDandTacis1990s. Government-financed aswellprivate inexperienced mediacompaniesforwhichassistancewasdesignedintheearly The newlawsservedthecreation ofnewmediaandparticularlythosesmall, andbuy-outs. taxes, control: monopolisation, from theeconomictoolsthatwere subsequentlyusedtoconsolidatestate JOURNALISM ETHICSINTHEFACE OFBIGBUSINESS LESSONS FROMTHEFSUEXPERIENCE exacerbates problematic financialassistance and attitudestoward international initiatives. Theabsenceofself-regulatory institutions in themediasphere further owners, makingthemexcessively conservativewithregard tojournalistic Fear oflosingtheirprofitable businessesdictatesthe behaviour ofnewmedia was immediatelyandenthusiasticallyacceptedintothese newmediacommunities. transition toward atotalentertainment culture intheplaceofbalancednews have beensacrificedonthealtarofaquietlife.Theglobal tendencyofthe ethicalstandards andresponsibilitymoney" -thehighestjournalistic tothepublic Unfortunately, communityhasnotbeen abletostandup"big thejournalistic information broadcasting and tothefastexpansionofentertainmentcontent. also theexplanationwhytougheningofregimes intheFSUledtocuts communityandmediaowners.Thisis of manyconflictsbetweenthejournalistic of thelawwithregard totheloyalanddisloyal. Thesereasons lieattheroot all themajorelementsinsociety, through corruptionandtheselectiveapplication What holdsthemediacommunitybackisstrengthening ofstatecontrol over and films. channels are appearing,alongsideanavalancheofnewlocalTVprogrammes mechanisms forthedistributionoftelevision.Theindustryisonrise-new of theaudience.Newtelevisionprojects are appearing, asare newtechnical with itagrowth incompetition,alltakingplacealongsideanaturalfragmentation On theotherhand,advertisingvolumeisundergoingradicalgrowth, bringing a share, thenonlywithpermissionfrom theauthorities. especially televisionchannels,are nowappointed-andifforeign companiesgain in commercial mediacompanies.Loyalownersofthemajorcompanies, state -capitalisteliteshavecarriedouttake-oversandboughtcontrolling stakes small numberoftalkshowshavingtobeapproved inadvance.Thenew with informationflowsstrictlycontrolled, thethemesandparticipantsof the authoritarianmodelofinformationmanagementhasbeenre-established - hand, allofthenationalchannelsare underdirect or indirect statecontrol, and more-developed Russian,UkrainianandKazakhtelevisionmarkets.Ontheone beginning ofthe21stcentury, there are severaltendencies noticeableinthe countries differ from eachother, themediaindustriesare alsodifferent. Atthe of thesocietiesinwhichtheyoperate.Naturally, justastheeconomiesofthese separated from thesocial,political,economic,culturalandtechnologicaltrends highly criticalofmanytheirlocalmedia.Thedevelopmentmediacannotbe Nevertheless, democraticmovementsindifferent countriesoftheFSUare projects are takingplace,conferences organised,andsoon. been founded,documentaryfilmscontinuetobeproduced, variousexchange havebeentrained,hundreds ofassociationshave tens ofthousandsjournalists donors. Itis,therefore, supportthat thanksalmostexclusivelytointernational extremely slowlyandveryfewmediaassistanceprojects are financedbylocal European NGOastheleadimplementer. Domesticphilanthropy isdeveloping cautious aboutdirectly financinglocalorganisations,preferring tohavea institutionssuchasTacis,intergovernmental whicheventodayremains deeply foundationswere morePrivate international helpfultolocalNGOsthanthemajor 136 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 137 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences THE RESURGENCEOFAUTHORITARIAN INFORMATION MODEL has beenaccompaniedby rapid economicgrowth democratic changesin “After thetremendous post -Sovietsocieties, freedom ofspeech.” a steadydeclinein growth andrisein personal freedoms, including thatof • • • here are somesuggestionsforfuture mediaproject implementers: What couldhavebeendonedifferently? Thisisnotanexhaustiveanalysis,but propaganda. whole instrumentsforgovernment advances andcontinuetoreach thebiggestaudiences-buttheyremain onthe supported statebroadcasters -asaconsequencetheymadeterrifictechnical to thestateduringwhole15yearperiod.TheFSUstatesprotected and processes andrelationshipconsequently changedlittleintermsoftheirinternal for new, independentmediameantthatthestatewere leftoutand untrustworthy intheeyesofpublic.Inaddition,focusonassistanceonly makesthem are finance,whichinturn madedependentonforeign government cannot beprotected from localpoliticalandeconomic developments,unlessthey are partandparcel ofthesocietiestheyexisttoinform andentertain-they simply byassistingitsmediaindustry. Themediadonotsurviveinavacuum:they to believethatitispossibleradicallychangethesituationinanothercountry Union. Howeverlikeanynewprocess, thisonealsohaditsfailings.Itisfoolish a decidedlypositiveinfluenceonthedevelopmentofmediainformerSoviet experienceandprofessionalism assistance,Western had assistance. International inthefieldofmediadevelopment This isoneofthelessonswhichmustbelearned personal freedoms, includingthatoffreedom ofspeech. societies, rapideconomicgrowth hasbeenaccompaniedbyasteadydeclinein After thetremendous growth andriseindemocratic changesinpost-Soviet independent NGOs. which are loyaltoorevencreated bythestate,tocompeteagainst"disloyal" the appearanceofquasiNGOs-includinginmediaassistancefielditself tion between"us"and"them"isbecomingstronger. Manycountriesare seeing according totherelative successofrecent "revolutions"). Thexenophobicsepara- Georgia andKyrgyzstan,where thesetendenciesexist,butproceed more slowly are apparent throughout theFSU(withpossibleexceptionsofUkraine, The mediaandtheNGOcommunitycandolittletobattlethesetrends, which or asmoneylaunderingfronts. NGOs existonlytopromote theinterests offoreign statestoundermineRussia, spokesmencultivatedtheview insocietythat andpro-government government further controls ontheactivitiesofsector. Atthetimeoflaw’s passing, a newlawonnon-commercial organisationshasbeenintroduced toplace closed downoneaftertheotheroverpastyear, butinRussiaalso,where anddomesticNGOshavebeen Belarus andUzbekistan,where international the non-commercial sector. Isolationismisnowevidentnotonlyincountrieslike More emphasisshouldbeplacedonproviding assistancetodevelop themselves withafoothold intheirsocieties; carrying outsignificantprojects, localNGOscannotmature andestablish media inaneffective wayisessential,andwithoutgaining experiencein creation oflegitimatelocalorganisationscapable reaching outtolocal priority forcarryingoutmediaassistanceprojects rightfrom thestart- Financing -andifnecessarystrengthening -localNGOsshouldbea activities andcooperatemore effectively; that are more flexible,anddonorsshouldbebetterinformedofeachother’s mediaassistanceshouldoperate under principlesandstrategies International operating indifficult, oftenauthoritarian,andsensitiveenvironments. problems inthesecountriesorder todevelopnew waysofassistingmedia lessons oftheseearlyassistanceinitiatives,takingintoaccountthecurrent the Nevertheless,itisnecessarytolearn media managers,editorsandjournalists. providing ongoingtrainingandsupportfortheevergrowing numberofnew positive impactonthenascentindependentmediacommunitiesinthesecountries, In conclusion,mediaassistanceprogrammes intheFSUhavehadatremendously • • • • • improved mutualunderstandingandprogress. that couldbeexchangedbetweenbroadcasters, andleadtogenuinely production, withreal televisionandradioproducts asanendresult, projects havebeentheoneswhichcontainedelementsofactual seminars andtraining,whereas someofthebestandmostpopular and regions. Mediaassistanceprogrammes haveoften focusedon order tofostergoodpracticetransferbetweenneighbouringcountries More inter-regional andcross-boarder projects needtobedevelopedin Greater attentionshouldbepaidtoculturaldifferences andtraditions; atwell-knowngloballyrecognised mediacompanies; management internships The numberofforeign exchangeprojects shouldbeincreased, with idealistic ratherthanpracticalinnature; major mediabusiness,withtheconsequencethatprojects were sometimes have beensometimestoodivorced from thereal economicaspectsof NGOs assistance. Partoftheproblem intheFSUwasthatinternational foreign NGOstohelp,shouldbebrought intotheprocess ofmedia and Western mediacompaniesandassociations-aswellinternational media companies,networkingandproduction exchangeprogrammes; common goalsforeditorialindependence,greater cooperationbetween ones too,inorder toensure thecreation ofamore evenplayingfield, Support shouldbegivennotjusttonewmediacompanies,butstate own environments; leadership andleaderscapableofinfluencingthesituationintheir 138 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 139 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences civil defamationsuitsagainst in SoutheastAsia Media Independence Staying Alive: regularly filedcriminaland Thaksin's governmenthave I h atyas cabinet thepastyears, “In and newspapersfree a numberof Thai editors business partnersofthe members andaffiliated media advocates.” Kavi Chongkittavorn needed assurancethatthe paper wouldcontinuetooperateasfreely asbefore. that thecompanywouldreduce itsshares to22.43percentandgavemuch announced thatGrammyhad already struckacompromise withMathichonand game wasover. Atapress conference, Paiboon’s brother, SumethDamrongchaitham, Mathichon operatefreely withoutanyinterference. By5.00pmthesameday, the Dr. DaruneeHirunrak,madeapersonalappealtoPaiboon pullbackandlet for thepublishertofighttakeover. EvenPaiboon’s respected universitylecturer, holders cameforward andpledgedtoprovide loansandmaketheirshares available questioning Paiboon’s motiveinthishostilebid.Bankers andMathichon’s share- steppedupthepressureintelligentsia andjournalists byjointlyissuingstatements to flowers organizations and Grammybeganamidgrowing publicresentments. Mediaprofessional By Tuesday noon,hecticrenegotiations betweenrepresentatives ofMathichon controversy asGrammyhadahugeinvestmentinthepaper. motivated. Onenewspaperthough,theDailyNews,wascompletelyblindto editorials universallycondemningthehostiletakeoverasimmoralandpolitically- allprintmedia,bothEnglishandThai,published building. Thenextmorning, show support.Otherswearingblackt-shirtslaidwrathsinfront ofGrammy’s organizations andconsumergroups marched toMathichon’s headquartersto hours,civilsociety its artistsifthecompanydidnotpulloutfrom thedeal.Within students were packedwiththreatening words toboycottGrammyproducts and bulletin boards were jammedwithcondemnationsand SMSamonguniversity public outrageandgeneratedinstantsupportforthebeleaguered daily. Internet language newspaperinafewdays.Hisannouncementimmediatelycaused and wasplanningtotakeoverthecountry’s mostrespected 27-yearoldThai - Grammy Plc,announcedthathehadacquired 32.43percentofMachichon press. HomeentertainmenttycoonPaiboonDamrongchaitham, CEOofGMM At 9.40amonMonday12September2005,anearthquakeshooktheThai Chairperson, SoutheastAsianPressAlliance Mathichon’s editorialstaffers. mediaactivists, ByWednesday morning, held discussiongroups and endedtheirmeetingswithbouquetsof , Editor, TheNation, 19 September2006coupbytheThaiMilitary. author is still very muchvalidasananalysisof author isstillvery and ofthedominanttrendsinThailanditself. the overallmediasituationinSouthEastAsia after thecoup,situationformedia At thetimeofgoingtopresstwoweeks We havedecided,therefore,tokeepthe However, theoverallcontributionby This articlewaswrittenpriortothe author's contributionintact. in Thailandremainsunclear. Editor's Note STRUGGLE FORANINDEPENDENTPRESS as gullibleandignorant “The “The Thai publicwasnot one wouldhavethought. and responsiblepress.” It didcareaboutgood Corp Group, whichbelongedtotheThaksinfamily, sued Supinya Klangnarong, Post foranotherstoryrelated totheairport’s construction. InJune2004,theShin Shinwatra, Thaksin’s young sister, filedcriminalandcivillawsuitsagainsttheThai condition ofthenewSuvannabhum Airport.Inthesamemonth,Yaowaret defamation foronebillionbaht orUS$25millionforfalselyreported aboutthe agenciessued the BangkokPostforcriminal August 2005,twogovernment against anumberofThaieditorsandnewspapers free mediaadvocates.In Thaksin’s haveregularly filedcriminalandcivildefamationsuits government In thepastyears,cabinetmembersandaffiliated businesspartnersofthe speech urginghimtobemore opentocriticism. in Decembercitingtherecommendations byHMtheKingduringhisbirthday’s Severalweekslater,lawsuit againstajournalist. hesubsequently withdrew thecase monarchy intheirTVcurrent affair program. Itwas thefirsttimeThaksinfileda becausetheyrepeatedly accusedhimofbeingdisloyaltothe Porn-udomsak that hefiledcriminalandcivillawsuitsagainstSondhihisco-hostSarocha demanded 500millionbahtorUS$12.5indamages.Thaksinpointedout andThaiDay, SondhiLimthongkul,publisherofPhujadkarn journalist, and Prime MinisterThaksinShinawatrafiledtwodefamationsuitsagainstaveteran continues tofacemountingpressure On3October2005, from thegovernment. But thestruggleforindependentpress inThailandhasjustbegun.TheThaipress political uncertaintiesandincreased statecontrol. free mediathatrepresents especiallyatatimeof theirvoicesandconcerns, showed thatausuallybenignpublicwaswillingtofightforindependentand people hadneverfoughtforpress freedom before. Suchunpredictable outbursts would havethought.Itdidcare aboutgoodandresponsible press. Afterall, catalyst tohaltahostilebid.TheThaipublicwasnotgullibleandignorantasone Itwasthefirsttimepublicsupportservedas benchmark forThaijournalism. blocked Grammy’s purchase andsavedthepaper. Assuch,itsetforthanew support from thegeneralpublicandcivilsocietyorganizationshasliterally event thathasunitedthepress andpublicsectors.Combinedpressure andsolid Albeit abrieftussle,theattemptedhostiletakeoverofMathichonwashistoric ofPrimeMinisterThaksinShinawatraandhisoverallpolicies. government integrity. Heremoved twoeditorsin2004and2005,whowere criticalofthe Post’s executivedirector, notrenowned forpromoting press freedom andmedia rather conservativeoutlookaswelltheattitudeofSuthikiartChirathiwat, independence. Thisdevelopmentisextremely remarkable consideringthePost’s pledge inapress conference thattheeditorialstaff wouldbeallowedfull top editorialstaff. Inresponse, thePost’s publisherandCEOsmadeapublic House tostageademonstrationanddemandedsayintheappointmentof an openmanner. ThePost’s alsowenttoGovernment editorsandjournalists independence. Itwasaratherunusualstepthatsuchguaranteebeaskedin Post,abouttheneedto reaffirmof HongKongbasedSouthChinaMorning editorial staff decidedtowritetheirmanagementboards, includingRobertKwok,owner Post’s strong independentreporting. outsidesupport,thePost’s With editorial advocacy groups thatthetakeoverwouldaffect expressed the seriousconcerns and commotionthanMathichon’s share acquisitions,thepublicandfree media country’s oldestEnglishlanguagenewspaper. Althoughitcausedlessresentment 23.4 percentshares oftheBangkokPostPlc,publisherPost, On thedaytakeoverofMathichonwasannounced,Paiboonhadalsobought 140 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 141 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences FREE MEDIAINSOUTHEASTASIA Freedom HouselastMay Asia didnothaveany showed thatSoutheast “A surveydoneby remda except free media, in 194countries New York-based ‘partly free’and ‘not freemedia’ categories.” most interactive butcouldbedangerous anddefamatory. Finally, withnearly 50 rumors forfactsandother forms ofsensationalism.Electronic mediaisoneofthe encompassing, althoughnot perfectasmanyFilipinotabloidscontinuetoprint The Filipinomediaremains theregion’s freest and mostversatileaswellall enjoyed free media--Indonesiasince1998andCambodia since1992. region asnewcomersjoiningthefree mediaworld. Onlyrecently havethey Indonesia andCambodia.Thelattertworepresent thebiggestchangein grouped intofourgroups: Firstisthefree mediacountrysuchasthePhilippines, Using localandregional values andnorms,theSoutheastAsianmediacanbe 2005 and107thin2006.In2000,Thailandwasranked 29thinasimilarsurvey. for thepoorscoring.Thailand’s press freedom fellfrom 90thin2004to95th in killedwere responsiblemedia ownershipandthehighnumbersofFilipinojournalists former’ rapiddeteriorationofpress freedom andthe latter’s tightercontrol of in ThailandandthePhilippineswere includedinthe"partlyfree" category. The and"notfree media"categories.Theregion’s freest media except "partlyfree" last Mayin194countriesshowedthatSoutheastAsiadidnothaveanyfree media, independence ineachcountry. AsurveydonebyNewYork-based Freedom House vately-run. Regionalmediaalsovariesgreatly dependingonmediaqualityand orpri- media anditsindependence.Theisusuallygovernment-controlled Christian countryinAsia.Thesediversitiesare reflected intheregion’s qualityof combining Thailand,Laos,CambodiaandBurma.ThePhilippineisalsoamajor Islamic country-Indonesiaaswelltheworld’s largestBuddhistcommunities socialism tocapitalistautocracies.Theregion alsohousestheworld’s largest from guidedandhighlyregulated tofree foralldemocraciesandfrom despotic It isaminiature ofglobalpolitics-from absoluteto constitutionalmonarchies, Southeast Asiaisaverydiverseregion intermsofpolitics,economicandreligion. ridiculously highamountoffinancialpayouts. demanding media, aswellfilingdefamationlawsuitsagainstjournalists financial measures tocontrol mediaownership,anti-press legislationstocow skillful inmuzzlingfreedom ofexpression usingsophisticated meansincluding semi -free media,press freedom isatrisk.Nowadayspowerwieldersare very Throughout SoutheastAsia,especiallyinthecountrieswhichhavefree or not bethelasttofaceanewformofmediaintimidationandcontrol. prey onMathichonagainorpurchase othermediaoutlets.Indeed,thedailywill will usethetyrannyofmarketmechanismandexcesscapitalsinfuture, to against thehostilebidcouldbeshort-livedbecauseGrammyGroup canand that thesedevelopmentsandtheirsignificancebeunderstood.Thepaper’s triumph reporting officials andthecountry’s ongovernment press freedom. Itisimperative favourable rulingforthePrimeMinistercouldhavedire consequencesforfuture on freedom ofexpression inthecountry. InthecaseofThaksin’s lawsuits,any have toconfront inthefuture. Eachlegaloutcomewillhavedirect bearing defamation casesinThailandreveal thekindofchallengesThaimediawill Mathichon’s dramaticstruggleforsurvivalandtheincreased numberof sister business,thebusinessdailyPrachachatTurakij. against Mathichonandafive-billionbahtorUS$225millionsuitits family membersofformerdeputycommerce ministerSuriyaLapwisuthisin, the 10billionbahtorUS$450millionfiledbyPicnicCorporation,owned by Singapore’s Temasak Holdings.Otherhigh-profile defamationsuitsincluding interesting tonotethatShinCorpGroup waspurchased on27January2006 a free mediaadvocate,for400millionbahtorUS$10indamages.Itis PARTLY FREEMEDIAINSOUTHEASTASIA delay informationdisclosure insteadofencouraging it. though theaccesstoinformation lawisabusedandusedasaninstrumentto country’s decisionmaking process andpromote civilparticipation.Currently communities. Theywanted to beinformedcitizensandparticipateinthe offices throughout thecountry toobtaininformationrelated totheirvillagesor to informationlaw. TheThaiswere overwhelmedandpoured intogovernment In 1997ThailandwasthefirstcountryinSoutheastAsia toenacttheaccess which willstartinlater2006,needtamedandcontrolled mediatosucceed. populist policiesincludingtheimplementationof41-billion-dollar megaprojects, These strategiesensure that dissentingviewsare systematicallymuffled. Thaksin’s newsandinformation. and othereconomicincentivesaccesstogovernment the mediacommunitythrough stockacquisitions,targetadvertisingallocations hasefficiently divided watchdog. Inthepastfiveyears,Thaksingovernment On thewholeThaimediaisstillfree butitnolongeractsasaneffective freest press ofPrimeMinister ThaksinShinawatra. before thegovernment Thailand, nowratedasa"partlyfree media"countryusedtoboasttheregion’s corruption etc. to fightagainstanti-free medialegislations,promote theircampaignagainst hasweakenedtheirbargainingpower and solidarityamongCambodianjournalists in total,are tryingtoprotect andpromote freedom ofexpression. Lackoffunding quite frequently especiallyduringelectiontime.Professional mediaassociations,six haveoccurred opted mediaandtamedthem.Intimidationkillingofjournalists which hasbeenunderPrimeMinisterHunSensince1992,successfullyco- well asinstitutions.Cambodianmediaisgenerallyveryfierce butthegovernment, role inadministratingtheoncewar-torn countryandinstilleddemocraticvalueas They havebeeneagerandveryseriouswithmediafreedom. TheUNplayedakey havegonethrough trialsanderrorsjournalists inexercising freedom ofexpression. The Cambodianpress hascomealongway. Overthepastdecade,Cambodian country andtheASEANregion. his government’s policytopromote free press anddemocratizationbothinhis Assembly. IndonesianPresident SusiloBambangYudhoyono hasalsoreaffirmed The drafthasbeencompletedandiscurrently upforthevoteinNational the secondcountryinSoutheastAsiatoadoptanaccessinformationlaw. ethical trainingtoimprove qualityandprofessionalism. SoonIndonesiawillbe stillneedfundamentalmediaand Despite theirgoodworkthough,journalists has nothappenedthankstotheconductofIndonesianjournalists. disenchantments withpolitics,democracyandeconomichardship. Sofar, this the mediaandsubsequentlypolarizesocietybyreporting onissuesrelated to There were fearsoriginallythatfundamentalIslamicpoliticalgroups woulduse play inpromoting andraiseawareness ofmoderateIslamanddemocracy. As theworld’s largestIslamiccountry, Indonesia’s free mediahasacrucialrole to increased publicawareness aboutnationalpoliticalandeconomicconditions. free toproduce almostanykindofpoliticalinformation.Suchmediafreedom has workingtoday.journalists Inthepastfiveyears,Indonesianmediahasbeen since 1998afterthedeparture ofPresident Suhartowithatotalof35,000 estimated thatnearly2,000newdailiesand900radiostationsemerged In Indonesia,independentmediaisboomingbutqualityremains anissue.Itis most dangerous placetoworkforjournalists. killedinthepasttenyears,Philippinesremains oneoftheworld’sjournalists 142 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 143 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences REFERENCES FORCONCLUSION THE HAVES ANDHAVE NOTS country. region’s firstonlinenewspaper, itistheonlyindependentnewssource inthe withtheexceptionofMalaysiakiniinKualaLumpur.by thegovernment, Asthe In Malaysiaforinstance,mostofwhatispublishedorbroadcasted issanctioned someone closedtotheleadersinpower. tries are well-paidandtheireditorsare appointedeitherbytherulingpartiesor ruling party’s inbothcoun- mustbeavoided.Journalists reputation andgovernance and wisdomsare imperativetoensure relevancy and acceptability. each individualcountry, mustbecarefully mappedout.Using localmediaresources environments, long-termoutreach programs, specific totheuniqueconditionsof press intheblinkofaneye.To promote freedom ofexpression incontrolled media takeovers byvestedinterest groups, whichcanusurpadecadeoldhistoryoffree is aprerequisite. Ways mustbefoundtoprevent independentmediafrom corporate press inThailandandthe Philippines, economicviabilityandbettermanagement standard ofprofessionalism inthesecountries.To sustainthelevelofindependent independent mediaorganizationscouldstrengthen mediasolidarityandraisethe understand mediaethicsandgoodwritingare muchneeded.Betterorganized press who proliferates inIndonesiaandCambodia,bettertrainedjournalists Quality andindependenceinSoutheastAsianmediais highlyuneven.Asfree mediaadvocacygroups.in undisclosedlocationsfundedbyWestern insideBurmareceive mediatrainingclandestinely dozens ofBurmesejournalists others intheregion foralert,informationexchangeandsolidarity. Eachyearseveral inexileneedtonetwork with knowledge ofworldaffairs. Burmesejournalists aswell as donors andfoundations.Theyare beingtaughtaboutjournalism inexilehavebeenreceiving on-thejobtrainingfromof Burma,journalists various such asBBC,CNNandRadioFree Asia.To prepare forthefuture democratization from insidetheborder. newsagencies Someofthemfindjobswithinternational for variousnewsoutletsandliveinThailand.TheyfollowBurmesedevelopments scattered alongtheThai-BurmeseborderBurmese journalists andChiangMai,work to writingorbroadcasting. Onlystatemediacarriesdaytonews.About90 Burma isthemostextreme enjoynofreedom casewhere withregards journalists pivotal aspartofthenational-buildingprocess. local mediathatisquitetamedandpassive.Sotheinthesecountries departments. Brunei,withitspoliticalsystemofabsolutemonarchy possessesa orpropaganda guidelines.Allviewsare sanctionedbythegovernment government writeandpresent newsfollowing Journalists Brunei, Burma,LaosandVietnam. The fourthgroup isthemediaservingasgovernment’s mouthpiecein Malaysiakini planstolaunchabroadband regional TVcalled247News. repeatedly pledgednotto censorinformationincyberspace.In2006, to lure foreign has investorsinthishighlycompetitivearea, thegovernment loopholes inthegovernment’s informationandcommunicationtechnologypolicies: party andstrengthens sectors.Anynewsthatincreases thelegitimacyofruling ance bygovernment trade canbereported quitefreely, especiallyifpositiveon theeconomicperform- Self -censorshipisthenorm. mustbetreatedIssues considered carefully. sensitivetothegovernment The third group is"controlled media"asinSingapore andMalaysia. Set upin1999Malaysiakinihassuccessfullyusedandexploitedexisting its gripsiswelcome. Other non-politicalissuessuchaseconomicand Any newsdeemeddetrimentaltothe Uzbekistan afterAndijan Challenging Environments: Media Developmentin or Londonwaslittlevalue to apersonuponreturn free societiesofNew York authoritarian Tashkent.” article forapaperinthe “Knowing howtogather “Knowing information andwritea good English-language http://www.rferl.org/specials/uzbek_unres http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/c A chronology ofharassmentoatRFE/RLisat: http://www.iwpr.net/index.pl?archive/rca See “Uzbek Government ExertingPressureSee “UzbekGovernment Also, “Hard Times forUzbekCharities”, Also, “Hard Times http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacif- 26 25 ivilsociety/articles/eav100405.shtml. on LocalNGOstoClose‘Voluntarily’“ “‘Harassed’ BBCshutsUzbekoffice”, The regime’s campaignagainstNGOs media developmentNGOsaswell. EurasiaNet, 4October2005at: Reporting CentralAsia(IWPR), post-Andijan extendsbeyond t/Uzbek-harass-chron.pdf 2/rca2_413_2_eng.txt 1 October2005,at: ic/4380166.stm continued persecution ofitsemployeesby theauthorities. news gatheringoperations in Uzbekistanandwithdrawingalllocalstaff after amongst many, theBBCannounced on26October2005itwassuspendingits and Ferghana.ru,aswell localstaff ofNGOs,such asIWPR. CNN, RadioFree Europe/Radio Liberty(RFE/RL),AssociatedPress, DeutscheWelle, international both development inparticularexpandedintoopendenunciations ofjournalists, After that,astheregime’s ongoingparanoiaaboutthemedia, unarmed civiliandemonstratorskillinghundreds, perhapsevenonethousand. Andijan massacre of13May 2005,whenstatesecurityforces fired onmostly This dangerous extremely anddifficult toxicfollowingthe mixturned UN SpecialRapporteuronTorture. copiously documentedbyhumanrightsgroups andlabeled risk ofbeingtakenintocustodybythesecurityservices, where torture hasbeen development efforts inthecountry. Andneverfarfrom anyone’s mindwasthe by securityservicesagainstlocalNGOstaff were aregular feature ofmedia that theregime putontheseorganizations.Indirect andnotsoindirect threats state registration andre -registration were onlyonesmallpartofthepressure their localrepresentatives were findingitincreasingly tough.Requirements for Uzbekistan wasnevereasy:overthelastfiveyearsinparticular, theseNGOsand strong sources. donorsupportfrom Working awidevarietyofinternational inside andothersinvolvedintheregion formanyyearsthanks to (IWPR), Internews mediaNGOssuchastheInstituteforWarwith international and PeaceReporting training,havebothreceived someattentioninUzbekistan the past, journalism The twokeyaspectsofmediadevelopment,infrastructure improvement and deteriorating situation communitymakesawell-fundedandconcertedresponse toa if theinternational A closelookattheopportunitiesthere demonstratesjustwhatmightbeachievable and freedom ofinformationprojects are stillpossiblefortheCentralAsianstate. Though increasingly difficult toimplementontheground, mediadevelopment and democracyinthecountry. require asetofspecificstrategiestohelpsupportthefuture developmentofmedia forgotten. OnesuchspecificchallengeistheRepublicofUzbekistan,whichwill media assistance.However, thesecountriesandtheirpopulationsshouldnotbe Korea, althoughallpresenting different scenarios,posetoughchallengesregarding severely restricted. AuthoritariancountriessuchasUzbekistan,BurmaandNorth In theharshestauthoritarianstates,scopeformediadevelopmentworkis Andrew Stroehlein, correspondents andlocal staff ofmajoroutletssuchasARD,BBC, Media Director, theInternationalCrisisGroup 26 "systematic" 25 NGOs andmedia As anexample by the 144 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 145 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences BOOSTING JOURNALISMTRAININGBYANDFORCENTRALASIANS CREATING STAND-BY NEWSPAPER INFRASTRUCTURE prospects arenotas obstacles aremany and thedangersto hopeless asitmay tf r ra,the staff aregreat, “But althoughthe “But independent printingpress, setupinBishkek first appear.” Freedom House The USEmbassyinBishkekalsoprovided the U.S.StateDepartment’s Bureau of in November2003withfundingfrom Democracy, HumanRights&Labor. 27 generators whenpublicelectricity The democracy-promotion supplies proved inconsistent. was responsible forthe NGO implement, are creative solutionsmustbefound.Whatisneeded,andwhatstillpossibleto impossible insidethecountry, andyettheneedhasclearlyneverbeengreater, so In suchanatmosphere, conventionalmediadevelopmentprojects are verynearly Kyrgyzstan evenwhenofficial channelswere blocked, independent printingpress, whichproved effective indisseminatinginformation lishing anddistributioncapacityseemsimpossibleatthistime.Thefundingofan Developing mediatechnologyontheground toupdatethecountry’s decrepit pub- information needsofatransformingcountry. andeffective mediainfrastructurejournalists canrespond quicklytomeetthe to bemadenow, sothatwhensocietydoesopenupagain,skilled,responsible gone tocreate professional institutionsinstantlyfrom scratch.Preparations need and thenbeexpectedtosomehowresurrect themselveswhentheregime is As withothersectorsoftheeconomy, mediacannotbelefttowitheranddie the country-inexpectationoffuture change toamore reasonable government. integrity-nottomentionprovide independentinformationtoandabout journalistic This is no longer the case. After many years of training journalists and This isnolongerthecase.Aftermanyyearsoftraining journalists region madeitnecessary. trainersinthe andjournalism problems, butadearthof high-qualityjournalists T Tashkent. York toauthoritarian orLondonwaslittlevaluetoapersonuponreturn and writeagoodEnglishlanguagearticleforpaperinthefree societiesofNew and inapplicableintheCentralAsiancontext.Knowinghowtogatherinformation importantly, bythefactthatitrelated experiencesthatwere whollyinappropriate Training intheWest wasalwayscomplicatedbylanguageissues,and,more Bothhaveseentheirday. journalists. workshops intheregion ledbywestern has focusedonclassworkand-thejobtraininginWest aswelltraining but newapproaches traininginCentralAsia are needed.Inthepast,journalism Lifeboat strategiesforUzbekmediacanincludetrainingjournalists, time possiblegiventechnicalconstraints. advantage ofanynewpoliticalfluxtoestablishasmalldailypaperintheshortest to roll capability – to – quickly aspossible.Thegoalshouldbetohaveaready create newnewsgatheringanddistributionnetworksthroughout thecountryas to break undertheregime. lishment ofsuchaprintingpress forimmediatedeploymentwhentheicestarts Uzbekistan today. Butpreparations canandshouldbemadefortherapidestab- to imagine. The exchange of experiences between journalists from differentto imagine.The exchangeofexperiences betweenjournalists in theregion finddifficult –oftentimesproblems even journalists thatWestern face these experiencedCentralAsians havedealtwiththeproblems journalists muchmore fromlearn because themthantheywouldfrom journalist, aWestern can they canprovide instructioninlocallanguages.Ingeneral, youngjournalists trainers,bothforon-thejobtraining andclassroom training,and journalism Uzbekistan), whohaveyearsofreporting behindthemandexperienceas Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan andUzbekistan(mostly nowlivingoutside training.There from aredomestic capacityforjournalism talentedjournalists the trainers" raining by Westerners inCentralAsiancapitalsalsosufferedraining byWesterners from similar projects NGOs,theregion byWestern hasareasonably strong " lifeboat strategies", Hand inhandwiththis,aplanshouldbedevelopedto projects thatcanmaintainmediaskillsand 27 sceryntfail in is clearlynotfeasible " training take countries in the region is particularly useful: learning how to handle political 28 pressure or obstructive officials, for example. International donors should support the establishment of an independent journalism training centre for the region. The trainers and lecturers should be experienced Central Asian journalists who ideally teach only part-time so their practical skills aren’t dulled. The centre should develop special efforts to reach out to Uzbekistan’s journalists with both short-term training programs and longer term in-residence possibilities for teachers and students to improve their skills outside of the country.

