Provincial solar and wind energy policy
A comparison between the province of Noord-Brabant and the province of Gelderland
Personal Details ▪ Name: Luuk (L) Beimans ▪ ANR: 855957 ▪ University: Tilburg University, Master Public Governance ▪ Faculty: Tilburg Law School ▪ Department: Tilburg Institute of Governance (TIG) ▪ Supervisor: Dr. M.A. Verba, MPA. ▪ Second supervisor: Prof. Dr. M.L.P. Groenleer ▪ Date: 30 July 2018
Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018
Preface
Before you lies the Master’s Thesis about provincial solar and wind energy policy. It has been written to complete the Public Governance program at Tilburg University. Doing the research was an interesting process that sometimes went quite stiffly and at other times went smoothly. Prior to the actual research, I found it particularly difficult to select a feasible and interesting focus of the research, which led to a slow start. Also during the research I had to sharpen the focus of the research a couple of times. However, once I succeeded in sharpening the focus sufficiently, the research started to float. In particular, I found it interesting to learn more about the legal policy instruments that the provinces can use with regard to spatial planning. All in all, working on the Master’s Thesis was an instructive, challenging and interesting experience.
In the first place, I would like to thank Dr. M.A. Verba, MPA. for the wise advice, the sharing of knowledge and the organization of helpful meetings. In addition, I would like to thank Prof. Dr. M.L.P. Groenleer, J.F.L.M.M. Dagevos, MSc. and C.Y. Broekman, MSc. for the instructive conversations and discussions we have had. Furthermore, my special thanks go to my mum and dad for the wisdom and support they offered me during the research and the years before.
I proudly present you my Master’s Thesis.
Luuk Beimans, Tilburg, 30 July 2018.
0 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Summary
Provinces have an important role in achieving an effective energy transition, which is required to tackle climate change. Amongst other things, provinces are involved in the spatial integration of solar parks and wind farms. Since regions increasingly differ from each other, it can be questioned to what extent the provinces implement similar or different policy for the spatial integration of ground-mounted solar parks and wind farms on land. On the other hand, it can be questioned whether two provinces with approximately homogeneous spatial characteristics implement uniform policy for the spatial integration of ground-mounted solar parks and wind farms on land. In the continuation of this research, such policy is referred to as solar and wind energy policy, excluding solar panels on rooftops and wind turbines in the sea.
The main question formulated for this research is ‘How do the province of Gelderland and the province of Noord-Brabant differ from each other as regards solar and wind energy policy, and are the regional spatial characteristics an important driver for pluriformity?’.
The province of Noord-Brabant and the province of Gelderland have fairly homogeneous spatial characteristics. Therefore, comparing the solar and wind energy policy implemented by these provinces may provide an interesting insight into the influence of spatial characteristics on provincial solar and wind energy policy.
In order to describe the cases a framework for provincial solar and wind energy policy was required. Therefore, a framework is developed on the basis of the policy cycle, which contains all the components of such policy. The identified components are vision and objectives, governance and roles, budgets, communicative instruments, economic instruments, legal instruments, physical instruments, structural collaborations, evaluating and monitoring, and outcomes.
Both the province of Gelderland and the province of Noord-Brabant implemented solar and wind energy policy. As regards such policy, the provinces are partly bound by national policies, laws and agreements, and partly have the freedom to decide on the implementation of policies themselves. Furthermore, the descriptions of the cases indicates that the spatial characteristics are barely taken into account when the provinces make choices as regards solar and wind energy policy.
The comparison of the cases showed that similarities as well as differences are present between the solar and wind energy policy implemented by the province of Noord-Brabant and the province of Gelderland. The main drivers for the similarities are the national policies, laws and agreements. On the other hand, the main drivers for the differences are the presence of initiatives, actors and networks, negotiations, developments that take place and political decisions.
Since the province of Noord-Brabant and the province of Gelderland have homogeneous spatial characteristics, uniformity was expected with regard to solar and wind energy policy. However, pluriformity is just as evident as uniformity. Therefore, homogenous spatial characteristics are no main driver for uniformity with regard to provincial solar and wind energy policy. The national policies, laws and agreements, the presence of initiatives, actors and networks, negotiations, developments that take place and political decisions are in play.
1 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Contents
Contents ...... 2 Chapter 1: Introduction...... 4 1.1 Problem indication and scope ...... 4 1.2 Main question ...... 6 1.3 Research questions ...... 6 1.4 Case selection ...... 6 1.5 Hypotheses ...... 7 1.6 Research objectives ...... 7 1.7 Relevancy ...... 7 1.8 Methodology ...... 7 1.9 Thesis outline ...... 10 Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework ...... 11 2.1 The policy cycle ...... 11 2.2 Regions ...... 11 2.3 Divergence (from homogeneity to heterogeneity) ...... 11 2.4 Differentiation (from uniformity to pluriformity) ...... 12 2.5 Decentralization ...... 12 2.6 Energy units ...... 12 2.7 The Triple Bottom Line ...... 13 2.8 Trias Energetica...... 13 Chapter 3: Provinces and policies ...... 14 3.1 Dutch provinces ...... 14 3.2 General roles and tasks ...... 15 3.3 Roles, tasks and objectives related to energy ...... 15 3.4 Policy components ...... 16 3.5 The policy framework ...... 17 Chapter 4: Noord•Brabant ...... 22 4.1 Spatial characteristics ...... 22 4.2 Vision and objectives ...... 22 4.3 Governance and roles ...... 23 4.4 Budgets ...... 24 4.5 Communicative instruments...... 24 4.6 Economic instruments ...... 26 4.7 Legal instruments ...... 27 4.8 Physical instruments ...... 29
2 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 4.9 Structural collaborations ...... 29 4.10 Evaluating and monitoring ...... 31 4.11 Outcomes ...... 31 Chapter 5: Gelderland ...... 32 5.1 Spatial characteristics ...... 32 5.2 Vision and objectives ...... 32 5.3 Governance and roles ...... 34 5.4 Budgets ...... 34 5.5 Communicative instruments...... 34 5.6 Economic instruments ...... 36 5.7 Legal instruments ...... 37 5.8 Physical instruments ...... 38 5.9 Structural collaborations ...... 39 5.10 Evaluating and monitoring ...... 41 5.11 Outcomes ...... 41 Chapter 6: Comparing the cases ...... 43 6.1 Table of policies ...... 43 6.2 Differences and similarities ...... 48 Chapter 7: Conclusions...... 53 References ...... 55
3 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Problem indication and scope
1.1.1 A sustainable choice The last few decades scientific research pointed out that humanity currently uses the world in an unsustainable and demolishing way, and that there is a need for sustainable development (Meadows et al., 1972; Brundtland Commission, 1987; Bulkeley & Betsill, 2003; Newman & Jennings, 2008; Morelli, 2011; et cetera). Sustainable development is necessary, because unsustainable human activities, such as the combustion of fossil fuels, drastically increase the concentration of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere since 1750, which results in climate change (Houghton, et al., 2001) and related forms of damage to natural systems such as desertification and deforestation. This damage caused to natural systems carries the risks of irreversibility (Brundtland Commission, 1987). Besides, climate change increasingly has an impact on the world and its environment, which among other things negatively affects water (McDonald et al., 2011) and food supplies (Hanjra & Qureshi, 2010). Since humanity is currently dependent on such resources, scarcity will increase the vulnerability of societies and has major implications for the promotion of peace (Le Billon, 2001). Meadows et al. concluded in ‘The Limits to Growth’ that global limits will be reached in the next century if the current growth trends, including population, industrialization and resource depletion, remain unchanged (Meadows et al., 1972). Twenty years later, Meadows et al. added that mankind already uses essential resources and pollute the environment at rates that are beyond sustainable limits. In addition, they concluded that simultaneously reducing the increase in population and material consumption and increasing the efficiency of the energy and materials used, is necessary to prevent the world from “an uncontrolled decline” in food, industrial production and energy per person (Meadows et al., 1992). Moreover, the last few decades national government leaders jointly agreed on targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order to tackle climate change. In 1992, the ‘United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)’ was adopted, wherewith the currently 197 participating countries indicate to acknowledge that greenhouse gas emissions cause climate change and that action must be taken (UNFCCC, 2014-a). In the course of time, several agreements have been concluded on the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, such as the ‘Kyoto Protocol’ treaty (UNFCCC, 2014-b), the European Union’s ‘230 climate and energy framework’ (European Commission, n.d.), and the ‘Paris Agreement’ (European Commission, 2017). Furthermore, in the Dutch national coalition agreement 2017-2021 it is stated that there are no alternatives for taking action and that work is being done on ‘ambitious climate policy’ (VVD, CDA, ChristenUnie, 2017).
1.1.2 Environmental sustainable development The most common definition of sustainable development is provided by the Brundtland Commission in 1987 and reads: “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Brundtland Commission, 1987). Environmental sustainability is the aspect of sustainability that is about maintaining the natural capital including water, atmosphere and soil (Goodland, 1995). According to Morelli, an accurate definition of environmental sustainability is “a condition of balance, resilience, and interconnectedness that allows human society to satisfy its needs while neither exceeding the capacity of its supporting ecosystems to continue to regenerate the services necessary to meet those needs nor by our actions diminishing biological diversity” (Morelli, 2011). Air pollution, waste, nature and energy are some of the focus areas of environmental sustainability. Each of the focus areas in turn consists of different components (Telos, 2016).
Since environmental sustainable development consists of many parts, the choice is made to focus on the energy issue alone. An interesting topic as nowadays there is - an indispensable - demand for energy (PBL, 2011) and the burning of fossil fuels to generate energy in forms of electricity and heat is the major source of greenhouse gas emissions (EPA, 2017). Meanwhile sustainable alternatives are available, such as electricity from solar and wind energy, that can be generated without producing any (direct) greenhouse gas emissions (PBL, 2011).
4 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 1.1.3 Energy transition An energy transition is necessary to develop an energy system that entirely contributes to environmental sustainable development (Turkenburg, 2004). In addition, an energy transition offers multiple opportunities such as building “a strong green knowledge-based economy” (NERA, 2016) and increasing energy independency from traditional energy sources and countries that supply energy (European Commission, 2015). According to ‘Energy Cities’; a European association, an energy transition can be defined as “a shift from a system dominated by finite (fossil and fissile) energy towards a (renewable) flow energy-based system” (Energy Cities, 2014). In other words, using energy generated from renewable sources such solar and wind, as an alternative to finite energy generated by nuclear reactions or the burning of fossil fuels such as oil and coal (Turkenburg, 2004). According to the European Parliament, the renewable sources that are suitable to contribute to the desired increase in the share of renewable energy are biomass and biofuels, hydro power, ocean energy, solar power, wind power and geothermal energy (European Parliament, 2017). However, a distinction between the renewable energy sources can be made in terms of sustainability and suitability. In terms of sustainability, because, for example, burning biomass to generate energy is sometimes only slightly better, or even worse, compared to burning fossil fuels to generate energy in terms of greenhouse gas emissions. Besides, burning biomass puts an additional pressure on resources and may have adverse environmental effects on biodiversity, soil and air quality (European Commission, 2016). A distinction between the renewable energy sources can be made in suitability, because each source of energy can only be used for one or multiple of the applications of energy, including generating electricity, enabling transport and producing heat. For example, solar and wind energy are suitable sources for generating electricity and therefore can also be used for enabling sustainable transport. In addition, solar energy can be used to produce heat (CBS, 2016). The disadvantage, however, is that large-scale applications of solar and wind energy are required to realize the energy transition (Nuon, 2017) and generating enough solar and wind energy to meet the demand requires space (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-a). Hence, large-scale solar parks and especially wind farms, which are big and audible, have an impact on landscapes and spatial plans (PBL, 2013). Moreover, other potential barriers are the fluctuating supply of solar and wind energy that is difficult to steer (Ministerie van Economische Zaken, 2016) and the high investment costs of achieving the energy transition (Verbong & Geels, 2006).
Because large-scale applications of solar and wind energy are required to realize the energy transition and solar parks and wind farms demand space, it has been decided to focus this research on policy for the spatial integration of ground-mounted solar parks and wind farms on land. Such policy is referred to as solar and wind energy policy in the continuation of this study. Solar panels on rooftops and wind turbines in the sea are excluded, because these aspects require a different approach to spatial integration than ground-mounted solar parks and wind farms on land.
