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The Route to Discoveries at The Elements of Discovery Process Lecture I Cigdem Issever University of Oxford YETI 2011 Elements of Discovery Process Accelerator Advances At the LHC we can create Theoretical Insight and study new interactions Interplay of theory and experiment is essential New Physics: Our Understanding of the World New Detectors, Computing Tools With new developments come new capabilities Data Analysis: Not missing the signal is key Cigdem Issever 2 Theoretical Insight Theoretical Insight Interplay of theory and experiment is essential Discussions, Papers, MCs….etc Cigdem Issever 3 The Standard Model of Particle Physics Gravitation electromagnetism weak force strong/nuclear force Forces due to exchange of particles: Effect of force ~ intrinsic strength (“muscle power”) + mass of carrier (~ range) Cigdem Issever 4 The Standard Model of Particle Physics Gravitation electromagnetism weak force strong/nuclear force Gravity Electromagnetic Weak Strong Graviton W+, W-, Photon Gluon (not Z observed) 10-41 1 0.8 25 Cigdem Issever 5 The Standard Model of Particle Physics Gravitation electromagnetism weak force strong/nuclear force Gravity Electromagnetic Weak Strong Graviton W+, W-, Photon Gluon (not Z observed) 10-41 1 0.8 25 Add another particle, the Higgs gives mass to other particles Cigdem Issever 6 The Standard Model of Particle Physics . A few fundamental particles . A few forces . mediated by bosons . Higgs to give mass. The Standard Model has been incredibly successful in explaining all data... …but there are problems too. Cigdem Issever 7 The Standard Problems: Higgs? From precision Electroweak measurements +35 Mass of SM Higgs boson: 87 -26 GeV but we know 114 < mH < 157 GeV Where is the Higgs? Cigdem Issever 8 Standard Problems: antimatter? What happened to all the antimatter? The imbalance is a trillion times bigger than the model predicts. Cigdem Issever 9 The Standard Problems: Dark Matter? . 23 % Dark Matter . Inferred from gravitational effects . Rotational speed of galaxies . Orbital velocities of galaxies in clusters . Gravitational lensing . ….. 73 % Dark Energy . Accelerated expansion of universe . Only 4 % made out of known matter….. Cigdem Issever 10 More Problems! “Cracks” have started to appear in the Standard Model… Many problems identified over time . No explanation of .masses, .coupling constants . Why three families? . Gravity not included . The “hierarchy” problem, fine tuning… …and yet it explains the data The Standard Model isn’t so much wrong as it is incomplete Cigdem Issever 11 Is SUSY the “next SM”? . Supersymmetry (SUSY) . SM particles get partners (-spin ½) . Unifications of forces possible . SUSY changes running of couplings . Dark matter candidate exists: arXiv:hep-ph/0012288v2 . The lightest neutral partner of the gauge bosons . No (or little) fine-tuning required . cancellation of loop corrections D. I. Kazakov Cigdem Issever 12 What else is there beside SUSY? . Extra spatial dimensions . Addresses hierarchy problem . make gravity strong at TeV e scale Z’ . Extra gauge groups: Z’, W’ e . Occur naturally in GUT scale e theories Leptoquark . Leptoquarks: q . Would combine naturally the e quark and lepton sector e* . New/excited fermions . More generations? Compositeness? . something not thought of yet Cigdem Issever 13 Redman’s Theorem Sorting out the structure of the universe can be frustrating… …just ask the astronomers “Any competent theoretician can fit any given theory to any set of facts.” Quoted in M. Longair’s High Energy Astrophysics, sect 2.5.1: “The Psychology of Astronomers and Astrophysicists”: Prof. R. Redman, 1905-1975 First we need data… S.Worm Cigdem Issever 14 Accelerator Advances Accelerator Advances At the LHC we can create and study new interactions Cigdem Issever 15 Accelerator Advances . Each advance is a revolution… . but sadly only once or twice per generation . To help understand our excitement about the LHC . Previous energy record-holder (Tevatron) started in 1983 - 27 years . LEP at CERN stopped in 2000 - 10 years ago S.Worm Cigdem Issever 16 Role of Colliders . Colliders key tool for discovering particles we know today . Anti-proton (LBNL, 1955) . Quarks (SLAC 1969) . W- and Z-boson (CERN, 1983) . Top-quark (FNAL, 1994) . … plus many more . Basic principle follows from E=mc2 . If collider energy ≥ mass of particle .particle can be produced B. Heinemann S.Worm Cigdem Issever 17 New Energy Regimes . Each advance in territory makes new discovery possible . Many historic examples… . Hunting for “bumps” in the mass spectra S.Worm Cigdem Issever 18 More energy, more particles Cross section (nb) Multiplicity pp X multiplicity S [(GeV)2] S.Worm Cigdem Issever 19 Some Fun Facts about the LHC http://www.sustain.ucla.edu/media/images/facts_general.jpg Cigdem Issever 20 27km in circumference ~ 100m deep 1200 SC dipoles @ 8.3 T 14 TeV proton collisions 27km in circumference ~ 100m deep 1200 SC dipoles @ 8.3 T 14 TeV proton collisions Proton on Proton Collisions at 14 TeV* 7 TeV 7 TeV . 