FREEDOM OF INFORMATION PROJECTS AND A CENTRAL ASIAN

After the Andijan massacre and the crackdown on journalists and media support NGOs that followed, news gathering and reporting went from extremely difficult to nearly impossible. About the only independent sources of news Uzbekistan’s citizens can access are via the Internet and by shortwave radio broadcast. These outlets need to carry on their work, but more avenues to information need to be opened up. The case for a new Central Asian news agency is strong. As of early 2006, there were only two US-funded projects to establish regional news agencies, one with IWPR and one with Internews. The latter project, called "Newsfactory", is more agency - like in its extensive reach to small media outlets in towns throughout Kazakhstan. It should be expanded to take in other countries in the region, especially Uzbekistan, though not by working with existing Uzbek media outlets, as it does in Kazakhstan. The Uzbek outlets are simply too closely controlled by the regime to provide objective reporting or any potential for publishing outside material. A network of anonymous correspondents across Uzbekistan should be created, with editors in Almaty or Bishkek coordinating their reports and protecting their identity. These reports can be entered into the agency system and thus offer regional media access to independent daily reports from across Uzbekistan. Getting the reports back into Uzbekistan will be difficult. They could enter existing systems online, on shortwave radio, and on broadcast outlets in neighbouring countries, which many Uzbekistan citizens can easily access. But more distribution routes are needed. NEW FM RADIO STATIONS

FM broadcasts in Uzbek from radio stations just over the border in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan would reach the largest number of Uzbekistan’s citizens. Although it may increase friction between Tashkent and its neighbours, if political reluctance in Astana and Bishkek can be overcome, the potential for large audiences and real-time reporting makes FM radio the most effective medium.

SMALL-SCALE NEWSPAPERS FOR UZBEKISTAN’S MIGRANTS AND TRADERS

Newspapers printed abroad and distributed to shuttle traders on the borders and to migrant workers, in neighbouring countries (Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan) and in Russia, would reach important audiences with information not tightly controlled by Tashkent. People may find them too dangerous to bring into Uzbekistan, but they would be passed around in border towns outside Uzbekistan, and the stories will be carried into 28 For further discussion of the benefits of involving locals as journalism trainers Uzbekistan in the memories of the readers. The target audiences will come to rely in the region see Kuban Mambetaliev, “Donor Policies in Support of the Mass on these new newspapers more quickly if they report not only news items but also Media in Central Asia”, a paper delivered business information professionally useful for these economically active groups. at the International Donors Policy Forum on

Media Development in London, UK, SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences MEDIA MATTERS 13-14 October 2005. There is certainly more scope for online news aimed at Uzbekistan. True, Internet 146 147 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences JOURNALIST PROTECTIONFUND UNDERGROUND NEWSGATHERING PROJECTS EXPANDING ONLINENEWS soon completeitsextensivereport onthe 29 The openNetInitiativeshould Internet inUzbekistan Internet course, would be of little value for journalists whocross theauthoritiesin course, wouldbeoflittlevalue forjournalists freedom worldwide.Fundingforlegaldefenceitself in thestrictestsense,of into theestablishmentofa legal defencefundforlitigationinsupportofmedia support inothercrucialways. TheOpenSocietyInstitute(OSI)hasbeenlooking communitycanprovidedevelopment oftheseother projects, theinternational Apart from helpingtofinance theexpansionofnewsagencyandfurther workingfrom safetyabroadso journalists canthenaskcontroversial questions. fixers whoidentifypotentialsources andpassphonenumberstotheireditors, some casesandforstories,correspondents ontheground mayonlyactas can beundertakenbyotherwriters,whoare locatedoutsidethecountry. In Questioning ofofficial sources asawayoftryingtoensure balanceandobjectivity indeed, inmanyinstances,withinterviewees. notevenwithcolleaguesor can neverbeopenabouttheirworkasjournalists, appropriate cover-jobsthathelpthemgainaccesstousefulsources, andthey legal registration andnoaccreditation. Anonymous correspondents musthave their correspondents, whoessentiallyworkunderground withnoopenoffice, no irreplaceable. Editorsmusttakeallmeasures possible toprotect theidentityof and activistswhoare willingtotakethatrisk,andthevalueoftheirreports is and ethicalproblems. Therisksare great, butthere are numerous journalists tocollectinformationinsideUzbekistanpresents seriouspractical Asking journalists advice onavoidingthecensorsinChinatoaddUzbekistanasafocuscountry. China’s, itwouldbebeneficialforgroups thathavetakenaninterest inproviding their abilitytoblockoutsidewebsitesdoesn’t seemtobenearlyascomprehensive as sites.Though down andthreatening localwebsitesandblockingcertainexternal censorship,closing The Uzbekregime hasbeenveryactivelyengagedinInternet donors. by havingthatparticularmaterialunderwritteninternational project, asproposed above,couldoffer itsUzbekmaterialonlineforfree, possibly - TASS andRIANovosti)onKyrgyzstan’s AKIPress. Anexpandednewsagency sources, withaheavyreliance onstatenewsagencies(especiallytheRussianITAR correspondents, ittakesmuchofitsinformationonUzbekistanfrom other providing adailyservice,butwithoutresources foranexpandednetworkof service aboutUzbekistanforUzbekcitizens.Ferghana.ruhascomeclosestto Noneoftheaboveprovide adedicateddailynews of independentjournalism. Uzbekistan more thanreport from withinthecountryitself,anditisnotasource Uzbek andRussian,butittendstocoverwhattheoutsideworldissayingabout but again,harassmentofbothhasbeenfierce. Tribune -uz.infohasmaterialin websites ofRFE/RLandBBCWorld ServicedelivernewsinUzbek, each canonlyproduce ahandfulofstoriesaboutUzbekistaneverymonth.The first twowithsignificantRussian-languageoutput),buttheyhavelimitedcapacity: IWPR, Transitions Onlineandotherspublishexcellentweb-basedmaterial(the anyone likelytoplayadecision-makingrole EurasiaNet, inafuture government. influential access islimitedwithinthecountry, butonlinereports are read bythemost and besteducated-boththoseinthecurrent regime and,presumably, 29 LOWER THELIFEBOATS SATELLITE TV details oftheAndijanmassacre from first-handaccounts.Ifnoonemaintains the thattheworldlearned if from exile.Infact,itisthankstothesejournalists whoareproduced nowprepared ablejournalists tocarryonthattradition, even late 1990sandearlyyearsof thisdecade,whichhavelaidthegroundwork and country hasbenefitedfrom asmallwaveofmediadevelopment projects inthe the world,andUzbekistandoeshavesomethingofan advantagebecausethe Of course,notalloftheseprojects wouldbepossibleforallsuchstatesaround professionalism andfreedom ofinformation. state, andthere are anumberofveryreal opportunitiestopromote journalistic from acareful analysisisthatlimitedopeningsdoexisteveninahighlyauthoritarian are great, theprospects are notashopelessit may firstappear. Whatemerges support projects. Butalthough theobstaclesare manyandthedangerstostaff be bettertowaituntilpoliticalchangespresent widerscopefordemocracy Uzbekistan couldalltooeasilyleadtodespairandafeeling thatitmightsimply As withtoomanyrepressive regimes around theworld,situationin small-scale grants. donor withbothexcellentregional knowledgeandanabilitytohandlenumerous require additionalfinances,whichwouldbebestdispersedthrough amiddle-man come from activistsorproduction freelance companies,butthiswill journalists, Kyrgyzstan, andperhapselsewhere outsideUzbekistan.Suchmaterialcould independent TVcontentinthefreer CentralAsianstatesofKazakhstanand more of exchange. Whatisneededfundingforthedevelopmentandproduction material, there isadangerthenewsatellitestationwilllookmore likeapropaganda are controlled bystateorstate-friendlyowners,sowithout independentlyproduced face asevere shortageofindependentcontent.Thepartnerstationsintheregion Unfortunately, whilethetechnicalaspectsare comingtogether, thestationwill potential forthespread ofinformation. the region. Itisanambitiousandsomewhatcostlyproject, butithasimpressive project, actasacontentexchangehubbetweendifferent existingTVoutletsin via satellitedirect toCentralAsianhomes,thisnewstationwould, liketheagency station tobroadcast primarilyinRussiantoCentralAsia.Inadditionbroadcasting ishatchinganewsatellite fundingfrom USAID,Internews to Uzbekistan.With that wouldbenefitfrom expansion,additionaloutsidesupportandextraattention A region-wide satellitetelevisionstationisanotherproject already inthepipeline be, donorswillhavetohelpboostresources protection. forjournalist emergency fundstodoso.Ifunderground reporting isexpandedasitshould inexile,butithadtodedicateasubstantialportionofitsglobal journalists financial resources are extremely limited.In2005,CPJworkedwitheightUzbek (CPJ),areto Protect tryingtomeet theseneeds,buttheirhumanand Journalists groups, suchas the Committee journalism an Uzbekprison.Someinternational undercover newsgatheringproject hasaretirement optionotherthantorture in runningintotrouble asaresultessential thatanyjournalist ofworkingwithan protectionWhat isalsosorely fund.Itis neededforUzbekistanisajournalist Human RightsCommissioninvolvingtheclosure ofmediaoutletsinUzbekistan. of repressive regimes. There are, forexample,afewcasespendingbefore theUN attentiontothecrimes fora,whichcanbringinternational cases ininternational Uzbekistan. ButpartofOSI’s project wouldinvolvesupportingmediafreedom 148 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 149 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences inevitably headed. that willhelpsocietiesrideouttherough waterstoward whichtheyseem policy makersoughttoactivelyandgenerously pursuethelifeboatstrategies respond torapidlychanging events.Ratherthanlamentalackofopportunities, communityastheyattemptto decision -makingamongtheinternational both forheightenedchaosandviolencedomestically, andforill-informed quick -responding, experienced,balancedreporting ontheground isarecipe when adespoticsystemfinallyunravels.Adramaticpoliticalupheavalwithout of informationandskilledmediaprofessionals canalsohelpcushiontheblow Apart from maintainingatleastsomecheckontheexercise ofpower, freedom to report thenextmassacre. these mediadevelopmentefforts, there isunlikelytobeanyoneontheground esgs Avacuumhasbeen messages. this vacuumwillbecaptured voices ofreligiousintolerance the proliferationofmoderate that theabruptphase-outof ulcshr.Theplatforms public sphere. r olne ucinn.It are nolongerfunctioning. that werebalancingoutthe remains tobeseenwhether broadcast sectorislimiting emergence ofacommercial EARTHQUAKE ZONES. LESSONS FROMPAKISTAN’S IN THEPUBLICSPHERE: CRISIS ANDOPPORTUNITY THE INFORMATION GAP eetmnh,hwvr is however, recent months, created insidetheregion's “Our mostvividlessonof “Our the absenceofaparallel emergency stationsin by extremistvoices.” of radiosetsand virtuallyallTVsetswere destroyed bytheearthquake. households hadaradioand 52%hadtelevisionsets.Ofthese,three -quarters worst-hit cities.According tothesurvey, before theearthquakeabout81%of Muzaffarabad, BaghandRawalakotinKashmir. Thesewere generallythe weeks aftertheearthquake inBatagram,BalakotandMansehraNWFP, and conducted asnapshotsurveytwo media assistanceorganization,Internews, To gaugethestateofinformationaccess,Pakistan office oftheinternational was going,whattodoorhowgethelp. those affected -atleast3.5 millionpeople-hadnomeansoffindingoutwhat news aboutthecalamityanditsimpactwasgoingout totheworldatlarge,but local newsgenerationcametoahalt.Thedisasterpresented theclassicparadox: quake: 40ofits160staff were killed,anditsbuildingswrecked. Thebusiness of information -thestate-runKashmirRadioandTVwassilencedbyearth- and newspaperoffices andpress clubswere destroyed. Theonlysource of mass trolled mediainaffected were areas. killedorwentmissing, Dozensofjournalists Nevertheless, theearthquakehadadevastatingimpactonlocalstate-con- instituted byIslamabadinlate2002,hadlargelybypassedKashmir. open mediapolicyallowingforprivateownershipoftheairwavesinPakistan, and stillare, printedoutsidethestate,mostlyinRawalpindiandIslamabad.An through thestate-ownedAJKRadioandTV. Even"local"newspaperswere, independent localbroadcast mediawere bannedand informationtightlycontrolled One oftheuntoldstoriesdisasteristhatquakehitaregion inwhich of Pakistan-administered KashmirandNorthWest Frontier Province (NWFP) The earthquakeof7.2magnitudeontheRichterScaledevastatedlargeswathes injuries and3.5millionwere displaced,according to official estimates. died -including30,000children inclassrooms -more than100,000sustained When Pakistan'sworstnaturaldisasterstruckonOctober8,2005,over80,000 Adnan Rehmat, Chairman, Intermedia 150 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 151 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences THE EMERGENCEOFEMERGENCYBROADCASTMEDIA http://www.reliefmedia.org.pk 30 For more informationsee The follow-upsurveyalsorevealed thatmore peoplewere consumingmore media. stations onairatthetimeof thesurveyastheirstationofchoice. up to70%,andrespondents mentionedatleastone of thesevenemergencyradio one oftheirprimarysources ofinformation.Inthefollow-upsurvey, thishadgone initial become amajorsource of independent,reliable andusefulinformation.Inthe follow -up.Thisshowedthatthenewcommunityradio regime hadrapidly Four monthsaftertheinitialinformationaccesssurvey, conducteda Internews FM broadcasters across theentire disasterzone. authorities. Theradioprogramme itselfwasbroadcast bythesevenemergency andlocalhumanitariancommunitygovernment populations, theinternational earthquake region toreport onrelief efforts, including feedbackfrom affected students.Theyoungreportersa group traveleddailyacross oftenjournalism the ‘Jazba -eTameer’ (‘TheDesire toRebuild’).Theprogramme wasproduced by daily one-hournewsandinformationprogramme onhumanitarianissues,called inhumanitarianreporting andtheproductionjournalists anddistributionofa facilities, providing smallequipmentgrantstoemergencyFMstations,training included developingtheemergencybroadcast sector, buildingradioproduction media capacitiesaffected bythedisasterinKashmirandNWFP. Thisworkprimarily governments, launchedthePakistanEmergencyInformationProject governments, withfundingfrom theUKandSwiss weeksoftheearthquake,Internews, Within volunteer broadcasters committedtohelpingpeople. since thelicenceswere non-commercial, theywould betakenuponlyby‘serious’ made availablefrequencies usuallycontrolled bythe military. Theideawasthat, operators (toclearthemoflinkswithIndiaorjihadi/militantgroups), and Authority bypassedtheusuallylengthyprocess ofsecurityvettingwould-be emergency licencestoprivateFMstationsoutsideoftheaffected area. The Regulatory Authority(PEMRA)hadissuedtentemporarynon-commercial of IndependentRadio(AIR),withinamonththePakistanElectronic Media andtheAssociation had tobecalledon.AccedinglobbyingbyInternews the lackoflocalequipmentandexpertise,operatorselsewhere inthecountry in locallanguages,andbroadcasts couldreach largenumbersofpeople.Given Radio wastheobviousanswer:setswere cheap,informationcouldbeprovided cheap andpracticalmeansofinformationaccesswasestablished. hand-washing, notdrinking.Againstthisbackground, itwasimperativethata would getridofmosquitoes,orthatbottledwaterwasmedicinalandonlyfitfor when thenextearthquakewasdue,orthatdaubingkerosene onyourtent In theabsenceofconventionalsources ofinformation,rumoursabounded:about religious leadersasasource ofgeneralinformation. not gettinganyinformationfrom anywhere. Noonementionedthemosqueor 15% onTVand11%thelocaladministration.Atleast8%saidtheywere were dependentonword ofmouth,28%ontheradio,21%newspapers, When askedabouttheirsources ofinformation,68%respondents saidthey survey, inlateOctober2005,28%ofrespondents hadcitedradioas 30 to rebuild NEW CHALLENGESTOMEDIAGAINS A TRANSFORMEDPUBLICSPHERE? received aseries ofthreatening callsfrom religious groups tostopairing In July2006,emergencyFM radiobroadcasters inAbbotabad andMuzaffarabad limited solelytotheemergency response periodhad expired. NWFP fortheservicetocontinue. Thebroadcasts were curtailedasdonorgrants at theendofJune2006,despite requests from communitiesacross Kashmirand information anddebateontherelief andreconstruction effort -wentoff theair daily radioprogramme, Jazba -eTameer -theonlyregion -wideplatformfor space thathasopenedupintheearthquakezonesisalready underthreat. The In recent months,however, there havebeensignsthattheunprecedented media talk ofatransformedmedialandscapeforKashmirand NWFP. that hadbeentightlyrestricted bythestatepriortoearthquake.There was the groundwork foramore pluralisticmediaregime inaninformationenvironment for localterrestrial televisionchannels. issued asetoffullpermanentcommercial radiolicencesandinvitedapplications important contributiontotherelief operation.FourmonthslatertheAuthority beyond aninitialtwomonthsafterthequake,inacknowledgementoftheir Early in2006PEMRAextendedtheemergencylicencesfortenFMradiostations their femaleemployees,inparticular-theearthquakezones. religious viewsregarding relief thepresence agencies-andof ofinternational the affected communities,diluting,forexample,manyoftheleasttolerant Tameer programme wasplayinganimportantrole inmediatingopinionswithin Furthermore, there were indicationsthattheplatformcreated bytheJazba-e- • • • • relief operation.Examplesincluded: clear evidenceofapositiveimpactontheeffectivesandaccountability By theSpringof2006dailybroadcastsJazba-eTameer wereproviding goods earmarkedfordistribution. police chiefandcheckpointswere establishedtoensure accountabilityof hired byrelief agencies.Reportersraisedthisissuewith thedistrict keepers whoadmittedthattheirmainsupplierswere driversandstaff and fooditemswasdiscontinuedafterJazba-e-Tameer interviewedshop Mansehra: illegalsaleofrelief goods,suchastents,medication,blankets them onairtotelecomofficials andalllineswere repaired withintendays. authorities. Jazba-e-Tameer gathered thesecomplaintsandpresented inhabitants. Largegroups mademore thanadozencomplaintstothelocal months afterthequakeinJijialvillage,whichhasmore than10,000 Jijial, Kohistan:landtelephonelineswere stilldisconnectedfornearlyfour about thisissue,electricitywasrestored withinaweek. electricity fornearlytwomonths.AfterJazba-e-Tameer produced afeature Tariqabad, Muzaffarabad: atentvillagewith10,000peoplewaswithout evacuation byairingassurancesthatnosuchhadbeenplanned. relief coordinatorthe localgovernment that endedspeculationaboutthe throughout thedisasterzone.Jazba-e-Tameer broadcast aninterviewwith Balakot cityintheearlyweeksafterearthquakequicklyspread Balakot: arumouraboutthepotentialevacuationof60,000peoplefrom These developmentsappeared tobelaying 152 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 153 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences LESSONS FROMPAKISTAN It remainstobeseenwhether thisvacuumwillbecapturedbyextremistvoices. balancing outthevoicesof religiousintolerancearenolongerfunctioning. has beencreatedinsidethe region’s publicsphere.Theplatformsthatwere broadcast sectorislimiting the proliferationofmoderatemessages.Avacuum of emergencystationsinthe absenceofaparallelemergencecommercial Our mostvividlessonofrecentmonths,however, isthattheabruptphase-out • • • • • A yearaftertheearthquakeseveralkeylessonsare becomingapparent: been licensedtosetupintheearthquakeszones. cannot yetbebridgedbythefledglingcommercial radiobroadcasters thathave programme, andbytheclosure oftheemergencyradioFMstations.Thegap process hasbeencreated bythedisappearanceofJazba-eTameer A largeinformationgapatacrucialstageofthereconstruction andrehabilitation NWFP towards ahealthierpublicsphere. quietly havehadthecombinedeffect ofstallingprogress inKashmirand decisiontoencouragetheemergencyFMbroadcasters togo government to pressurise thebroadcasters andaidcommunity, along withtheill-timed The re-emergence ofreligious intoleranceinPakistan’s disaster-affected areas which NGOsshouldclosetheiroperations. September deadlineforNGOstodismissalllocalfemalestaff from thecity, failing In tions bymid-October. quietlyorderedThe government allemergency FMradiostationstoceaseopera- official planstorelocate thecity, manyofthemcritical,was forced off theair. In August2006anFMbroadcaster inBalakot,thataired adiversityofviewson broadcasts were forcibly disruptedbycuttingoff cables. valuesbeingspread""Western byaidagencies. Inatleasttwoinstances,their zations isprovided onacontinuous basisintheopeningfragilephases. mediaassistanceorgani- supportthrough localandinternational external may prove tobeshort-lived, however. Theyare more likelytotakeholdif debate keyissuescentraltotherecovery ofcommunities.Theseopenings for theopeningupofpublicarena thatallowadiversityofvoicesto Crises incontrolled information environments oftenpresent opportunities organizations toaffected populations; andreliefin aideffectiveness andintheaccountabilityofgovernments Allocating financialsupporttolocalmediageneratesconcrete improvements reconstruction period; immediate emergencyresponse phaseandcontinuewellintothe Media supportmeasures indisasterzonesneedtogowellbeyondthe stream mechanismsoftheirrelief efforts; and needtoembedstrategiesforlocalmediasupportintothemain lack apolicyframeworkfortherole oflocalmediaindisasterzones, developmentcommunity authoritiesandtheinternational Government information thatisneeded,outsidehelpmustbeprovided, andswiftly; by acrisisorlacksthecapacitytoprovide thekindofspecialised survival andrecovery indisasterregions; and,ifthe local mediaisdisabled Information aboutrelief, reconstruction andrehabilitation iscriticalfor the samemonth,religious leadersinBaghgavea Analysis ofInternationalIssues Governance: FacilitatingLocal Media, Developmentand ENABLING ENGAGEMENT–THEPANOS EXPERIENCE and toreadbeyondtheface “I learneditisimportantto “I value astheconfusionover world leadersorpoliticians question everystatement and pronouncementby the dealatGleneagles exemplified.” John Kamau, crucial elementindevelopment andnotalwayssubjecttoagovernment’s control. is into thecountry, manyfrom dimension Singapore. Thus,theexternal borders were forced toopenby private broadcasters who beamedtheirprogrammes of changeincludingthemedia: forexample,inthe1990sIndia’s broadcasting institutions andprocesses ofcoursecanplayimportant rolesinternational asdrivers Other issues suchasagriculturalchoices,wateravailabilityand landusepatterns. to manageitsdevelopment-aphenomenonbeyond control butaffecting crucial Climate change,forinstance,affects theenvironment withinwhichastatemusttry process of‘globalisation’. countries more easilythanks totechnologicalchangeandtheuneven,contested intertwined aspeople,finance,informationandideas are saidtoflowbetween spheres indevelopmentiscomplexandincreasinglynational andinternational eventsandprocesses.affected Therelationship byinternational between individual butalsonationallevel.Bothandlocal developmentisfurther influenced bythestageofastate’s developmentandchoicesmadeatboththe the quality, security, wealthandlifechoicesopentoanindividual.Theseare Development isadynamicexperiencedatthemostpersonallevel-affecting and viceversa. media’ dimension.Distinctionsmadebetween international from Panosillustratetheconnectionbetweenlocalstoriesandeventstheir withsupport These twoexamples,bothreported onin2005byjournalists livelihoods andlocaltourisminislandsacrosstheregion". contributes togreaterimpactofhurricanesintheCaribbeanaffectinghomes, numbers fromover250twodecadesagotojust20today’….."Climatechange with morecompetition.Theresult-closureofZambiantextilefactoriesreducing Zambia givingwiderchoiceforconsumersbutpresentingZambianproducers ‘World Trade OrganizationdecisionsaffecttradeintextilesbetweenChinaand Panos Institute,London By Teresa Hanley are increasingly blurred aslocaleventsare processes affected byinternational , Jon Barnes and Murali Shanmugavelan ‘local’ media and , ‘international always a 154 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 155 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences DEFINING GOODGOVERNANCE essential componentofgood “A plurialisticmediaisan stable andstrongenough media willcontributeto governance Conversely aweak poor governance.” making governance workforthepoor,making governance p.20 to bechallenged. 34 Development, StMartin’s Press, NewYork March 2006,ParisFrance,Summarynote Stiglitz, J.,(2002),TheRighttoTell –The of communicationimplementers”30-31 33 DFID (2006)Eliminatingworldpoverty “Deepening voiceandaccountability 32 Role ofMassMediainEconomic empirical evidencefrom sixteen World Bank,DFIDandOECD Making sense of governance: Making senseofgovernance: – to fightpoverty:Adialogue developing countries,p16 one thatis and Mease,K.s(2004), 31 Hyden, G.,Court,J., and sustainablestrategiestoaddress poverty. need forinclusionofthevoice‘unorganisedpoor’inestablishingrealistic Bank/DFID onpovertyreduction strategiesandcommunication,discussedthe ‘voice’ Two aspectswhichincreasingly are feature thoseof indiscussions ongovernance society networksandbusinesses. organisations,donors, civil national publicsphere. Thisincludesinternational located geographicallyoutsidestateboundariesbutwhichhaveanimpactonthe international’ is agreater rangeofaccountabilitiesthatare needed forgoodgovernance .Othersarguethatthere a countryasanessentialelementofgoodgovernance andpublicinstitutionstocitizensof and othersseeaccountabilityofgovernment with storageregulations. Electricity SupplyCorporation tocourtwhere theywere finedfornon-compliance contributed totheEnvironmental CouncilofZambia decision totakethe work resulted inmediainterest inpotentiallyharmfultransmitterleakagesand to developenvironmental storiesprovided anexampleofthis.Onejournalist’s inZambia2004 traderules.APanosfellowshipfor journalists international levelandprocessesaddress ofdeciding climatechangeat theinternational aid,todecision-making to thespendingofnationalandinternational levels,from theuseofhealthcareat thelocal,nationalandinternational fees, be shoneonarangeofinstitutionsandprocesses toensure ‘goodgovernance’ thisscrutinisinglightcan Whilst thisisoftendiscussedinrelation togovernment, Stiglitz noteshowthe‘light’ofmediacanlimitcorruption through arangeofroles,governance moststrikingisthe Other observershavenotedthepotentialofmedia tocontributegood challenged. Conversely, aweakmediawillcontributetopoorgovernance. -onethatisstableandstrong enoughtobe component ofgoodgovernance levels.Apluralisticmediaisanessential sphere atnationalandinternational include orexcludevoicesandperspectivesmakesitakeyelementinthepublic The media’s potentialtoinform,question,enableandstimulatedebate institutions. and thisincludestheaccountabilityofinternational economic andotherpoliticalactorsinteracttomakedecisions. and informal, canbedefinedasthesetofrulesandnorms,formal et al(2004),governance problems havenotachievedtheirfullpotential.BuildingontheworkofHyden explanation forwhytechnological,socialandeconomicsolutionstodevelopment whileahighlycontestedconcept,isoftencitedaspartofan Poor governance, isathemeverymuchinvoguecurrent donordevelopmentparlance. Governance national publicsphere are increasingly complexandlinkedinmanywaysto beyond stateboundariesastherangeofactorsandinfluencesinteractingin asitincludesconceptsofinclusionandparticipation.Italsotakes government asbeingaboutgood This definitiongoesbeyondtheviewofgovernance be theyindividuals,groups orinstitutions,aspartofthedecision-makingprocess. inclusive andenablesinformeddialoguedebatebetweenarangeofactors, isonethatseesthispublicspaceorsphere asonethatis good governance and ‘accountability’. – i.e. actors, processes and international organisationswhichare– i.e.actors,processes andinternational which regulate thepublicarena inwhichthestate,aswellsocial, A March 2006meetingorganisedbyOECD/World 32 With regardWith toaccountability, DFID "watchdog role". 31 . 34 eiiinof A definition . 33 ‘ the ENABLING ENGAGEMENT – THE PANOS EXPERIENCE