1.1.4 The role of regions and provinces Although environmental sustainable development is a global challenge, it are currently the regions that function as hubs where actors interact regarding specific challenges (Groenleer, 2016). Both regions and cities are the driving forces for a successful energy transition (Europa decentraal, 2016). Thereby these regions appear to increasingly differ from each other. For example, the Dutch metropolitan regions have to deal with divergent economic challenges that are even more different in rural regions (Groenleer, 2016). According to Boot, regions will make different choices regarding the energy transition, because of the differences in strengths, weaknesses, advantages and disadvantages between regions (Boot, 2015). Meaning, regions differ from each other and therefore solar and wind energy policy potentially varies across regions and contexts (IEA, 2016). Such a state of differences in policy can be referred to by the term ‘pluriformity’, of which the antonym is ‘uniformity’. Moreover, the process from a state of uniformity to a state of pluriformity is referred to by the term ‘differentiation’ (TiREG, 2017). According to Ape, differentiation is required in order to implement tailor made policy as a response to the differences between regions and their challenges (Ape, 2016). Provinces are the governing bodies that function between municipalities and national government and focus on regions (Rijksoverheid, n.d.-a). In addition, provinces are seen as the designated parties for the (spatial) integration of renewable energy, such as reserving space for solar and wind energy (Wagenaar, 2015). Furthermore, the provinces are directly involved to two national agreements about sustainable energy that were both concluded in 2013. First, the provinces signed the ‘National Energy Agreement’ – ‘Nationaal Energieakkoord (NEA)’ – in which both public and private actors agreed, amongst other things, to
5 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 commit themselves to achieve an increase in the share of renewable energy from 4.5% in 2013 to 16% in 2023 (IPO, 2015). Secondly, the provinces and the national government agreed that the provinces have to achieve a capacity of 6,000 MW wind energy on land in the Netherlands by 2020 (IPO, 2013). According to the ‘Interprovincial Cooperation Energy Transition and Economy’ – ‘Interprovinciale samenwerking Energietransitie en Economie (IPS2E)’ –, two assignments for the provinces derived from the two aforementioned agreements. The first assignment is about spatial planning and process facilitating as regards wind energy on land. The second assignment entails the implementation of ‘NEA’ parts that relate to sustainable spatial-economic development and the parts in which provinces can play an important role. This includes making a contribution to generating renewable energy (IPS2E, 2014).
Due to the importance of regions and provinces in the energy transition, and the possible differences between regions, the research focus is narrowed down to differences between provinces as regards solar and wind energy policy.
1.2 Main question The main question formulated for this research is: ‘How do the province of Gelderland and the province of Noord-Brabant differ from each other as regards solar and wind energy policy, and are the regional spatial characteristics an important driver for pluriformity?’
Prior to answering the main question it is examined which components provincial solar and wind energy policy consists of. Thereafter, the policies implemented by the provinces of Noord-Brabant and Gelderland are described and compared based on the components. Finally, the driving forces behind the differences and similarities that became clear during the comparison are investigated.
1.3 Research questions In order to provide a well-grounded answer to the main question some research questions are formulated that had to be answered first. The answers to the research questions form the core of this research that precedes the conclusion in which the main question has been answered. The following research questions have been formulated.
0. What theories and concepts are relevant for studying provincial solar and wind energy policy? (Chapter 2) 1. What are the tasks, objectives, instruments and other roles that Dutch provinces have in general and as regards solar and wind energy? (Chapter 3) 2. What components should be taken into account to provide a complete description of provincial solar and wind energy policy? (Chapter 3) 3. What solar and wind energy policy is implemented by each of the provinces of Noord-Brabant and Gelderland? (Chapters 4 and 5) 4. How do the provinces of Noord-Brabant and Gelderland differ from each other looking at the implemented solar and wind energy policy and spatial characteristics? (Chapter 6) 5. Are the regional spatial characteristics clear drivers for the differences and similarities between solar and wind energy policy implemented by the selected provinces, and what other drivers seem to be at play? (Chapter 6)
1.4 Case selection This research focuses on the differences between provincial solar and wind energy policy. Therefore, provinces are studied as separate cases. It has been decided to select two provinces as research cases in order to get in-depth descriptions of both cases, which allows a detailed comparison to be carried out. The cases that have been selected are the province of Gelderland and the province of Noord-Brabant. These provinces have fairly similar regional spatial characteristics such as surface, surface for agriculture and horticulture, cities, and more. By comparing the solar and wind energy policy implemented by the selected provinces, and examining the drivers for differences and
6 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 similarities found, conclusions can be drawn on whether the spatial regional characteristics or other drivers are at play.
1.5 Hypotheses The hypothesis formulated prior to the research is that there are some clear differences between provinces regarding solar and wind energy policy. Since such policy is about spatial integration, the heterogeneous regional spatial characteristics are the main drivers for pluriformity. The heterogeneous spatial characteristics are comparable to a playing fields that differ from each other, which potentially leads to differences in, for example, formulated objectives, implemented instruments and achieved outcome. Conversely, it is expected that two provinces with almost similar regional spatial characteristics implement quite similar solar and wind energy policy. In other words, homogeneous regional spatial characteristics are drivers for uniformity.
1.6 Research objectives The main objectives of this research are to analyse how the province of Gelderland and the province of Noord-Brabant differ from each other regarding solar and wind energy policy and to find out whether regional spatial characteristics are drivers for the present uniformity or pluriformity. An additional objective is to find out whether other drivers are at play as well. In order to achieve the objectives the policies of both provinces are described and compared on the basis of policy components that arose from a framework developed within this research. This framework is used to describe the two cases according the same accurate process that was required to carry out a fair comparison.
1.7 Relevancy Providing an answer to the main question is relevant for several reasons. First, an answer to the main question is relevant for the scientific community, because it builds upon and potentially contributes to scientific knowledge concerning provinces, decentralization and differentiation. Second, the focus on provincial solar and wind energy policy contributes to the societal knowledge on the integration of energy projects and related provincial policies. The acquired information may or may not substantiate policy choices and will therefore be useful to different actors at municipal, provincial, national, European, and possibly even global level. Future studies may build upon this research by further elaborating on specific aspects that became clear to be relevant, and finding out whether the found drivers also apply to other cases or policy areas.
1.8 Methodology The methods used for this research have been applied in several steps. The first step was to draw up a theoretical framework for provincial solar and wind energy policy. The second step was to develop a framework that consists of all the relevant policy components. Thereafter, the solar and wind energy policy implemented by the selected provinces is described on the basis of the components found. To do so, policy programs and other relevant documents published by the selected provinces between 2010 and 2018, and the budgets of the selected provinces for 2017, 2018 and the entire coalition period from 2015-2019 are examined. The second to last step was to compare the examined policies to each other in order to find out the similarities and differences. Finally, the main question has been answered by going through the previous steps.
1.8.1 Methodology per research question In order to provide a detailed insight into the methodology, the methods used for each research question are described below.
0. What theories and concepts are relevant for studying provincial solar and wind energy policy?
By answering this research question the theories and concepts are discussed that together create a starting point which is useful for the continuation of this research. The question is answered by searching and describing theories and concepts that are relevant to provincial solar and wind energy policy. In order to find these theories and concepts several documents have been reviewed and an interview has been held with the managing director of ‘Telos’: a university knowledge centre on sustainable development. The precise focus of the research determined what theories and concepts are actually relevant. Therefore, the list of theories and concepts included in the
7 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 research has been updated and adjusted gradually until eventually the relevant theories and concepts remained. Amongst other things, the policy cycle, differentiation and the ‘Trias Energetica’ strategy are discussed.
1. What are the tasks, objectives, instruments and other roles that Dutch provinces have in general and as regards solar and wind energy?
The answer to this question provided insight in how provinces are involved in solar and wind energy. This insight served as a starting point for drawing up a complete and workable framework that is used to describe and compare the cases in the remainder of this research. To begin with, the provincial tasks, objectives, instruments and roles in general are described. Subsequently, a dive is taken into the provincial tasks, objectives, instruments and roles as regards solar and wind energy. Desk research has been conducted using multiple sources from actors such as the national government, the Interprovincial Consultation – ‘Interprovinciaal overleg (IPO)’ – and the Socio-Economic Council – ‘Sociaal-Economische Raad (SER)’. The sources used among other things included the Dutch Constitution, the Provinces Law and published documents.
2. What components should be taken into account to provide a complete description of provincial solar and wind energy policy?
A framework is developed consisting of the components of provincial solar and wind energy policy. According to Patlitzianas et al. there is no unique common framework of indicators that always can be used to monitor energy policies, because the selection of the appropriate indicators depends on the energy policies that will be monitored. Besides, Patlitzianas et al. stated that appropriateness, completeness and flexibility are criteria for selecting energy indicators (Patlitzianas, et al., 2008). The framework drawn up and used within this research is developed on the basis of the policy cycle. Each stage of the policy cycle is gone through in order to find the components of provincial policy, after which it is investigated what these components include as regards provincial solar and wind energy policy. Besides, it is possible that several of the components consist of sub-components. For example, the implementation stage is about the implementation of policy instruments, and various policy instruments are available to implement in the field of solar and wind energy policy. The framework is created by structuring the components found. In the remainder of this research the framework is used to describe and compare the provincial policies in an appropriate and unambiguous way.
3. What solar and wind energy policy is implemented by each of the provinces of Noord-Brabant and Gelderland?
The answer to this question led to complete descriptions of the solar and wind energy policy implemented by the provinces of Noord-Brabant and Gelderland. Later on the descriptions are used to compare the provincial policy to each other. Both cases are examined on the basis of the framework that has been drawn up in order to ensure that a valid and fair comparison could be made. Therefore, each component is discussed separately for both selected provinces. To do so, provincial documents such as coalition agreements, execution programs and other documents that contain information about the provincial policies have been studied. Some of the documents used are entirely about the energy transition, while other documents only dedicate a few sentences on the subject. Moreover, the descriptions of both cases start off with a brief section on the regional spatial characteristics. This information on regional spatial characteristics was required for answering the main question.
4. How do the provinces of Noord-Brabant and Gelderland differ from each other looking at the implemented solar and wind energy policy and spatial characteristics?
The fourth research question was formulated in order to identify the differences and similarities between the solar and wind energy policy implemented by the provinces of Noord-Brabant and Gelderland. The process for identifying the differences and similarities consisted of comparing the policy of these provinces. In order to carry out the comparison and provide a clear overview, the policies of both provinces have been put side by side in a table. The categories utilized are similar to the components that have been used to describe the policies. Carrying
8 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 out the comparison was an indispensable step in the research for drawing conclusions about the degree of pluriformity. As regards the regional spatial characteristics, the distribution of area over categories, such as agriculture and residential area, as indicated by CBS have been examined.
5. Are the regional spatial characteristics clear drivers for the differences and similarities between solar and wind energy policy implemented by the selected provinces, and what other drivers seem to be at play?
The answer to this question provided information on why the provinces of Gelderland and Noord-Brabant implemented the solar and wind energy policy that they have implemented. The information gathered in response to this question was required in order to draw conclusions about the influence of regional spatial characteristics on the choice for certain provincial solar and wind energy policy. In addition, the research question asks whether other drivers for differences and similarities seems to be at play. This information contributed to drawing up a complete conclusion that provides information that goes a little further than just answering the main question and possibly provides additional food for thought. The research question is answered by looking at the comparison that has been executed and the relevant documents that have been used to describe the policies of the province of Gelderland and the province of Noord-Brabant. Often these documents include explanations on why certain decisions were made. In addition, the information provided in the third chapter of this research has been used, which explains, amongst other things, why and how the provincial objectives on wind energy on land are formulated.
The main question: ‘How do the province of Gelderland and the province of Noord-Brabant differ from each other as regards solar and wind energy policy, and are the regional spatial characteristics an important driver for pluriformity?’
The abovementioned research questions jointly led to the information that was necessary to substantially answer the main question. Therefore, prior to answering the main question, a brief summary has been provided that consists of all the relevant and striking findings that emerged from answering the research questions.
1.8.2 Interviews During this research a few interviews have been conducted. The interviews are conducted in a semi-structural way in order to provide room to the respondents to formulate answer comprehensively, and to allow the interviews to move to unplanned content and reveal new insights. A first interview is held with an advisor on spatial quality of the province of Noord-Brabant, who is, amongst other things, involved in solar and wind energy policy. The interview covered the provincial solar and wind energy policy in general and the corresponding legal, financial and administrative frameworks within which the provinces have to function. Furthermore, two interviews about sustainability and conducting research into energy policy were held with the managing director of ‘Telos’.
1.8.3 Quality of data Some remarks can be made about the quality of data. First, the data used is mainly extracted from documents that have been made public by the selected provinces. What is drawn up in these documents possibly differs from what actually occurs. Nevertheless, documents such as coalition agreements, policy programs and budgets provide clear information on the provincial policy, since these documents, amongst other things, form a guideline for the administration of the province. Secondly, several parts of the energy transition are intertwined and are regularly pulled together in more comprehensive policy, making it difficult to study these parts, such as solar and wind energy, solely. For example, the budgets that have been made available for the energy transition are not distributed into smaller categories, so the actual budget for solar and wind energy is unclear. Another example is about communicative and economic instruments implemented with multiple policy aims, making it difficult to determine to what extent the instruments actually contribute to solar and wind energy. This has been taken into account in the research by making a clear distinction between relevant and irrelevant parts of the conducted policy, and indicating when it is not possible to make a distinction.
9 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 1.9 Thesis outline This research report consists of seven chapters starting with an introduction chapter. The second chapter contains the theoretical framework. In chapter three the tasks, objectives, instruments and roles of Dutch provinces are indicated and the framework consisting of the policy components is provided. In the fourth and fifth chapter the solar and wind energy policies implemented by the selected provinces are described. Thereafter, the similarities and differences between the examined policies and the drivers for these similarities and differences are described in chapter six. Finally, in the concluding chapter an answer is provided to the main question.
Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework Chapter 3: Provinces and policies Chapter 4: Noord-Brabant Chapter 5: Gelderland Chapter 6: Comparing the cases Chapter 7: Conclusions
10 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework Various concepts and theories are relevant for studying differences in provincial solar and wind energy policy. These concepts and theories are explained within this chapter in order to provide a usable starting point and an image of what this research exactly entails. Firstly, information is provided on the ‘policy cycle’, regions, divergence, differentiation and decentralization. Thereafter, the energy units, ‘Triple Bottom Line’ and ‘Trias Energetica’ are described. The broader concepts of environmental sustainable development and the energy transition have already been discussed in section 1.1.2 and 1.1.3.