1 TeV ~ kinetic energy (KE) of a mosquito . 1011 protons in a bunch = KE of a London bus . LHC beam stores 700 MegaJoules 300 MJ *Lead on Lead at 1150 TeV Cigdem Issever 24 The emptiest (largest) vacuum in the solar system Ten times more atmosphere on the Moon than inside LHC beam pipes Cigdem Issever 25 Colder than outer space LHC operates at 1.9 K 38000 tones cool mass 120 tones of Helium The largest refrigerator ever Cigdem Issever 26 Sources of ultra high energetic particles arXiv:0712.2843v2 [astro-ph] 27 highest energy cosmic rays detected by Auger 2004 - 2007 E > 6x1019 eV=60x106 TeV Cigdem Issever 27 LHC is safe! J. Ellis, http://indico.cern.ch/conferenceDisplay.py?confId=39099 . LHC@14 TeV=cosmic arXiv:0806.3414v2 [hep-ph] 17 ) ray@10 eV -1 sr 22 17 -1 . ~ 3.10 cosmic rays >10 eV s -2 m 2 have struck Earth 5 (eV Equivalent to 10 LHC 24 . 10 /10 3 programmes 4 . Area of Sun 10 larger Flux*E . 1011 stars in galaxy 1 . 1011 galaxies in Universe 31 17 18 19 20 log (E)[eV] . Nature has performed 10 10 LHC programmes ultra-high-energy cosmic rays up to 1020 eV . Nature carries out 3.1013 LHC programmes per second Cigdem Issever 28 Luminosity . Single most important quantity . Drives ability to observe new rare processes f n 2 N . revolving frequency f = 11245.5/s bunch p . nbunch = 2808 L 11 . Np = 1.15 x 10 Protons/Bunch 4πσx σ y .Area of beams: 4πσxσy~40 μm . Rate of physics processes per unit time ~ L Cross section; given by NObsLdtε σprocess nature; predicted by theory Efficiency; optimized by experimentalists Maximize Nobs max ε and L Cigdem Issever 29 2010 Proton Proton Collisions . First 7 TeV collision: . 30.03.2010 . End of proton run: . 04.11.2010 Ldt 45pb1 2010 Cigdem Issever 30 2010 Proton Proton Collisions . First 7 TeV collision: . 30.03.2010 . End of proton run: . 04.11.2010 Ldt 45pb1 2010 Cigdem Issever 31 2010 Proton Proton Collisions . First 7 TeV collision: . 30.03.2010 . End of proton run: . 04.11.2010 Ldt 45pb1 2010 Cigdem Issever 32 Detectors and Computing New Detectors, Computing Tools With new developments come new capabilities Cigdem Issever 33 The Detector Development Loop Today New Data Detecto Detector r Ideas Constructio n Simulatio n S.Worm Cigdem Issever 34 Interplay of Detectors and Discoveries 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 positron pion J/Ψ top neutron hyperons upsilon kaon anti‐proton W, Z resonances Cloud Chambers Emulsions Wire Chambers Bubble Chambers Silicon S. Worm Cigdem Issever 35 Georges Charpak (1924 – 2010) Invented Multi-wire proportional chambers (1968) which rapidly replaced bubble chambers Nobel Prize in Physics in 1992 S.Worm Cigdem Issever 36 Searches and (old fashioned) Detectors: S.Worm New/better detector new physics found Nobel prize (simple, isn’t it?) Cigdem Issever 37 Modern Detectors ATLAS CMS ALICE LHCB Cigdem Issever 38 The ATLAS Detector Diameter 25 m Over 2500 scientists and engineers Total length 46 m Nearly 40 countries Overall weight 7000 tons More components than a moon rocket Cigdem Issever 39 Detector Mass in Perspecitive Eiffel tower CMS B.Heinemann CMS is 30% heavier than the Eiffel tower Cigdem Issever 40 Durham Cathedral and ATLAS Cigdem Issever 41 Silicon Detectors . Silicon strip and pixel detectors . Pixels used for first time at hadron colliders B.Heinemann . Huge! . area of CMS silicon ~200 2 m S.Worm 42 Cigdem Issever. Like a football field! 42 Muon Systems and Calorimeters B.Heinemann Cigdem Issever 43 ATLAS Cigdem Issever 44 ATLAS Cigdem Issever 45 Particle Collisions - “Events” The raw data recorded is later reconstructed, filtered, and then analysed. CD stack with 1 year LHC data (10PB =14 million CDs ~ 20 km) • ~100,000,000 electronic channels • 600,000,000 proton-proton collisions each second • But record only 100 one-MB events each second • which still gives 10 PB of data recorded per year. Cigdem Issever 46 Finding the interesting Events . A lot more “uninteresting” than “interesting” processes at design luminosity (L=1034 cm-2s-1) . Any event: 109 / second . W boson: 150 / second . Top quark: 8 / second . Higgs (150 GeV): 0.2 / second B.Heinemann Cigdem Issever 47 The Trigger Systems .Trigger filters out interesting processes .Makes fast decision .Keep .Not Keep .Crucial at hadron colliders Cigdem Issever 48 What is it for? A.Barr Cigdem Issever 49 Analysis of the Data Data Analysis: Not missing the signal is key Cigdem Issever 50 S. Worm New Gauge Bosons? Supersymmetry ZZ/WW resonances? Technicolor? Little Higgs? Hidden Valleys? Extra Dimensions? Black Holes??? We do not know what is out there for us… A large variety of possible signals. We have to be ready for that Cigdem Issever 51 Early discoveries? E.g. Di-lepton Resonance pp +X Plot the di-lepton invariant mass A peak!! First year of operation A new particle!! A discovery!! If we are lucky: a signal could be seen very early on S.Worm Cigdem Issever 52 How to make a Discovery? .
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