The media can play a major role in facilitating voice and participation. One Panos experience of this was when it supported the production of a radio programme on education in Ghana and its coverage in the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP). The broadcast led to a vigorous radio debate with many young people becoming involved - young people who had never contributed before to the radio programme and had limited involvement in development decision - making in their country. The debate eventually led to questions being raised in parliament on education expenditure as part of the PRSP process. However, the media in many developing countries face a number of constraints in playing this facilitating role to the full. Panos aims to respond to this, working with journalists across all sectors - state, private, community and mainstream. In 2005 - an exceptional year for international development - there were many opportunities for southern media to engage in policy processes, especially processes at the international level that would have an impact on local situations. This included major international summits and decision-making processes on the Information Society, trade and climate change as well as a key focus of G8 discussions being on Africa and aid. The question was - could the opportunities be seized? Panos launched a number of initiatives in response to these opportu- nities. One aspect was to review current media coverage and journalists’ experi- ence. Panos reviewed the contemporary media coverage on processes relating to trade, environment, the information society and broader aid agendas by analysing, for example, aid and trade coverage in Mozambique and Zambia, and in another review considered who had the opportunity to contribute to discus- sions around poverty reduction strategies in Pakistan and Zambia. “Time and time again the In these areas of trade, aid, poverty reduction and sustainable agriculture, the journalists have critiqued reviews found that even independent media tended to follow the official agenda and often reported press releases without scrutiny. Journalists had difficulty with government sources, donors, the terminology of debates - for instance in coming to grips with the notoriously development agencies and complex language used in trade negotiations. They did not feel confident with civil society for their use much of the technical language and in general felt they were often not able to scrutinise decisions, announcements and research presented in press conferences. of jargon and technical The media reviews also found a dominance of ‘experts’ quoted along with language ...which the government figures. For instance in relation to new technology of genetically modified crops, the reviews found donors were quoted more frequently than journalists say has limited farmers and their associations, despite the fact that farmers would be amongst their deeper engagement in the most affected by decisions the government was taking. These findings reporting issues highly indicate a lack of confidence amongst the journalists in dealing with these subjects and a lack of journalistic skills to pursue the story. revelant to development.” Similarly, in relation to climate change, Panos has heard from journalists that they feel challenged due to lack of information, training and support. In inter- views with 47 journalists from Honduras, Jamaica, Sri Lanka and Zambia in 2005 journalists questioned said that the media had poor understanding of the climate change debate and little interest in it. An online discussion amongst journalists in the run up to the World Summit for the Information Society (WSIS) in November 2005 highlighted that many of the journalists covering issues of new information and communication technology were often not specialists. Time and again the journalists have critiqued government sources, donors, development agencies and civil society for their use of jargon and technical language on a whole range of issues which the journalists say has limited their deeper engagement in reporting issues highly relevant to development. SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences6 MEDIA MATTERS 156 157 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences FACING UPTOTHECHALLENGES journalists -somedonotsee issue isofparticularinterest readers arenotinterestedin some it'sjustacomplicated be morecoverageofglobal unfortunately thereisstill Inmyopinionthetrade “ Mozambique andalotof climate changeissuesbut most editorsdonotthink lo Ithinkthereshould also, how itaffectsusandfor little awarenessaboutit for Mozambiquebut issue tounderstand, these issuesconcern amongst mostlocal reading aboutit.” Maura Quatorze,journalist. id, trade,environment andtheinformation society pleasesee on andaccesstotheseresources ona 35 For furtherinformation www.panos.org.uk Gleneagles G8summitinJuly2005. summitssuchasWSISandthe toattendinternational support forjournalists issues, settinguponlineaccesstoexpertsanddiscussionfora,providing tradeandinformationsociety resources oncomplexinternational forjournalists Other initiativeshaveincludedproduction ofaccessibleandpoliticallybalanced development, particularlyaround accesstotelephonesforruralpopulations. to increased andmore informedandin-depthreporting ontelephonepolicy and Industry)cametogethertodiscusscommunicationspolicy. Thelinkshaveled Uganda CommunicationCommissionandtheParliamentaryCommitteeonTrade (UgandaTelecoms,isations, themedia,privatesectorandgovernment the ate benefits.InUganda,forexample,seniorrepresentatives ofcivilsocietyorgan- policies inUganda(in2004)andIndia(2005).Participantshavereported immedi- representativesconversations betweenmediaandgovernment oncommunication academics inPakistan,ZambiaandGhana.‘Mediadialogues’havefacilitated representatives,drew togetherdonors,government media,civilsocietyand the nationallevel,formulti-stakeholdermeetingsonPRSPs.These initiated arangeofactivities.Thesehaveincludedbringingpeopletogetherat issueswiththeeffects atalocalandnationallevel,Panoshas of international To supportengagementintheseandotherareas andtoencouragethelinking - ifwearetolocateglobaltradenegotiationsandcommunicatethegrassroots.’ -Uganda catching! Thisisthekindofinformationwedesiretohaveinourcountry commented response toaPanosprintfeature illustratesthispointwhere acivilsociety were notnecessarilymade.A in whichthelinkstonationalandlocalconcerns and confined tothebusinessorforeign affairs pages,read byalimitedreadership interests involvedortheimpactofpoliciesonreal people.Thecoveragewasoften level discussionswithoutanalysingtheunderlyingsocial, level,wasoftenfoundtoexaminefluctuatingtrends intop at theinternational Furthermore, coverageofsometheseissues,suchastrade,whenconsidered can be due to a lack of conviction at government level of thebenefitsharing can beduetoalackofconviction atgovernment no culture toshare information. Thisisnotalwaysanunwillingnesstodoso,but information from donoragencyoffices inthecountry. Inmanycountriesthere is attimes evenfindingiteasiertoaccess extract informationfrom governments, reportedstrategy processes, thedifficulties journalists theyfaceintryingto and moneyplayarole in this. Butinroundtable discussionsonpovertyreduction report thataccesstoinformationisamajorissue.Again,time Second, journalists mediasources.becomes entirely dependent onexternal processescircumstances andeventsoutsidethecountry coverageof international domestic storyfindingandfewfundstotraveloutside ofthecapitalcity. Insuch littletimeallocatedfor face. Manyhavenoorlimitedaccesstotheinternet, andtheireditorsemphasisethe resourceFirst, journalists challengesthatthey dimensionofdevelopment. and inparticularengagingtheinternational incovering relevant storiesintheircountries major challengesfacingjournalists From thisworkandfrom otherexperiencesPanosis abletoidentifysomeofthe representative from theircountry’s media. attendingwithsupportfrom Panosweresome ofthejournalists thesole supported sevenofthem.AttheWTOsummitinHongKongDecember2005, were fromAfrica focus,only20outofatotal2,000journalists Africa;Panos ‘I amgladtohaveread"NextstepsfortheWTO"inourlocaldaily. It’s 35 At Gleneagles,asummitwithspecific economic orpolitical observer - ifwearetolocateglobal ‘Next stepsforthe WTO’ “I amgladtohaveread “I It's catching! This isthe kind ofinformationwe trade negotiationsand desire tohaveinour communicate tothe country -Uganda in ourlocaldaily. Americas onthetopicof“Partnershipand Civil societyobserver The international Economic Forumofthe The international grassroots.” 36 Quoted inMontreal, 5June2006, Global Prosperity” fuelling activists’ campaigns...Constantexposure totelevisioncameras isunlikely business, plasteredacrosstelevision screens,newspapersandwebsites between afewconsenting adults behindcloseddoors.Today theyare everyone’s from itsrole, hewrote... demands ontheWTOtoaccommodate agrowing range ofpublicexpectations statement reached atthe 2005 HongKongworldtradesummit,andtherising reaching agreement intheDohatradenegotiations. Referringtothenegotiation demands forpublictransparency, hasitselfbeenabarriertoprogress in in theUK’s hasarguedthattheworld’s FinancialTimes, media,whileserving see astheneedforeffective globaldecision-making.GuydeJonquieres, columnist the media’s role, whilepositive forpublictransparency, ishelpfultowhatthey From anotherperspective, however, havequestionedwhether somejournalists over thedealatGleneaglesexemplified.’ world leadersorpoliticiansandtoreadbeyondtheface valueastheconfusion statementandpronouncementby ‘I learneditisimportanttoquestionevery JohnKamau,saidoftheG8discussions, between thelines.AsKenyanjournalist, necessarily bespecialistsinsuchsubjects,thechallengeisevengreater toread coveringtheseissueswillnot As manyofthedevelopingcountryjournalists skills toworkthrough thebarrageof public relations needfinelyhoned battlesare foughtinthemedia,journalists They provided theirownpress releases view. toprovide analternative When into acceptanceofwhattheyclaimtobeabaddealfordevelopment. pressure orchestrated bymajorpowersintheWTOtorushdevelopingcountries against beingswayedbysupposed developingcountrygovernments NGOswarned Meanwhile, someinternational to enablethis.’ invaluable toputahumanfaceontechnology…indeedthebriefings whose workdayroutineislargelyabouthardcoreITdevelopments, events ontheother. said AfterattendanceatWSISonejournalist decision-makingtolocal tional contextontheonehandandtolinkinternational By thistheymeantheassistancewere giventomakethelinkinterna- commissions. and briefingmaterials,trainingopportunitiesinternational view isthemostimportantbenefittheyhavederivedfrom fellowships,resources supportedbyPanosacknowledgethatthedevelopmentofabroader journalists andagainthe Time are akeyweaknessidentifiedbyPanosandjournalists. context Third, analyticalskillsandthemeanstolocateeventsinaninternational the fullstory. political environments, anelementofself-censorshipmayconstrainpursuit abilitytopursuestoriesandattimes,indifficult skills mayhinderjournalists’ resource officials themselves.Weak constraintsfacedbygovernment journalism information withthepubliconissuessuchastradeoratothertimes,dueto said, liberalisation andnotcovered sufficiently itspurported positivebenefits. complained thatthemediahasconcentratedonnegativeeffects oftrade On oneside,forexample,theWTOdirector-general, PascalLamy, has coverage. TheWTO’s Dohatradenegotiationshavereflected thesepressures. independence from thevariousactorsandlobbiesattemptingtoinfluencemedia istounderstandandmaintaincritical The nextchallengefacingjournalists international politics.’ perspective andhowtorelateday-to-dayissuesthatconcernAfricanswith ways ofwritingthatareinterest….Ilearnedtolookatmattersinabroader ‘I thinkIhaveimprovedmycapacity Another, havingundertakenaPanos ‘Once uponatime,tradenegotiations wereconducted ‘media spin’ ‘information’ of writingand said tobepartofpolitical they receive. fellowship atthe idn themes finding ‘... Forsomeone the WSISwas were critical G8 summit 36 and 158 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 159 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences WHAT DOESTHISALLMEAN? 38 intercultural toleranceinnation-bulding” Tharoor, S.,“Integratingapproaches to good governance ,press freedomgood governance and Financial Times, 10January2006 Financial Times, 37 Guy deJonquieres – non - implementation of agreements made at national and international levels. non -implementationofagreements madeatnational andinternational on progress, commitments andplansisreduced. This increases thelikelihood of media doesnotengageinthese issues,thepressure to report onagovernment others’ decisions.Panosreview ofPRSPprocesses hasshownthatwhenthe and Limited mediaengagementleadstoalackofscrutiny in government situation where development maybehindered. adaptation toclimatechange-butare crucialinthelongterm,settingupa be widelybeneficialintheshortterm-suchasallocation offundstoenable to reduced publicsupport forpolicydecisionswhichatfirstsightdonotseemto known orunderstoodbythepeople.Limitedmediaengagement maycontribute pressures, isunderwillnotbe opportunitiesorconstraintsthatthegovernment contextinwhichitismakingdecisions. Thismeansthatany international a situationatnationallevelinwhichtheirpublichaslimited informationonthe willbein limited engagementbycitizensinthepublicsphere, thengovernments If itfollowsthatlimitedmediaengagementindevelopmentdebatesleadsto in developmentdiscussions.Bydefinition,thisisnotgoodgovernance. limitspublicengagementandpeople’sLimited mediaengagementinturn voices the mediainadevelopingcountrytoplayitsfullrole ingoodgovernance. reporting oftheseissues.Thisseverelydependent onexternal limitstheabilityof world butare primarilylocatedoutsideoftheircountry, developingcountriesare access topeople,placesandprocesses whichare having adirect impactonthat local face,voiceandtoreflect localunderstandingoftheworld.Without He pointstothefactthatmanycountriesare strugglingtobuildamediawith tobelocallydriven Public Informationrightlypointstotheneedforjournalism Shashi Tharoor, UnitedNationsUnder-Secretary GeneralforCommunicationand dimensionisaslimiteddescribedabove. international for policymakersifthemedia’s engagementindevelopmentissuesandtheir There anddevelopment are anumberofseriousimplicationsforgovernance professional dynamics. nurtured inawaythattakesintoaccountandrespects themedia’s own media’s publicservicerole shouldnotbetreated inamechanisticway, butbe and theinterests oftheirreaders, listenersandviewers.Thissuggeststhatthe to according itself. development needstobecarriedoutinthecontextofrealities ofthemedia This highlightsthechallengeanymediadevelopmentinitiativefacesthat Mozambique andalotofreadersarenotinterestedinreadingaboutit.’ global climatechangeissuesbutmosteditorsdonotthinktheseconcern complicated issuetounderstand.Also,Ithinkthereshouldbemorecoverageof most localjournalists-somedonotseehowitaffectsusandforit’s justa Mozambique butunfortunatelythereisstilllittleawarenessaboutitamongst G8 talkssaid their ownmedia’s demands.MauraQuatorze,aPanos in thesecontexts,asanycountry, isidentifyingandcraftingstorieswhichwillmeet negotiations. Finally, butmostimportantly, amajorchallengefacingjournalists Such aviewmayincrease policy-makers’reluctance tobetransparent intheir to makepoliticiansreadieroverrulerecalcitrantconstituenciesathome.’ Editors andownerswillmakedecisionsaboutwhattocoverinclude ...‘In myopinionthetradeissueisofparticularinterestfor their ownconstraints.Asaprioritytheseincludecommercial aspects - sponsored journalist at the at sponsored journalist 37 . 38 decision-making processes whichaffect them. development andthepotentialforgreater participationbycitizensinthe media canplay. Failure totakethisonboard willlimitthe successofmedia skills andthegreater thespacetoemploythese,more productive arole the initself.Thestronger thejournalist is anessentialcomponentofgoodgovernance a toolforpassingonmessage.Apluralisticmediapresenting arangeofviews enable theengagementofmediaasasectorandpartnerinitself,notonly The mediaisacrucialpartnerinthedevelopmentprocess. Donorsmustseekto development andgovernance. effectively. Greater supportforthiswillbuildthemedia’s positiveimpacton aspectsoflocalstories skillstoengagewithinternational build journalism need forobjectivity. TheexperienceofPanoshasshownthatitispossibleto the mediainapositiveandconstructivewaythatdoesnotcompromise their in Ugandatodiscusscommunicationspolicyshowsthatitispossibleinvolve The experiencealready mentionedofdifferent interested partiescomingtogether 160 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 161 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences and AudienceAccess Perspectives onMediaReach Community Radio: MEDIA LANDSCAPES,INFORMATION SOCIETY&COMMUNITYRADIO and Freedom ofExpression inNepal www.nepal.asiapacific.amarc.org 39 See: International Mission See: International on Press Freedom specific radio sector. increasing recognition of theimportancetoincludecommunityradioasa had toadvocatestrongly inthepastforaplace radiospectrumbutthere is the voicelessandaddressing thedevelopmentagenda of voices.Thisisevenmore importantwhenitisaquestion ofgivingvoiceto conflict orpost-conflictsituations themedialandscapeneedstobuildaplurality in thestruggleforpress freedom, freedom ofexpression anddemocracy. Independent RadioMovement(SIRM)showsthatbothcan effectively worktogether the alliancebetweencommunityandindependentradios intheSave to reflect thediversityand theneedsoftheirsocieties.InNepalforinstance, societies needpublic(notstate),commercial andcommunityradiosiftheywant of society’s communicationneeds.IntheNorthaswell asintheSouth,democratic The idealmodelforsharingtheradiospectrumisonethat reflects thediversity radio stationcanserveacommunityof100,000people ormore. population. Forjustafewthousanddollarsworthofequipment, acommunity one thatislowcostandalready receivable by 90percentoftheworld’s widespread andaccessiblecommunicationtechnology. Itisanoralmedium; In spiteofrecent technologicaldevelopments,radioremains themost who receive andthosewhoimpartinformation. is closertowhatcalled"newmedia",asiterasestheboundarybetweenthose communities, inclusiveness,andculturaldiversity. Inthatsense,communityradio The specificityofcommunityradioisthatitfacilitatestheempowermentlocal cultural expression, newsandinformation,dialoguedevelopment. in particularputsthetoolsofcommunicationsintohandscommunitiesfor a uniquemeanofreaching theworld’s poorest communities.Communityradio Radio isthemostwidespread electronic communication deviceintheworldand and thebreakthroughs incommunicationstechnologies. of new radiosectorworldwide,asanaturalresult, bothoftheevolution Inthelastdecades,communityradiohasevolvedintoa racy andgoodgovernance. an importantrole accountable,thussupportingdemoc- inrendering governments consider thatthetwodominantformsofradio,publicandcommercial, also public serviceandentertainingaudiences.Some,withasomewhatwiderperspective, Traditionally therole ofthemediaisperceived asoneof informing, providing a World AssociationofCommunityRadioBroadcasters(AMARC) By Marcelo Solervicens , General Secretary, . 39 Community radiohas civil societies Also in play owned byandbeaccountable its aimshouldnotencompass aaeet andsupporta management, objective andbybenefiting encourage participationin MASS MEDIA:ADECLINEINCREDIBILITYANDDIVERSITY characterized byitssocial Community radioshould the communityitserves; wealth anditshouldbe the creationoffinancial strong democraticand dynamic civilsociety.” “Community radiois “Community its programmingand to thecommunity. Bertelsmann, GeneralElectric,Microsoft, Disney, and NewsCorporation,Viacom 40 Vivendi Universal,AOLTimeWarner,Vivendi Telefonica, FranceTélécom. leading toasmallnumberofmajorgroups owningmostoftheworld’s media conglomerates havereshaped theglobalcommercial massmediaenvironment, In thecontextofdominantneo-liberalglobalization,asmall numberofmultimedia however, theyhavebeenabsorbedbylargeforeign conglomerates. In someplaces,theseprocesses haveincreased media plurality. Inmostcases Europe, AfricaandAsia. airwaves andtheendofstatemonopoliesinEastern In theeightiesandnineties,there wasalsoaprocess ofliberalizationthe development work. becoming themediaofpoorandanidealcommunicationtoolfor and "newcitizenmedia".Communitymediahasbeenreinforced bythistrend, that haverecently beenrevived withtheinteractive capacityemergingfrom ICTs are notsocialagents"are"journalists attheheartofoldacademicdiscussions of traditionalmediaoutletsthatconsiderthemselvesneutralor need forcommunityempowermentinanonpartisanmanner. Theshortcomings Media control bycivilsocietyandnotonlythemediaindustryislinkedto angered bytraditionalmediacoverage. radio, knownas showed anincreased interest inthem.Thistrend startedwiththefirstcommunity as theyabandonedtheminorityandlocalissueswhilstglobalsocialtrends There hasbeenalegitimacycrisisofthetraditionalmassmediasince1970s access tothemedia. linked totechnologicalbreakthroughs andtothedemandsbyaudiencesfor in theAmericasandEurope andinthelasttwentyyearsAfricaAsia,are The birthandexpansionofcommunityradiointhefifties,sixtiesseventies dynamic civilsociety. in itsprogramming andmanagement,supportastrong democraticand accountable tothecommunity. Communityradioshouldencourageparticipation encompass thecreation offinancialwealthanditshouldbeownedby social objectiveandbybenefitingthecommunityitserves;itsaimshouldnot its by outreach oraudienceaccesstothemedia.Communityradioischaracterized communities thatwere notbeingaddressed bytraditionalmediaintermsof The developmentofcommunityradioiscloselylinkedtotheneedslocal the grassroots -up. but thisispublicservicebroadcasting notfrom thetop-down,butratherfrom society organizations.Itcanbeconsidered aformofpublicservicebroadcasting, participatory attitudetodemocracyandthegrowth ofstrong anddynamiccivil The existenceandthepracticeofcommunitybroadcasting are anexpression ofa fomented thedevelopment ofcommunitymedia. the absenceofanyregulatory role bythestate, are allfactorsthathave,ironically, ensuing globalimbalancein informationflows,thelackofculturaldiversity, and number ofmediaoutletswith areduced diversityofsources ofinformation.The a fewdominatingmediaconglomeratesresults intheparadoxofhavingagr themarketofsupply and demand.Theestablishmentof with therulesgoverning isjustanotherpieceofmerchandise, whichcirculatesor Internet, inaccordance informationinradio,television,press "digital" In thiscontextwhathasbecome "people’s radio", built inthe1950sbyBoliviancoalminers eater . 40 162 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 163 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences COMMUNITY RADIOANDTHEMILLENNIUMDEVELOPMENTGOALS Oxford UniversityPress http://www.i4donline.net/july05/right- (World SummitontheInformationSociety, 2000/2001, AttackingPoverty, NewYork: 48 Communities. CRandrelated policies 46 http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals Declaration oftheNinthUnitedNations Responses* economía, sociedadycultura, From theSummittoPeople,I4d,in Development (2004) Chapter 6,World DevelopmentReport Steve Buckley, 45 Round Table onCommunicationsfor The onetowatch: and interactivity(2003)FAO, Roma. See millenniumDevelopmentGoals 49 Opportunities, Challenges,and Women andCommunityRadio: AMARC Women’s International 12 December2003,Geneva.) 44 43 Agriculture Organization La eradelainformación, Declaration ofPrinciples Alfonso Gumucio-Dragón, By MavicCabrera-Balleza, Right toCommunicate. Giving Voice toLocal UNESCO. March, 2006 http://www.world- 47 42 México, SigloXXI. Rome: Foodand See, forexample, Manuel Castells, Radio, newICTs bank.org/wdr 41 Vice PresidentVice Bruce Girard, comm.asp 1999, , the radio time like farmers television do;meaning,women whomustworkcontinuouslyatonegiven require thefull,undivided attentionofitsaudiencethewaynewspapersor countries. Radioisalsoconsidered a"women’s medium" becauseitdoesn’t Radio alsotranscendstheliteracybarrier, whichisaproblem inmanysouthern grassroots participationin policy-makinganddemocracy. communication suchasstorytelling,group discussionandtheatre andcanenable to achievingtheMDGs.Communityradiocanalsoreinforce traditionalformsof order languages,communityradiocontributes tobeheard eveninvernacular poverty, exclusionandmarginalisation;byencouragingthem toaccessmediain nication the so-called benefits toagreat manypeople.Butitalsothreatens toamplifyagross asymmetry, contributed toeconomicgrowth andhavebrought social,culturalandpolitical The emergenceofthesenewinformationandcommunicationtechnologieshave such astheWorld AssociationofCommunityRadioBroadcasters, AMARC. media outletsandcreated networks national,regional, andfinallyinternational the defenceofculturalandlinguisticdiversity in dialogueabouttheirconditionsandlivelihoods.Andithascontributedto means ofempowermentandself-reliance. Ithasenabledpeopletoengage to speakoutandbeheard. Communityradiohasprovided manywitha The growth ofcommunityradioisastorypeopleandcommunitiesstriving community radiostations,forexampleinruralareas programmes andinteractivesocialcommunicationrunbycommunitiesfrom the majormeansofcommunication.Theyinspired counter-information that useappropriate to technologiestoshare knowledge,developingalternatives Community radiohasemergedconnectedtopeople-centered socialmovements the mediafacilitatingproximity radio. All thesedevelopmentshavereduced costsandincreased inter-activenessof transistors, FMtransmitters,satellitetechnologyandfinallytheInternet sector isthetechnologicalbreakthroughs inthecommunicationsfield,suchas The secondaspectinvolvedinthedevelopmentofcommunityradioasaglobal of thepoorandmarginalized First, communityradioisgainingrecognition asthenewinformationtechnology radio isanimportantfactorinachievingtheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals. well beingandopportunity Democracy, equityandcivilrightscontributedirectly tohumansecurity, voicelessness andpowerlessnessare considered keydimensionsofpoverty. Second, communitymediaisakeyelementneededforsustainabledevelopment: sustainability andtheenlargementofservicesprovided. opportunities andapproaches tocommunitymediathathavecontributed broadcasting accesshasbrought withdigitalproduction new andInternet promoting andimproving theirqualityoflife enabling individuals,communitiesandpeopletoachievetheirfullpotentialin where everyonecancreate, access,utilizeandshare informationandknowledge, "Information Society"thatispeople-centred, inclusiveanddevelopmentoriented; . 43 . 49 Therefore communityradioisattheheartofpossibilitiesan "digital divide", and labourers, canperformtheirtasks evenastheylistento . 48 . in poorpeople’s accesstoinformationandcommu- By reaching outtolocalcommunities facing 47 Furthermore, thecombinationofcommunity 45 (MDGS) . 44 . 46 In thatperspective,community . 42 These newplayersmultiplied . 41 COMMUNITY RADIO:THECHALLENGES munities withproper assistance. including anominallevelfor licencefees,encouragingsupportfrom theircom- framework shouldconsidersustainabilityandresourcing ofcommunityradio, inissuesrelated todevelopmentgoals.Furthermore,for journalists theregulatory and economicwell-beingofcommunities.Thisshould include capacitybuilding to developsustainablemodelsofcommunitymediathat contributetothesocial casting, there isaneedto buildcapacityamongcommunity-basedorganisations Finally, alongsidethelawsandregulations thatcanhelpbuildcommunitybroad- community broadcasters without politicalinterference. and straightforward process fortheallocationofradiospectrumandlicensing of communitybroadcasting asadistinctsector. Thisshouldresult inatransparent and encouragecommunitybroadcasting. There needs tobeformalrecognition done inmanycountriestoestablishpolicies,lawsandregulations thatenable right toownandoperatetheircommunitymedia.There isstillmuchtobe There remains aneedtoraiseawareness onthefactthatcommunitieshave pendence, itsrighttochallengethoseinauthorityandholdleadersaccount. into aninstrumentofpublicservicedelivery. Itmustvigorously defenditsinde- of time.Inresponding tothischallenge,however, simply itmustavoidbeingturned development processes whenthelattercanonlybemeasured overlongerperiods and education, goodgovernance demonstrate itsimmediatesocialimpactandsignificance-contributiontoculture, broadcasting gainsmainstream recognition, itsgreatest challengewillbeto voice tothevoicelessandbeaforce forsocialandeconomicgood.Ascommunity hindering theirabilitytoempowercommunitiesspeakforthemselves,givea There are barriersthatdistractcommunitybroadcasters from theirsocialpurpose agendasorassimilatedintothemarketplace? not beco-optedbygovernment strated? forms andtechnologies?Howcanitscontributiontothepublicgoodbedemon- economic sustainabilitybeassured? Howcanitinterfacewiththenewmediaplat- further recognized inlawandcountryregulations? How canitssocialand challenges. Howcanitsspecificcontributiontoapluralisticmedialandscapebe Even ascommunitybroadcasting isgaininglegitimacyitalsofacingnew only totheirprivateownersandthemarketplace. ofthepoorer sectionsofsocietyandremainthe needsandconcerns accountable also contributetothepluralityofvoicesbuttheytendpaylittleattention they maintainaone-waymodeofcommunication.Privatecommercial mediacan inpower.instrument ofthegovernment Insteadofdialoguewiththeiraudience information dissemination.Otherstateownedpublicmediatendtoremain the often failtoensure audienceaccessbecauseofatop-downapproach to editorial arrangementsandarangeofpublicinterest programming. Butthey and goals. Somepublicownedbroadcasters haveindependentgovernance Fourth, communityradioisthemediasectorthatbetterplacedfordevelopment violence andstigmatisedhealthissuesamongothers. listener, communityradiocanaddress particularlydifficult themessuchasgender Moreover asaproximity medium that addresses andisreceived byeachindividual How can it provide a voice for critical and alternative perspectivesand How canitprovide avoiceforcriticalandalternative citizens’ participation-itsinfluenceinfacilitating 164 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 165 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences Health Agenda Journalism intothePublic The NeedtoBuildIndependent Global Health-LocalNews: THE GROWTHOFHEALTH SECTORGLOBALLY ANDITSIMPACT ONMEDIA journalists whowillcriti- aec,governanceand parency, cally analyzethetrans- health partnershipsare health policiesorissues impact ofcountrylevel reporting typicallyfails I oecss global somecases, “In beginning toseekout to makethenational relevant toreaders “This event-driven “This health policies.” Ramesh Govindaraj,Yianni Konstantopoulos. Bank: TheWorld BankOperationsEvaluation “Addressing ChallengesofGlobalization:An http://Inweb18.worldbank.org/oed/oed- 6a0046/7f80f1cf544bdf5185256f5e00799 doclib.nsf/24cc3bb1f94ae11c8525680800 Independent EvaluationoftheWorld Bank’s and viewers.” Approach toGlobalPrograms.” TheWorld 2a6/$FILE/gppp_hnp_wp.pdf#page=17 50 Department (OED).2004.URL: Lele, Uma and Naveen Sarna, Lele, UmaandNaveenSarna, AIDS andMalaria, theGlobalAlliancefor Vaccines andImmunizations,tobilateral communicable diseases–range from themultilateral GlobalFundtoFightTB, malaria,andother totalling multiplebillionsof dollarsfocusingonHIV/AIDS, partnerships intermsofresource mobilization. the healthsectorhasreplaced theenvironment sectorattheforefront ofglobal In its2004report, theWorld Bank’s IndependentEvaluationGroup reported that owners) toreport onhealth inaninformedandappropriate manner. aswelltheireditorsand capacity ofthemediaprofessionals (journalists across. Littleisdonewithin thepublichealthframeworktodevelopindigenous space andairtimeorissuestatementstogetquick,targeted healthmessages often asecondaryconsiderationtomassmediahealth campaigns thatbuyprint In developingcountrieswithacutehealthcrises,however, themedia’s role is are greatly influencedbylocalnewsmediacoverage. policies, publicattitudesondiseaseanddisability, andhealth-related behavior supported andimproved. Around theworld,wehave seenthatpublichealth with thefree exchangeofideasonhealthissues,publicprograms are people abouthealthissues.Moreover, whenaccurateinformationiscombined component inreaching publichealthgoalsistoinform,educateandempower It iscommonlyagreed amongpublichealthstrategistsgloballythatanessential been gettinglittleinstructiononhowtodothejob. their societyneeds.Theyhavebeengettinghandouts.Buttodate,they canbetaughttohaulinthehealthinformationthat getting food.Journalists That timelessadageholdsastrueforgettinghealthinformationitdoes woman tofish,theycanfeedthemselvesforalifetime." "Give apersonfishandyoufeedhimforday;butifteachmanor Health Journalism,InternewsNetwork Ron MacInnis, Director, 50 These globalpartnerships http://www.uta.fi/laitokset/tsph/health/ Health Values, Media,PublicityandCitizens. “Health Journalism: AnIntroduction.” “Health Journalism: and Anna-MariaMaki-Kuutti. media/journalism.htm media/journalism.htm 451 Torkkola, Sinikka URL : play acrucial role incountryhealthpolicies. national agendas.Thenews mediaifeffectively supported andmobilized,could advocacy issuesatthecountry levelcankeephealthprioritiesontheforefront of level healthpolicies.Anddonor organizationsare beginning tolookathow who willcriticallyanalyzethe transparency, andimpactofcountry- governance In somecases,globalhealthpartnershipsare beginningtoseekoutjournalists (news/feature reporters,journalists editors,producers, managers,etc.). a growing understanding of theneedtoprovide trainingprograms for seem tobeapositivetrend toward decentralizinghealthcommunicationsand allies tothesegrowing global healthpartnerships.Inrecent years,there does canbeseenasimportant worldwide mayoffer anew paradigminhowjournalists health communityandthemediaitself.Increased attentiontohealthjournalism The journalist’s role inpublichealth isstillbeingdiscovered byboththepublic economy andothersectors. discussion around theimpactthesehealthissueshasoncommunity, the issues relevant toreaders andviewers.Italsodoes not stimulatedialogueor This event-drivenreporting typicallyfailstomakethenationalhealthpoliciesor cover theeventsofgovernment’s healthleaders. the nationallevel,orreport onthelaunchofanewnationalhealthprogram, or press releases andannouncementsofhowglobalhealth partnershipsare reaching indevelopingcountriestendtorespond to have foundthathealthjournalists are themediaportrayinghealthissuesaccuratelyandfrequently? Moststudies - areMainstream limitedandfocusoncontentanalysis studiesonhealthjournalism "using themedia" audiences. Healthcommunicationstrategistsfrom thisrealm oftentalkabout that aimtosimplifycomplexpublichealthissuesglobalandcountry-level munication massmediacampaignsandglobalprogram messagingstrategies As theseglobalhealthpartnershipsgrow, thusdothenumbersofhealthcom- political institutions. donorsandfinancinginstitutions,UNAgencies,regional governments, footing" -withexpansionoftheseglobalpartnershipsgenerallyledbyWestern incr this why of example The report citestheeveradvancingpaceofHIV/AIDSpandemicasone AIDS Relief(PEPFAR). programs liketheUSGovernment’s $15billionPresident’s EmergencyPlanfor health storiesaffect theaudience. what kindsofhealthstoriesare published,ifhealthfactsare accurateandhow to areceiver. Thushealthcommunicationresearch isconcentratedonfindingout defines communicationasaninstrumenttoconveyinformationfrom asender at improving thehealthstatusoftargetedindividualsandpopulations.WHO health issuesonthepublicagenda.Healthcommunicationistherefore directed andtomaintainimportant strategy toinformthepublicabouthealthconcerns The World HealthOrganization(WHO)defineshealthcommunicationasakey from globalstandards. comprehensive inapproach -butthebasictenetsofmessagingare born New generationhealthcommunicationcampaignsare quitesophisticatedand may seemtobeanoversimplificationofthecomplexfieldhealthcommunication. or "accessing themedia" ease inhealthsectorspendinghastakenona"war 51 to getthesemessagesacross. This 166 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 167 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences GAPS ANDNEEDSINHEALTH JOURNALISMSUPPORT AT COUNTRY LEVEL WHAT SUPPORT ISAVAILABLE TOHELPJOURNALISTSPRODUCEANDREPORT EFFECTIVELY ONHEALTH ISSUES? Network, International CenterforJournalists, Network, International http://www.healthjournalism.net/analy- (Internews Network, International Centerfor Network,International (Internews 2006. URL Health Journalism Partnership(Internews Health Journalism 52 “Health Journalism Partnership.” “Health Journalism and PanosLondon).2006.URL: Journalists, andPanosLondon). Journalists, : http://www.healthjournal- Health Journalism Partnership Health Journalism 53 ism.net/index.aspx “Country Profiles.” sis/profiles.aspx published reports. interviews withkeymediaand healthprofessionals at thecountry-leveland ineachcountry,from organizationsengagedinsupportinghealthjournalism capacity building inanumberofcountries.Theanalysistookresponses journalism Partnership(HJP)analysisalsoprofiled the stateofhealth The HealthJournalism organizations -71–hadnotengagedin anyformofevaluation. to measure change/impact. Asignificantnumberofmediasupport/development and/or theiremployers,fewerusedlocalmediacontent analysisofhealthissues Some organizationsconductedfollow-upinterviews/questionnaire withjournalists activities citedwere primarily evaluatedthrough workshopevaluationforms. doctors, nursesandcaregivers. training programs. Othertrainershavebeenpublicrelations experts,medical public healthandcommunicationprofessionals forthesehealthjournalism reporting. Asignificantnumberoforganizationsalsotapintotheexpertise professionals asleadexpertsfortrainingprogramsthey usejournalism inhealth 4 public healthinformationforruralandilliteratepopulations. programs. Indevelopingcountries,broadcast media are themainsource of were citedastheprimarybeneficiariesofthesesupport by radiojournalists 3 programs -onhealthandotherthemesdidnotexceed$20,000in2005. capacitybuilding organizations reported theirbudgetsforjournalism partnerships, andmostare smallorganizations.Sixty-onepercent ofthese perhaps followingglobaltrends inincreased attention toglobalhealth working foronlythepasttwotofiveyearsinsupportinghealthjournalism, 2 a piecemealapproach withlittlefollowupjournalists. onhealthissues.Theirworkhasbeendoneprimarilyin briefings forjournalists UN agenciesandregional organizations.Mostoftheseorganizationshaveheld department/organization, commercial organization/privatebusiness,government NGOs,professionalhealth informationNGOs,international/regional associations, national/local NGOs,mediahouses/businesses,academic/research institutions, responding tothesurveyincluded: mediadevelopment/supportNGOs, 1 The followingwasfoundoutaboutorganizationssupportinghealthjournalism: journalists toimprove coverageofhealthissuesin2005. journalists 422 organizationsaround theworldthatself-identifiedasproviding supportto support.Theglobalsurveyfound conducted aglobalsurveyonhealthjournalism - CenterforJournalists Network,PanosLondonandtheInternational Internews Partnership(HJP)-aconsortiumbetween In 2006,theHealthJournalism 5 . . . . .