2.1 The policy cycle The policy cycle is a model in which it is assumed that policy development consists of several stages. In 1956, the concept of dividing the policy process into several stages has been introduced by Harold Laswell, after which several variants of the policy cycle have been developed. Nowadays, the policy cycle is accepted as a cycle consisting of five chronological stages, after which the cycle starts again from the beginning. The stages are agenda setting, formulation, adoption, implementation and evaluation. First, the stage of ‘agenda setting’ is about the process of getting a social problem on the agenda for consideration of public intervention. Then, policies are formulated by transforming the expressed social problems into government programs in the ‘formulation stage’, where after there is decided on the actual implementation of these programs in the ‘adoption stage’. The ‘implementation stage’ is about the actual execution and enforcement of policies by the responsible actors. Finally, the process and intended outcomes of the implemented policies are evaluated in the ‘evaluation stage’, leading to the choice to reinforce or terminate the policies. The policy cycle has been criticised constantly, since actual policy shaping usually does not happen according discrete chronological stages. Besides, the process of policy shaping is oversimplified in the model, since influencing factors, such as previously implemented policies and interaction between cycles and actors, are not taken into account. However, the policy cycle prescribes a theoretical ideal sequence of stages. Therefore, the policy cycle functions as a durable normative model, which is often applied as a template to organize and structure research on public policy (Werner & Wegrich, 2007).
Because of the previously mentioned practical limitations, the policy cycle in itself is not directly suitable for describing provincial solar and wind energy policy. Therefore, an intermediate step was required in which a framework consisting of the components of such policy is developed on the basis of the policy cycle. This intermediate step has been elaborated in section 3.7.
2.2 Regions As mentioned before, regions have an important role within the energy transition. According to TiREG, a distinction can be made between ‘formal regions’ and ‘functional regions’. A formal region has “a defined border and recognized governance authority”, while a functional regions is considered a region because of characteristics and activities. Moreover, which areas are referred to by the term ‘region’ depends on the context of the whole (TiREG, 2017).
Since this research is focused on Dutch Provinces it is about formal regions within the Netherlands that function between the municipal and national government. However, it must be borne in mind that provinces most likely consist of smaller functional regions and are part of larger functional regions.
2.3 Divergence (from homogeneity to heterogeneity) An actual state of differences between geographical units as regards all characteristics, excluding characteristics directly related to the government and governance domain, is referred to by the term ‘heterogeneity’. The antonym of ‘heterogeneity’ is ‘homogeneity’. In addition, the process from homogeneity to heterogeneity is referred to by the term ‘divergence’. Moreover, TiREG indicates that pluriformity; a state of differences in policy between geographical units, and divergence have a possible causal relationship, in which pluriformity causes divergence and thus an increase in heterogeneity (TiREG, 2017).
11 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 2.4 Differentiation (from uniformity to pluriformity) In general, differentiation can be defined as the process of distinguishing. According to Ape, differentiation is an “essentially contested concept”, which means that the exact interpretation of the concept can be argued endlessly (Ape, 2016). Since the concept of differentiation is relevant in different contexts there are various types and meanings of differentiation.
In this study, differentiation is approached within the context of public administration, and is about governmental aspects. The definition of ‘differentiation’ is adopted that refers to the process from ‘uniformity’; a state of intergovernmental similarities, to ‘pluriformity’; a state of intergovernmental differences. The term ‘uniformization’, on the other hand, refers to the reverse process from ‘pluriformity’ to ‘uniformity’.
Explained by Ape, there are different ways to approach differentiation in the context of public administration. Amongst other things, the ´Raad van Openbaar Bestuur´ distinguishes categories of potential causes for differentiation, and the ´Studiegroep openbaar bestuur´ distinguishes forms of differentiation based on the contexts in which differentiation can take place. However, Ape states that the approaches proposed to date are not sufficiently suitable to discuss the diverse views on differentiation in practice. In addition, Ape concludes that a distinction should be made between ´top-down’ differentiation and ‘bottom-up’ differentiation, and between differentiation that aims for pluriformity of the supply level and differentiation that aims for uniformity of the supply level. Furthermore, opinions on the required or desired degree of differentiation vary (Ape, 2016). Proponents of differentiation mainly approach differentiation as an instrument to realize customized public policies (Commissie Toekomst Lokaal Bestuur, 2006). By adapting policy to local challenges and preferences, differentiation can be used to implement/achieve more effective and efficient policy. In addition, differentiation can be used to counteract unwanted mutual differences in supply levels. Opponents of differentiation mainly argue that extensive differentiation can result in vagueness, and that it is questionable whether differentiation is consistent with the principle of equality. Reasons for deciding not to differentiate are homogeneity in challenges and preferences, economies of scale, and externalities (Ape, 2016). However, as stated by TiREG, if pluriformity influences economic growth, it must be determined what type of differentiation should be applied in order to achieve the desired results. Furthermore, TiREG indicated the possible causal relationship between heterogeneity and differentiation, in which heterogeneity causes differentiation and therefore increasing pluriformity. As mentioned before, pluriformity may/can in turn cause an increase in heterogeneity (TiREG, 2017).
Within this research it is questioned to what extent homogeneous regional spatial characteristics are a driver for similar provincial solar and wind energy policy. Therefore, the possible causal relationship indicated by TiREG is examined the other way around, questioning whether uniformity is caused by homogeneity.
2.5 Decentralization “Decentralization is the transfer of authority from higher levels of government, to lower levels” (TiREG, 2017). For example, decentralization occurred when the government tasks related to youth care were transferred from the provinces to the municipalities in the Netherlands in 2015. Decentralization can be realized through both ‘autonomy’; freedom of decentralized authorities to regulate within its own territory, and ‘joint administration’; decentralized implementation of regulations and policies derived by the national government (Schaap, 2012). Decentralized autonomy is likely to lead to differentiation. However, this is not a guarantee, since autonomous government bodies can decide to implement uniform policies. On the other hand, differentiation can also be the result of selective policies implemented by the national government (TiREG, 2017).
2.6 Energy units This section provides a brief explanation about the energy units that are of relevance for this research. Firstly, ‘Joule’ (J) is a term used to indicate an amount of energy. The term ‘Terajoule (TJ)’ is used to refer to 1,000,000,000,000 J. Secondly, the term ‘Watt (W)’ refers to a ‘Joule per second (J/S)’. In other words, ‘Watt’ indicates the rate of energy transfer, or the amount of energy consumed or generated over a particular time. For
12 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 example, the term ‘Watt’ can be used to indicate the capacity of power with which energy can be generated by one or multiple wind turbines. Moreover, the term ‘Megawatt (MW)’ refer to 1,000,000 W.
2.7 The Triple Bottom Line According to J. Elkington (1997), and cited in many other studies; sustainable development consists of an environmental, economic and social dimension, that jointly take into account the total costs and impacts involved in doing business. This concept is referred to by the ‘Triple Bottom Line’ (Elkington, 1997). The Triple Bottom Line indicates that a corporation should understand the bigger picture of the impacts of decisions and trade-offs in order to develop in a sustainable manner. To do so, compromises must be made that take into account each of the three dimensions. In practice, decisions often are trade-offs between the dimensions. For example, wind turbines to reduce greenhouse gas emissions possibly weakens the view on landscapes, which in turn can affect tourist trade. Such trade-offs can also be found within a single dimension (Farr, 2009). For example, placing wind turbines to reduce greenhouse gas emissions possibly affect population levels of certain bird species (Drewit & Langston, 2006 & Farr, 2009). Moreover, several researchers and authors proposed a fourth bottom line that potentially could be added to the ‘Triple Bottom Line’. According to Farr, for example, the planet dimension should be divided in the local environment and the global environment (Farr, 2009). Other examples of fourth bottom lines are ‘spirituality’ (Inayatullah, 2005) and ‘personal and family happiness’ (Fonseca, 2015).
2.8 Trias Energetica In order to achieve the most sustainable energy supply in a cost-effective way there should be paid attention to the three steps presented in the ‘Trias Energetica’ strategy (RVO, 2015). The first step is to reduce the demand for energy. Secondly, the remaining demand must be met with renewable energy as much as possible. Thereafter, a third step might be required to supplement the remaining demand with unsustainable energy that is generated in the most efficient and harmless way possible. The three steps co-act in a sequential and efficient way to realize a system that is running on environmental sustainable energy. The strategy proposes a way of acting that is both efficient for the environment and cost-effective, because it is energy-efficient with as much renewable energy as possible and the energy savings for each euro spent. Although the ‘Trias Energetica’ strategy is primarily applied in the building sector (RVO, 2015), the ‘IPS2E’ also applies the strategy to spatial integration of renewable energy sources (IPS2E, 2014).
13 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Chapter 3: Provinces and policies
3.1 Dutch provinces The Netherlands is a decentralized unitary state consisting of three government layers, which are the national government, provinces and municipalities. No provisions about roles and tasks are fixed between these government layers, and therefore there is an open structure in which tasks are divided and redistributed (Kennisbank Openbaar Bestuur, 2015). The Netherlands has a total of twelve provinces (CBS, 2017-a). As mentioned before, these provinces focus on regions and function between the municipalities and the national government (Rijksoverheid, n.d.-a). In article 125 of the Dutch Constitution it is regulated that each province has its own administrative bodies, which are the ‘Provincial States’ – ‘Provinciale Staten (PS)’ –, the Provincial Executive – ‘Gedeputeerde Staten (GS)’ –, and the ‘King’s Commissioner’ – ‘Commissaris van de Koning’. Furthermore, article 124, paragraph one of the Dutch Constitution states that the provincial governments have the authority to regulate and govern their own household. This means that a province is authorized to decide both whether to take on tasks that are related to the government and policies of the province, and what to do in order to perform these tasks including the introduction of regulations (PDC, n.d.). However, article 118 of the Provinces Law – ‘Provinciewet’ – states that such regulations may not be in conflict with national laws or ‘general measures of governance’ – ‘Algemene Maatregelen van Bestuur’. Through these measures the national governance sets rules regarding various policy areas such as housing, environment and health care (Parlement & Politiek, n.d.).
3.1.1 Provincial States Article 125, paragraph 1 of the Dutch Constitution regulates that the Provincial States are in charge of the province. The members of the Provincial States are elected by the residents of the province. Thereby, the Provincial States jointly outline and decide on provincial policy and monitor the Provincial Executives (Rijksoverheid, 2013). The Provincial States therefore have a representative, framework-setting and controlling role (Partners & Pröpper, 2003). Article 145 of the Provinces Law regulates that the Provincial States are authorized to adopt regulations that are considered necessary for the province. Besides, article 146 of the Provinces Law states that the Provincial States are able to demand co-operation from governing bodies of municipalities and ‘Water boards’ – ‘Waterschappen’ – for the execution of these regulations. Moreover, in order to properly perform the controlling role, a member of the Provincial States cannot simultaneously be a member of the Provincial Executives (Rijksoverheid, 2010-a).
3.1.2 Provincial Executive Article 158, paragraph 1 of the Provinces Law states that the Provincial Executive are the executive committees of provinces, that both prepare and execute the decisions made by the Provincial States. In addition, the article states that the Provincial Executive make rules for the civil service of the province and decide on private legal actions. Besides, the provinces are responsible for carrying out a significant part of the provincial tasks provided by the national government, including the monitoring of municipalities (Rijksoverheid, 2010-a). The Provincial States appoint the members of the Provincial Executive for a period of four years, and determine how the different policy areas are divided over the portfolios of the Provincial Executive (Rijksoverheid, 2010-b). In paragraph 1, article 167 of the Provinces Law it is determined that both the members of the Provincial Executive are both individually and jointly accountable to the Provincial States. Moreover, article 174 of the Provinces Law states that the Provincial Executive try to resolve disputes between public bodies within the province.
3.1.3 King’s Commissioner The King’s Commissioner is chairman of the Provincial States, and both member and chairman of the Provincial Executive. As a member of the Provincial Executive the King’s Commissioner is responsible for certain, assigned policy areas and accountable to the Provincial States. In addition to the provincial tasks, the King’s Commissioner performs national tasks and acts as a representative of the national government (Parlement & Politiek, 2016). The first paragraph of Article 175 of the Provinces Law states that the Commissioners of the King has to supervise the timely preparation, determination and implementation of provincial policy, the coordination of those involved in this policy process, the collaboration with other provinces and governing bodies, the quality of citizens participation, the careful treatment of objections, and the careful treatment of complaints made by the provincial government. The appointment of the King’s Commissioner is valid for a period of six years, after which one reappointment is possible (Parlement & Politiek, 2016).
14 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 3.2 General roles and tasks
3.2.1 Roles The role of the Dutch province adapts to social conditions, and therefore, the role has changed over the years. Currently, the role most expressed by the province is the role of spatial director (IPO, n.d.). In addition, a distinction can be made between the roles of co-creator, supervisor, executor, director, connector, stimulator, facilitator, and more. The province has to switch between roles if necessary, and must clearly define their role or roles for each situation (Seinstra, Van Leest & Gunnink, 2015). What roles are relevant thus depends on the subject and situation.
3.2.2 Tasks As mentioned before, the provincial government has the authority to regulate and govern its own household. Besides, the provincial government receives mandatory tasks from the national government. According to ‘IPO’, the provinces have some key tasks related to several topics, which are ‘sustainable spatial planning (including water management)’, ‘environment, energy and climate’, ‘management and development of nature’, ‘regional accessibility and public transportation’, ‘regional economy’, ‘cultural identity (including for example monument care)’, and ‘quality of local public administration’ (IPO, 2012). Approximately similar topics are described by ‘ProDemos’; a knowledge institution in the field of democracy and the rule of law in the Netherlands. These topics are ‘spatial planning and housing’, ‘society and culture’, ‘water management’, ‘economic and agricultural affairs, tourism and recreation’, ‘public transport’, and ‘supervision of municipalities’ (ProDemos, n.d.).
3.3 Roles, tasks and objectives related to energy
3.3.1 Energy roles The provinces have several roles with regard to solar and wind energy. First, the role of legislator and enforcer, that, for example, can be performed through environmental permits granted by the Provincial Executive (RVO, 2016). Secondly, the provinces are able to act as investors or lenders that financially support initiatives. Besides, provinces should fulfil the roles of networker and participant, since the energy objectives cannot be achieved by the government alone. Furthermore, the provinces possess plots of land, causing that provinces have the role of owner.
3.3.2 Energy tasks The main provincial tasks with regard to solar and wind energy are about spatial planning. Provinces are a key actor when it comes to spatial integration of wind turbines and solar panels, which require different space compared to traditional power plants (Boot, 2015). In order to contribute to the spatial integration, provinces have to draw up preconditions, explore the spatial integration of the energy mix, identify bottlenecks and help to solve these. As regards the spatial integration of wind turbines, provinces have to establish spatial plans and apply the relevant policy instruments (IPS2E, 2014). Paragraph 1, article 9e of the ‘Electricity Law 1998’ – ‘Elektriciteitswet 1998’ – states that the Provincial States are authorized to designate locations and establish a ‘Provincial Integration Plan (PIP)’ for the construction of wind energy projects with a capacity between 5 and 100 MW. Paragraph 2, article 9e of the ‘Electricity Law 1998’ obliges the Provincial States to at least make use of the authority to construct or extent a wind energy project with a capacity between 5 and 100 MW in cases where the project is rejected by the relevant municipality and the initiator has sent a written report to the province. In addition, article 9f states that the Provincial Executive coordinate the preparation and publication of the projects that result from article 9e. Furthermore, the provinces have some tasks with regard to solar and wind energy that do not directly relate to spatial planning. These tasks include facilitating projects, securing collaborations and agreements, increasing support with initiators, exploring the opportunities of the energy mix and facilitating the discussion, monitoring progress, and contributing to the objectives set in ‘NEA’ (IPS2E, 2014).
3.3.3 Energy objectives By signing ‘NEA’, the provinces have committed themselves to contribute to a few objectives on renewable energy. The first objective is to reach a 14% share of renewable energy in the total energy consumption by 2020, and 16% by 2023. The second objective is to achieve a capacity of 6,000 MW wind energy on land by 2020 (SER, 2013). Moreover, In 2013, the provinces offered to distribute the 6,000 MW among the provinces. As a result, each
15 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 province has its own objective of a certain amount of MW wind energy on land by 2020. The provinces, ‘IPO’ and the national government made some performance agreements in order to reach the 6,000 MW. These performance agreements state that each province has to establish its part of the 6,000 MW wind energy in a spatial vision, the provinces and national government have to make efforts for the timely development of initiatives, the provinces and national government have to arrange the necessary conditions for the development of initiatives, and the national government applies integration regulations if a province does not meet the agreements (Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Milieu & Ministerie van Economische Zaken, 2014). The interview with the advisor on spatial quality of the province of Noord-Brabant clarified that various arguments were used in the negotiations on the distribution of the 6,000 MW wind energy on land. These arguments were, among other things, about the present initiatives and attitudes of municipalities. Besides, in some cases political arguments where at play. Furthermore, no objectives have been agreed with regard to solar energy. The likely reason is that solar energy was not viable, or at least less viable compared to wind energy, in the time that the agreements and objectives for energy were set.
3.4 Policy components This section deals with the identification of the policy components which are required for drawing up a complete description of provincial solar and wind energy policy. It has been decided to use the policy cycle to identify the components, as the policy cycle provides a complete overview of the successive stages that policy development ideally consists of. As mentioned before, the stages of the policy cycle are agenda setting, formulation, adoption, implementation and evaluation.
3.4.1 Agenda setting The agenda setting stage is about getting the relevant topic on the agenda of the Provincial States, after which considerations are made about whether or not to interfere. Due to the aforementioned objectives set in the ‘NEA’, renewable energy is on the agenda of the provinces. Additional attention is paid to wind energy on land, because of the objective on wind energy that each province has to realize by 2020.
3.4.2 Formulation In this stage the expressed social problems are transformed into government programs that describe policy. Several documents published by provinces, such as a coalition agreement and relevant policy programs, show the vision and objectives that are formulated with regard to solar and wind energy. Therefore, these documents point out how solar and wind energy is approached by the province in question.
3.4.3 Adoption The third stage is about deciding on the actual approval of government programs, including policy instruments. Whether a government program is adopted becomes clear on the basis of set governance and budgets for the execution of the program. The budgets, for example, show that the Provincial States have decided to make financial resources available, and therefore decided to adopt the formulated program.
3.4.4 Implementation The translation from formulated government programs to actual execution and enforcement of policy occurs within the implementation stage. Within this stage the policy instruments for solar and wind energy are deployed. According Van der Doelen & Klok, a distinction can be made between communicative, economic and legal instruments (Van der Doelen & Klok, 1993). Firstly, the communicative instruments are about transferring knowledge, hearing and non-binding agreements. Secondly, the economic instruments involve payment or receipt of financial resources. Finally, legal instruments include the legally-binding rights and obligations settled, amongst other things, in laws, regulations and agreements. In addition to the implementation of policy instruments, collaborations can be coordinated in the implementation stage.
16 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 3.4.5 Evaluation The evaluation stage is about evaluating the policy process and outcomes of the previously implemented policy. Within this stage it is investigated whether the desired effects occurred and whether the policy should be continued or terminated. In addition, evaluations can also provide recommendations on adjustments and address the expected results to be achieved in the future. Usually, the evaluations are carried out by the relevant government body or an actor commissioned by the relevant government body. Moreover, the frequency and way of evaluating is a part of policy, and probably influences how policy will be approached by the Provincial States and Provincial Executive.
The components identified above do not did not directly provide a framework that can be used to describe and compare the policy of the selected provinces, because the components had to be structured and adjusted to provincial solar and wind energy policy first. Both the structuring and adjusting of the policy components in a framework is elaborated in the remainder of this chapter. Thereafter, the framework is used to describe the policies of the selected cases in chapter 4 and 5, and to make a comparison between these policies in chapter 6.
3.5 The policy framework This section displays the framework that has been created in order to describe provincial solar and wind energy policy. The framework contains the components that has been identified in section 3.4.
3.5.1 Vision and objectives The formulated vision and objective together are the first component that could differ between provincial solar and wind energy policy. Each province is to a certain extent able to formulate its own vision and objectives as regards solar and wind energy. To a certain extent, because at least the objectives must align with the objectives agreed with other actors. For example, the aforementioned objective about wind energy on land is a result of negotiations with the national government. However, provinces can formulate objectives that are even more ambitious than agreed. Another example is the agreed objective to achieve a 14% share of renewable energy. Furthermore, the provinces possibly formulate an objective for solar energy and a vision on becoming energy-neutral.
3.5.2 Governance and roles The governance and roles component is about how the structure of the board is organized and what roles the provinces fulfil as regards certain topics. The provincial States can include certain topics, such as ‘sustainable energy’, in the portfolio the Provincial Executive. In addition to the traditional governance structure within provinces, the provinces are able to establish managers or teams that are active in a specific policy area. This component includes whether and what kind of additional governance is established for the energy transition and solar and wind energy in particular. Some examples of roles that provinces can fulfil as are the facilitating role, the supporting role and the directing role.
3.5.3 Budgets The budgets allocation of a province shows the amount of financial resources that the province makes available for certain policy areas. Besides, the budget allocation provides insight into the choices the province makes and shows which subjects the province is concerned with. This also applies to solar and wind energy policy. The provinces describe the budget allocation to policy areas in the coalition agreements and the annually published budget documents.
3.5.4 Policy instruments As mentioned before, the policy instruments can be subdivided into communicative, economic and legal instruments. In order to get a complete overview of the policy instruments it has been decided to add a fourth category called ‘physical instruments’. The physical instruments refer to the plots of land and other possessions of the provinces that possibly can be used for solar and wind energy. The policy instruments that provinces can implement for the purpose of solar and wind energy are described below.
17 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 3.5.4.1 Communicative instruments
Informing: The provinces can implement informative instruments to bring about changes in the insights of other actors, including citizen. This type of communicative instruments can be implemented in various ways, since information can be provided through brochures, websites, social media, meetings, and more (Actal, 2006). Informative instruments could be executed to explain the importance of the energy transition and to encourage other actors to dedicate themselves to solar and wind energy.
Consulting: The provinces are able to consult with citizens and other actors. In contrast to informing, consulting is also about receiving information. Besides, consultation is usually focused on an individual case, while the informative instruments often have a more general focus (Actal, 2006). In other words, consultation is about mutual advice between actors. Provinces could apply consultation to receive and provide advice on solar and wind energy policy.
Research: Research can be carried out by or on behalf of the provinces to obtain new information. As regards research on solar and wind energy several topics are of relevance. For example, research can be about suitable locations for projects and the presence of initiatives. The knowledge obtained from research may provide input for future decisions.
Centre of expertise: A centre of expertise is an organization that is established with the purpose to acquire additional knowledge regarding a certain topic by conducting research (Actal, 2006). The acquired knowledge can be used by the provinces to make informed policy decisions. For example, a centre of expertise can be focused on spatial policies or certain parts of the energy transition.
Process Guidance: The provinces are able to offer support to initiatives and municipalities in the form of process guidance. As regards solar and wind energy the provinces can offer process guidance in various ways. For example, a province can provide expertise, capacity, networks and knowledge, or deploy process managers in order to guide the processes that lead to solar parks and wind farms.
Participation: Participation is about the engagement of citizens and other actors in one or more stages of the policy cycle. The ‘General Administrative Law’ – ‘Algemene wet bestuursrecht (AwB) – requires government bodies to make use of participation. Paragraph 1, article 3:11 of the Awb states that a government body is obliged to make the drafts of decisions and the relevant accompanying documents available for inspection. Paragraph 1, article 3:15 of the Awb continues that interested parties should get the opportunity to express their views on the draft. Therefore, all interests can be heard before the decisions are actually taken. Although participation is classified as a communicative instrument in this research, participation may also be organized through, for example, co-financing and co-governance.
Lobby: Furthermore, provinces are able to provide information and knowledge to other actors in order to try to influence the decisions made by these actors. For example, province can deploy lobbies at the national government and the European Union in order to eliminate bottlenecks, or to convince these actors that additional financial resource must be made available.
3.5.4.2 Economic instruments
Loans and guarantees: The provinces can offer loans and guarantees to actors in order to financially support actors with the realization of solar parks and wind farms. The loans provided by provinces often have favourable conditions in comparison to loans from banks, however the loans must be spent under the agreed conditions. Usually a loan has a revolving effect, since loans must be repaid. Guarantees are actually indirect loans. By deploying guarantees an actor lends from a loan provider other than the province, while the province guarantees that the loan will be repaid. The loan provider often estimates a lower risk when a government body guarantees
18 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 repayment, causing that the actor can take out a loan for a project more easily. In addition, guarantees may also lead to favourable conditions for the lending actor (ModerneTuinbouw.nl, 2013).
Traditional subsidies: Article 4:21 of the ‘Awb’ states that a subsidy is a financial transfer by a government body for realization of activities or projects others than payments for goods or services. Often subsidies finance activities or projects for a certain percentage of the total costs with a predetermined maximum. The subsidized activity or project must fulfil the conditions that have been agreed in order to obtain the subsidy. A province can decide to implement a subsidy to finance, for example, solar parks for 20% of the total costs up to a maximum of €1,000,000.-. A possible conditions then is that the profits of the project must be used for the benefit of the local society.
Investment funds: Provinces are able to set up investment funds in order to invest in activities and projects such as the realization of solar parks and wind farms. In practice, investment funds can be financed by both private and public investors. Furthermore, an investment fund is set up to achieve profit through an increase in the invested financial resources (Venture Media, 2013). It is therefore intended that investment funds have a revolving effect.
3.5.4.3 Legal instruments
The ‘Provincial Spatial regulation’ – ‘Provinciale ruimtelijke verordening’ – is drawn up by provinces in order to set rules with regard to spatial planning. The municipal spatial policies are obliged to comply with the rules that are included in the ‘Provincial Spatial regulation’. In addition, the spatial policies of provinces have to comply to the regulations that the national government included in the ‘Decree General rules Spatial planning’ – ‘Besluit Algemene regels Ruimtelijke ordening’ (Kenniscentrum InfoMil, 2016). Therefore, lower governments cannot just decide differently than the overarching visions and plans that are established by higher government bodies. Furthermore, provinces can include rules for solar parks and wind farms in the ‘Provincial Spatial regulation’.
The ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ – Provinciale Coördinatieregeling’: Article 3.33 of the ‘Law on spatial planning’ – ‘Wet ruimtelijke ordening’ – states that the Provincial States are able to designate cases or categories of cases to apply the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ to. By deploying the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ multiple decisions on a project will be taken simultaneously. Therefore, procedures can be accelerated, which allows projects to be realized in a shorter period of time. In addition, by deploying the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ only one round of public consultation for citizens to respond on the decisions is required. The arrangement can be used for the coordination of wind farms, making that the municipal authority to grant the ‘Environmental permit’ and the water board authority to grant the ‘Water permit’ shift to the Provincial Executive. However, the province can decide to return the authority if the relevant municipality and water board are willing to cooperate (RVO, 2017-a). A total of 1172 MW wind energy on land is tried to be achieved by planned projects that made use of a ‘Coordination arrangement’ at national, provincial or municipal level, at the end of 2016. Twenty percent of these 1172 MW is tried to be achieved through a ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ (RVO, 2017-b).
The ‘Provincial Integration Plan’ – ‘Provinciaal Inpassingsplan (PIP)’: Paragraph 1, article 9e of the ‘Electricity Law 1998’ states that the Provincial States are authorized to establish a ‘PIP’ for wind farms with a capacity between 5 and 100 MW. The second paragraph of the same article states that the Provincial States must at least make use of the authority described in the first paragraph when the relevant municipality rejects to allow such a wind energy project in the ‘Municipal zoning plan’ and the initiator of the project has sent a written report to the relevant province. The provinces can apply a ‘PIP’ in order to replace ‘Municipal zoning plans’ or parts thereof when national or regional interests are at stake (Provincie Limburg, 2017). A ‘PIP’ indicates what a piece of land may be used for and contains associated rules (Kenniscentrum InfoMil, 2012).
The ‘M.e.r.’-procedure refers to the procedure for an ‘Environmental effects report’ – ‘Milieu effecten rapportage (M.e.r.)’ – that comes into effect when plans or projects are prepared that may have adverse effects on the environment. The initiator of the plan or project reports about the expected effects on the environment and
19 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 includes the possible alternatives. Thereafter, the authorized government body uses the ‘m.e.r.’ to decide on the plan or project (Commissie m.e.r., 2015). For wind farms with a capacity of < 15 MW or at least 10 wind turbines it is nationally obligated to perform a ‘m.e.r.’-assessment. As regards wind farms with a capacity of < 15 MW or less than 10 wind turbines it is nationally obliged for the authorized government body to assess whether the ‘m.e.r.’-assessment should be executed according to European directives (RVO, 2010). Two types of ‘m.e.r’- procedures exist, which are a limited and an extended procedure. The extended procedure is used for government plans and complex projects. The limited procedures, on the other hand, is used for permits unless it is regulated otherwise in the ‘Nature protection law’ – ‘Natuurbeschermingswet’ (Commissie m.e.r., 2015). Furthermore, the ‘Commission m.e.r.’ has been established to provide independent public advices on the content of ‘environmental effects reports’ (Commissie m.e.r., 2018).
The ‘Environmental permit’ – ‘Omgevingsvergunning’: Paragraph 1, article 2.1 of the ‘Act general provisions environmental law’ – ‘Wet algemene bepalingen omgevingsrecht’ – prohibits to execute a building project without an ‘Environmental permit’. Municipalities are usually the competent authority for granting the ‘Environmental permit’. However, in some cases the Provincial Executive or national government becomes the competent authority (Kenniscentrum InfoMil, 2013). For example, as regards wind farms with a capacity between 5 and 100 MW the province becomes the competent authority to grant the permit (RVO, 2017-a). Paragraph 4, article 9e of the ‘Electricity Law’ states that the Provincial Executive are authorized to decide on the application for an ‘Environmental permit’ for such a wind farm when the Provincial States designates a location for the wind farm in a ‘PIP’. Furthermore, the ‘Electricity Law’ also provides the possibility to the Provincial Executive to appoint the relevant municipality as the competent authority to regulate a wind energy project with a capacity between 5 and 100 MW (RVO, 2016).
The ‘Environmental law’ – ‘Omgevingswet’: In 2021 the ‘Environmental law’ enters into force, which bundles the current 26 regulations of spatial planning in one law to simplify the process (Rijksoverheid, n.d.-b). The ‘Environmental law’ provides five policy instruments to provinces. These policy instruments are the ‘Environmental vision’ – ‘Omgevingsvisie’ –, ‘Environmental regulation’ – ‘Omgevingsverordening’ –, the ‘Environmental permit’, program, and instruction (Aan de slag met de Omgevingswet, n.d.-a). Firstly, the ‘Environmental vision’ is a long term strategic vision for spatial planning, which provinces are obliged to draw up (Aan de slag met de Omgevingswet, n.d.-b)’. Secondly, the ‘Environmental regulation’ contains all regulations that the province imposes regarding the spatial environment (Aan de slag met de Omgevingswet, 2018). Thirdly, the ‘Environmental permit’ will continue to be used to grant permission for a spatial project (Aan de slag met de Omgevingswet, 2017-a). Fourthly, the program is a framework of policies for the “development, use, management, protection and/or conservation” of the spatial environment (Aan de slag met de Omgevingswet, 2017-b). Finally, an instruction can be used by the Provincial Executive to indicate how municipalities and Water Boards should act in specific cases (Aan de slag met de Omgevingswet, n.d.-c).
3.5.4.4 Physical instruments
Plots of land: Provinces own several plots of land for policy reasons. For example, provinces buy plots of land from farmers in order to construct provincial roads. Provinces could decide to use some of these plots of land to realize solar and wind energy projects themselves, or to make these plots of land available to other actors to realize such projects. The use of provincial plots of land for solar or wind energy directly contributes to the energy objectives. In addition, by doing so, the provinces can be an example to other actors.
3.5.5 Structural collaborations For the implementation of policies, provinces often cooperate with public and private organizations. As regards solar and wind energy policy the provinces are also able to decide to cooperate with actors and enter into structural collaborations. For example, a collaboration between a province, municipalities and energy cooperatives, which aims to develop multiple wind farms, or a partnership between multiple provinces for the joint implementation of policy instruments. Moreover, collaborations can be used to encourage other actors.
20 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 3.5.6 Evaluating and monitoring The final step of the policy cycle is about evaluating the implemented policy and monitoring the effects. The provinces can carry out evaluations on the policy programs and instruments themselves, or can decide to commission another actor to carry out the evaluation. The information that results from the evaluations can be used to make informed decisions about adjusting, continuing or terminating the policy. As regards provincial solar and wind energy policy, the provinces can decide to evaluate the established ‘Implementation programs’ about the energy transition, or certain parts thereof. Furthermore, the realized capacity solar and wind energy can be monitored in order to gain insight into the results achieved so far.
3.5.7 Outcomes In continuation of the previous component about monitoring and evaluating, provinces may have different outcomes as regards solar and wind energy. This component is about what has been achieved so far. Relevant variables are the achieved capacity (MW) of solar and wind energy and the realized amount (TJ) of solar and wind energy in a given period of time.
21 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Chapter 4: Noord•Brabant This fourth chapter is about the solar and wind energy policy implemented by the province of Noord•Brabant. The policy is described on the basis of the components of the framework that derived from the previous chapter. The components of this framework are vision and objectives, governance and roles, budgets, communicative instruments, economic instruments, legal instruments, physical instruments, structural collaborations, evaluating and monitoring, and outcomes. Each of these components is elaborated in its own section below.
4.1 Spatial characteristics Noord•Brabant is consisting of 5,082.06 km2 of which 4,908.29 km2 is land surface (CBS, 2017-a) and 176.59 km2 is water surface. In 2015, Noord-Brabant consisted of 3045.15 km2; 59.92% of agriculture land, 853.12 km2; 16.79% of open nature and forest areas, 617.59 km2; 12.15% of build-up terrain, 176.12 km2; 3.46% of traffic area, 144.28 km2; 2.84% of recreation area, and 69.21 km2; 1.36% of semi-build-up terrain. Besides, the 12.15% build-up terrain includes 396.66 km2; 7.8% of residential area and 157.01 km2; 3.09% of business parks (CBS, 2017-b). In total, Noord-Brabant counted 2,498,749 inhabitants on 1 January 2016 (CBS, 2017-a). 64 Municipalities are located within the borders of Noord•Brabant, of which four municipalities have more than 100,000 inhabitants; Breda, Eindhoven, ‘s-Hertogenbosch and Tilburg (CBS, 2017-c). Furthermore, Noord-Brabant is located in the southern part of the Netherlands and is landlocked.
4.2 Vision and objectives This section contains the vision and objectives of the province of Noord•Brabant regarding solar and wind energy as described in the provincial documents and agreements. The vision and objectives are presented in a chronological order.
4.2.1 Energy agenda of Noord-Brabant 2010-2020 (2010) In 2010, the province of Noord-Brabant adopted the ‘Energy agenda of Noord-Brabant 2010-2020’ – ‘Energieagenda van Noord•Brabant 2010-2020’. Within this agenda the province of Noord•Brabant described its views and objectives regarding energy. In the preface of this agenda, Mrs. Jacobs, a then Provincial Executive in the province of Noord-Brabant, invited others to achieve that 100% of the energy use in Noord•Brabant is sustainable by 2040. The importance of cooperation is emphasized in the ‘Energy agenda of Noord-Brabant 2010-2030’. Regarding solar energy, the agenda states that the business case of solar energy potentially has great values for Noord-Brabant such as 10,000 new jobs and half of the Dutch total sales by 2020, a global market position, and contributing to environmental targets. Therefore, the province of Noord-Brabant wants to invest in cluster formation. With regard to wind energy the province expressed the ambition to realize 320 MW wind energy by 2020. This objective arises from an investigation into potential locations and the realizable potential of wind turbines. Furthermore, the ambition is expressed to realize four or five experimentation areas to facilitate and stimulate the application of sustainable energy technology (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2010).
4.2.2 Agreement on wind energy (2013) In 2013, the provinces, IPO and the national government agreed that the provinces jointly have to realize 6,000 MW wind energy on land by 2020, of which Noord•Brabant has to realize 470.5 MW; 7.84% (IPO, 2013). The 470.5 MW objective is 47.03% more than the ambition of 320 MW wind energy that was formulated in the ‘Energy agenda of Noord•Brabant 2010-2020’.
4.2.3 Structure Vision 2010-2025 (2014) The province of Noord•Brabant adopted the ‘Structure Vision 2010-2025’ – ‘Structuurvisie 2010-2025’ – in 2010. Within this vision the province of Noord-Brabant outlines the provincial spatial policy for the indicated period. In 2014, the ‘Structure vision’ of the province of Noord-Brabant is partially revised. This revised vision, amongst other things, describes that the need for sustainable energy is increasing. Besides, the province of Noord-Brabant stated that the integration of sustainable energy requires a clear spatial vision. With regard to wind energy the province of Noord-Brabant indicated that it supports the development of wind energy under certain conditions. Furthermore, the province of Noord-Brabant formulated the target of 470.5 MW wind energy on land by 2020. With regard to solar energy, the province of Noord-Brabant stated to see possibilities for solar energy on wasteland (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2014-a).
22 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 4.2.4 Coalition agreement 2015-2019 (2015) In 2015, the province of Noord-Brabant adopted the ‘Coalition agreement 2015-2019’ – ‘Bestuursakkoord 2015- 2019’. This agreement contains a chapter on sustainability, in which it is stated that the economical and societal opportunities for solar energy are recognized and that the objective of 470.5 MW wind energy will be realized. Furthermore, the ambition is described that people who live close to wind farms can benefit from these wind farms (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2015-a).
4.2.5 Energy implementation program (2016) The ‘Energy implementation program’ – ‘Uitvoeringsprogramma Energie’ – is a program adopted by the province of Noord•Brabant to reach the energy objectives within the set time. The program contains the objectives that 14% of the used energy must be renewable by 2020, and that Noord•Brabant is completely energy-neutral by 2050. To achieve these objectives, five acceleration paths have been plotted. The acceleration paths known as ‘Sustainable Energy Farming (SEF)’ and ‘Energetic landscapes’ contain additional targets for solar and wind energy. Firstly, the norm is stated that solar and wind energy should jointly contribute for at least three percent to the fourteen percent renewable energy objective by 2020. Within ‘SEF’ the ambitions are described to develop a knowledge cluster that executes at least ten initiatives and to support at least fifteen projects in the agricultural sector to supply sustainable energy by 2020. The acceleration path ‘Energetic landscapes’ contains the targets that at least three projects with a minimum of 50 MW are managed by the province of Noord•Brabant, and that plans for sustainable energy projects and local participation are discussed with at least fifteen municipalities. Furthermore, it is stated in the ‘Energy implementation program’ that the share of solar and wind energy should increase at the expense of biomass (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2016-a).
4.2.6 Budget 2018 (2017) The ‘Budget 2018’ – ‘Begroting 2018’ – of the province of Noord-Brabant contains a few objectives related to sustainable energy. Firstly, the objective is formulated to reach 330 MW wind energy by 2018, which is an intermediate objective to the 470.5 MW objective. Secondly, the target is mentioned to jointly with stakeholders prepare three large-scale sustainable energy projects with a capacity of at least 50 MW between 2018 and 2020 (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2017-a).