Is there ameasurement oftheevaluation/impact?The capacitybuilding Who’s trainingwho?Themajorityofmediasupportorganizationsreport that followed are beingsupported?Printmediajournalists, Which journalists How muchfunding/experiencedotheyhave?Mostorganizationshadbeen around theworld?Theorganizations Who issupportinghealthjournalists 53 52 HEALTH JOURNALISMANDNETWORKING STRONGER PARTNERSHIPS BETWEENMEDIAANDHEALTH ORGANIZATIONS WRITING ANDRESEARCHSKILLSFORINVESTIGATIVE JOURNALISM TECHNOLOGICAL ANDFINANCIALRESOURCES UNDERSTANDING MEDICALINFORMATION ANDDATA science experts, aswellotherorganizations involvedinhealth. andhealth mistrust thatoftensoursthe relationship betweenjournalists can, intheopinionofmany intervieweesintheHJPsurvey, reduce themutual This was identifiedasbothmutually beneficialandcrucialtogoodjournalism. and professionalsBuilding relationships inthehealth sector betweenjournalists of healthissues,andtherefore refuse toworkwithjournalists. time, manyhealthprofessionals coverage havenotbeenimpressed withjournalistic ingeneral.Atthesame final newsproduct andby implication,healthjournalism just wantyoutocoveroneortwothingstheydo."This undeniablyimpactsthe either blockingefforts to obtain themorhighlightingonlytheirsuccesses."They support organizationtoldHJPthathealthorganizations holdbackinformationby media Aseniorofficiala dauntingexercise withaninternational forjournalists. inmanycountriesgettinginformationforhealthstoriescanstillbe journalists, While institutionsengagedinpublichealthare graduallyopeningdoorsto information are thebiggestchallengescited. or simply"writingthewrong things."Gettingthestory, researching, finding vulnerabletopossiblemisinformationofthepublic the subjectmakesjournalists understanding andfamiliarityofthesubjectmatter. Thelackofafullgraspon depends notonlyon"whatistoldbythenewssource" butalsoontheactual Anintervieweenotedthathealthjournalism meaningful healthjournalism. trainingwasidentifiedbyallinterviewedascentralto Fundamental journalism hamper healthreporting. leads, engageinin-depthresearch andembarkonneededtravelfornewsgathering according tosomeinterviewees.Thelackoffinancialresources andtimetopursue complicated andexpensivethanstoriesonothersubjectssuchaspolitics, recorders andcamerastoconductfieldreporting. Healthstoriestendtobemore houses participatinginthesurveysaidthere are notenoughequipmentsuchas indevelopingcountries.Media among thesupportneedsofmanyjournalists Lack ofresources telephone,recorders suchasaccesstointernet, andstudioare and theartofinterviewing. countries haveaconsiderablylowlevelofprofessional skillsinwriting,research inmanydeveloping health issues.Thisiscompoundedbythefactthatjournalists coveringissuesrelated toHIV/AIDSandother is amajorchallengetojournalists The abilitytobreak through complexscientificandmedicalterminologydata 168 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 169 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS THE STATUS OFHEALTH JOURNALISTS INCENTIVES TOREPORTING ONHEALTH LONG TERMINVESTMENTSINJOURNALISMEDUCATION/TRAINING media businessesare increasingly privatelyownedincountriesoncedominated with multiple,oftencommercial channelswhere oncethere wasonlyone.New connectivity.internet There istelevisioninplaceswhere there wasnonebefore, There are agrowing numbersoflocalradiostations, printpublications,andwider spectives tobeaired andcreates spaceforpublicdiscussion,debateandanalysis. This informationrevolution increasingly provides opportunitiesformultipleper- have changedthemedialandscapeinmanycountries. andmobilecommunications community radio,andincreasing accesstointernet regulatory environment, consolidationoflargemedia holdings,thegrowth of rapidly changing.Privatizationofformerstate-owned broadcasters, achanging In countriesfacingthebiggestpublichealthchallenges, themedialandscapeis health andnewsmediasectors. understanding andstrengthened mutualrespect -atalllevelsbetweenthe Before anywide-scalechangecanhappenthere needs tobeabroader psyche ofinfectedandaffected populationsislost. impact ofdiseasessuchasHIV/AIDS,malaria,tuberculosis onthesocioeconomic AIDS are mostlyinterested instraightforward hard newson"politicalaccountsabout space. In-depthhealthreporting isnotencouragedbecauseasanorm,editors because there are storiesonpoliticsorsportscompeting forthesameslotor broadcast media.Sometimestoo,healthstoriesare simplynotusedatall Most oftenhealthstoriesare relegated toanobscure placeinbothprintand other areas enjoyintermsofincomegeneration. will havethepotentialforself-sustenanceandsamecompetitivenessthat newsroom policy, healthprograms whichare accorded amplespaceandairtime believe thatoncetheculture ofhealthprioritizationhasbecomeapartcore a verylongtimehasnotbeenpriorityformediahouses."Someinterviewees "for noted thatrelative toreporting inareas suchaspoliticsandsports,health houses whohavelittleornointerest inhealthreporting. Abroadcast editor There istheneedtooffer trainingsupporttoeditorsandmanagersofmedia assignments asisoftenthecaseincountriesweanalyzed. encourage specializationattheworkplaceinlieuofcoveringhealthwithgeneral from amediasupportorganizationalsonotedthatestablishmentsmust tional graspofmedicalandscientificjargonsterminology. Aninterviewee obtainafounda- in school,according tointerviewees,willhelpyoungjournalists reporting schools. injournalism encourage curriculathatoffer specializationopportunitiesinhealthandscience Special mentionwasalsomadebysomeintervieweesoftheneedtodevelopand particularlyyoungprofessionals. skillsandcapacitybuildingofjournalists journalistic Long termon-thejobtrainingwasidentifiedasveryimportantfornurturing rather thanscientificones."Insuchsituations,theopportunitytoexplore the The opportunity to study health journalism while The opportunitytostudyhealthjournalism world willrequireconsiderable “To guaranteequalityhealth time andfinancialresources. discussions inthehandsof But thisisarevolutionary journalism inmuchofthe way toputpublichealth way those mostaffected.” Panos Institute,2003, 20 Years from HIV/AIDS. ofLearning 54 Scalway, T. Missing theMessage? www.panos.org.uk partnerships andmediadevelopmentpartnerships. a newglobalpriority. Thiswouldservetomeetthegoalsofglobalhealth feature storiesandtalkshowprograms intothemainstream mediashouldbe supporting public considerable timeandfinancialresources. Butthisis arevolutionary waytoput To inmuchoftheworldwillrequire guaranteequalityhealthjournalism and discussionontheseevolvinghealthissues. vernacular. More importantlytheyare goingtowant toparticipateindialogue andcommunicationonhealththatbringglobalissuesintotheirlocal journalism to newandmore diverseinformation-theyare goingtowanthaveaccess Additional pressure comesasaudiencesbecomemore sophisticatedwithaccess campaigns isonlypartoftheequation. to beablerecognize thatprescriptive healthmessagingthatworkswellin prescribing themselvesneed tothemwhatwriteabout/broadcast. Journalists relevant knowledgefortheir audiences,ratherthanglobalhealthpartnerships needtobeempowered tocreateLocal journalists theirownhealthprograms with resources andinformationtodeveloptheirpotential. relevant andreal fortheiraudience.To dothistheywillrequire theskills, with therightmixofskills,canmakeoftencomplexhealthissuesunderstandable, discussion anddebatearound publichealthandindividualhealth.Journalists, playakeyroleIn thischangingenvironment, instimulatingpublic journalists and fewersources are automaticallyacceptedasauthoritative. networked societies.Ithasbecomefarmore difficult totargetinformation between growing numbersofindividualsandorganizationsinincreasingly information comingfrom afewsources, manymessagesare nowpassed are alsochanginghowpeoplecommunicate.Where there wasoncelimited andmobilecellphones by thestatemedia,andnewtechnologiesofInternet health discussionsinthehandsofthosemostaffected. Promoting and the abilities of journalist toproduce localhealth-focusednews, the abilitiesofjournalist 54 170 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 171 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences Eradication Press FreedomandPoverty Journalists’ Unions, The NexusbetweenIndependent threat tofreedomofthe their staff may receive their staffmay encourage corruption employers haverelied conditions arealsoa Paper: Media,DevelopmentandPoverty RL_ID=21468&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_ Lessons Learnt: AStrategic PolicyDiscussion Lessons Learnt: doubt thatinsome ned thereisno Indeed, “But bad pay and badpay “But press becausethey among themedia. on the'envelopes' http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php- from outsidersto Sri Lanka1-3May2006” onre,many countries, balance thelow employers pay.” published byUNESCO, salaries the of aBackground Paperoriginally Between DonorsandUNESCO) World Press Freedom Day 55 56 This isaneditedversion For more examplessee: SECTION=201.html “Presentation : Applyingthe Eradication. poverty eradication The argumentthatafree andindependentmediamustbeacentralcomponentof International FederationofJournalists(IFJ) Christopher Warren, If weacceptthesethoroughly discussedarguments corruption andpromoting goodgovernance. are focused,reflect localneedsandare widelyunderstood;andbycombating voice; byensuringtheefforts topromote sustainable economicdevelopment three ways:byempoweringthepooranddisadvantagedgivingthema argued thatafree andindependentmediaisessentialtopovertyeradicationin The Presentation PaperfortheUNESCO2006World Press Freedom Dayconference of journalists. eradication havetorecognise prioritiesthatsupportcollectiveorganisations and povertyeradication.Donorsinterested inmediadevelopmentandpoverty pressindependent, strong, freedom democraticandactiveunionsofjournalists, There isanindeliblenexusthatexistsbetweenthecreation andsupportfor unionsarethrough centraltoachievingpress independentjournalists’ freedom. workingtogether takes thisargumentastepfurtherandsuggeststhatjournalists October 2005andduringWorld Press Freedom DayinMay2006.Thispaper put inforasuchastheGlobalForumonMediaDevelopmentAmman regulation, safety, criminaldefamation,confidentialityofsources, freedom of isneeded forpress freedomjournalists ethicsandself- topromote journalism 2 and employers. both governments have acollectivevoicethatcanspeakforthem,independent of that journalists freedom becauseitisonly through anindependenttradeunionofjournalists 1 press freedom(andthereforepovertyeradication)infive ways: This paperarguesthatstrongandindependentjournalists’ unionsarecentralto existinconditions ofcorruption,povertyorfear". if journalists knows whatpress freedom isnot.We say:"There canbenopress freedom ourselves: Whatare theessential ingredients forpress freedom? TheIFJcertainly . .

Promoting professionalism, safetyandethics:Anindependentcollectiveof Collective Voice: unionsare necessaryforpress Independentjournalists’ 55 efforts hasbeensuccessfully andimproving goodgovernance President, 56 then weneedtoask THE NEXUSBETWEENJOURNALISTS’UNIONSANDPRESSFREEDOM that journalists’ economic andsocialrightsare respected.that journalists’ broadcasting andpublicservicevalues,promoting professionalism andensuring confidentiality ofsources, freedom ofinformation,promoting publicservice safety, ethicsand self-regulation, journalist journalism criminaldefamation, isessentialinthedefence ofpress freedom:A collectivevoiceforjournalists canbeallofthem. but onlyademocraticcollectiveofjournalists groups makeavitalandimportant contributiontothepushforpress freedom, freedom, includingmany of mediaemployersandpress freedom NGOs.These Other organisationsrepresenting interests canspeakforpress journalists’ Itisdemocratic, representativetive collectivevoiceforjournalists. andactive. oremployers.It provides theonlytrulyrepresenta-is independentofgovernment What are Atradeunionofjournalists thefeatures ofatradeunionjournalists? and povertyeradication. tradeunions,isessentialforpress freedomjournalists’ andtherefore development manifestedthrough independent The IFJarguesthatacollectivevoiceforjournalists, Five stepsmeasurethisnexus: achievable goal. And through strengthened press freedom, povertyeradicationbecomesamore tradeunions,pressThrough freedom supportinglocaljournalists’ isstrengthened. the police,militaryandbusiness,practisetruepublicservicejournalism. thebureaucracy,They demandtransparency andaccountabilityofgovernment, regulating defendingpress freedom, ethicaljournalism, rejecting corruption. defending theirsocialandeconomicrights,togetherwithpromoting andself- are and capableofreaching outandspeakingonbehalf oflocaljournalists theseorganisations As theonlytrueandindependentvoiceoflocaljournalists, It isthisthatgivesargumentitsgreatest power. part of,theimpoverishedcommunitiesthataidagenciesare seekingtoassist. whoare mostoftenclosestto,ifnotdirectlyindependent localworkingjournalists collectivesmadeupofgenuine This argumentisunderstoodbyjournalists’ since wewere foundedin1926. This approach isnotnew. Indeed,theIFJanditsaffiliates havebeensayingthis are pressnecessary becauselabourrightsforjournalists freedom issues. 5 inthefield. fair anddemocraticmeansofreaching journalists 4 andreject corruption. practice ethicaljournalism can working conditions-achievableonlythrough thecollective-thatjournalists unions are necessaryforpress freedom becauseitisonlythrough fairwagesand 3 rights are respected. promoting economicandsocial professionalism andensuringthatjournalists’ information, promoting publicservicebroadcasting andpublicservicevalues, . . .