4.2.7 Additional Energy implementation program 2018-2019 (2017) The ‘Additional Energy implementation program 2018-2019’ – ‘Aanvullende uitvoeringsprogramma Energie 2018-2019’ – is adopted by the province of Noord-Brabant during this research. The vision and objectives described in this document are the same as the objectives mentioned in the previous ‘Energy implementation program’, with the exception of a newly formulated objective, which is about achieving a capacity of 250 MW solar energy in Noord-Brabant with at least 50,000 citizens participating. In the ‘Additional Energy implementation program 2018-2019’ it is stated that the objectives on sustainable energy will be reached, but that still a lot needs to be done in the coming years. In addition, it is stated that empty stables should be used to generate solar energy, and that the province of Noord-Brabant wants to give execution to two large-scale wind energy projects in addition to the project along the A16-motorway. Moreover, the province of Noord-Brabant stated not to interfere in projects that can be realized without provincial support, and that the commitment of companies, institutions and governing bodies still is a key condition for reaching the energy objective (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-b).
4.2.8 Main vision and objectives The main objectives on solar and wind energy formulated by the province of Noord-Brabant are to achieve 470.5 MW wind energy on land and to reach a share of 14% renewable energy by 2020. In addition, the province of Noord-Brabant has formulated an objective of 250 MW solar energy in the ‘Additional Energy implementation program 2018-2019’. The vision formulated by the province of Noord-Brabant is to achieve an energy-neutral Noord-Brabant by 2050.
4.3 Governance and roles The national government, provinces, municipalities, private businesses, citizens and education institutions have a shared responsibility with regard to achieving the set energy objectives. Within this shared responsibility the province of Noord-Brabant is focused on connecting actors (CE Delft, 2017). In addition, the province of
23 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Noord-Brabant expressed to perform the roles of spatial director, facilitator (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2010) and participator (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-b). Furthermore, the province of Noord•Brabant has established a program manager and three ‘energy teams’ for the execution of the ‘Energy implementation program’. The program manager has an overall responsibility and reports to the Provincial Executive. Each of the ‘energy teams’ has a different focus area, which are ‘sustainable energy technology’, ‘directing’ and ‘sustainable implementation’. The team ‘directing’ is, among other things, focused on wind energy and innovative landscapes (CE Delft, 2017), while the teams ‘sustainable energy technology’ and ‘sustainable implementation’ have no primary focus on solar and wind energy.
4.4 Budgets As indicated in the ‘Coalition agreement 2015-2019’, the budget of the province of Noord-Brabant for the energy transition is €30,000,000.- for a period of four years. The total budget within the coalition agreement is €536,000,000.- (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2015-a), of which €30,000,000.- is 5.60%. In the ‘Budget 2018’ of the province of Noord-Brabant €5,481,000.-; 0.44% is budgeted for the energy transition, within a total budget of €1,232,000,000.- (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-a). In 2017, the province of Noord-Brabant has budgeted €5,144,000.-; 0,39% for the energy transition within a total budget of €1,306,000,000.- (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2016-b). Moreover, the province of Noord-Brabant did not set a budget to generate solar and wind energy itself.
4.5 Communicative instruments
4.5.1 Informing The province of Noord•Brabant deploys several instruments in order to inform citizens and others about wind energy. Firstly, to inform citizens and other actors meetings are organized such as the meeting about the installing of wind turbines along the A16-motorway held in November 2017. During this meeting experts gave explanation about the locations for the wind turbines. In addition, the process that the province of Noord-Brabant, the involved municipalities and citizens have jointly gone through the past few months is discussed (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2017-c). Another instrument deployed by the province of Noord-Brabant is the map about wind energy along the A16-motorway. This map shows the areas in which the locations for the placement of wind turbines are sought and which locations are indicated as preferred by the municipalities (Provincie Noord-Brabant, n.d.-a). In 2018, the province of Noord-Brabant works on communication with a broad audience to give more insights on how someone could contribute to the energy transition and how the province of Noord-Brabant contributes to the energy transition (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2017-a).
4.5.2 Consulting The province of Noord•Brabant organizes conversations with citizens and other actors in order to both give and receive advice regarding energy. At the end of 2015, the province of Noord-Brabant organized an ‘Energy Dinner’ and five ‘Energy Bars’ which led to new ideas and insights. Such conversations may result in promising acceleration in the field of generating energy (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2015-b). In 2018, the province of Noord-Brabant will make a part of the A16-motorway zone available for a public contest, in which participants have to come up with ideas about realizing sustainable energy projects that contribute to the acceptance of local citizens. This contest is organized by ‘Nederland Boven Water’ and ‘Rijkswaterstaat’ (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2017-a).
4.5.3 Research The province of Noord•Brabant carried out several researches in order to get a better grip on the possibilities and consequences of sustainable energy. One study is focused on the integration of solar parks in the countryside. Another study is focused on the spatial and financial opportunities of generating sustainable energy at regional and local level. A third study is focused on the opportunities of circular agriculture, which includes generating energy (CE Delft, 2017). Fourthly, the province of Noord•Brabant commissioned ‘Posad’ to conduct research on scenarios as regard becoming energy-neutral by 2050, including the potentials and spatial impacts in Noord-Brabant. This research concluded that solar and wind have the highest potential for sustainable energy and that it is possible for Noord-Brabant to become energy-neutral by 2050 (Posad, 2016). Fifthly, the province of Noord-Brabant has commissioned ‘PON’ to monitor the public support for energy measures in Noord-Brabant in 2016. This research concluded, amongst other things, that the citizens of Noord-Brabant have a positive view on making the energy
24 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 supply more sustainable and prefer solar and wind energy over other energy sources. In addition, the research shows that a majority of the citizens believe that the province of Noord-Brabant should be the first actor to take measures to stimulate the generation of sustainable energy (PON, 2016). As regards individual cases the province of Noord-Brabant conducted research on the possibilities for a large wind farm between ‘s-Hertogenbosch and Oss (CE Delft, 2017), commissioned ‘Bosch Slabbers Landschapsarchitecten’ to conduct research about the spatial integration of wind turbines with a capacity of 100 MW along the A16-motorway (Bosch Slabbers, 2016). Furthermore, the province of Noord-Brabant investigates whether business cases are achievable when farmers decide to break down their stables, remove the asbestos and realize a solar park (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-b).
4.5.4 Centre of expertise A couple of centres of expertise are involved in the spatial policy of the province of Noord-Brabant, including the spatial policy for solar and wind energy. The centres of expertise are ‘Brabant Expertise Centre Spatial Quality’ – ‘Brabants Expertisecentrum Ruimtelijke Kwaliteit (BERK)’ – the workplace called ‘Werkplaats De Gruyter’, and the ‘Provincial Council for the Living Environment’ – ‘Provinciale Raad voor de Leefomgeving’. Firstly, ‘BERK’ builds on a network for spatial quality by facilitating the conversation, providing examples and collaborating with other actors on spatial plans. The network of ‘BERK’ consists of landscape architects, landscape designers, and others who in one way or another value spatial quality (Provincie Noord-Brabant, n.d.-b). Secondly, ‘Werkplaats De Gruyter’ is a living lab that, amongst other things, is focussed on energy generation by experimenting, knowledge gaining and knowledge sharing (Werkplaats De Gruyter, 2017-a). To do so, the workplace connects various actors such as experts, students, entrepreneurs and government bodies (Werkplaats De Gruyter, 2017-a). As regard energy, ‘Werkplaats De Gruyter’ is particularly focused on sustainable energy farming, collaborating and supporting initiatives (Werkplaats De Gruyter, 2017-b). Besides, the aforementioned ‘SEF’ acceleration path from the ‘Energy implementation program’ is implemented and executed by ‘Werkplaats de Gruyter’ (CE Delft, 2017). In addition, ‘Werkplaats De Gruyter’ organizes knowledge circles in which experts, entrepreneurs and civil servants discuss the opportunities and obstacles of specific energy themes (Werkplaats De Gruyter, 2017-c). For example, the knowledge circle ‘Energy as a regional product’ – ‘Energie als streekproduct’ – is engaged in stimulating the agricultural sector to supply sustainable energy to the adjacent environment (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2017-a). Furthermore, a third centre of expertise is the ‘Provincial Council for the Living Environment’ (BrabantAdvies, 2017). This council provides advice to the province of Noord-Brabant on spatial policy for sustainable development, including the topics climate and energy (BrabantAdvies, 2016). Article 1 of the ‘Regulation provincial environmental commission province of Noord-Brabant’ – ‘Verordening provinciale omgevingscommissie provincie Noord-Brabant’ – states that the national requirement for a provincial spatial council, as laid down in article 9.1 of the ‘Law Spatial Planning’ – ‘Wet Ruimtelijke Ordening’ – is met through the establishment of the ‘Provincial Council for the Living Environment’.
4.5.5 Process Guidance The province of Noord-Brabant offers customized support to municipalities regarding solar and wind energy projects when local support is available, but the necessary expertise to realize the project is lacking. To do so, the province of Noord-Brabant provides expertise itself and ensures that capacity, knowledge and expertise becomes available from the private market. In order to provide this support the province of Noord-Brabant does a pre-investment, which has to be repaid after the project is realized (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-b). Furthermore, the province of Noord-Brabant expressed the aim to discuss plans for sustainable energy projects and local participation with at least fifteen municipalities (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2016-a).
4.5.6 Participation As regards the 100 MW wind energy project along the A16-motorway social participation is seen as an important precondition (CE Delft, 2017). According to ‘Bosch Slabbers’, the surrounding area should benefit from the project, which can be arranged by implementing energy saving measures or providing cheaper energy (Bosch Slabbers, 2016). The province of Noord-Brabant, project developers and involved municipalities agreed that a quarter of the return achieved by the project along the A16-motorway will be invested in funds for projects that contribute to both the local society and the energy transition. A foundation is established in each of the municipalities involved to manage the funds and maintain contact with the owners of the wind turbines (Provincie Noord-Brabant, n.d.-c).
25 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Moreover, in the ‘Energy implementation program’ the province of Noord-Brabant stated that each wind turbine organized through participation contributes to the economy of Brabant (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2016-a).
4.5.7 Lobby In the ‘Additional Energy implementation program 2018-2019’ the province of Noord-Brabant stated that it actively uses its lobby expertise to support partners in obtaining funds from the European Union in order to increase the available financial resources for projects (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-b). In addition, the province of Noord-Brabant lobbies at the Ministry of Economic Affairs concerning the solving of bottlenecks that arise from national policies (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-b) and inconsistent policies (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2015-b).
4.6 Economic instruments
4.6.1 Loans and guarantees
4.6.1.1 Green deal: solar cell technology The province of Noord-Brabant implemented the ‘Green deal: solar cell technology’ in order to contribute to innovative solar energy projects. This ‘Green deal’ is a guarantee on a loan for entrepreneurs that want to realize such a project. In addition, legal entities or partnerships of legal entities can receive this guarantee for the installing of innovative solar cell technology. The ‘Green deal’ remains available until 30 November 2018 or until the subsidy budget of €4,636,700.- is completely used. The minimum amount of subsidy for a project is €25,000.- and the maximum is €1,000,000.-. Moreover, the main conditions for receiving the guarantee are that the subsidized project has to be located in Noord-Brabant and has to make use of the newest available technology (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2017-d).
4.6.2 Traditional subsidies The province of Noord-Brabant currently does not have a traditional subsidy to contribute to solar and/or wind energy projects. A reason not to deploy traditional subsidies, but to deploy loans, guarantees and investment funds, could be that solar and wind energy projects are considered as ultimately financially profitable.
4.6.3 Investment funds
4.6.3.1 Energy fund Brabant The province of Noord-Brabant made the ‘Energy fund Brabant’ – ‘Energiefonds Brabant’ – available for speeding up the energy transition. This fund, housed at the ‘BOM’ – ‘Brabantse Ontwikkel Maatschappij’ –, is made available to invest in projects that directly contribute to generating sustainable energy or saving energy by making use of proven technologies. The fund has a budget of €60,000,000.- and a duration from 2014 until 2037 (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2017-a). Through the ‘Energy fund Brabant’ investments are made in the risk capital up to a maximum of 25% of the required capital. In addition to providing financial support, contribution will be made to the structuring of the project and the network. Initially, in order to be able to provide tailor-made assessments and structuring, the focus is on large-scale projects such as solar parks, wind farms and heat networks. The set conditions for the energy fund is that the project is about saving energy or generating renewable energy, the costs are at least €4,000,000.-, proven technologies are used, the partner has 50% of the venture capital in equity capital, a business case is available, and the partner is experienced (BOM, 2017). When a financed project has proven its performance the shares of the project are sold in order to make the invested financial resources available again (BOM, n.d.-a). Therefore, the ‘Energy fund’ has a revolving effect. Furthermore, the fund makes use of market-based rates, and the projects are evaluated continuously (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2014-b).
4.6.3.2 Network budget The province of Noord-Brabant has planned to set up a ‘Network budget’, which is a budget that will be financed in collaboration with network partners. This ‘Network budget’ aims on the roll-out of concrete projects and innovations for saving energy and generating sustainable energy. Each partner of the ‘Network budget’ is equivalent and contributes to the network by bringing in capacity, resources and ideas. The project proposals are arranged by an independent director, after which a steering committee assesses the proposals. Within the ‘Network budget’, the province of Noord-Brabant endorses the importance of collaboration with other actors such
26 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 as companies and citizens for achieving the energy transition. In addition, the province of Noord-Brabant indicates that its directive role is shifting to a participative role. By deploying the network budget the province of Noord-Brabant wants to create a powerful incentive that is considered necessary for achieving the energy objectives. Within the ‘Network Budget’ the province of Noord-Brabant finances projects for a maximum of 33%. Furthermore, the conditions imposed by the province of Noord-Brabant are that the participants actively share knowledge and experience and that the projects must eventually be able to roll out on a larger scale within Noord-Brabant. The ‘Network budget’ can be used, amongst other things, to realize solar energy projects (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-b).
4.6.3.3 Investment in the energy transition In the ‘Budget 2018’ of the province of Noord-Brabant, it is stated that five investment proposals were accepted, of which one is focused on the energy transition and the corresponding opportunity for innovation and sustainability. In particular, this one-off investment is focused on three clusters. These clusters are ‘solar energy’, ‘electric driving combined with smart grids’, and ‘the bio-based economy’. The purpose of the investment is to gain an international competitive position regarding these three areas. The amount made available by the Provincial States is €71,200,000.-. Furthermore, the province of Noord-Brabant stated that the investment has been completely allocated and that the financed projects are almost realized (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-a).
4.7 Legal instruments
4.7.1 Spatial Regulation Noord-Brabant The province of Noord•Brabant has adopted the ‘Spatial regulation Noord-Brabant’ – ‘Verordening ruimte Noord•Brabant’ – in 2010, and since then the regulation has been revised several times. The current ‘Spatial regulation’ contains a few articles on both solar and wind energy. In several of these articles the ‘Groenblauwe mantel’ is mentioned, which refers to areas that have an important secondary function for nature and water, and are connected or adjacent to the ‘Nature Network Brabant’ – ‘Natuur Netwerk Brabant’ – or ‘ecological connection zone’ – ‘ecologische verbindingszone’. Regarding wind energy, article 4.9 of the ‘Spatial regulation’ states that a ‘municipal zoning plan’ – ‘Gemeentelijk bestemmingsplan’ – can allow the construction of wind turbines larger than 25 meters in existing urban areas when the location is on or adjacent to terrain intended for heavy or medium-sized industrial site, the wind turbines are clustered by a minimum of three and it is ensured that the wind turbines are demolished after the end of use. Secondly, article 6.18 states that wind turbines larger than 25 meters are possible in the ‘Groenblauwe Mantel’, under the same conditions as set in article 4.9. However, article 6.18 adds that deviation from the condition that the wind turbines are placed on or adjacent to terrain intended for heavy or medium-sized industrial site is possible when the wind turbines offer a social added value. Under the same conditions and the possible deviation thereof, article 7.19 states that the wind turbines are possible in mixed rural areas. Both article 6.18 and 7.19 state that the wind turbines may only be realized if a procedure guarantees the temporality. For example, an ‘Environmental permit’ with a maximum duration of 25 years, after which the state prior to the permit has to be restored. Article 33 states that ‘Municipal Zoning plans’ are allowed to provide the possibility for wind turbines with a height of at least 25 meters in areas considered as ‘search areas wind turbines’ – ‘zoekgebied windturbines’ – when certain conditions are met. These conditions are that the location for the wind turbines is not a part of the ‘Nature Network Brabant’, the wind turbines are placed in a cluster or line formation of at least five wind turbines, the wind turbines are demolished after the end of use, and the wind turbines are compatible with the spatial environment. The second paragraph of article 33 states that under additional conditions the minimum number of five wind turbines per cluster or line formation can be reduced to three wind turbines. As regards solar energy, the ‘Spatial regulation’ mainly is about solar panels that are not combined with buildings, which are called ‘independent solar panels’. Article 6.19 states that independent solar panels are possible in the ‘Groenblauwe mantel’, even if the size of the solar park is larger than 5000m2. In addition, article 7.20 states that the independent solar panels are also possible in mixed rural areas, even if the size of the solar park is larger than 5000m2. Both article 6.19 and article 7.20 include a third paragraph which states that deviation from a ‘Municipal Zoning plan’, to install independent solar panels, is only possible through a provincial ‘Environmental permit’ when a municipal vision shows that the designation of a location is necessary to meet the sustainable energy objectives, the municipal vision indicates which locations are suitable considering space usage, social added value is achieved, and the solar park is compatibility with the environment. Furthermore,
27 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 the fourth paragraph of both articles states that the duration of the ‘Environmental permit’ has a mandatory maximum of 25 years, after which the state prior to the permit has to be restored (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2017-e).
4.7.2 Provincial Coordination arrangement The province of Noord-Brabant deployed one ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ for the purpose of generating wind energy. After the national government transferred the coordination authority for the wind energy project along the A16-motorway to the province of Noord-Brabant, the Provincial States decided to apply the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ for this project. Reasons to deploy the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ were that the municipalities involved and the province of Noord-Brabant decided to jointly develop the project, the arrangement is considered necessary for wind energy projects of this size, and the procedure to realize the project would be shorter (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-f). The four municipalities involved; Breda, Drimmelen, Moerdijk and Zundert, and the province of Noord-Brabant deem it necessary that the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ is applied in order to meet the deadline of 31 December 2020 that is agreed with the national government and to achieve a careful process (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2016-c).
4.7.3 Provincial Integration Plan Currently the province of Noord-Brabant works on a ‘PIP’ in order to reserve space for the wind energy project along the A16-motorway. The province of Noord-Brabant decided to draft a ‘PIP’ for this project at request of the four municipalities involved. The ‘PIP’ contains the designation of locations and the conditions that must be met (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2018-a). The project area should be suitable for a capacity of 100 MW wind energy supplied by 30-50 wind turbines (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2016-d). Moreover, it is expected that the project can be realized before 2020 (CE Delft, 2017). In 2012, the province of Noord-Brabant revised a ‘PIP’ in order to allow two initiatives for wind turbines along the southern side of the river Dintel (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2012). This two initiatives are wind farm ‘Dintel-Suiker Unie’ and wind farm ‘Dintel-SurveyCom’, which jointly consist of 6-8 wind turbines with an approximate capacity of 3 MW per wind turbine (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2011-a).
4.7.4 M.e.r.-procedure The province of Noord-Brabant carried out a ‘m.e.r.’-assessment in preparation to the ‘PIP’ for the wind energy project along the A16-motorway. The calculated effects on both the ecological and spatial environment are indicated in this ‘m.e.r.’ (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2018). Another ‘m.e.r.’-assessment is carried out in preparation to the revision of the ‘PIP’ for the wind energy projects along the southern side of the Dintel. Moreover, a third initiative for which the municipality Moerdijk is the authorized government body is also included in this ‘m.e.r’-assessment (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2011-a).
4.7.5 Environmental permits In the course of time the province of Noord-Brabant received several ‘Environmental permit’ applications for wind energy projects and an ‘Environmental permit’ application for a solar energy project. In 2013, the Provincial Executive granted ‘Raedthuys Windenergie B.V.’ an ‘Environmental permit’ which allowed four wind turbines at a location in Steenbergen (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2013). In addition, Raedthuys Windenergie B.V.’ recently submitted several applications for ‘Environmental permits’ that allow wind turbines along the A16-motorway. These applications are for six wind turbines in Moerdijk (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2018-b), a wind turbine in Rijsbergen (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2018-c), three wind turbines in Galder (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2018-d) and three wind turbines in Zundert (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2018-e). Some other organizations have applied for an ‘Environmental permit’ for wind turbines along the A16-motorway too. These are ‘Nieuweer B.V.’ for three wind turbines in Breda (Noord-Brabant, 2018-f), ‘Waaijenberg B.V.’ for a wind turbine in Zundert (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2018-g), ‘De Roover B.V.’ for a wind turbine in Galder (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2018-h), and ‘Nuon Wind Development B.V.’ for six wind turbines in Zevenbergschen Hoek (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2018-i). Moreover, the province of Noord-Brabant stated that at least one ‘Environmental permit’ is planned to be granted for the 100 MW wind energy project along the A16-motorway in 2018 (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2017-a). As regards solar energy, the province of Noord-Brabant recently approved an application for an ‘Environmental permit’ to ‘Zonnepark Budel B.V.’. This ‘Environmental permit’ allows the construction of a small building that is needed to connect the solar park to the electricity grid (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2018-j).
28 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 4.8 Physical instruments The province of Noord-Brabant indicated the willingness to be launching customer for innovations and to only make use of sustainable energy as regards the provincial activities (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2016-a). Moreover, the province of Noord-Brabant could use the plots of land it owns to generate solar and/or wind energy itself.
4.8.1 Plots of land in the ‘Additional Energy implementation program 2018-2019’ it is stated that the province of Noord-Brabant leaves the actual realization of solar and wind energy projects to other actors, and does not interfere to such a project when interference is considered as not necessary for the realization of the project (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-b). In addition, the province of Noord-Brabant did not set a budget to generate solar and/or wind energy itself. Since the province of Noord-Brabant recently decided to privatize the energy company ‘Essent’, probably no plans will be made to establish a provincial organization that generates energy on the short-term.
4.9 Structural collaborations In the ‘Energy agenda of Noord-Brabant 2010-2030’ the province of Noord-Brabant stated that the importance of cooperation is emphasized (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2010).
4.9.1 Brabant Energy agreement (BEA) In 2015, the ‘Brabant Energy agreement’ – ‘Brabants Energieakkoord’ (BEA)’ – is established in order to maintain control of the energy transition in Noord•Brabant. The initiators of the ‘BEA’ are representatives of ‘Brabant Environmental Federation’ – ‘Brabantse Milieufederatie (BMF)’ –, ‘Brabant Zeeuwse Employers Association’ – ‘Brabantse Zeeuwse Werkgeversvereniging (BZW)’ –, ‘ZLTO’, ‘United Energy cooperatives of Brabant’, Technical University Eindhoven, Tilburg University, ‘Telos’, and the built environment sector. Both public and private actors, including the province of Noord-Brabant have signed the agreement. By signing the ‘BEA’ partners are committed to the set ambitions, the continuous process and the execution of particular cases. The objectives of the ‘BEA’ are to realize an energy-neutral Noord-Brabant by 2050, and to achieve a share of 14% renewable energy in Noord-Brabant by 2020 and 16% by 2023. At the same time, the ‘BEA’ is particularly focussed on strengthening the economy. In the agreement three acceleration paths are mentioned, which are the industry, the agricultural sector including social wind energy projects, and the built environment. In addition, attention is paid to technological innovation, social innovation and local organizing ability. One of the pillars described in the ‘BEA’ is an increase in commitment to wind turbines and solar installations. A stated obstacle is the densely built environment which makes it more difficult to welcome changes in the environment (BEA, 2015). Within the ‘BEA’, the province of Noord•Brabant aims at the regional and complex parts by bringing parties together on specific themes such as large-scale solar energy projects (CE Delft, 2017). The roles of the province of Noord•Brabant in the ‘BEA’ are recognized as facilitating and stimulating, and making revolving budgets available. Furthermore, a public-private committee with an independent chairman has been established for the administrative coordination of the ‘BEA’. In order to execute the agreement the interests of the partners are weighed and the tasks are divided (BEA, 2015).
4.9.2 Brabant Energy alliance 2.0 (BEA 2.0) A year and a few months after the ‘BEA’ was signed, a number of partners settled a new agreement which is called the ‘Brabant Energy alliance’ – ‘Brabantse Energie Alliantie 2.0 (BEA 2.0)’. This agreement is settled because several parties recognized that the actual implementation was lacking in some parts of the ‘BEA’ (CE Delft, 2017). For this reason, ‘BEA 2.0’ deals with actual implementation plans. Besides, the actors that participate in the ‘BEA 2.0’ have an effort obligation for contributing to a sustainable Noord•Brabant. Some of these parties are the province of Noord-Brabant, the municipalities, the ‘United Energy Cooperatives Noord-Brabant’ – ‘Verenigde Energie Coöperaties NoordBrabant’ –, ‘Enexis Holding NV’, and ‘Telos’ (Provincie NoordBrabant, 2016-f). Furthermore, in the ‘Additional Energy implementation program 2018-2019’ the province of Noord-Brabant stated that the ‘BEA 2.0’ should show itself as an effective and decisive form of collaboration in the coming years (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-b).
4.9.3 Regional Energy alliances (REA’s) Four ‘Regional Energy alliances’ – ‘Regionale Energie Allianties (REAs) – are established within ‘BEA 2.0’, of which each ‘REA’ is focused on one of the designated regions. These regions are ‘West-Brabant’, ‘Metropool-regio
29 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Eindhoven’, ‘Midden-Brabant’, and ‘Noord-Oost Brabant’. The ‘REAs’ are of importance to reach the objectives of the ‘BEA’, since the ‘REAs’ are focused on controlling the ‘BEA’ acceleration paths (BEA, 2018). The province of Noord•Brabant launches and facilitates the collaboration with and between ‘REAs’. In addition, the province of Noord-Brabant is focused on knowledge building and necessary investments (CE Delft, 2017).
4.9.4 BEA action-table: ‘Social Sun’ The ‘Action table Social Sun’ – ‘Actietafel Sociale Zon’ – is established by the ‘BEA’ in order to realize an increase in solar energy projects to which citizens participate. The ‘Action table Social Sun’ support collective solar energy projects through the development of knowledge and experience, after which the acquired knowledge and experience is made available to the relevant actors. To acquire this knowledge and experience the action table works on a provincial living-lab. This provincial living-lab aims to reach a capacity of 250 MW solar energy in Noord-Brabant with at least 50,000 citizens who participate (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-b).