Labour rightsare press unionsare freedom issues:Independentjournalists’ unionistheonlyeffective, Anindependentjournalists’ Reaching journalists: Combating corruptionanddemandingfairwages:Independentjournalists’ 172 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 173 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences JOURNALIST SAFETY ETHICS ANDSELFREGULATION for journalists’rights journalists thatcan be absolutelyrelied upon tocampaign only thecollective Utmtl,itis “Ultimately, “Coups, KingsandCensorship” organisation of Noonan 58 57 and safety.” Freedom inthePhilippines” For furtherdiscussiononthePhilippines For furtherdiscussiononNepalandthe role oftheFNJ,seeChristopherWarren and theworkofNUJP, seeGerard “A Dangerous Profession: Press and RosinaDiMarzo , IFJ(2005) , IFJ(2005) relied rightsandsafety. upontocampaignforjournalists’ ultimately, thatcanbeabsolutely itisonlythecollectiveorganisation ofjournalists the victims’families. underattackandsupporting setting upahotlineforjournalists the government, been there fortheircolleaguesanddemandingaction from thepolice,courtsand the Philippines(withsupportofIFJanditsmember organisations),has of inthePhilippines, NationalUnionofJournalists organisation ofjournalists financial supporthasbeenmadeavailabletodealwiththe crisis.Thecollective national organisationsonthisissuehasbeenlessthanenthusiastic andonlylimited since 1986,resulting murdered. inscores ofjournalists Theresponse from inter- there charge (alongwithlocalNGOs)againsttheappallingattacks onjournalists Similarly, ledthe inthePhilippines,collectiveorganisationofjournalists events inNepal. wouldnot havebeenabletoeffectively respondthe localjournalists torecent organisations involvedinthecampaign(asmostactuallywere), withouttheFNJ restoration ofpress press freedom. freedom Simplyput,evenwithallinternational safetythroughout thecrisisandledchargedemanding the for journalists’ provided direct supporttotheirmemberswhowere attackedandjailed,ledthepush provided informationonpress community, freedom abusestotheinternational inNepal,theFNJ,that But itwasthekeycollectiveorganisationofjournalists and manyothershasbeeninvaluable. NewsSafetyInstitute,ReportersSansFrontiers as Article19,theInternational andrestrictions onpressjournalists freedoms. Thisworkfrom organisationssuch 1, Coup inNepalthatoccurred onFebruary and localorganisationshavebeeninvolvedinthecondemnationofRoyal (FNJ)overthepast15months.Aplethoraofinternational Nepalese Journalists A recent dramaticexampleofthisinactionistheworkFederation todotheirjobwithoutinjuryordeath. insurance andequipmentforjournalists togetheranddemandthatemployersprovide adequatepolicies,training, journalists thatisabletobring practices, butitisonlyacollectiveorganisationofjournalists other organisationscanprovide informationandtrainingaboutsafeworking relied upontoactwithoutpressure organisations.Additionally, from journalists’ Many employersare supportive,butthesadhistorythattoomanycannotbe precautions todotheir workassafelypossible. are takenforjournalists thatcanberelied upontodemandthatallnecessary organisation ofjournalists mustensure thattheyworksafelyandwithoutthreat.Journalists Itisonlyan safetyandtherefore unionsare essentialtojournalists’ Journalists’ topress freedom. unions. many journalists’ isawarecards, ofthecode.Thisisstandard sothateachjournalist practicefor they jointheorganisation.Italsoreproduces itscodeofethicsonmembership Independenrequires tosignonthecodeas the AliansiJurnalis each journalist codes ofethicsandpromote themtotheirmembers.Forexample,inIndonesia, whoagree unionsadopt onandpromotejournalists anethical code.Journalists’ press freedom. Self-regulation isonlypossiblewhenthere isacollectiveof leadto adeclinein sanctionforethicalbreaches (iebygovernment) external regulation mustself-regulate:It iswidelyagreed and thatexternal thatjournalists Some examplesofhowjournalists’unionspromotepressfreedomare: 57 58 There isnostarkerdemonstrationofourargument:that 2005 and theconsequentattackson CRIMINAL DEFAMATION their livesiftheyspeak “This isthecasein “This where journaliststake regional areasofthe local politiciansand Philippines andhas massive riskswith lead toasituation pnos usually sponsors, business people.” out againsttheir defeating criminaldefamation”,IFJ(2005) 59 Emma Walters andAlexJohnson “Decriminalising Defamation: an IFJcampaignresource for 60 Ibid campaign todefeatcriminaldefamation. organisationsandpress freedomof journalists’ advocatesledthesuccessful that countrytohavecriminaldefamationremoved. AndinSriLanka,acoalition Two examples laws from thepenalcodeintheircountry. in-country tions ofjournalists campaigning againstcriminaldefamation,ultimatelyitisthecollectiveorganisa- Article 19andtheWorld Press Freedom Committeehavedonemuchworkon freelancers, part-timers, ‘correspondents’ -ishavingadeleterious effect onpress oncontract,increasing useof these employmentpractices -puttingjournalists conducted research that confirmslong-heldsuspicionsthatthemovetowards toward contingentandatypicalemploymentpractices. TheIFJhasrecently Another related area isthe changingnature ofwork inthemedia-trend freedom andallocatedresources tosupportworkinthisarea. right todecentworkingconditionsaspartoftheenabling environment has beenrecognised byUNESCO whichatitslastGeneralConference includedthe workandpressThis linkbetweenthesocialenvironment freedom inwhich journalists politicians andbusinesspeople. massive riskswiththeirlivesiftheyspeakoutagainst sponsors,usuallylocal regional areas take ofthePhilippinesandhasledtoasituation where journalists at allandinsteadworkoncommissionorsub-contract basis. Thisisthecasein the columncm,oronlyifstoryispublished.Insomecountries, theydon’t getpaid wagesare notoriouslylow.countries journalists’ are paidby Sometimes,journalists andwhilesomemediaemployerspayfairly,honesty from journalists indeveloping Eliminating corruptionrequires decentpayfrom employersasmuchitrequires related totheurgentneedraiseworkingstandards ofjournalists. andisclearly is amajorimpedimenttobuildingtheintegrityofjournalism, haveaccepted to 85percentofIndonesianjournalists world, particularlywhere povertyisendemic.InIndonesia,itestimatedthatup favorable, orindeed,anycoverage-isrifeinmanycountriesthroughout the receive envelopescontainingcashfromjournalists anewssource for inreturn Corruption inthemedia,through thepracticeof‘theenvelopetradition’-where receive from outsiderstobalancethelowsalariesemployerspay. some countries,manyemployershaverelied onthe‘envelopes’theirstaff may they encouragecorruptionamongthemedia.Indeed,there isnodoubtthatin But badpayandconditionsare alsoathreat tofreedom ofthepress because to eatandfeedtheirfamilies. -likeeveryoneelseneed decent conditionsisimportantinitself.Journalists poverty. Ensuringpeoplewhoworkinthemediaare fairlypaidandworkunder The IFJfirmlybelievesthatpress freedom livein cannotexist where journalists thathasavestedinterest indefeatingcriminaldefamation. of journalists ones tobejailedundertheseretrograde laws,anditisthecollectiveorganisation safety,As withjournalist themselveswhoare the itisultimatelythejournalists anathema topress freedom. expression instrumentsandbodieswhichhavedeclared criminaldefamationan recogniseddefamation. There freedom isunanimityamonginternationally of unionsthroughout theworldareJournalists’ leadingthechargeagainstcriminal : In Ghana, the Ghana Journalists’ Associationledthefightin : InGhana,theGhanaJournalists’ 59 that musttakeupthefighttostrikethesedraconian Again, while international organisationssuchas Again, whileinternational 60 ‘envelopes’. This practice for press 174 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 175 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences UNION BUSTINGTACTICS when theyleavejour- But whathappens...? et,orloseinterest beats, HIV/Aids reporting. will hopefullyhave “After thetraining aim orchange nalism, these journalists improved their in HIV/Aids.” in themediaindustry” A globalsurveyofatypicalwork “The ChangingNature ofWork: 61 Emma Walters andMikeDobbie IFJ (inprint) ability tofreely express themselves.This sortofunion-bustingtacticcanrange withinacompany,collective voiceofindependent journalism underminingtheir independence oftheeditorial staff. Bybreaking theunion,employersbreak the Employers attempttobreak amediaunionbecausethey wanttobreak the autonomy,that underminesjournalistic underminesfreedom ofexpression. integrityandautonomy.Itconditions onjournalistic followsfrom thisthatanything security. Theyare alwaysaboutfreedom ofexpression andtheimpactofworking are neveraboutratesofpayorjob andyou’llfindthattheconcerns journalists highly unionisedworkforce intheworld.Ifyougotoanyunionmeetingof knowthisalmostinstinctively.Journalists It’s isoneofthemost why journalism employer thanfrom governments. in envelopes.Thefearoflosingyourjobismore likelytocomefrom your legislation.Pressuregovernment from employerscancorruptasmuch asmoney autonomyisattackedasmuchbypovertyemployersand Journalistic That’s whytheyinvolvefreedom ofexpression issues. are independenceorautonomy. almostalwaysaround thequestionofjournalistic The IFJanditsmemberunionsbelievethatseriouslabourdisputesinthemedia the materialsandtraining. isabletoensure thatthereorganisation ofjournalists isinstitutionalretention of orchangebeats,loseinterest inHIV/AIDS?Onlyacollective leave journalism, hopefully haveimproved theirHIV/AIDSreporting. But whathappenswhenthey will of thewidercollective.Aftertrainingiscomplete,thesejournalists whomaynotberepresentativethis trainingislimitedtohand-pickedjournalists organisationsare conductingsimilartraining,butgenerally Other international (translated intolocallanguages)foruseafterthecompletionofproject. unionswillretain thematerialsandresourcesWhen complete,thejournalists’ are tions organisations inAfricaandAsiaonproviding thistraining.Thememberorganisa- throughout theworld,IFJisworkingwithitsrepresentative collective Unlike someotherHIV/AIDSreporting trainingprojects beingundertaken Journalists’ UnionsbyImprovingReportingofHIV/AIDSinAfricaandAsia". conducted bytheIFJandsupportedLOTCOSIDA: An exampleofthisisthecurrent reporting HIV/AIDS trainingproject being memory andresources. becomes partofthemediaculture bycreating organisational–notindividual media developmentworkisnotlimitedtoindividuals:thatthe the opportunitytoaccessdevelopmenttrainingandinformation.Itensures that However, have ensures thatalljournalists acollectiveorganisationofjournalists ways. Noneofthese,however, are trulyeffective, fairor democratic. working withsinglemediaorganisations;andself-selectionare someofthe recommendations fromhand pickingjournalists; employersorgovernment; There are fortrainingandmediadevelopment: otherwaysofreaching journalists democratic meansofreachingjournalistsinthefield. The IFJbelievesanindependentjournalists’unionisthemosteffective,fairand economic andprofessional rightsofthesecontingentworkers. that canaddress thesealarmingtrends byunionizingandcampaigningforthe unionsare theonlyorganisations Journalists’ from employersandgovernment. collectives, leavingthemaloneandvulnerabletoincreased editorialinterference fromfreedom. their Theseemploymentpracticesdivideindividualjournalists democratically selectingparticipantsfrom across their organisations. "Strengthening 61 ILLEGAL ACTIVITYBYEMPLOYERS DISCRIMINATION WITHINTHEWORKPLACE ? CONTRACT ORCASUALEMPLOYMENT 3 information; supportforcampaignspublicservicebroadcasting. campaigns forauthors’rights,protection ofsources andfreedom of safety; supportforcampaignsagainstcriminaldefamation; supportfor ethics andself-regulation; supportforcampaigningandtrainingjournalist in theworkthattheydo.Thisincludessupportforestablishing andpromoting As capacity-buildingdemandsactivity, unions donorsshouldsupport journalists’ 2. active, representative organisationsofjournalists. already exist,andstrengthening existingandfledgling independent,democratic, where theydonot the establishmentofcollectiveorganisationsjournalists Thismeanssupporting conducted through collectiveorganisationsofjournalists. Donors needtorecognise thatanyeffective mediadevelopment workshouldbe organisations ofjournalists. efforts. But far more sothanregular workers,tradeuniondevelopment organisationsintheirtradeunioncapacity-building need tosupportjournalists’ eradicate poverty. Donorstherefore Ofcoursethis is alsothecaseforjournalists. Across society, tradeuniondevelopmentworkisessentialfor allworkersto 1 They are: interested insupportingmediadevelopment. freedom andpovertyeradicationalsohavefiveparallelimplicationsfordonors unions,press These fivedemonstrationsofthenexusbetweenjournalists’ industrial views. from freely expressing themselvesforfearoftheiremployerfindingout uniontoactindependentlyandmuzzlesmembers the abilityofajournalists’ such aseavesdropping onunionmeetingsorphonehook-ups.Thisprevents unionthrough illegalactivity An employermayseektoundermineajournalist expression rights. is thatwomenare beingdeniedtheabilitytopracticetheirfreedom of to employment,particularassignmentsorhigherpaylevels.Thedirect result Thesepracticesresult inwomenbeingdeniedaccess against womenjournalists. practices thatdiscriminateagainstparticulargroups, mostcommonly, campaignsoveremployment unionsare oftenengagedininternal Journalist and, thus,theirfreedom ofexpression. greater control overstaff, underminingtheirstaff’s autonomyandindependence employment. Asaresult ofthislosssecurity, employersare abletoexercise fixed –termcontracts,casualemploymentorsomeotherformofcontingent integritybydenyingjobsecurity.journalistic Staff, instead,are engagedon In manycountriesaround theworld,employersare seekingtoundermine entry tounionorganisers. from non-recognition, through cancellingcollectiveagreements torefusal of . . . .

Support isrequiredforcapacity-buildingofjournalists’ unions. Support isrequiredfortheformationandstrengtheningofcollective Trade uniondevelopmentsupport isrequiredforjournalists’collectives. 176 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences 177 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 3: Challenges in Media Matters: Practitioner Experiences freedom isessentialforpovertyeradication. reduce povertyandmeettheMillenniumDevelopment Goals.Inshort,press supporting journalists’unionsisaneffectivemeantoreinforce globaleffortsto collective organisationsofjournalistsareessentialtopress freedomandthat tion, pressfreedomandcollectiveorganisationsofjournalists. Itsuggestedthat This paperhasarguedthatthereisadirectconnection betweenpovertyeradica- fall andpress freedom willbeatstake.Labourrightsare press freedom issues. can losesightoftheirrole inthepublicservicemediaframework,standards may rights. Wages inmediawillcontinuetofall,corruptionincrease, journalists cannoteffectively bargainfortheirsocial,economicandprofessionaljournalists policiesprohibit it,then toformatradeunion,orgovernment of journalists directly impingeonpress freedom. Ifanemployerrefuses torecognise the right freedom communityshouldrecognise thatlabourrights issuesforjournalists press While notnecessarilyaspecificpriorityformostdonors,theinternational media aspressfreedomissues. Thirdly themselves. reproductive rights,HIV/AIDS,educationandsoon,tothemediaprofessionals efforts toreduce povertyasdonorsdobysupportinglocalNGOsonhealth, themselves.We shouldapplythesamepolicyofsupportinglocal of journalists groups isakeytopovertyeradication,thenwemustalsoacceptthisinthecase Second, to povertyeradication. giving voicetothepoorandmostdisadvantagedgroups, whichisessential that reflects theinterests andaspirationsofallsectorssociety, including military/police andthebureaucracy. Itwillalsopracticepublicservicejournalism business,the media, capableofactingasawatchdogtogovernment, willleadtoaprofessional publicservice corruption inmedia,whichturn First major ways. willfurtherassistinpovertyeradicationacross societyinthreefor journalists 5 country. - in toreach journalists work focusesonshoulduselocalcollectiveofjournalists reporting, genderinmediaandsoon.Indeed,anyissuethatdevelopment human rightsinstrumentsandtheworkofdefenders,election on childrights,HIV/AIDS,themillenniumdevelopmentgoals,international This couldbeusedformediadevelopmentactionsdesignedtoimprove reporting 4. eradication across society. whichleadstopoverty shouldleadtoprofessional journalism, unions ofjournalists rights, genderequality, sanitation,health,educationandsoon).Effective trade flows ontoallfacetsofreporting (includingreporting onpoverty, HIV/AIDS,child aspirations, donorsare directly improving professionalism andethics,which . .

The internationalpressfreedomcommunityshouldembracelabourrightsin Donors shouldusegenuinelocalcollectivesofjournaliststoreachjournalists. , trade union work with journalists willleadtohigherwagesandreduced trade unionworkwithjournalists , by supporting collective organisations of journalists intheirtradeunion by supportingcollectiveorganisationsofjournalists if weacceptthatempowermentofmarginalisedanddisadvantaged Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys & Resources 179 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Semantic Confusion? Participatory Diffusion or Section 4: THE ENDLESSDEBATE ONTHE‘WHAT’ AND‘HOW’OFDEVELOPMENTCOMMUNICATION role thatthemediahave in facilitatingtheprocess “Less understoodisthe “Less of development.” Mapping theSector:Literature, SurveysandResources United NationsCapitalDevelopmentFund Adam Rogers, participatory developmentcommunication, communicationanddevelopment, and varied:developmentcommunication, developmentsupportcommunication, The terminologiesandmethodologies usedtodescribetheconceptare many divergent perspectives. well asatthelevelsofpolicy andplanning/implementation,there are many should beinterpreted and applied.Bothatthetheoryandresearch levels,as than 40years,there remains alackofconsensusoverwhattocallit,andhowit defined intheearly1960s.Thoughithasbeenstudied andpracticedformore attention ofmanyscholarsanddevelopmentprofessionals sinceitwasfirst The role ofcommunication indevelopmentprocesses hasattractedthe media indevelopingcountries. in efforts tosupportthedevelopmentofefficient, effective andsustainable compare thedifferences, anddrawssomeconclusionsintermsoftheirrelevance to simplyas"participatorydiffusion." Thispaperalsoattemptstoclarifyand "participatory devcom."Asynchronic approach that combinesthetwoisreferred refers tothefirstapproach as"diffusion devcom,"andthesecondapproach as processes thataffect theirlivelihoods.Forpurposes of simplification,thispaper those thatseektoengagethepopulationsmore fullyindecision-making persuade targetaudiencestoadoptcertainpracticesorchangesinattitudeand Many developmentprofessionals distinguishbetweenthoseefforts thatseekto best practices. influence policymakers,andbydisseminatingdiffusing knowledgeof development, bothbyproviding anopportunityforvulnerablepopulationsto Less understoodistherole thatthemediahaveinfacilitatingprocess of routinely includeitintheirdevelopmentbudgetsand/orplanningprocesses. understand therole ofcommunicationandappreciate ittothepointthatthey decision andpolicymakersinthedevelopmentcommunityatlargemaynot and research levels,aswellinpolicy, planningandimplementation.However, development,bothatthetheory strategic useofcommunicationininternational Extensive studiessincethemid-1960shavedemonstratedvalueof had anenormousimpactonefforts toreduce povertyindevelopingcountries. The scholarshipandpracticeoftherole ofcommunicationindevelopmenthas Chief, CommunicationsandPublicInformationUnit, IN THEBEGINNING TWO DOMINANTTHEORETICALFRAMEWORKS for thenext10to15years. (1964), andprovided thetheoretical foundationfordevelopmentcommunication of Schramm’s workwaspublished asMassMediaandNationalDevelopment agents tocommunicatemessages abouttechnologicalinnovations.Theresult in theconceptofanall-powerful mediathatcouldbeusedbydevelopment the precise role thatthemassmediaplayedindevelopment.Schrammbelieved Schrammtodetermine Cultural Organization(UNESCO)commissionedWilbur Drawing onLerner’s research, theUnitedNationsEducation,Scientificand by communicatingdevelopmentmessagestotheundeveloped. arguedthatthemediacouldserveasa great multiplierofdevelopment Lerner urbanization, highliteracylevels,mediaconsumptionand politicaldevelopment. variablessuchas expanded economicactivityandothermodernization the MiddleEastandNorthAfrica,wasabletotrace correlations between book, ThePassingoftheTraditional conductedresearch Society(1958).Lerner in and communication)firstemergedwiththepublicationofDanielLerner’s classic The conceptofdevelopmentcommunication(orthelinkbetween beneficiaries aspartnersinthecommunicationanddecision-makingprocesses. others, whoadvocatedforamore participatoryapproach thatinvolvesdevelopment by Freire (1970,1973),Servaes(1997,2002)andMelkote &Steeves(2001),among (1958)andothers,thisapproach waslaterheavily critcized Articulated byLearner to theirclientsasapanaceaforaddressing theinequitiesindevelopingcountries. (diffusion) oftechnologicalandbehaviouralinnovationsfrom developmentagencies The earlyparadigmofdevelopmentcommunicationadvocatedforthetransfer them assuch. not mutuallyexclusive,thoughsomeacademicsandpractitionershavepresented model andtheParticipatory/Organicmodel.Thetwo"schoolsofthought"are two theoretical approaches couldbesummarizedas theDiffusion/Mechanistic will acceleratemore effective andsustainabledevelopment (Servaes,1999). the activeinvolvementofpopulationinprocess ofcommunicationitself and thosethatarguethediffusion modelistooverticalorone-wayandthat influenced bythediffusion theoryoftheAmericanscholarEverett Rogers(1962); discussions ontheconceptfitintooneoftwotheoretical frameworks:those approach orapplicationofcommunicationinsupportdevelopment,most Though there are amyriadoftermsinusetoday, eachdescribing adifferent security, advancetheireducationandimprove theirhealth. them toadoptnewpracticesthatwillenhancetheirlivelihood,increase their that affect theirlives,givingthema"voice"toinfluencepolicy, orpersuading of thepoor, beitthrough engagingthemmore fullyindecision-making processes above -totheplanneduseofcommunicationinanyeffort toimprove thelives "development communication",orsimplydevcom,shouldrefer toallofthe distinct differences betweenthevariousterms.Ofcoursethere are, buttheterm Many academicanddevelopmentprofessionals wouldarguethatthere are preferred termattheUnitedNations:communicationfordevelopment. project supportcommunication,socialmarketing,andwhatcurrently isthe information-education-communication (IEC),communicationforempowerment, These 180 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 181 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources OPPOSING THEDIFFUSIONOFTHEORY “These scholarsarguedthat “These development effortstodate classes onthemajorityof development imposedthe ‘neo-colonialism’ …that were ideologicallyand uses ofmassmediain marginalised people.” interests ofdominant materially linkedto (Melkote &Steeves, 2002p.38).According toMelkote,such"persuasive and/or inculcatingcertainvalues, attitudes,andbehavioursinthepopulation" viathedeliveryand insertionofnewtechnologies, process ofmodernization diffusion approach tobe a"messagedeliverysystem"that"facilitatesthe world. Heconsidersthe as atooltoexpandthehegemony ofthewestern Srinivas MelkoteisanothercriticaltheoristwhoviewsRogers’ diffusion approaches in manydevelopmentprogrammes (Servaes,1997&1999). He hassaidthelackofattentiontohorizontaldimension hasledtofailure ordinary peopleasthekey agentsofchange,orparticipantsfordevelopment. at theUniversityofQueenslanddefinesparticipatory modelasthatwhichviews andCommunication Jan Servaes,professor and headoftheSchoolJournalism methodologies emphasizingaccess,dialogueandparticipation (Beltran,1980). an abandonmentofthe"vertical"approach infavourofmore "horizontal" (Cardoso &Faletto,1979). Italsoresonated withmanyresearchers whocalledfor to explainunderdevelopment astheresult, orby-product, ofcapitalistexpansion tune withdependencytheory, popularatthetimeinLatinAmerica,whichsought dominant classesonthemajorityofmarginalizedpeople.Thisthinkingwasin concluding thatusesofmassmediaindevelopmentimposedtheinterests of deEstudiosSuperiores deComunicaciónparaAméricaLatina), Internacional Seminar onParticipatoryCommunication,sponsored in1978byCIESPAL (Centro A group ofscholarscoalescedaround thisthemeat theFirstLatinAmerican and a"formofdominationmanipulationbytheelite"(Freire, 1973). "neo-colonialism" ment efforts todatewere ideologicallyandmaterially linkedto ment decisionsandprocesses (Colle,1989).Thesescholarsarguedthatdevelop- concentration onadoptionandlackofemphasisrecipient inputintodevelop- "pro-innovation," "pro-persuasion," and"top-down" its development communication.Criticsofthediffusion modelwere unsettledby In theearly1970sanintellectualshiftoccurred inthebasicconceptof developed countries(Mwangi,2002). radio toexposefarmersnewinnovations–mostofwhichwere importedfrom developing countries,where trainedagriculturalofficers wouldusemediasuchas the theorywholeheartedlyandfundedthousandsofprojects inruralareas of Asia andAfricainthe1960s1970s.TheWorld BankandUNDPembraced In supportofthishypothesis,diffusion studiesproliferated inLatinAmerica, practice thatisassumedtoleadimproved livelihoods. through interest, evaluation,trialandfinallytoadoptionofthetechnologyor not –poor and interpersonalcommunicationstrategiescanmoveindividualsfrom poorto The diffusion modelassumesthataproper combinationofmass-mediated methods todevelopingsocieties. could introduce innovationssuchashighyieldseeds,fertilizersandnewfarming asserted that,usinghistheoretical model,developmentcommunicationscholars societies. Grounding muchofhisresearch inagriculturaldevelopment, inthewayinnovationswere adoptedandacceptedin Rogers identifiedapattern landmark theoretical framework,whichhecalledDiffusion ofInnovations(1962). whom andwithwhateffect?" Ar communication withhis5-pointquestionof"Whosayswhatinchannelto Lasswell (1964)furtherdefinedthiscontextualframeworkfordevelopment via aprocess startingwithawareness (ofanewtechnologyorpractice) ound thesametime,Everett Rogersputforthhis nature -thatis,its Rogers THE MIDDLEROADTOTIPPINGPOINT IN DEFENCEOFDIFFUSION idea...How itisintroduced, oee,shouldbethrough however, atcptr hnes or participatory channels, it willneverbeaccepted, modified orembraced.” "A goodideaisa emphasized the top- emphasized the the faits accomplis, Unlike sometheoretical approaches todevcomthathavebeenpresented as of formalinfrastructure andtheacquisitionoftechnologies(Servaes,2002,p.4). urbanization, specialization,adoptionofacapitalisteconomicsystem,formation of development,"whichpromoted economicgrowth through industrialization, paradigm may havegottencaughtupinthebacklashagainst"modernization developing countries.However, therelevance ofRogers’theoretical framework believed thatwhatworkedfortheindustrializedcountrieswouldworkin the factthattheorywasaproduct ofatimewhendevelopmentprofessionals Much oftheearlycriticismdiffusion mayhavebeenwellplaced,considering tied upwithexpatriateextravaganceandpoliticalcorruption. campaigns" are "manipulativeandpotentiallyharmful"are somehow Rogers, 2001).Inthedecades thatfollowedthiscallformore popularparticipation people through theirgaininggreater control overtheir environment (Singhal & intended tobringaboutboth socialandmaterialadvancementforthemajorityof defined developmentasawidely participatoryprocess ofsocialchangethat is The thinkingadvancedbythe LatinAmericancriticsandthosethatfollowed be accepted,modifiedandembraced. introduced, however, shouldbe through participatorychannels,oritwillnever emerges from anacademic project ataEuropean university. Howitis it surfacesthrough aparticipatory process inanunderdeveloped society, or come from thepeoplethemselves. However, agoodideaisidea,whether -theyoften public inapersuasionexercise donotalwaysoriginateexternally lead users"(2003,p.375).Inotherwords, theconceptscommunicatedtoa up from theoperationallevelsofasystem,withinventingdonebycertain of comingoutformalR&Dnetworks,"hewrites,"innovationsoftenbubble local sources andthenevolveastheydiffuse viahorizontal networks."Instead Decentralized diffusion systemsare thoseinwhich innovations originatefrom differentiates between"centralized"and"decentralized" diffusion systems. In furtherclarifyingtherole ofdiffusion inparticipatory planning,Rogers ‘theirs,’ itwillnotbecontinuedoverthelongterm." "and unlessclientsfeelsoinvolvedwiththeinnovationthattheyregard itas an innovationishighlycompatiblewithclients’needsandresources," hewrites, in isdeterminedforthemostpartbyextentofparticipationinvolved."Unless in largemeasure bytheextentofbuy-inlocalpopulation,andthatbuy- acknowledged thatadevelopmentproject’s degree ofsustainabilityisdetermined In thefiftheditionofDiffusion ofInnovations,Rogers(2003,p.376) of development(Rogers,1976). that engagedthelocalpopulationinplanning,implementationandexecution paradigm" oftop-downplanningwouldsignalashifttoward aformofsupport As farbackas1976,Rogerssuggestedthatthepassingof"dominant participatory planningandtherole ofcommunicationstherein. (1983, 1995,2003),hebeganadvocatingfortheprinciplesof"bottom-up" days before hisdeathinOctober2004.Whileearliereditionsofwork Rogers continuouslyrevised andupdatedhisframeworkupuntil down diffusion oftechnology(1962,1971),inlatereditions 182 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 183 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources ready accesstoinformation to mobiliseactiontowards mass mediadiffusionand communication isneeded a developmentobjective.” IF EVERTHETWAIN SHALLMEET “Rogers maintainsthat “Rogers awareness ofanissue, while participatory are neededtoraise of researchers whoformaround refer toasan 47 A termRogers(2003)usesto to studyacommontopic.” an intellectualparadigm “informal network most importantisnotwhat anapproach iscalled,the originsofanideaor the benefitsofbothapproaches.above inorder Forthem,whatis toharness Many developmentpractitioners are avoidingthesemantic debatesoutlined integrating upstream and downstream communications. Cabañero-Verzosa refers tothisasa"dialogicalprocess" whichimplies interpersonal communicationsshouldplayacomplementary role intheprocess. interactive methodssuchastownhallmeetings.Both media plansand such asmassmediathrough newspaperortelevision,butalsobottom-up appr empowering paradigms. Shesaysthatinorder foracommunicationstrategytotakean in anapproach thatincorporatesbothdominantdevelopmentcommunication all developmentprojects are essentiallyaboutbehaviouralchange.Shealsobelieves author ofStrategicCommunicationforDevelopmentProjects (2003)believesthat Cecilia Cabañero-Verzosa, aseniorcommunicationsofficer attheWorld Bankand safe sextoavoidHIVtransmission,triggersabigchangeintherateofadoption. "tipping point":whenasmallchange,suchasfewmore individualspracticing diffusion ofaninnovationortowhatMalcolmGaldwell(2000)refers toasthe A combinationofthetwocanleadtowhatRogerscalls"criticalmass"in objective, beitHIVprevention orcommunityparticipationinlocalgovernment. participatory communicationisneededtomobilizeactiontowards adevelopment ready accesstoinformationare neededtoraiseawareness ofanissue,while that bothapproaches are necessary. Hemaintainsthatmassmediadiffusion and in more recent editionsofRogers’classic,Diffusion ofInnovations.Rogersargues An exampleofthissyncretic approach todevelopment communicationisfound respecting thedifferences betweenperspectives. and critiquetheothers,questioningwhattheyderivefrom eachother, and sues vigour thatcanarisefrom hybridism." aries notasimpermeablewalls,butsitesforexchangeanddevelopingthe to theworld’s developmentchallengesmayindeedcomefrom "viewingbound- there maysometimesbeaneedforbothapproaches. Themostviablesolutions what discursivepracticesare framed,"shesays.However, Einsiedelspeculates heard, whatvaluesare articulated,whatrepresentations are foregrounded, or of whosayswhattowhomwitheffects."We mightaskwhosevoicesare historical specificitiesthanthataddressed byLasswell’s (1964)linearquestioning when questionsondevelopmentissuesare muchmore complexandwithgreater Einsiedel (2000)notesthattheparticipatoryapproach isparticularlyimportant Not everyoneagreed withthisresistance totheharmonizationofapproaches. politicalhegemony."discourse, duetoitshistoricalassociationwith"Western an "insidiousdominationtactic"ifincorporated argued thatanyuseofparticipationbythose done onlytohelpadvanceapredetermined objective(Dudley, 1993).White(1994) or merge thetwoapproaches aspassivecollaboration, 2002). Somescholarsfrom the"participationasanend"group sawanyattemptto conceptualized eitherasameanstoanend,orendinandofitself(Huesca, patory developmentasautopianpanacea.Inotherwor end, scholarscriticaloftraditional began toincorporateparticipatorydimensionsintotheir diffusionat oneendofthespectrum,scholarsfrom school the"modernistic", in developmentcommunication,awiderangeoftheoretical responses emerged, multiple approaches todevelopment,usingeachapproach tobothinform oach, oneshouldlooknotonlyatemployingtop-down methods development communicationembraced 47 This approach toresearch, shesays,pur- espousing diffusion willevolveinto into thedominantdevelopment manipulative consultation ds, participationwas research. tteother At the partici- THE ROLEOFMEDIAINPARTICIPATORY DIFFUSION THE ROLEOFMEDIAINPARTICIPATION THE ROLEOFMEDIAINDIFFUSION THE ROLEOFMEDIA timely, relevant, andclearinformationaswellananalysis ofpoliticaland in regards citizensandtheirrepresentatives todemocratic governance, need and thenvalidatedorimproved locallytomakethem more relevant. Inaddition, that are eitherdiscovered withinthecommunityitself,orimportedfrom outside The logicalextensionofthe firsttwoareas involvesthe diffusion ofbestpractices urban poor. Deane, 2003),oftenleavingoutanycoverageofissues affecting theruraland increasingly shapedbythe demandsofadvertisersandsponsors(UNDP, 2005; as competitionamongstvariousmediaoutletsintensifies, contentisbeing a needtoreport onnews wherever itbefound,there ismountingevidencethat, are represented accuratelyintheirreportage. However, feel whilemostjournalists sentatives candirectly contactvulnerablepopulationsandensure thattheirviews because ofissuesliteracyandaccesstotelephony, themediaandtheirrepre- Though noteveryoneinpoorsocietieswillhavedirect accesstothemedia (Deane, 2005),andiscriticalinproviding a"voicetothevoiceless"(Huddock,2003). media isconsidered anecessarydimensionof"communication forempowerment" encourage peopletoparticipateandcontributetheirperspectives.Thisrole ofthe is needed,suchasthrough talkshows,discussionprogrammes andphone-insthat communicate needs,andinfluencepolicymakers.Inorder forthistohappen,access a valuablechannelthrough whichvulnerablepopulationscanshare experiences, Though themediaprimarilyengageindiffusion ofinformation,theyprovide coverage, availabilityandthepublic’s perception oftheirlegitimacy. and music,themediaoftenplayacentralcatalyticrole becauseoftheir channels through whichtodiffuse messages,such as billboards, street theatre that couldleadtothetransmissionofHIV/AIDS).Thoughthere are many or attitude(suchasadoptingsafesexpractices,abandoningriskybehaviour order toinformandpersuadeatargetaudienceadoptorabandonpractice As discussedabove,diffusion involvesthepracticeofdisseminatingmessagesin participation, diffusion, orparticipatorydiffusion. could becentered onanyoralloftheconceptualapproaches outlinedabove: the realization oftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals.Theseareas ofsupport developing countriesandtoenhancetheirabilitiescontributeeffectively to however, tostrengthen andsupportthegrowth ofindependent mediain and accountabilityare paramount.Developmentagenciescoulddomuchmore, programming, where especiallyinthearea issuesoftransparency ofgovernance, As such,mediasupportisincreasingly becominganimportantpartofdevelopment The mediaplayacentralrole inpromoting andsupportingdevcomefforts. Declaration. efficient toolstoachievethenobleobjectivesoutlinedinMillennium how itiscommunicated.Whatcriticalthatwefindthemosteffective and 184 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 185 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources LOOKING AHEAD:DEVCOMEFFORTS AT THEUNITEDNATIONS • • • • conclusions andrecommendations: communications tobepresented everytwoyears,andsetoutalistoffour A/59/207 (UnitedNations,2004b)whichrequested areport ondevelopment In August2004,Mezzalama’s report provided thefoundationforUNresolution specific provision forcommunicationactivities. be acriticalpartofanydevelopmentprogramme, withbudgetsthatcontaina report madeanumberof recommendations. Foremost wasacallfordevcomto insufficient importancetocommunicationinoperationalactivities.Mezzalama’s with theevolutionofdiscipline,andthatmostUNorganizationsattach which concludedthatthelevelofinter-agency coordination wasnotkeepingup in theUNsystem(Mezzalama,1994;UnitedNations2004b,1995&1996), of communicationinthesuccessfulimplementationdevelopmentprogrammes dropped theballin1980s.In1994,UNcommissionedastudyonrole Though theUnitedNationswasactiveindevcom1960sand1970s,it (participation) (Huddock,2003). economic issues(diffusion) inorder toparticipateeffectively inpolicyformation and asitprepares toreport onitsdevcomactivities onabiennialbasis. ways tobecomemore efficient inaddressing theMillennium DevelopmentGoals, change astheorganization and itsextendedfamilysearch fornewandinnovative after-thought, relations. This,however, oranadd-ontothe work ofexternal may funds fordevelopmentcommunication,andhaveoften considered itasan As yet,however, mostdevelopmentprogrammes havenotallocatedsufficient for MediaDevelopment,heldinAmmanOctober2005. are efforts tosupportmediadevelopment,suchasthrough theGlobalForum Congress onCommunication forDevelopmentare twonotableexamples,as Roundtables onCommunicationforDevelopmentand theupcomingWorld they diffusion, participatory, orparticipatory diffusion. TheannualInter-Agency organized withintheUNsystemtopromote andsupportdevcomefforts, be In response toUNresolution A/59/207anumberofinitiativesare being initiatives and strategies. ownership andtheeffectiveness andsustainabilityoftherelated innovative andeffective way, basedontheenhancementofnational should intensifyefforts toaddress thecurrent digitaldivideinamore part ofthedevelopmentprocess. Developingcountriesandtheirpartners Information andcommunicationtechnologieshavebecomeanintegral the privatesectorandcommunityleaders; NGOs,donors, andcountrylevels,includinggovernments, international This successcallsforenhancedsynergyamongallpartners,atboththe certain degree ofcohesioninitsapproach andaction inthisfield. such ascommunicationfordevelopmentround tables,hasachieveda The UnitedNationssystem,workingthrough anumberofmechanisms, in capacity-building,trainingandresearch atthecountry level; effective communicationprogrammes, includingincreased investment callsforincreased resourcesThis, inturn, redirected towards more integration intheeconomicandsocialplanningprocess iscalledfor; endeavour toachievehumandevelopmentand,consequently, greater Communication fordevelopmentisinstrumentalinthesuccessofany REFERENCES Paris: UNESCO. Communication (pp.140-175). 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MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources REFERENCES CONTINUED REFERENCES resolution 50/130,includingthe mentation ofGeneralAssembly Cultural Organizationontheimple- Nations Educational,Scientificand the Director-General oftheUnited United Nations.(2004b).Reportof New York: UnitedNations. system. (UNresolutionA/50/130). programmes intheUnitedNations Communication fordevelopment United Nations.(1996). United Nations. tion A/50/126/Add.1).NewYork: General. Addendum.(UNresolu- system, NotebytheSecretary programmes intheUnitedNations Communication fordevelopment United Nations.(1995). Oslo GovernanceCentre. Guidance Note(Draft).Oslo:UNDP nerable groups.APractical the roleofmediainsupportingvul- Communication forEmpowerment: Programme (2005). United NationsDevelopment New Delhi:Sage/India. From BullockCartstoCyberMarts. India’s CommunicationRevolution: Singhal, A&Rogers,E.(2001). Hampton Press. multiple cultures.NewJersey: for development:oneworld, J.(1999).Communication Servaes, Say). 8(2):99-106,December. (Special issue:Whatthe‘Masters’ Development Communication. Communication, Journalof Methodologies forDevelopment J.(1997).Participatory Servaes, 3) (pp.4-20).Paris:UNESCO. Development Communication(Part J.(Ed.),Approachesto Servaes, Governmental Agencies.In Some GovernmentalandNon- for DevelopmentApproachesof J,(2002).Communication Servaes, Press. Stanford, CA:StanfordUniversity and NationalDevelopment. Schramm, W. (1964).MassMedia Delhi: Sage. Change andDevelopment.New Communication: Working for White, S.(ed.)(1994).Participatory York: UnitedNations. (UN resolutionA/59/207).New Communication forDevelopment Inter-Agency RoundTable on recommendations oftheeighth The CaseforResearch Media Development: SOME BASIC CONSIDERATIONS OF M OF SOME BASICCONSIDERATIONS Aiding DemocracyAbroad for International Peace,1999. for International Carnegie Endowment Carnegie 2 Thomas Carothers, , EDIA DEVELOPMENT programs of supportfordemocratization efforts aspartofoverall assistanceandoutreach developmentandtheroleushered inanewwayof thinking aboutinternational process. AsThomasCarothers pointsoutinAidingDemocracyAbroad, the1990s initiatives whichwere regarded asbeingessentialtotheoveralldemocratization beginning ofthe1990s,thispavedwayforfunding mediadevelopmentrelated As aidtocivilsocietyanddemocracydevelopmentprograms increased atthe religious orethnicbarriersinthemedia(Price,NollandDeLuce2,2002). sustainability ofmediaoutlets,andinitiativesdesigned totranscendnational, andbroadcast associations,supportfordevelopingfinancial fessional journalism, support tonewsorganizations,efforts toaidmedialawreform, supportforpro- training,direct says mediaassistanceprimarilytakestheformofjournalism a more concrete definition,a2002report entitledMappingMediaAssistance, Japan asthetwoclassicexamples(MughanandGunther, 6).Intermsofoffering least theendofSecondWorld War, withthere-building ofGermanyand Media developmenthasbeenapartofdemocracyandstatebuildingsinceat primarily seekstopromote andenablesustainableindependentfree media. democratizationassistance,mediadevelopment In thecontextofinternational researchlong -standinginternational networksinthisprocess. areas ofdevelopment.Italsohighlightsthepotentialrole ofemergingand the mediadevelopmentfieldandtoreveal theimpactithashadonother programs, andadvocacywork.Thispaperargueswhyitisimportanttodocument evidence basethatillustratestheimpactandsignificanceofitsactivities,training sector ineconomicandculturalterms,themediadevelopmentfieldlacksaclear Despite therelentless riseinthesignificanceofmediaandcommunications of Pennsylvania Communication Studies,AnnenbergSchoolforCommunication,University Susan Abbott, assistance, of which democratizationassistance ispart.Mediaassistance ispart communist transitions.The end oftheColdWar sparkedanewerainforeign relations andforeign policythatoccurred after1989,inthewakeof post - al 2 This stemmedinpartfrom ashiftinpoliticalthinking about internation- Senior ResearchCoordinator, ProjectforGlobal 188 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 189 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources independent mediawillfind without theproperenabling “Development effortsdon’t “Development MEDIA DEVELOPMENTINAWIDERCONTEX niomn,afreeand environment, exist inavacuumand it hardtosurvive.” 3 “The RoleofMediainaDemocracy: USAID, June1999,PN-ACE-630, pg.5. A StrategicApproach,” for Democracy and Governance, for DemocracyandGovernance, Center paid tothedraftingofnew medialawsthatwillinfluencetheshapeandpolicy To beginwith,inatransitional orpost-conflictenvironment, attentionmustbe order forreform efforts tohaveanychanceofsuccess. about amultitudeoffactors inputtingtogethertheirstrategiesofassistance are verymuchrelated to media.Consequently, mediadevelopersmustthink the transitionprocess, not tomentiontheculturalandsocialdimensions,which to democracy, there of isadualneed toaddress politicalandeconomicconcerns societies goingfrom socialism tocapitalismorfrom anauthoritarianstyleofrule assistance inthemediasectortakesplacetransition As mostofinternational many levels,institutionsandstrandsofsociety. simple (ornotsosimple)reason thatademocracyisanintricateworkingof inter-working andinterrelated forces involvedintheprocess. Thisisforthe find ithard tosurvive.As with otheraspectsofdemocratization,there are many without theproper enabling environment, afree andindependentmediawill exists musthelpsupportit.Developmentefforts don’t existinavacuumand In order tohelpdevelopdemocraticmedia,theenvironment inwhichmedia such outlets". voices thatarecredible,andtocreatestrengthenasectorpromotes of mediaassistanceshouldbetodeveloparangediversemediumsand If themediaistohaveanymeaningfulroleindemocracy, thentheultimategoal thepublicinterest. open andhasadegreeofeditorialindependencethatserves or evenovertlycontrolledbygovernmentprivateintereststoonethatismore development generallyshouldbetomovethemediafromonethatisdirected thecontextofsupportingdemocratictransitions,goalmedia "Within entails. InaninfluentialpolicydeclarationUSAIDstatedin1999that: descriptive andcontextualizedunderstandingofjustwhatmediadevelopment assistance isandwhere fundingcomesfrom, itmay alsobeusefultooffer a In additiontotheabovekindsofconsiderationsthathelpdefinewhatmedia support toabroad rangeofactivitiesorjustafewselectitems. on whetherprintorbroadcast mediawillbetargeted,whetherthere willbe consist ofandwhatformitwilltake.Thishassignificantbearing,forinstance, a largedegree canactuallydefineorconstitutewhatmediadevelopmentwill strapped environments inwhichmostmediaassistancetakesplace,fundingto Certainly, acasecanbemadethat,givenfundingconstraintsandthecash media inatransitionorpost–conflictsocietydevelopsthewaythatitdoes. significant totheextentthatitoffers acluetounderstandinghowandwhy Highlighting therelevance ofdonoragenciesandwhere theaidflowsfrom is intermediary agencies,contractorsandtolocalpartners( aidflowsfrom donors,toimplementers, The latterdescribesinternational organizationsandthedonors). and levelofparticipation(theinternational of participants(themediaoutletsorthosereceiving assistance)andthestructure Mapping MediaAssistancedifferentiates betweenmediadevelopmentinterms Going beyondbasicdefinitionsofwhatmediadevelopmentconsistsof, organizations(NGOs). including assistanceforlocalnon-governmental assistance thatcantakeonavarietyofformsandinstitutionalarrangements, programs andgeneralcivilsociety tostrengthen democraticgovernment, elections andthepoliticalprocess, aidtoassistruleoflawdevelopment, of acataloguedemocracysupportthatalsoincludesforreforming 3 Price, et al., 5, 2002) Price, etal.,5,2002) AN EMERGINGRESEARCHAGENDA lynchpin orconnective tissue ofdemocracy.” revered asapositivedimensionofdemocracy munication_and_the_mdgs_no_magic_inf media facilitateddemocratizationbyeroding media developmentandhowithasfactored change, whichaffects behavior. political attitudes,preferences, andpartisan tions/media_development/2006_3/com- http://www.wacc.org.uk/wacc/publica- “Media hasbeen “Media democratic regime; developedpluralismin skills andsocialnorms.Alsonoteworthyis In described asthe cites thatmassmediaare agentsofsocial in MediaDevelopment,WACC’s Media Asante’s largerdiscussionrelated tomass the credibility andlegitimacyofthenon- into the modernization literature, andis into themodernization Gunther andMughan’s building andsocietaltransformation. contention isthatmediacanchange Wilbur Schramm(1964),wherein he Wilbur behavior, changesattitudes,beliefs, “Communication andtheMDGs: alternatives; andre-socialized both alternatives; No MagicInformationBullets,” the massesandelitestonew 5 Asante citestheworkof Development, 2006/3 4 democratic regimes. See SilvioWaisbord, ormation_bullets study Schramm’s (2000) , debate. to thehealthofeconomy, polity, orsociety, hasbeenthefocusofconsiderable and whatitactuallydoes,inthecontextofdevelopment,whetherbycontributing That mediamatterisnotsuchahard casetosupport,butexactlyhowitmatters and independentmedia. relatedafter basiclegalandregulatory totheestablishmentoffree concerns Questions offinancialsurvivalare, itseems,themostimportanttoconsider, marketing strategiestohelpnewlyformedcommercial stationssurvive. of theHolyGrailPublicServiceBroadcasters, theBBC,orhowtodevelop and whethertoimposelicensefeesornot,i.e.followthemodel of media,beggingquestionssuchashowtopayforthepublicservicebroadcaster transition societycannotbeunderestimated.They affect thecommercial viability to thenewmarket-drivenforces ofaliberaleconomy. Economicconstraintsofa that isadequatelyfinancedandadministered, andhelpingmediaoutletsadapt re-structuring ofthestate broadcaster intoaviablepublicservicebroadcaster Suchareas ofworkthatrequirenomic concerns. attentionincludeprivatization, state, partoftheprocess ofmediadevelopmentmustalsofactorinlocaleco- In additiontothelegalandregulatory frameworkofmediapolicyanew few ofthemore substantialsectors. freedom andnewmediatonamebuta ofexpression, privacylaws,Internet telecommunications, advertising,basicconstitutionalprovisions related to of thestateonpublicbroadcasting, publicinformation,accessto as an intermediary between the government andthepeople. as anintermediarybetween thegovernment i.e. electionsandlegislative actions.Mediahastheadditionalfunctionofserving andpoliticalprocesses, check andbalancefunction bymonitoringgovernments mediaservesa Mughan 2000).Astheso-called watchdogofthegovernment, change orafacilitatorofdemocratization (Asante1997andGunther would notbepossible.Inthislight,mediaisoftenregarded asanagentof to takeroot insocietieswithout areal historyofanysortdemocraticgovernance systems the process offacilitating democracy andtryingtogetbettergovernance Moreover, manywouldarguethat withoutafree andindependentmediasector, as welloffering asource forentertainmentandotherkindsofprogramming. It canhaveapublicservicefunction,impartsknowledge, newsandinformation, economic, socialandpolitical.Itisimportanttoacountry’s culture andidentity. The reasons forthisabound. First,mediacutsacross severalsectorsofsociety- regarded democraticstate. asapre-condition foramodern of views,andtheabilitytoconsumemediawithapublicinterest agendaare access totechnology, highratesofliteracy, accesstoawiderangeanddiversity and unobstructedway. Moreover, accesstoinformation,freedom ofexpression, and theabilityforpeopletoimpartreceive informationinanunhindered of thestatedependsinlargepartinformationflows,communicationsystems, or connectivetissueofdemocracy(GuntherandMughan2000),asthe‘health’ In statingthecaseforwhymediamatters,ithasbeendescribedaslynchpin media indevelopmentaswelldemocraticterms. many ofthedebatesthathavebeenwagedaboutvalueandimportance tion provides boththeprecursor andfoundationformuch ofdevelopmentcommunica- advanced bysocialscientistsofthe1950sand1960s,forbetterorworse, and mediadevelopmentprograms thatare administered todayaswell 47 This debateisnothingnew, andarguably, theory modernization 5 190 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 191 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources why isthereanydiscussion apples fromthesametree, development aredifferent and communicationfor “If mediadevelopment “If of theirdifferences?” 6 Thomas Tufte (eds.), Communication forDevelopment: See forinstancetherecently released For SocialChangeConsortium. One World, MultipleCultures, Also noteworthyisJanServaes’s Change Anthology Alfonso Gumucio-Dagron and and ContemporaryReadings, Communication ForSocial Hampton Press, 1999. Communication : Historical development communication. A briefscanofthedevelopmentliterature willreveal manytitlesdevotedto (economic, socialandpolitical). andoveralldevelopment a mediaenvironment hasonthestateofgovernment ripe forresearchers seekingtohaveabetterunderstandingoftherelationship that communication, theprocess andactivitiessponsored asmediadevelopment,are media developmentperse.Incontrasttoitscloselyrelated sister, development It is,therefore, somewhatsurprisinghowlittleresearch hasbeendoneon from thesametree, why isthere anydiscussionof thedifferences? Bothseekto If mediadevelopmentandcommunication fordevelopmentare different apples make useofmediaasameans ofchange. individuals tobringaboutpositive lifestylechoices.Theyboth,however, seeks tousemediareform specificaspectsofsociety orthebehaviorof reform institutions,policyandsystemsthatcomprisemedia,whiletheother have notoverlapped.Theyverydifferent startingpoints-oneseeksto To date,thetwofieldshaveoftenbeenviewedquite differently, andoftentimes have survivedoverthelongrun. focus onchartingormappingwhere thefundinghasgoneandwhichprojects this effort, butamuchlarger undertakingcouldbeundertaken,withanadded Assistance andtheMediaMissionaries(Hume,2002)reports are goodstartsto amediaenvironment). MappingMedia and thelawspoliciesthatgovern channeled aspartofaidintendedtotransformmedia space (systems,institutions it wouldbeinteresting andinstructivetochartthehistoryofmediaassistance two separatefieldsisanothermatter. Asamatterforfuture research andinquiry, between thetwostarttoemerge.Whethertheyshouldcontinuebeviewed the reforms andresults thattheyintendtobringabout, somedifferences of theirprograms, thetypesofNGOsorgroups that direct theprograms, and If youconsiderthehistoriesoftwofields,theirstartingpoints,intentions analyze morecloselytherelationshipbetweentheselinkedfields. A questionresearchersandimplementersalikecouldlendtheirexpertiseto,isto and communicationsrelated lawandpolicymatters. research, whichwillalsoaidpolicymakersandadvocatesengagedwithmedia Development Communication.Efforts likethiswillbebolstered byincreased which willbeamajorthemeoftheOctober2006World Congress for media andcommunicationsdevelopmentintheoverall taking comparativestudies.Moreover, there isincreasing interest inmainstreaming Frontières, offer usefultoolsandsnapshotsthataidresearchers andthose under- ResearchFreedom &ExchangesBoard, House,theInternational andReportersSans undermine theimportanceofconductingresearch on thistopic,andgroups like measure theimpactofmediaassistance.Thisdifficultly shouldnot,however, brought upinthecontextofmonitoringandevaluationhowtobest from atraditionalsocialscienceperspective.Thisisanissuethatcommonly research frameworkthatwouldqualitativelyorquantitativelylookattheseissues development. Partoftheproblem stemsfrom thedifficulty ofsettingupa social sciencedisciplinesthatinformandinstructthosewhoengageinmedia taking thatcomparativelyexaminesmediaassistanceagainstthebackdrop of the effects ofmediaassistance,buttodatethere hasyettobeaformalunder- There are somepolicystudiesandlooselyknitcommentariesabout policymakers thandoesmediadevelopment. this field,ithasconsiderablemore dataandanalysisavailabletoresearchers and 6 While there isroom foraddingtotheliterature in agenda, RECOMMENDATIONS FORBUILDINGBRIDGESANDADVANCING NETWORKS educational opportunitiesin media andcommunications communications andmedia studies andtoofferfocused development areessential.” “Efforts tointernationalise “Efforts dialogue and exchange ofinformation. between researchers, practitioners andpolicymakers,sothatthere isimproved to fundresearch projects. Ofequalsignificanceisthe necessitytobridgethegap researchers leveragefunding supportinorder totake partinthenetworksand What isneededare more effective waysofusing thesenetworks,helping MediaAction-havealotofpotential. organizations, theCenterforInternational media andcommunicationspolicy-aswellthework ofoneSSRC’s partner by theSocialScienceResearch Council(SSRC)toestablishadata-consortiumof knowledge thatisoutthere isalsoimportant,andinthisregard, efforts undertaken networks are essential.Havingaccessto oping collaborativeandinternational comparative andglobalcommunicationspolicyoffer mechanismsfordevel- and nications communication studiesandtooffer focusededucationalopportunitiesincommu- and mediadevelopmentfield.Furthermore, mediaand efforts tointernationalize provides animportantopportunityforadvanceandpromoting thecommunications high-level corporatedecisionmakers,policyconsultants,andmediaspecialistsalso and newresearch agendas.UNESCO’s networkofacademics, ORBICOMinternational forward originalresearch aswellfornetworkinganddevelopingpartnerships Researchers, already provide opportunitiesforscholarsandpractitionerstoput AssociationofMediaandCommunication Association andtheInternational and development.Two Communication ofthesenetworks,theInternational that seektounderstandthemedia’s relationship todemocratization,governance WCCD willaddtotheexistingnetworksandplatformsforadvocacyresearch Global research networksare emerging.InitiativessuchastheGFMDand development dialogue. that wouldaidintheefforts tomainstream themedia andcommunications should serveasaleadershipcouncilfordevelopingthekindofdialogue academicadvisoryboard thatcouldcontributeitsexpertise An international a visionoftheimportancethatcommunicationplayswithinsociety. national interests, oramyriadofothersocio-politicalissues,thetwofieldsshare health andmedicalissues,decreasing problems associatedwithethnicand of communicationtoimprove theenvironment, aidingintheunderstandingof Whether forpurposesoftransparency, reducing corruption, improving channels of development. which applyinsightsfrom standard communicationtheorytodealwithproblems tions fordevelopmentare basedondevelopmentcommunicationtheories,allof Thirdly, andperhapsmostimportantly, bothmediadevelopmentandcommunica- conduct programs, whichutilizecommunicationsfordevelopmenttechniques. Secondly, theNGOsimplementingmediadevelopmentprograms mayalso communication fordevelopmentstrategiesinvariousprojects. fundingmediadevelopmentoftenimplement The agenciesandgovernments The twofieldsdohaveconsiderableoverlap,however. Thefirstisshared donors. and notappropriate foralllocalaudiences. tooimposing, tooNorthern, criticize mediadevelopmentforbeingtooWestern, Additionally, somecommunicationfordevelopmentscholarsandpractitioners NGOs oftencompeteforresources: financialandstaff beingonlytwoofthem. stems inpartfrom twoofthesimilarities:fundingandimplementing reform through applicationormeansofcommunication.Perhapsthediscussion media developmentare essential. Universityprograms thatlookat 192 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 193 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources

CONCLUSION BIBLOGRAPHY many ofthesamekindsquestionsthatare the development andpromotion, itseemsthat Chinese experience part oftheoveralldebateaboutmedia International Peace,2000. Promotion. CarnegieEndowment for Society AidandDemocracy Thomas (eds.),FundingVirtue: Civil Ottaway, MarinaandCarothers, cles/missionaries1_contents.html http://www.ellenhume.com/arti- Foundation, May2002. for theJohnS.andJamesL.Knight International Journalism,AReport Missionaries AmericanSupportfor Hume, Ellen.TheMedia and 402-447. University Press,UK:2000,pp.1-27 Comparative Perspective.Cambridge Democracy andtheMedia:A Media: AReassessment,"in and "ThePoliticalImpactofthe Regimes: AMultilevelPerspective," Democratic andNon Mughan (eds.)."TheMediain Gunther, RichardandAnthony 1999. Endowment forInternationalPeace, Democracy Abroad.Carnegie Carothers, Thomas,Aiding Connecticut, London,1997. Greenwood Press,Westport, and SelectedBibliography. and Development:AResearchGuide Asante, ClementE.,PressFreedom development anddemocratization. 7 While notoutrightarecipient of funds designatedfordemocracy is veryrelevant to advance thefieldforscholars,practitionersandpolicy-makersalike. to of theresearch networksshouldbeharnessed communityanditsinternational prominent role. Inmakingthecaseforwhymediamatters,growing interest health programs, therole ofmediaandcommunicationwillundoubtedlyplaya aid towards povertyrelief, democratization,disasterassistance,andlarge-scale theworld’sWith attentionincreasingly directed atunderstandinganddirecting change thatcontinuesinChina. ongoing reforms; andrelated tothis,somehow, isthepoliticalreform and and country-specificresearch thatcouldbeundertaken;LatinAmerica,withits the MiddleEast,SoutheastAsiaandAfrica,withimportantregional differences assistance tosurveyandassessinAfghanistanIraqaswellotherpartsof countries todrawupon,butwealsohaveimportantexamplesofmedia Not onlydowehavetherichexperienceofpost-communistEuropean research onmediaassistancefield,especiallyfrom acomparativeangle. There nowexistsanopportunitytoengagemore fullyinacademicstudyor pp. 9-26. Routledge, LondonandNY, 2002, and StefaanGVerhulst (eds), Monroe EPrice,BeataRuzumilowicz, Media, DemocratizingtheState. in MediaReform:Democratizingthe Change: ATheoreticalPerspective," Rozumilowicz, Beata,"Democratic ml http://pcmlp.socleg.ox.ac.uk/Map.ht 2002 USAID/World Bank. Media Assistance(draft),February and DeLuce,Daniel,Mapping Price, Monroe,DavisNoll,Bethany, pdf ocleg.ox.ac.uk/EnablingEnvironment. 2000. Available at:http://pcmlp.s Oxford University, December1, Comparative MediaLaw&Policy, Prepared byProgrammein for DemocracyandGovernance, International Development,Center United StatesAgencyfor Independent Media.Sponsoredby Enabling EnvironmentforFreeand Price, MonroeE.andPeterKrug, 7 Economic Development,2002. Tell: TheRoleofMassMediain World BankInstitute,TheRightto 200sbc.pdf http://www.usaid.gov/pubs/ads/200/ online at: and GovernanceProgram.Available Series, partofUSAID’s Democracy June 1999,Technical Publication Democracy: AStrategicApproach, USAID, "TheRoleofMediain s/ddmedia_final.pdf http://www.usaid.gov/democracy/pdf 1998, availableonlineat: Democracy andGovernance,July USAID’s GlobalCenterfor Dialogue," Technical Notesfrom Democracies, inDemocracy USAID, "MediaLawReforminNew magic_information_bullets ommunication_and_the_mdgs_no_ cations/media_develoment/2006_3/c http://www.wacc.org.uk/wacc/publi- Development, 2006/3 Development, inWACC’s Media Information Bullets,"inMedia and theMDGs:NoMagic Waisbord, Silvio,‘Communication Assistance Sector Mapping theMedia Media Development: OVERVIEW ANDASSESSMENTS “The focusedefforttobuild “The journalism thatservesthe ulcitrs,hasfinally public interest, systematic assessment.” an independentmedia come intoitsownas neeyrgo,with in everyregion, academic studyand a subjectworthyof development around theworld,whensuch datawasnotkeptmethodically, Due totheenormouscomplexity ofrecreating ahistoryandmapofmedia encyclopedia ofmediadevelopment practice. Divided intoregional sections,thereport becameessentiallyafirstdraftofan effortsanalysis ofWestern topromote independent mediaaround the world. current overviewoftheentire field,from anAmericanperspective,withsome (Ellen Hume,2004)whichwasthefirstattempttocreate anarrativehistoryand The KnightFoundationin2001commissionedareport, MediaMissionaries in thisfield. andprogressunderstand bestpracticestandards, lessonslearned, to date now are startingtoemerge ashelpfulresources foranyonewishingto Philliber Research Associates). Butmore publishedbooks,reports andarticles "Assessing theimpactofpress freedom seminarsin2002,"(Washington, D.C.: ina2002report, CenterforJournalists Fellows program withtheInternational interested parties.Forexample,TheKnightFoundationassessedits available onanypublisher’s database,andsomehavecirculated onlytothe Many informedevaluationsofmediadevelopmentare reports thatare not delineated records. at eachmediadeveloperandfundertocatchupwiththiskeepmore of academicstudyandsystematicassessment.Itistimeforthebudgetgnomes ism The focusedeffort tobuildanindependentmediaineveryregion, withjournal- edged thatthemediasectorhasemergedasadistinctarea ofdevelopment. Amman inOctober2005thefundinganddevelopmentcommunityacknowl- assess progress theGlobalForumonMediaDevelopmentin inthefield.With The failure toline-itemmediadevelopmentcontinueshobbleanyeffort to publicity forspecificprojects. were incidentaltoadeveloper’sthe capacityoflocaljournalists drivetogain funding within"democracy-building"budgets.Insomecases,efforts tobuild distinct categoryofdevelopment.Themajordonorsgenerallyincludedsuch but neithertheynortheacademiccommunityhadidentifiedthisworkyetasa had engagedforyearsinhelpingcountriesdevelopanindependentmediasector, Danish andSwedishagencies,theWorld Bank,theFord Foundationandothers GeorgeSoros’ OpenSocietyInstitute,Germanfoundations, The U.S.government, media developmentlandscape,there wasscantliterature todrawon. When theKnightFoundationbeganin2001itseffort tosurveytheinternational University ofMassachusettsBoston Ellen Hume, that servesthepublicinterest, hasfinallycomeintoitsownasasubjectworthy Director, CenteronMediaandSociety, 194 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 195 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources hdwUS foreignpolicy.”shadow U.S. media developmentefforts, oenet continueto government, particularly bytheU.S. A eea ue U.S.“As ageneralrule, In additionto discussing theevolutionof themediadevelopmentsector, the Publishers, 2006),whichis an importantscholarlycontributiontothefield. Media: StrategiesforDemocracy Promotion. (Boulder, Co: Lynne Rienner USAID’s mediadevelopment projects, recently publishedPromoting Independent Krishna Kumar, aUSAIDofficial whohaspersonallyevaluated manyof http://pcmlp.socleg.ox.ac.uk/archive/MappingMediaAssistance.pdf It isavailableasaPDFat mediadevelopment workwasstructured. analyzed howinternational Comparative MediaLawandPolicy. Price’s report, MappingMediaAssistance, with variouscolleaguesatYeshiva UniversityandtheOxford Programme in Both KnightFoundationreports relied heavilyonworkbyMonroe Price,together It isIJNet.orgat development. journalism media trainingeventsandotheraspectsofinternational featuringbreaking newsabout CenterforJournalists, duced bytheInternational Another resource thatcontinuallyprovides newinformationisawebsitepro- projects andcontacts. and convertedintoanupdatableonlinedatabaseofcurrent development invaluable tothoseassessingthefield.MediaMissionariesshouldalsoberevised The Non-U.S.Fundersreport includedanupdatabledatabasethatshouldprove estimated $1billionannually. outside theUnitedStateswere involvedinmediaassistanceprojects totalingan This valuableroadmap foundthatatleast70organizationsin25donorcountries http://www.grady.uga.edu/coxcenter/knight.htm. the UniversityofGeorgia(December, 2005).Thereport isavailableat andMassCommunicationat and Research attheGradyCollegeofJournalism at theJamesM.CoxJr. MassCommunicationTraining CenterforInternational Non-U.S. FundersofMediaAssistanceProjects byLeeB.BeckerandTudor Vlad Fortunately, theKnightFoundationfollowedwithacomplementarysurveyof development organizationsandindividuals,withcontactinformation. (www.ellenhume.com) andincludesanappendixofselectedmedia Media MissionariesisavailableasaPDFontheauthor’s website than there waswhenMediaMissionarieswritten. media developmentnowinthepost-9/11MiddleEastandAsia,forexample, fundingfor priorities. Thusthere andnon-governmental ismore U.S.government continuetoshadowU.S.foreign policy particularly bytheU.S.government, ef actually besignificantlyhigher. Asageneralrule,U.S.mediadevelopment opment organizationsandfunders.TheU.S.developers’contributionstodatemay but thatestimatewasconservativeduetothelackofspecificdatafrom thedevel- Media Missionariestohavebeenabout$600millioncumulativelysince1989, contributionswere estimatedin The AmericanNGOsandUSgovernment andNGOmediadevelopers. convened atUSAIDofkeyU.S.government and Priorities(PN-ACR-754)(Washington, DC:Hume,E.)reflecting ameeting USAID alsocontributedarelated report in2003,MediaAssistance:BestPractices Fellowships, SEAPA, OSI,andothers. CenterforJournalists, theInternational IREX,theKnight the experienceofpractitionersfrom USAID,Internews, Commandments ofMediaDevelopment"bestpracticesectionwasbasedon Media Missionariesincludedadviceforwould-bemediadevelopers.The"Fifteen summaries ofmediadevelopmentinAsiaandtheMiddleEast. Boardcurrently ofBroadcasters. withtheInternational Thereport alsocontained the report waswrittenbyJoanMower, formerlyoftheFreedom Forumand the sameregions thatattractedU.S.foreign policyinterest. TheAfricasectionof then intheformerCommunistcountriesafter1989,movinggeographicallyto firstinLatinAmerica,and they supportedanddevelopedindependentjournalism and othernonprofits from theearly1980sto2001.Thereport analyzedhow agencies,newspaperandbroadcast groups,American governmental foundations Media Missionarieswaslimitedinscope.Itfocusedlargelyonefforts by http://www.ijnet.org/FE_Article/home.asp. forts, whether oneishelping discussions onmedia or seekingpublicity “Confusion about “Confusion raecpct - create capacity development.” is rampantin be seenonwww.developingradiopartners.org. His effort todevelopcommunity Network MediaProgram website.Anupdateofhisradio developmentworkcan in Tanzania, Zambia,Mozambique andSouthAfricafortheOpenSocietyinstitute writingupcase studiesaboutradiodevelopment is currently withJeanFairborn Bill Siemering,akeyfigure inradiodevelopmentglobally andinU.S.publicradio, development bytheOSCE’s membercountries. Thompson waspublishedinAmsterdam byPress Nowin2004.Itsurveysmedia Media DevelopmentbyOSCEFieldMissions http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/50/17/5037721.htm Statistics (IDS)onlinedatabase.Thatisavailableat Development the mediadevelopmentofitsmemberstatesinInternational The OrganizationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment (OECD)reports on & Ottaway, M.,eds,2005). Promoting DemocracyintheMiddleEast Uncharted journey: Critical Mission:EssaysonDemocracyPromotion Democracy Challenged:TheRiseofSemi-authoritarianism and Carothers, T. eds,2000), CivilSocietyAidandDemocracyPromotionFunding Virtue: Curve Aiding DemocracyAbroad: TheLearning Assessing DemocracyAssistance:TheCaseofRomania for themore specificfieldofmediaassistance.Thereports include: published usefulassessmentsofdemocracyassistance,whichholdsomelessons PeaceinWashington, EndowmentforInternational The Carnegie D.C.alsohas McLear, S.&Graves,P., November2003,PNACT-553). and Media Assistance Promoting IndependentMediainRussia:AnAssessmentofUSAID’s (Rockwell, R.&Kumar, K,August,2003,PN-ACR-755), TrainingJournalism andInstitutionBuildinginCentralAmericanCountries (September, 2003,PN-ACR-756), Assessment ofUSAIDMediaAssistanceinBosnia-Herzegovina1996-2002 2004, Kumar, K.PN-ACU-777), USAID’s Media Assistance:PolicyandProgrammatic Lessons Support andResearch), Bureau forGlobalPrograms,Center forDemocracyandGovernance, Field The RoleofMediainDemocracy:AStrategicApproach Those reports, availablethrough USAIDinWashington, D.C.,include: best andworstexperiencesofmediadevelopmentbytheAmericangovernment. reports ofthecenturywhichwere usefulbecausetheyilluminatedthe attheturn While Kumar’s book hassummarizedmanyofthefindings,USAIDissuedaseries and fundedit. andothers whomayhavenurturedindependence from eventhegovernments media developmentbyrefusing torecognize goodjournalism’s necessary of mediadevelopment.Kumarcorrectly notesthatthisconfusioncancrippletrue one ishelpingcreate capacity-orseekingpublicityisrampantindiscussions media topublishfavorablearticlesaboutone’s policies.Confusionaboutwhether and theworkofpublicdiplomacy, whichusuallyismore focusedonpersuading Kumar makesthevitaldistinctionbetweendevelopmentofmediacapacity The bookincludesKumar’s fieldresearch andhisusefultheoretical overview. assistance toAfghanistanaftertheousterofTaliban in2001,and the failedOpenBroadcasting Networkcreated aftertheDaytonpeaceaccords), from in LatinAmerica,theformerUSSR,Serbia,Bosnia(includinglessonslearned intervention strategies,Kumar’s bookincludescasestudiesofmediadevelopment nature andsignificanceofmediaassistance,thepossibleimpactvarious U.S. MediaAssistanceinSerbia:July1997-June2002 (Kumar, K.&Cooper, L.R.,November2003,PN-ACR-757), , byY. Manro, P. PalmerandM. (Carothers, T., 1999), (Carothers, T., 2004),and (Carothers, T. 1996), (June, 1999,USAID (Ottaway, M.,2003), (McClear, R. , (January, (Ottaway, M. , (Carothers, T. Sierra Leone. 196 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 197 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources THE ENABLINGENVIRONMENTFORMEDIADEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS ANDMEDIADEVELOPMENT MAKING THECASEFORMEDIADEVELOPMENT Other Priceresources include: Organizations," publishedby UNESCOinMay2000. and Non-governmental Four Perspectives:TheExperience ofIntergovernmental Price alsoeditedthevaluable "RestructuringtheMediainPost-ConflictSocieties: conditions necessaryforindependentmediatosucceed inanycountry. Independent Media(USAID,2001)isaninfluentialbook whichilluminatesthe Monroe PriceandPeterKrug’s TheEnablingEnvironment foraFree and and policyintheformerCommunistcountries,India, Bosnia,andelsewhere. mediapolicyandlaw.international Hehaspublished studies ofbroadcast reform Monroe Priceisoneofthe mostprolific writersinthefieldofreforming which hasfedapandemicoffor-pay journalism." real problems) thanbythecash-strappedconditionof thenewsorganizations iscompromised lessbystatecontroljournalism andlowskills(thoughbothare As World Carringtonobservedrecently,"Increasingly Bankofficial Tim inAfrica, which illustratestheimportanceoffinancialviabilityfornewsorganizations. The World Bankalsopublished"BuildingInstitutionsforMarkets"in2001, Bangladesh, Zimbabwe,andPoland,othertopics. CarringtonandMarkNelson;casestudiesofmediadevelopmentinThailand, Tim Joseph Stiglitz,theimportanceofeconomicsupportformediaintransition,by any democracy. Chaptersincludeanalysesofhowthemediasupportmarketsby independent mediadevelopmenttotheeconomicandpoliticaladvancementin by theWorld BankInstitutein2002.Thisbookoutlinestheimportanceof by RoumeenIslam,SimeonDjankovandCaraleeMcLeish,whichwaspublished in TheRighttoTell: TheRoleofMassMediainEconomicDevelopment,edited and more transparent economies.Afullanalysisof this phenomenoniscaptured owned, localindependentmediahadbettereducationandhealth,lesscorruption, The World Bankstudied97countriesandconcludedthatthosewithprivately New Orleans,andelsewhere. including China’s SARSepidemic,abankfailure inUruguay, HurricaneKatrinain connecting peoplewitheachotherincivilsociety. Thearticledrawsonexamples that needattention,educatingcitizenssotheycanmakeinformeddecisions,and leadersaccountabletothepeople,publicizingissues racy: holdinggovernment December 2005)outlinesfouressentialroles thatafree press servesinademoc- of Democracy( "Freedom ofthePress" byEllenHumeintheStateDepartment’s Issues e-journal distinction betweenindependentmediadevelopmentandpublicrelations. 2002) entitled"BeyondPublicDiplomacy," whichalsomakesthecasefora in Foreign Affairs magazine(NewYork: CouncilonForeign Relations,March/April David Hoffman, wrote thefounderandpresident aninfluentialarticle ofInternews, individual mediadevelopmentorganizationsalsoare aninvaluableresource agencies,and IFEX,government CenterforJournalists, IREX, theInternational also appearintheKnightFoundation’s periodicals.ThewebsitesofInternews, servingasKnightFellowsaround theworld helpful essaysbyAmericanjournalists annual assessmentoftheworldmediaare mustread formediadevelopers.Other DangerousThe CommitteetoProtect Assignmentsmagazineand Journalists’ you typein"communityradioinitiative." radio inMongoliafortheWorld BankismentionedontheWorld Bankwebsiteif http://usinfo.state.gov/journals/journals.htm , vol.10no.2, MEDIA ANDCONFLICT REGIONAL ANALYSES 9 See 1552_trust_amdi/index.shtml worldservice/trust/specials/ http://www.dgroups.org/ 8 groups/AMDP/index.cfm http://www0.bbc.co.uk/ supported byDFIDandthe Open SocietyFoundation. (STREAM) process facilitatedbytheUNEconomicCommission forAfrica media developmentlandscapeaspartoftheStrengthening Africa’s Media owners andacademicstookpartin2006amajorassessment oftheAfrica unprecedented numberof mediapractitioners,assistanceorganizations, leading Africanmediaandcommunicationsresearchers. atRhodesUniversity(South Africa)andanetworkof17 School ofJournalism the BBCWorld ServiceTrust with theAhmaduBelloUniversity(Nigeria),the sharing processes suchthe AfricaMediaDevelopmentInitiative,apartnershipof developing world.Theyare increasingly contributingtoregional knowledge– There are somestrong regional specialistsnowcovering thekeyregions ofthe (Washington, D.C.,2005). Approaches toMediaCoverageofConflict, and EvaluatingAlternative Becker andVladalsowrote areport totheU.S.Institute ofPeace,Developing cusses howthissubsetofmediadevelopmentdiffers from othercapacity-building. Bureau forGlobalPrograms,and Governance, FieldSupportandResearch), dis- Democracy: AStrategicApproach handle conflictresolution. Kumar’s 1999USAIDreport, have extensiveinformationontheirwebsitesaboutefforts totrainmedia NetworkandtheSearch forCommonGround,Internews twoU.S.-basedNGOs, of MediaSpace Conflict:Peacekeeping,HumanRightsandtheManagement International A usefulresource isMonroe Price’s ForgingPeace: of Russia," wrote Europe andtheFormerSovietUnion." inEastern Role ofJournalists original chapterintheir1998editionwas (Graber, D.,Norris,P., andMcQuail,D.,eds,Congressional Quarterlypress). Her new editionofthe1998book, The ManyDimensionsoftheImpactandRolesJournalists," board ofIREX,currently iswritingachapteron Communist societiesisworthexamining.Mickiewicz,whohasservedonthe broadcasting policyreform andotheraspectsofmediadevelopmentinpost- Ellen MickiewiczofDukeUniversityisanotherexpertwhosewritingabout regulation intransitionalsocieties. Intermedia (1994);andnumerous otherscholarlyarticlesaboutbroadcasting and "The MarketforLoyaltiesandaGlobalCommunicationsCommission, the AgeofConvergence,1996. "Ownership inRussia," Memory andPower, CambridgeUniversityPress (2002), "Seizing Transmitters: NationalidentityinBosnia," to StatePower Media andSovereignty: GlobalInformationRevolutionandItsChallenge Rozumilowicz andStefanG.Verhulst, London;Routledge,2001); Democratizing Media,theState A CommunicationsCornucopia numerous articlesinforeign Herecently affairs assessedthe present journals. Association (SEAPA) whohas monitored mediadevelopment intheregion with isafounderoftheSoutheastAsian Press Kavi Chongkittavorn Thai journalist "Media, Transition andDemocracy:Television andtheTransformation in A Communications Cornucopia, (Noll,R.andPrice,M.,1998.) in ACommunicationsCornucopia, (MIT Press, 2002); (edited withMarkThompson),EdinburghUniversityPress, 1992. (with P. Krug,)inIICMediaOwnershipandControl in The PoliticsofNews,theNews ( editedwithR.Noll,Brookings InstitutionPress, 1998); (June, 1999,USAIDCenterforDemocracy "Transition andDemocracy:The "Transition andDemocratization: , (editedwithBeata 9 The RoleofMediain 8 chapter inJ.Muller(ed), In additiontothis,an in aforthcoming She also " 198 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 199 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources of thedevelopingworld.” covering thekeyregions regional specialistsnow “There aresomestrong “There freshly post-Communist society. "objectivity"standardsCzechoslovakia whenthey tried toimposeWestern ona shortlyaftertheVelvetintentioned Americanjournalists Revolutionin in thesameedition.Urban’s articlerecounts themissteps madebysomewell– Kong. Hisvaluablemonographsandarticlesinclude: across Asia.Herecently becameeditorofTheStandard newspaperinHong andnewsorganizations he documentedthethreats andviolenceagainstjournalists Working inthe1990s, onbehalfoftheCommitteetoProtect Journalists Lin A.NeumannisanotherastuteobserverofAsianmediadevelopment. Linklater, (AxelandMargaret AxsonJohnsonFoundation,Sweden,2005.) chapter inMediaandPower, editedbyKurtAlmqvistandAlexander state ofAsianmediain:"Degree ofFreedom: theSoutheastAsianMedia,"a • • • • • State TVinEastCentralEurope," Press," Ziguang Li, Media ThirteenYears After:TheStoryoftheCzechRepublic," (2005); Tomas P. Lvana, American Efforts toCreate Free aVibrant Press inIraqandAfghanistan," include: DavidRhode, Aid–intheRoseRevolution Western wrote CenterforJournalists, International Most recently, DavidAnable,formerU.S.newspapereditorandheadofthe published anumberofhelpfulreports whichare available through theirwebsite. Harvard University’s Shorenstein CenteronthePress, PoliticsandPublicPolicyhas OSCE,2000.) Assistance toMedia,(Vienna: Bosnia andHerzegovina,Macedonia(FYROM)KosovoInternational and CooperationinEurope (OSCE)intheformerYugoslavia, inSlovenia,Croatia, British writerMarkThompsonevaluatedefforts bytheOrganizationforSecurity their website published reports onthestateofmediainhiscountryavailablethrough In Pakistan,OwaisAslamAli,headofthePakistanPress Foundation,has issue. And the Mediafrom Foreign Aid," articles aboutongoingmediadevelopment.One,forexample, is Arlington, Va. magazine whichoffered publishedtheMediaStudiesJournal many Before itcancelledmostof itsforeign mediadevelopment,theFreedom Forum in Conflicts: From theIntifada totheGulfWar andBackAgain." and GadiWolfsfeld, Jacobs, the FederalRepublicInfluencedEventsinEastGermany," Glasnost," fromPress, Suppression ALongJourney toFreedom viaSuppression and Birth ofaFree Press," Margueritte, (1997); Bernard "Spreading theWord: TheKGB’s Image-BuildingUnderGorbachev," HongKong’sConcerns: MediainanEraofTransition," and elsewhere. freedom challengesinHongKong,China,Cambodia,thePhilippines, Numerous reports aboutpress fortheCommitteetoProtect Journalists 2002; Winter "The SurvivalofBurmeseJournalism," Forum booklet,2001); "Media andPoliticalChangeinThailand" Forum booklet,2000); "Press, PowerandPoliticsinIndonesia" A sectionofPrice’s UNESCOvolume(seeabove); "Tensions ofaFree Press: SouthAfricaAfterApartheid," (2000); AlinaMungui-Pippidi," "Great SoundMakesNoNoise–Creeping Freedoms inChinese "Until Old Cats Learn HowtoBark," "Until OldCatsLearn (1991); DieterBuhl, www.pakistanpressfoundation.org. "The RoleoftheNewsMediainUnequalPolitical "All SuccessfulDemocraciesNeedFreedom ofSpeech: "New Europe’s CivilSociety, Democracyandthe (1995); AlexanderMerkushev, "Post-Communist Eastern Europe: TheDifficult"Post-Communist Eastern "Window totheWest: How Television from by JohnMaxwellHamilton, inthefall,1999 (2000); StephenJ.Hutcheon, State intoPublic:TheFailedReformof (December 2005).Otherreports "The RoleofGeorgia’s Media–and Harvard AsiaQuarterly, (Arlington, Va.: Freedom by Czech journalist Jan Urban by Czechjournalist (Arlington, Va.: Freedom "The RussianandSoviet (1998); Jeff Trimble, (1990); Sean "Lessons for "Pressing (1993). (2004); (1999); CONCLUSION so that lessons can be learned andfundingcanbetargetedmosteffectively.so thatlessonscanbelearned activities. Itisimportantthatasystematicmethodofevaluationbeestablished this workcontinuetofoldmediadevelopmentinwithotherdemocracy-building its merits,isbasedondatathatnotbeingpreserved. Organizationsengagedin thehistoryofmediadevelopment,andevaluation Becker andVladwarned, Missionaries databaseshouldbemovedtoaneditableonlineformataswell.As report’s databasehasbeendesignedtoaccommodatethisgoal,theearlierMedia for eachcountrywhichmediaassistancespendingisavailable.TheCox should beincluded,asBeckerandVladsuggest,inanonlinedatabasecreated determine aconsistentindexthatwouldbecomethestandard forthefield.This capacity. Further, themeasures ofmediaperformanceneedtobeexamined criterion thatfunderswillline-itemtheirspecificefforts todevelopjournalism Sans Frontières, andIREX.Afirststepwouldbetoestablisha"bestpractice" performance establishedbysuchorganizationsasFreedom House,Reporters Becker andVladpropose linkingtheinvestmentsmadetomeasures ofmedia about allourmediaprojects inthelast10years.’" one personworkingfulltimefor12monthstoputtogetherdetailedinformation organizations isgoingtobeneeded.Infact,UNESCOestimatedit’wouldneed funding organizationsisnoteasy. Lengthyvisitswithavarietyofpartieswithin cluded intheir2005KnightFoundationreport, "Gettingdetailedrecords from assessment ofmediadevelopmentefforts are lacking.AsBeckerandVladcon- The fieldisnowstartingtogettheliterature itdeserves.Butconsistentdataand 200 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 201 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Myriam Horngren Laura Stein,KatyPearce and Selected Resources: SELECTED HIGHLIGHTSOFTHELITERATURE OFMEDIADEVELOPMENT ful mediathat couldbeusedbydevelopment agentstocommunicate messages media playedindevelopment. Schrammbelievedintheconceptofanall-power- UNESCO commissionedSchramm todeterminetheprecise role thatthemass Information intheDeveloping Countries,Stanford: Stanford UniversityPress. Schramm, Wlbur. 1964,MassMedia andNationalDevelopment:TheRoleof unit ofthepolityshouldbenation-state. affairs, and,aboveallelse, ontheacceptanceinpoliticalrealm thattheprime view oflife,asecularapproach tosocialrelations, afeelingforjusticeinpublic with: aworldculture based ontechnologyandthespiritofscience,arational ture," whatwemighttoday callglobalization.Heidentifiedpoliticaldevelopment and"thediffusion withWesternization ofaworldcul- Pye linkedmodernization Princeton UniversityPress. Pye, Lucian.1963,CommunicationandPoliticalDevelopment, NewJersey: messages totheundeveloped. could serveasagreat multiplierofdevelopmentbycommunicating arguedthatthemedia media consumptionandpoliticaldevelopment.Lerner variablessuchasurbanization,highliteracylevels, and othermodernization Africa, andwasabletotracecorrelations betweenexpandedeconomicactivity conductedresearchof thisclassicbook.Lerner intheMiddleEastandNorth The conceptofdevelopmentcommunicationfirstemergedwiththepublication Middle East,NewYork: Free Press. Lerner, David.1958,ThePassingofTraditional the Society:Modernizing tive versionoftheoldAuthoritariantheory. paper town,etc.;(4)theSovietCommunisttheory, anexpandedandmore posi- evision timeforpoliticalcandidates,theobligationsofnewspaperinaone- day:equalradioandtel- rights; (3)theSocialResponsibilitytheoryofmodern and Jefferson andavowedthatthesearch fortruth isoneofman'snatural Libertarian theory, whicharose from theworksofmenlikeMilton,Locke,Mill, and wasbasedontheideathattruthisproduct ofafewwisemen;(2)the presses: (1)theAuthoritariantheory, whichdevelopedinthelateRenaissance Presented here are fourmajortheoriesbehindthefunctioningofworld's What thePress ShouldBeandDo,UniversityofIllinois,IlliniBooks. Libertarian, SocialResponsibility, andSovietCommunistConceptsof Siebert, Petersonetal.,1956,FourTheoriesofthePress: TheAuthoritarian, one thatismore openandhasadegree ofeditorialindependencethatserves the that isdirected orprivateinterests orevenovertlycontrolled to bygovernment ment, according toUSAID,"generallyshouldbemove themediafrom one training, andsupportingthe capitalizationofmedia.Thegoalmediadevelop- media law, strengthening constituenciesforreform, removing barrierstoaccess, of mediasupportactivitiesthataddress weaknessesinmediasectors:reforming choices andservesasacheckonelectedrepresentatives. USAIDdefinesfivetypes mation isessentialtodemocracybecauseitensures thatcitizensmakeinformed freedom around theworld.USAIDworksfrom theprinciplethataccesstoinfor- This paperdevelopstherationalesUSAIDusestodetermine supportformedia Development. A StrategicApproach, Washington, D.C.:U.S.AgencyforInternational Field Support,andResearch. 1999,TheRoleofMediainDemocracy: Bureau forGlobalPrograms,The CenterforDemocracyandGovernance. for communicationanddevelopmentinAfrica. training, anddevelopment;methodologicalconsiderations;newdirections technologies fordevelopment;criticalareas ofdevelopment;planning,evaluation, role ofmediainAfrica;audienceusescommunicationchannels; considerations; developmentandcommunicationpolicies;history organized innineindividuallyintroduced sections:theoretical issuesandcritical years. The23essays,byAfricanandAfricanistscholarspractitioners,are the Africanexperienceincommunicationanddevelopmentoverlast50 A text-reference ondevelopmentcommunicationin general,andinparticularon Perspectives, Lanham,UniversityPress ofAmerica. Communication andtheTransformation ofSocietyADevelopingRegion's Nwoso, Peter, Onwumechili,ChuckaandM'Bayo,Ritchard (Eds.)1995, development andcommunication. important componentpartsandimplicationsofvariousnewparadigmson development. Thetablesprovided inthischapterservetoclearlyoutlinethe is acontributionbyJanServaesonnewperspectivesforcommunicationand Communication intheDevelopmentofNationsandStates.IncludedPartOne Minorities: CommunicationandDevelopmentwithinStates;TheRoleof Development andCommunicationPolicies;DealingwiththeneedofCultural in thedevelopmentofcontemporarystates;CentralandSouthAmerica:Regional conceptual basesfortheuseofcommunicationindevelopment; experiences around theworld.Thecontributionsare organisedinfiveparts: culture andhumanbeingsinculture. Itdocumentsdevelopmentcommunication The bookillustratesthewidevarietyofthinkingandpracticethatfocuseson Ablex Publishing. Casmir F.L. (Ed.)1991,CommunicationinDevelopment,Norwood: institutional transfer, educationandtraining,occupationalideologies. professionalization process haspointedoutthree mechanismsoftransfer: Golding, whoregards thetransferofamediaideologyasanaspect Communication andSociety, London:TheOpenUniversity/Edward Arnold. ideology," inCurran,J.,Gurevitch M.andWoolacott J.(Eds.)1977,Mass Golding. "Mediaprofessionalism inthethird world:thetransferof for developmentcommunicationthenext10to15years. Mass MediaandNationalDevelopment,provided thetheoretical foundation about technologicalinnovations.Theresult ofSchramm'sworkwaspublishedas 202 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 203 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources women's groups havedevelopedeffective mediamonitoringmodels. monitoring experiencesfrom bothNorthandSouthto demonstratehow critique andpracticalchange. Thebookbringstogetherresearch findingsand the formofgendermediamonitoring -systematicdatacollectionaimedatpolicy women's movement.Now, research andactivismhavebeenbrought togetherin international als ofgender-whosecritiquehasbeenfundamentalto themodern values thatpeopleuseinmakingsenseoftheirlives.It focusesonmediaportray- local actiontodefendandpromote diversityinthecontent,images,symbolsand monitoring, lobbyingandadvocacy?Thisbookargues that there isarole for market-centred andconsumer-oriented mediaworld,whatisthepotentialfor mation? Howcanaudienceseffectively voicecritiquesofmediacontent?Ina What isthescopeforindependentcitizenactioninmedia andculturalpolicyfor- Monitoring andAdvocacy, London,ZedBooks Gallagher, Margaret, 2001,Gender Setting:NewAgendasforMedia tization inregard tothemedia. andexaminesthepursuitimpactofdemocra- authoritarian governments focuses onseveralcountriesthatare emergingfrom extendedperiodsunder tic mediaandthepublic,state,theircounterpartsabroad. Thisvolume transition toward democracydeeplyaffect therelationships betweenthedomes- Changes inthepoliticalandinstitutionalstructures incountriesundergoinga Routledge. Media Reform:DemocratizingMedia,theState,London: Price, Monroe E,Rozumilowicz,Beata,andVerhulst, Stefaan(Eds.)2001, factors ineliminatingsystemiccorruptionpublicinstitutions." ages fraudandcorruption.Indeed,theyare arguablythetwomostimportant are crucialtocreating andmaintaininganatmosphere inpubliclifethatdiscour- Stapenhurst quotestheWorld Bankinstatingthat"civilsocietyandthemedia their work).Casestudiesfrom developedanddevelopingcountriesare included. of anti-corruptionbodies,themediamaintainspublicinterest andscrutinyof to revelations inthepress ofcorruption)andintangibly (byreporting onthework ruption, bothtangibly(headsofstateorotherpublicofficials brought downdue Stapenhurst illustratestheconnectionbetweenmediaandreduction incor- http://siteresources.worldbank.org/WBI/Resources/wbi37158.pdf Washington D.C. World BankInstituteDepartmentalWorking Paper. World Bank, Stapenhurst, Frederick. 2000,TheMedia'sRoleinCurbingCorruption, the state. where vulnerablepopulations,inabsenceofmarketopportunities,rely heavilyon responsiveness isparticularlyrelevantGovernment inlow-incomecountries, torespondparticular cancreate tocitizens’needs. incentivesforgovernments responsiveness,important toincreasing andthatthemassmediain government The authorsconcludethatinformationflowsaboutpolicyactionsare particularly Suntory Centre, LondonSchoolofEconomics. Responsiveness:TheoryandEvidencefrom India,The Government Besley, TimothyandBurgess,Robin.2000,ThePoliticalEconomyof strengthen asectorthatpromotes suchoutlets"(5). a rangeofdiversemediumsandvoicesthatare credible, andtocreate and public interest" (5).Theultimategoalofmediaassistanceshouldbe"todevelop that are not alignedwiththeirown-or thecountry’s -besteconomic interests action isnotfullyavailableto citizens,votersmaymakechoicesinelectingleaders costly fortheeconomicgrowth ofanation.Ifinformation aboutgovernment that secrets andasymmetriesofinformationbetween thestateanditspeopleare to offer informationthatcouldbedamagingtothose inpower. Stiglitzargues have abiastowards theincumbentleadership,limitingleadership’s willingness andthepublic.State-controlled mediaarebetween thegovernment assumedto Stiglitz arguesthatafree, investigativepress reduces asymmetricalinformation The World BankInstitute. The RoleofMassMediainEconomicDevelopment, Washington, D.C.: Islam, Roumeen,andMcLiesh,Caralee(Eds.)2002, TheRighttoTell: Stiglitz, Joseph,"Transparency inDjankov, inGovernment," Simeon, local interests, needsand culture. media mayhavelittleincentivetoproduce content thatreflects specificorminority the media.Indevelopingcountries,profit-oriented, advertising-supportedmass audience nichesthatcancommandadvertiserattentionandthusfrom minority tastes.According toOwen,indevelopingcountries,there are fewer media willtendtocatermassinterests, duplicatingprogramming andneglecting Economic modelsofcompetingadvertiser-supported mediaindicatethatsuch benefits ofmassmediacanexistiftheare notsuccessfulbusinesses. Owen statesthatinmarketeconomies,noneofthepolitical,culturaloreconomic Development, Washington, D.C.:TheWorld BankInstitute. Caralee (Eds.)2002,TheRighttoTell: TheRoleofMassMediainEconomic Communications," inDjankov, Simeon,Islam,Roumeen,andMcLiesh, Owen, BruceM."MediaasIndustry:EconomicFoundationsofMass media effective intheseroles are independence,qualityandreach. institutional changeandmarketdevelopment.Thecrucialfactorsthatmake improving publichealthefforts; providing civiceducation;andsupporting traditional education;makingpublicservicesmore responsive tothepoor; informing andgivingvoicetopoormarginalizedpeople;supplementing in geographicallyisolatedmarkets;providing informationonpoliticalmarkets; variety ofroles themediaserves:carryinginformationandencouraging commerce This chapteroftheWorld Bank’s 2002World DevelopmentReportestablishesthe for Markets,TheMedia(Chapter10). World Bank,2002.World DevelopmentReport2002:BuildingInstitutions essential beginning. mainstream genderwithintheirinstitutionsandineditorialproducts isan The developmentofasimplehandbookformediapractitionersonhowto policiesandprogrammes. Fewsuchmaterialsexistforthemedia. in government Several manualsandguidelineshavebeendevelopedformainstreaming gender coming infordiscussionandscrutiny. Itneedstofeature more inmediadebates. on genderissues.Indeed,theburden ofmasculinityisonethatincreasingly have beenmadeabouttheclosed-mindednessofmentoprogressive coverage little attentionispaidtowhattheywouldbeinterested inknowing.Assumptions media. Ironically, althoughwomenconstitutethemajorityofmediaconsumers, Women invariablyfeature eitherassexobjectsorvictimsofviolenceinthe attitudes. Studiesshowthattheoverwhelmingmajorityofnewssources are men. achievement ofgenderequality. Massmediaplaysakeyrole inshapingpublic Sexist attitudesandstereotypes remain oneofthemajorimpedimentsto SouthAfrica Gender Links,2001,WhoseNews?Views? 204 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 205 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources have significantinfluenceon thecountry’s economicdevelopment.Independence Islam arguesthattheindependence, qualityandreach ofanation’s mediacan Development, Washington, D.C.:TheWorld BankInstitute. (Eds.) 2002,TheRightto Tell: TheRoleofMassMediainEconomic An Overview," inDjankov, Simeon, Islam,Roumeen,andMcLiesh,Caralee Islam, Roumeen."IntotheLookingGlass:What MediaTell andWhy– most comprehensive coverage from themedia. segments ofthepopulationthatare mostattractivetoadvertiserswillreceive the advertiser-supported economicmodelofthemedia.Stromberg arguesthatthose segments ofthepopulation.Whowillbewell-informed dependslargelyonthe democracies, politiciansare more responsive totheopinionsofwell-informed the resulting impactofpublic opiniononactionsbypoliticians.Hearguesthatin Stromberg’s research considerstheimpactofmediaonpublicopinion, and The World BankInstitute. Tell: TheRoleofMassMediainEconomicDevelopment,Washington, D.C.: Simeon, Islam,Roumeen,andMcLiesh,Caralee(Eds.)2002,TheRightto Strömberg, David."DistributingNewsandPoliticalInfluence,"inDjankov, survive andprosper financially. closely linkedtothelocaleconomyandabilityofindividualmediaoutlets thisability is the mediatooperateasfinanciallyself-sufficient entities.Inturn, efficient marketsandmore information-richsocieties dependsontheabilityof The media’s accountability, abilitytocontributeimproved government more Development, Washington, D.C.:TheWorld BankInstitute. (Eds.) 2002,TheRighttoTell: TheRoleofMassMediainEconomic of Economics,"inDjankov, Simeon,Islam,Roumeen,andMcLiesh,Caralee Carrington, TimandNelson,Mark."MediainTransition: TheHegemony economic developmentofanation. between thewayownershipofmediaisstructured andthepolitical social indicators.Thestudyindicatesthatthere maybepowerfulcorrelations economic rightsandmediafreedom, andonlyslightlymore correlation with few statisticallysignificantcorrelations withnegativeindicatorsofpoliticaland more sothantelevisionownership.Stateownershipofresults invery of politicalandeconomicrights,mediafreedom andsocialoutcomes,much State ownershipofnewspaperswasmosthighlycorrelated withnegativeindicators competition, makingthemlessresponsive toconsumerdemandsforinformation. self-interest. Second,state-ownedsystemsare considered totypicallyfacelittle the public’s abilitytomakerationalpoliticalandeconomicchoicesintheirown a vestedinterest incontrolling theinformationavailabletopublic,thuslimiting The explanationforthiscorrelation istwo-fold.First,thestateassumedtohave factors suchaspress freedoms, educationattainment,andlifeexpectancy. correlated with‘bad’outcomesinpoliticalandeconomicrights,social 97 countriesandfoundthatstateownershipofthemediawasconsistently measures ofstateownershipnewspapersandterrestrial televisionstationsin economic, politicalandsocialdevelopmentfactors.Theauthorsconstructed This chapterexaminesthecorrelation betweenstateownershipofthemediaand in EconomicDevelopment,Washington, D.C.:TheWorld BankInstitute. and McLiesh,Caralee(Eds.)2002,TheRighttoTell: TheRoleofMassMedia "Media OwnershipandProsperity," inDjankov, Simeon,Islam,Roumeen, Djankov, Simeon,McLiesh,Caralee,Nenova,Tatiana andShleifer, Andrei, media’s standards ofqualityandeffectiveness. abilitytoachieve international practicescanalsounderminethe the role ofadvertisingandcorruptjournalistic tries where democraticculture isnotwellestablished.Ownershipconcentration, societies, yetrestrictions onmediaare more profound andpronounced incoun- The tendencyofpoliticalmanipulationnewsandpublic debateexistsinall printing presses, lackoftraining, andlackofinvestmentininvestigativereporting. access toofficial information, defamationlaws,abuseofmedia continue tofaceobstaclesinreporting onpublicinformation,includingcensorship, the media ests,and toshapetheclimateofdemocraticdebate.In order tofulfillthatrole, businessandspecialinter- accurate informationontheaffairs ofgovernment, ment activity, istoprovide therole thepublicwithtimelyand ofjournalists To supportthepublic’s righttoscrutinizeandholdinformeddebateongovern- tion? GlobalCorruptionReport2003.Transparency International. Peters, Bettina.2003,Themedia’s role: coveringorupcorrup- innovation, communicationchannels,time,andthesocialsystem. the membersofasocialsystem.Thefourmainelementstheoryare the which aninnovationiscommunicatedthrough certainchannelsovertimeamong vidual determineshis/herreaction toit.Inaddition,diffusion istheprocess by vidual orotherunitofadoption.Theperceived newnessoftheideaforindi- An innovationisanidea,practice,orobjectthatperceived asnewbyanindi- adaptation ofanewinnovation,helpingtoexplaintheprocess ofsocialchange. Diffusion ofInnovationsisatheorythatanalyzes,aswellhelpsexplain,the Diffusion ofInnovations(5thed.),NewYork: Free Press. Section 4:Society:Chapter10:TheMediaRogers,Everett. 2003,The World BankDevelopmentReport2002:BuildingInstituationsforMarkets: press freedom leadtolowerlevelsofcorruptioningovernment. same time,studieshaveshownstrong empiricalevidencethatahighlevelsof corruption levelsandvariablesthatindicateacountry’s developmentlevel.Atthe Corruption mattersfordevelopment-there isahighinversecorrelation between Ahrend arguesthatexposure ofcorruptionisakeyfunctionwatchdogpress. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=620102 Delta Working Paper2002-11. Ahrend, Rudiger. 2002,Press Freedom, HumanCapital,andCorruption. different policiesinpractice. countries mayhavelawsonthebooksthatguaranteepress freedoms, butvery the practicaloperationofmediavariesfrom countryto-i.e.,some perity ofacountry. Thedegree towhichlawsandpolicyhaveanactualeffect on dom usually, thoughnotalways,ispositivelycorrelated withtheeconomicpros- dom, butquestionsthedirection oftherelationship andnotesthatpress free- the positiverelationship betweenlevelsofdemocracyandpress free- includes theinfluenceandavailabilityofforeign mediainsomecases.Islamnotes operate. Reachrefers tothelevelofaudiencepenetrationmedia,and financing, andlegalstructures thatdeterminehowandfreely themedia and qualityare coupled,andaccording toIslamare affected bytheownership, must haveaccesstopublicinformation.However, around theworld journalists services suchas blocked 206 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 207 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources since the1970s.Thebook provides anoverviewofthe keyissuesand which womenhaveworked insideandoutsidemainstream mediaorganizations Women andMediaisathoughtful cross-cultural examination ofthewaysin Introduction, Oxford, BlackwellPublishing Carolyn M.Byerly&Karen Ross,2005,Women andMedia:ACritical around badbeliefsandnorms (Bulgaria). (Poland, Hungary),continuedprevalence ofconflict(Ukraine)andcoordination The authorspresent historical examplestoillustratesuccessfulcoordination for coordinating theactivities ofpoliticianswiththedemandspopulace." in afavorablelegalenvironment andproviding qualityinformation,isonemechanism media isonesuchmeansforachievingthis."Theystate "…free media,operating intogamesofcoordination,potential gamesofconflictare andafree turned els ofGameTheorytoshowthat"economicdevelopment isachievedwhen can buildconsensusandunderstandingofeconomicreforms. Theyemploymod- Coyne andLeesonarguethatmediaisintegraltoeconomicreform, becauseit 57, pp.21-44 Understanding theRoleofMediainEconomicDevelopment,Kyklos,Vol. Coyne, ChristopherandLeeson,Peter. 2004,ReadAllAboutIt! intervention, preferably earlyintervention,toavoidmanipulationofthemedia. monitoring ofmediafortheseindicators,andreviews potentialmethodsfor contentdesignedtocreate fearorresignation.concern Thearticlerecommends isolation,andthelegalenvironment formedia.Contentindicators journalist manipulation. Structuralindicatorsincludemediavarietyandplurality, degree of used toevaluatewhetherthemediaisparticularlysusceptiblethiskindof violent conflict.There are bothstructuralandcontent indicatorswhichcanbe This articledocumentsthewaysinwhichmediacanbemanipulatedtoinstigate United StatesInstituteofPeace. Media inVulnerable Societies:SpecialReport110.Washington, DC: Frohardt, MarkandTemin, Jonathan.October2003,UseandAbuseof this task.Theauthorbelievescitizensmustultimatelybetheholdersofinformation. the public-findingneedleinhaystackyetmediaoftenfallsshort Yet informationoverloadisalsoaproblem. Themediashouldserveasafilterfor require accesstoinformationinorder tohaveconfidenceinpublicinstitutions. ingness toreport oncorruption.Trust haseroded inallsocieties, andpeople tycoons andpowerfulpoliticalleadersalsoweakenthemedia’s abilityandwill- andthecloserelationships betweenmedia Bribery ofindividualjournalists, orcorporateconcealmentifitbenefitstheirfinancialbottomline. ernment public –largemonopolisticmedianetworksare more likelygoalongwithgov- Competition inmediaisonewayofensuringthatmore informationreaches the zens from abusesofsecrecy andthepoweritprovides, oftenfailinthismission. financial institutions.Popesaysthemedia,whoserole shouldbetoprotect citi- trust are alsoissueswithmultinationalcorporations,aiddonorsandinternational andthepeople.Perceived secrecyof trustbetweenthegovernment andlackof and release ofgovnermentinformation.Hecitesobsessionswithsecrecy andlack information access.Informationaccesshere refers totransparency inoperations willbeespeciallychallengedinefforts toopen ship orfeudalistgovernments Pope establishesthatcountriestransitioningfrom colonial,communist,dictator- information? GlobalCorruptionReport2003.Transparency International. Pope, Jeremy. 2003,AccesstoInformation:whoserightand of country-level governance monitoring. of country-levelgovernance the mediafreedom indicators containedintheGlobalIntegrityIndexaspart citizens participationandtherelevance ofafree press. Itproposes touse includingtransparencychecks andbalancestostrengthen through governance, indeveloping financialinstitutions;governance of international development outcomes;meetingcommitmentsonaid,trade, anddebtrelief; performance monitoring examinedindetailthereport includepovertyandmalnutrition;human elements toachievetheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals. Theelementsofglobal growth, asessential betterqualityaid,andtradereforms, aswell asgovernance The third annualglobalmonitoringreport (GMR)report highlightseconomic Accountability –Aid,Trade andGovernance World Bank:GlobalMonitoringReport2006:Strengthening Mutual violence; rape;sexselection;Muslimwomen'slegalrights;andthepracticeofsati. offering updatesonthemediacoverageofwomen-related issues:dowry-related background ofglobalizationingeneralandmediaparticular, ates, viewsandevaluatesthecoverageofgenderissuesinmediaagainst This SecondEditionretains theuniquegenderanalysisofmediacontentandsitu- and communicationstructures andtheirportrayalperspectivesinmediacontent. access tothemediaandinformationingeneral,asusers,participators women's en transformations.Thishasraisedanewsetofquestionsconcerning global mediaenvironment whichhaveresulted intechnological andmarketdriv- Since then,dramaticdevelopmentshavetakenplaceinboththenationaland women inthemainstream mediainIndiaovertheeventfuldecade of1978-1987. to (SAGE 1994),whichanalysedthecoverageofissuesparticularconcern This istheSecondEditionofhighlysuccessfulandpioneeringfirstedition Women's Issues,SecondEdition,London,SagePublications Ammu Joseph,KalpanaSharma,2006,WhoseNews?TheMediaand detailed casestudyofCameroon. media ethicsandprofessionalism inAfrica.Thegeneralanalysisissupportedbya African mediaworkerslabor. Theauthoralsoexplores thewholequestionof and statecontrol haveevolvedandthehugedifficulties underwhichmost ofmediaownership the rapidlychangingglobalmediaandshowshowpatterns and empoweringcivilsocietyinAfrica.TheauthorcontextualizesAfricawithin This majorstudyexplores therole ofthemassmediainpromoting democracy Belonging, ZedBooks Francis B.Nyamnjoh,2005,Africa'sMedia:DemocracyandthePoliticsof leaders andagendasmore forcefully intotheirsocieties. contributed tothemakingofafeministpublicsphere thathasmovedwomen the first-handnarrativesofnearly100womenmediaactivistswhoseworkhas study ofwomen’s mediaactivismin20nations.Theauthorsrecount andanalyze beginning withtheextantliterature inthisgrowing fieldandendingwithanew developments infeministmediacritiquesandinterventionsoverthelast30years, countries; andglobal 208 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 209 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Forum onMediaDevelopment, attended theInauguralGlobal Amman Jordan,October2005 List ofOrganisationsthat The Journalism Development Group The Journalism Bosnia Radio forPeaceBuildingAfrica (RJCEBENIN) Benin FederationofJournalists International Belgium The BelarusianAssociationofJournalists Belarus Information DevelopmentPromotion Foundation Media Watch, Bangladesh andCommunication(BCDJC) Bangladesh Centre forDevelopment Journalism, Bangladesh YeniUnion ofJournalists Nesil AzerbaijanPublicAssociation Internews Azerbaijan Press Institute International Yerevan Press Club Armenia Internews Armenia Daily Jugantor Africa Media InstituteofSouthern Angola Argentina Foro delPeriodismoArgentino(FOPEA) Argentina Algériens) IFJ (SyndicatNationaldesjournalistes Daily Sawtalahrar Algeria Albania Albanian MediaInstitute Sayara Media&Communication Pajiwok AfghanNewsAgency NAI Institute forMediaPolicyandCivilSociety(IMPACS) Afghanistan AIDS Resource Center/Internews Estonian MediaCentre Estonia The ArabCenterfortheIndependenceofJudiciaryandLegalProfession Radio &Television Union-Egypt Arab Press Freedom Watch (APFW) AmericanUnivinCairoAdham CenterforElectronic Journalism, Al-Ahram Newspaper Egypt Ecuador Radio LaLuna Asociación LatinoamericanadeEducaciónRadiofónicaALER Ecuador IMS Danish SchoolofJournalism Denmark Voces Nuestras Instituto dePrensa yLibertaddeExpresión (IPLEX) Costa Rica Foundation fortheFreedom ofthePress FNPI-Fundación NuevoPeriodismoIberoamericano Corporación CIDCCE Colombia Environmental EducationMediaProject (EEMP) CHINA CENTRALTELEVISION China Oku RuralRadioAssociation United MediaIncorporatedCommonInitiativeGroup Cameroon The CommunicationInitiative forHumanRights(JHR) Journalists Freedom ofExpressionInternational eXchange (IFEX) Institute forMediaPolicyandCivilSociety(IMPACS) GlobeCastNews Association MondialedesRadiodiffuseurs Communautaires (AMARC) Canada Media DevelopmentCenter Bulgaria Samdef Africa(MISA) Media InstituteforSouthern Botswana World Press Freedom Committee World AssociationofNewspapers International Internews Europe Internews Institut PanosParis Crosslines France Ethiopian Free Association-EFJA press Journalists' Institute forWar & PeaceReporting United NationsEconomicCommissionforAfrica Ethiopia 210 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Georgia Georgian Association of Regional TV Broadcasters Internews Georgia Germany Catholic Media Council (CAMECO) InterPress Service (IPS) Transparency International Transparency International Media in Cooperation MIC (Media in Cooperation) Ghana Media Foundation for West Africa Ghana Journalists Association Panos Institute Caribbean Guatemala Association of Guatemalan Journalists Haiti Panos Institute Caribbean Honduras Comité por la Libre Expression Hungary Center for Independent Journalism Centre for Advocacy and Research India Centre for Advocacy and Research Drishti Media Collective Madhyam Communications/VOICES Net Radiophony India Pvt Ltd Panos South Asia Indonesia Press & Broadcasting Society OneWorld International Foundation The Concerned for Working Children Indonesia The Press Council, Indonesia International centre for journalism "MediaNet" Institute for the Studies on Free Flow of Information (ISAI) ProMedia Indonesia Iraq Al Mibad Television and Radio Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Mapping the Sector: Literature, Association of Iraqi journalists Aswat al-Iraq news agency (Voices of Iraq news agency) Iraqi National Communication & Media Commission Iraqi National Journalists Advisory Panel IFJ Norwegian People's Aid Press and Communication Directorate- Iraqi Presidency Israel Cinema Factory

MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: MEDIA MATTERS Women Mediterranean Press Network 211 Center ofLegalAssistanceforMassMedia Zadina Communications Yarmouk University UNESCO Iraq UNESCO ofLondon The Times The NationalCentre forHumanRights Royal CulturalCenter Philadelphia University National CouncilforCulture andArts National BankJordan Ministry ofLabor Media InCooperation Jordan Jordan-United StatesBusinessPartnership Jordan TelevisionJordan Jordan Radio&Television Corporation Jordan Press Association Jordan NewsAgency Jodan InformationCenter DistributionAgency International Information andCommunicationExpertise Housing Bank Higher MediaCouncil Gandhi CenterforStrategicstudies Freedom HouseJordan First HoldingsLimited Jordan Director General Center forDefendingFreedom ofJournalists Bukra "creativity Network" BRIDGE, InstituteofDevelopmentStudies(IDS) ASEZA- AqabaSpecialEconomicZoneAuthority Arab Telemedia Services Aqaba DevelopmentCorporation AmmanNetn Al-Quds CenterforPoliticalStudies Al-Ghad Jordan Al Rainewspaper Al RaiDailyNewspaper Al GhadNewspaper Al DeyarNewspaper Al AnbatDailyNewspaper Aghad newspaper/amman/jordan Agence FrancePresse Ad-Dustour Daily Abdali Investment&Development The Jordan Press Association Jordan Center forMediaStudies& PeaceBuilding CJA Kenya African Woman andChildFeatures The MediaInstitute Africa Free MediaFoundation African Woman andChild Feature Service Kenya National AssociationofTelevision andRadioBroadcasters UnionofKazakhstan Journalist Kazakhstan Internews Kazakhstan 212 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Kuwait Kuwait Asian Journalists Association Association of Regional Broadcasting Kyrgyzstan Internews - Kyrgyzstan Lebanon Lebanese University United Nations Development Program Liberia International Center for Media Studies and Development in West Africa Liberia Women Media Action Committee (LIWOMAC) Press Union of Liberia Macedonia Macedonian Institute for Media Lithuania Lithuanian Journalism Centre Malawi The National Media Institute of Southern Africa Malawi Malaysia Southeast Asian Centre for e-Media Mexico Center for Journalism and Public Ethics CIDEM Fundación Prensa y Democracia México (PRENDE) Mauritius Mauritius Times and Mauritius Union of Journalists (MUJ) Moldova Independent Journalism Center Association of Independent Press of Moldova Mongolia Mongolia Today.com online magazine Morocco Centre for Media Freedom MENA Region (CMF MENA) Mozambique NSJ-Southern African Media Training Trust Nepal Media Institute of Southern Africa (MISA) Antenna Foundation Nepal

Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Mapping the Sector: Literature, Himal Media Pvt.Ltd. Netherlands Free Voice New Zealand Press Now New Zealand National Commission for UNESCO Nicaragua

MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: MEDIA MATTERS Foundation Violeta Chamorro 213 Media LawandPolicyInstitute Russia Internews Independent InstituteforCommunicology inExtreme Situations Center forJournalism Association ofIndependentRegionalPublishers Russia Romanian Press Club Center forIndependentJournalism Romania Al-Jazeera Qatar Mindanao NewsandInformationCooperativeCenter(MindaNews) Philippines Sindicato dePeriodistasdelParaguay Instituto Prensa yLibertad Paraguay Centro LatinoamericanodePeriodismo(CELAP) Panama Palestine NewsNetwork Live Media Voice ofPalestine Al-Ayyam Newspaper Palestine The Researchers Press forPeace AMIN MediaNetwork-Internews South AsianNewsAgency[SANA] Pakistan Press Foundation Pakistan Internews Pakistan Oman Globe International Oman Media RightsAgenda Press Center(IPC) International IMC GEOTV Institute forMediaandSociety(IMS) African NewspapersofNigerianPLC Development CommunicationsNetwork Nigeria Sierra LeoneAssociation ofJournalists Center forMediaandTechnology, C-Met Sierra Leone Institute fortheAdvancement ofJournalism Serbia Panos West AfricaInstitute Office federationofJournalists-Africa International Senegal Association Rwanda Journalists Panos InstituteWest Africa New EurasiaFoundation/Media Rwanda 214 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Singapore Asian Media Information and Communication Centre (AMIC) South Africa Association of Independent Publishers Institute for Democracy in South Africa Internews National Community Radio Forum (NCRF) Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa Zambezi FoX Free Media Movement & Centre for Policy Alternatives Soul Beat Africa The Zimbabwean Sri Lanka Press Complaints Commission of Sri Lanka Sudan SUDIA Swaziland Media Institute Southern Africa - Swaziland Sweden Fojo Institute for Further Education of Journalists Skarners Media Switzerland Institute of Applied Media Studies, Zurich University of Applied Sciences Winterthur Media Development Loan Fund Medienhilfe Syria International Development Associates Al Hayat/LBC Tajikstan Khoma Tanzania Carpe Diem Inc Thailand Asia Media Forum Internationale Afrique Aidons Nous Campaign for Popular Media Reform Internews Network Press Development Institute of Thailand Southeast Asian Press Alliance Timor-Leste Timor Media Development Centre

Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Mapping the Sector: Literature, Community Radio Arabia Togo International Afrique Trinidad & Tobago Association of Caribbean MediaWorkers Tunisia Drassaba ERTT MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: MEDIA MATTERS S.R.T.T. 215 The ThompsonFoundation The PanosInstitute TrustThe MediaWise Rory PeckTrust Reuters Foundation UnitedKingdom Panos Institute OSI, NetworkMediaPrograms Media DiversityInstitute Lisa Richards Management Institute forWar andPeace(IWPR) IREX Europe Financial Times Europe Internews Healthlink Worldwide Globewise Communications Newhouse NewsServices Index onCensorship Delta PearlLtd Foreign andCommonwealthOffice Communication forSocialChangeConsortium BBC World ServiceTrust BBC Monitoring Article 19 Albany Associates United Kingdom MEDIA Abu DhabiChamberofCommerce &Industry Elkhabar DailyNewspaper Zayed University SP Productions Abu DhabiTelevision United ArabEmirates Ukrainian AssociationofPress Publishers NGO Telekritika Kyiv MediaLawInstitute IREX U-Media Ukraine Internews Independent AssociationofBroadcasters Ukraine ICTV Africa Panos Eastern Uganda Internews Women's TribuneInternational Centre /AMARC Republican Institute International Center forJournalists International InterMedia SurveyInstitute Humboldt StateUniversity Global MediaForum Inc. Creative AssociatesInternational, Columbia University, SchoolofJournalism Studies Center ForStrategicandInternational Annenberg SchoolforCommunication,UniversityofPennsylvania United States 216 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 217 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Radio Voice ofthePeople(VOP) City Courier, Bulawayo,Zimbabwe Zimbabwe African Editors'Forum Africa/Southern Media Instituteofsouthern Africa-Zimbabwe Media InstituteofSouthern Africa Panos InstituteSouthern Breeze FM Zambia Search For CommonGround Zaire endanger(JED) Journalistes Yugoslavia APM Print Yemen Pacific IslandsNewsAssociation-PINA Samoa Western (VFEJ) ForumforEnvironmentalVietnam Journalist Vietnam Lod delMedio/NGO&UniversidadCentraldeVenezuela Instituto Prensa ySociedad-Venezuela Venezuela NGO Internyus Uzbekistan Voice ofAmerica Corporación 555,C.A St.John's University University ofMassachusetts United NationsDevelopmentProgramme United Nations U.S. StateDepartment,Bureau forDemocracy, HumanRightsandLabor(DRL) U.S. DepartmentofState DCHA/DG Governance Development(USAID)Office ofDemocracy& U.S. AgencyforInternational Development U.S. AgencyforInternational The World Bank The St. John'sUniversity Scriabine Foundation Prometheus RadioProject Project forGlobalCommunicationStudies,AnnenbergSchool Pacific NewsService Media Support Media DevelopmentLoanFund,Inc. Lodestar Foundation Link TV intheAmericasatUniversityofTexasKnight CenterforJournalism John S.andJamesL.KnightFoundation IREX Network Internews notes 218 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 219 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources notes notes 220 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources 221 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources Management &Coordination Media Development, GMFD :RegionalForafor Treasurer, John Liu,EEMPC,China Secretary, JeanetteMinnie,ZambeziFoX,SouthAfrica Foundation, theOpenSociety Institute,andUNESCO. Foundation, theNationalEndowment forDemocracy, theUnitedNations ofJordan, JohnS.andJamesL.KnightFoundation,theLodestar the Government the SwissAgencyforDevelopmentandCooperation(SDC), theFord Foundation, Development(DFID), Agency (CIDA),theUK‘sDepartmentforInternational Development The GFMDwassupportedin2005/6bytheCanadianInternational http://www.gfmd.info ,mailto:[email protected] Kathleen Reen,MarkHarvey, EricJohnson Vice Chair,Vice FederationofJournalists AidanWhite,International Chair, DavidHoffman, Internews G A E L S G R a u o F f F E t r r u M M G i i a n c t s D h D a I

i O A

a

R E C M m : N a e O Manana Aslamazyan, Internews Russia Manana Aslamazyan,Internews A s g e A O t r i N

o i L A R c A n

a D s F G : : i I a O Edetaen Ojo,MediaRightsAgenda,JeanetteMinnie,ZambesiFoX N E Jaime AbelloBanfi,FundaciónNuevoPeriodismoIberoamericano : M A R Kavi Chongkittavorn, SouthEastAsianPress Alliance Kavi Chongkittavorn, T A E I N O

F T N O

C R O

M M M E I D T T I E A E

D ( 2 E 0 V 0 6 E - L

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E N T Committee 2006–2008 Steering GFMD on Represented Media SupportOrganisations • • • • • • • • • • • • • • http://www.wan-press.org/ World AssociationofNewspapers(WAN), France: http://www.seapabkk.org South EastAsianPress Alliance, Thailand: http://www.panos.org.uk Panos, London,UK: http://mediarightsagenda.org/index.html Media RightsAgenda,Nigeria: http://www.mdlf.org Media DevelopmentLoanFund(MDLF),USA: http://www.irex.org IREX, USA: http://www.internews.ru/en/ Russia, Internews http://www.internews.tv/home/index.php : France International, Internews http://www.ifj.org/ (IFJ),Belgium: FederationofJournalists International http://www.icfj.org/ (ICFJ),USA: CenterforJournalists International http://www.iwpr.net/ Institute forWar &PeaceReporting(IWPR),USA/UK: http://www.fnpi.org Fundación NuevoPeriodismoIberoamericano (FNPI),Colombia: http://www.eempc.org/index.php Environmental EducationMediaProject, China: http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust BBC World ServiceTrust, UK: / / / / / / 222 MEDIA MATTERS SECTION 4: Mapping the Sector: Literature, Surveys and Resources The Global Forum for Media Development (GFMD) GFMD aims to bring greater linkages and sustainable impact to the work of the media assistance sector as a whole. It seeks to do this through:

Collaboration Creating a practitioner-led platform for the media support sector to advocate with donors, governments, opinion leaders and the wider public.

Substantiation Promoting and disseminating research and analysis on the effects of media assistance on governance, poverty alleviation,emergent crises, and markets worldwide; making the case for media development as a primary pillar for advancing social, economic, and political development.

Professionalization Establishing agreed-upon standards and ethics for media development work that encourage cross-sector cooperation.

Shared Learning Evaluating the media development sector to identify and advance good practice in media support.

www.gfmd.info