4.9.5 BOM Holding B.V. (BOM) The ‘Brabant Development Company Holding B.V.’ – ‘Brabantse Ontwikkelings Maatschappij Holding B.V. (BOM)’ – is a development company that contributes to economic and social development in Noord•Brabant (BOM, n.d.-b). The aim of the ‘BOM’ is to achieve a resilient and sustainable economy in Noord•Brabant. As mentioned before, the province of NoordBrabant has accommodated the ‘Energy fund’ at the ‘BOM’ (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2017-a). In addition, the province of Noord•Brabant has settled two FTE at the ‘BOM’ in order to establish sufficient development capacity to help municipalities and ‘REAs’ to keep their knowledge of the energy transition up-to-date (CE Delft, 2017). Furthermore, the province of Noord•Brabant and the Ministry of Finance together own the shares of the ‘BOM’ (BOM, n.d.-b).
4.9.6 Enexis Holding N.V. ‘Enexis Holding N.V.’ manages the gas and electricity grids in some of the Dutch provinces, including the province of Noord•Brabant (Mgmt.Scope, n.d.). ‘Enexis Holding N.V.’ deploys several activities housed at three smaller companies. On of these companies is ‘Enpuls B.V.’, which aims at sustainable energy and energy saving (Enexis Holding N.V., 2017). The Provincial Executives cooperate with ‘Enpuls B.V.’ to gain learning experience about social innovation in the next four years (CE Delft, 2017). In addition, ‘Enpuls B.V.’ and the province of Noord-Brabant have planned to jointly support ten sustainable energy projects executed for and by citizens (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-g). Furthermore, ‘Enexis Holding N.V.’ aims for a sustainable energy supply and acceleration of the energy transition by following a number of strategies. These strategies include to collaborate with local partners and to implement scalable and innovative solutions (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-a).
4.9.7 Government bodies The province of Noord-Brabant collaborates with other government bodies in several ways. Firstly, the province of Noord•Brabant, municipalities and ‘water boards’ consult and make agreements on regional spatial development within the ‘Regional spatial consultation’ – ‘Regionaal ruimtelijk overleg (RRO)’. Within the ‘RRO’ the aforementioned partners discusses spatial development topics such as housing, business parks and landscapes. In addition, a strategical regional agenda is drawn up by the ‘RRO’. The trends, economic developments and spatial challenges are discussed to jointly determine a course at regional level (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2011-b). The four ‘RRO’-areas in Noord•Brabant are West-Brabant, Midden-Brabant, Noordoost-Brabant and Zuidoost-Brabant (Provincie Noord•Brabant, 2017-e). Secondly, the province of Noord-Brabant and municipalities Breda, Drimmelen, Moerdijk and Zundert collaborate on the aforementioned wind energy project along the A16-motorway. The four municipalities requested the province of Noord-Brabant to draw up a ‘PIP’ (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2018-a) on the basis of a joint exploration of the most suitable locations (Gemeente Drimmelen, 2018). In addition, this collaboration has established the ‘Project office wind energy A16’ – ‘Projectbureau windenergie A16’ – to manage the process of the project as regards social participation. For example, the ‘Project office wind energy A16’ organized several public meetings (Provincie Noord-Brabant, 2017-c). Furthermore, the province of Noord-Brabant cooperates with other provinces through the ‘Interprovincial Consultation’ – ‘Interprovinciaal Overleg (IPO)’. The ‘IPO’ represents the interests of the provinces at national and European government level. In addition, ‘IPO’ provides platforms in which provinces share knowledge and stimulate innovation in order to learn from best-practices (Provincie Noord-Brabant, n.d.-d).
30 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 4.10 Evaluating and monitoring The province of Noord•Brabant has commissioned third parties to monitor the implemented solar and wind energy policy several times. In 2014, ‘Technopolis Group’ carried out an evaluation on the ‘Energy agenda of Noord-Brabant 2010-2020’. The main conclusion stated that quantitative data is scarce and an overview is lacking, because no systematic monitoring is executed (Technopolis Group, 2014). In 2017, ‘CE Delft’ carried out an interim-evaluation on the ‘Energy Implementation program’. The evaluation was focused on the effectivity of the implemented policies and the expected results for 2020 and 2050. ‘CE Delft’ indicated that Noord-Brabant will reach a share of renewable energy of approximately 16.5% by 2020. However, the achievement of this objective will mainly be the result of energy from biomass that is generated in the ‘Amercentrale’. In addition, ‘CE Delft’ concluded that strategic choices about landscapes and the integration of energy projects are needed, society is increasingly resistant to solar park projects, the ‘BEA’ and ‘REAs’ are important partnerships for achieving the energy objectives, and the province of Noord-Brabant makes good use of its roles. The provided recommendations stated that the province of Noord-Brabant should focus on removing external bottlenecks, try to clearly define its ‘GEA’ responsibilities, jointly with other government bodies develop an effective method for communication and social participation, and clearly communicate on the necessity, burdens and opportunities of the energy transition. Furthermore, in order to provide up-to-date insights, an overview of the progress of projects that resulted from the ‘Energy implementation program’ is updated each three months (CE Delft, 2017). Moreover, the ‘BEA’ partners annually conduct a province-wide monitor on the agenda and outcomes of the acceleration paths. Information provided by organizations such as ‘Telos’ is used to perform these monitors (BEA, 2015).
4.11 Outcomes
4.11.1 MW’s and TJ’s solar and wind energy This section contains the outcomes realized with regard to solar and wind energy in Noord•Brabant so far. Rijkswaterstaat calculated that Noord-Brabant achieved a total of 237.98 MW solar energy through registered solar panels in 2015 (Rijkswaterstaat, 2017). In the same year, a total of 646 TJ solar energy has been generated in Noord•Brabant (Rijkswaterstaat, n.d.). As regards ground-mounted solar energy a capacity of 17.86 MW is achieved in Noord-Brabant to date, while another capacity of 247.31 MW ground-mounted solar energy is in preparation (ROM3D, 2018). Regarding wind energy, Noord-Brabant achieved a capacity of 218.7 MW; 46.48% of the 470.5 MW objective, at the end of 2016. This means that another 251.8 MW wind energy has to be realized by 2020 in order to achieve the objective (RVO, 2017-b). Furthermore, a total of 1,296 TJ wind energy has been generated in Noord•Brabant in 2016 (Rijkswaterstaat, n.d.).
4.11.2 Expectations wind energy According RVO, Noord-Brabant achieves a capacity of 522.9 MW; 100% wind energy on land by 2020 if all wind energy projects are completed. This includes 218.7 MW; 41.82% from already realized projects and 304.2 MW; 58.18% from projects in preparation in 2016. However, RVO classified 268.7 MW; 51.39% as uncertain to be realized. The remaining 254.2 MW; 48.61% is classified as certain to be realized, which includes the 218.7 MW that already has been realized. Four preparatory stages are distinguished by RVO, which are the preliminary phase, the spatial procedure, the licensing phase and the construction phase. At the end of 2016, Noord-Brabant had a capacity of 238.7 MW wind energy in the preliminary phase, 30 MW in the spatial procedure, 21 MW in the licensing phase and 14.5 MW in the construction phase (RVO, 2017-b). The gap between the capacity of projects that are certain to be realized and the 2020 objective is 216.3 MW; 46.0%.
31 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Chapter 5: Gelderland This chapter is about the solar and wind energy policy implemented by the province of Gelderland. In the same way as the first case, the policies are described on the basis of the components of the framework that has been developed in the third chapter of this research.
5.1 Spatial characteristics Gelderland consists of 5,136.3 km2 of which 4,967.19 km2 is land surface (CBS, 2017-a) and 172.6 km2 is water surface. In 2015, Gelderland consisted of 2,984.43 km2; 58.1% of agricultural land, 1,154.27 km2; 22.47% of open nature and forest areas, 472.13 km2; 9.19% of build-up terrain, 160.9 km2; 3.13% of traffic area, 139.09 km2; 2.7% of recreation area, and 52.89 km2; 1.03% of semi-build-up terrain. Besides, the 9.19% build-up terrain includes 311.7 km2; 6.07% of residential areas and 102.48 km2; 2% of business parks (CBS, 2017-b). 2,035,351 inhabitants lived in Gelderland on 1 January 2016 (CBS, 2017-a). The number of municipalities in Gelderland is 54, of which four municipalities have more than 100,000 inhabitants; Apeldoorn, Arnhem, Ede and Nijmegen (CBS, 2017-c). Furthermore, Gelderland is located in the eastern part of the Netherlands and is landlocked.
5.2 Vision and objectives This section chronologically shows the vision and objectives of the province of Gelderland as regards solar and wind energy as presented in the provincial documents and agreements.
5.2.1 Energy Transition program 2012-2015 (April 2012) In 2012, the province of Gelderland adopted the ‘Energy Transition program 2012-2015’ – ‘Programma Energietransitie 2012-2015’. In this program the province of Gelderland expressed the ambition for Gelderland to be a leader in achieving a renewable energy supply. Subsequently, the province of Gelderland stated that this ambition can only be achieved in collaboration with companies, institutions and citizens. The province of Gelderland described the vision to achieve a futureproof energy supply including opportunities for growth and economic innovation. Besides, the province of Gelderland expressed to align with the European and national objectives to become energy neutral by 2050, and to reach a 14% share of renewable energy in the total energy use by 2020. In addition, the province of Gelderland stated that a share of 8% renewable energy can be reached by 2015, and that the bio-based economy has to flourish. Furthermore, the province of Gelderland dedicated itself to an energy-mix of renewable energy sources, regional energy generation and the integration of energy projects in spatial planning. Moreover, the ‘Energy Transition program 2012-2015’ is based on ten trends including the increasing scarcity and costs of fossil fuels to generate electricity, the visibility of energy in landscapes and the increasing role of electricity (Provincie Gelderland, 2012-a).
5.2.2 Agreement on wind energy (June 2013) Following the agreements between the provinces, IPO and the national government about the realization of 6,000 MW wind energy on land by 2020, Gelderland has to realize 230.5 MW; 3.84% (IPO, 2013). Prior to this agreement the province of Gelderland formulated the objective to achieve 210 MW wind energy on land in Gelderland by 2020 (Pondera Consult, 2014). The 230.5 MW is an increase of the target with 9.76%.
5.2.3 Wind vision Gelderland (February 2015) The province of Gelderland decided to adopt a vision exclusively about wind energy, which is called the ‘Wind vision Gelderland’ – ‘Windvisie Gelderland’. Within this document the province of Gelderland described how it is committed to achieving the objective of 230.5 MW wind energy on land in Gelderland by 2020. In preparation to the ‘Wind vision Gelderland’, the province of Gelderland and municipalities jointly sought for possible locations to generate wind energy. Thereafter, the preferred locations were selected on the basis of administrative and environmental aspects, and designated on a map. The objective stated in the ‘Wind vision Gelderland’ is to achieve energy-neutrality and have an affordable, reliable and renewable energy supply in Gelderland by 2050. The intermediate objectives are to reach a 14% share of renewable energy in the total energy use, of which 50% is generated locally by 2020, and to achieve a capacity of 230.5 MW wind energy on land by 2020. In addition to the already existing wind farms, twelve locations have been designated to reach the 230.5 MW objective. Besides, the province of Gelderland indicated that even a higher capacity of wind energy will be needed after 2020. Therefore,
32 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 the province of Gelderland also designated additional locations for wind farms, which account for another 133.2 MW (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-a).
5.2.4 Coalition Agreement 2015-2019 (April 2015) The province of Gelderland adopted the coalition agreement 2015-2019 – ‘Coalitieakkoord 2015-2019’ – in 2015. The relevant objectives mentioned in the coalition agreement are to achieve 230.5 MW wind energy on land by 2020, and reach an energy-neutral Gelderland by 2050. As regards sustainable energy, the province of Gelderland stated that it has a particular focus on wind and solar energy, but that energy from biomass and fermentation is also required to become energy-neutral. Furthermore, the province of Gelderland expressed the willingness to collaborate and develop plans with initiators and interested parties of the ‘Energy Agreement of Gelderland’ – ‘Gelders Energieakkoord (GEA)’. In addition, the province of Gelderland stated that it is important that citizens benefit from projects in order to achieve support of citizens (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-b).
5.2.5 Energy Transition policy program 2016-2019 (December 2015) The province of Gelderland adopted the ‘Energy Transition policy program 2016-2019’ – ‘Beleidsprogramma Energietransitie 2016-2019’ – as a step towards the vision to become energy-neutral by 2050. As regards renewable energy projects, it is stated that the province of Gelderland particularly focusses on solar, wind and biomass, preferably generated at local level. Another objective formulated is to generate 26,000 TJ renewable energy in 2020. In addition, the province of Gelderland expressed the willingness to contribute to achieving 230.5 MW wind energy on land, achieving 200 MW solar energy, realizing an investment fund for energy projects and establishing a professional energy cooperative in each municipality. Therefore, the province of Gelderland stated to collaborate, connect actors and provide financial and regulative space to initiators (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-c).
5.2.6 Environmental vision Gelderland of January 2018 (2017) In 2014, the province of Gelderland adopted the ‘Environmental vision’ – ‘Omgevingsvisie’ – which replaced five former plans on spatial development (Provincie Gelderland, 2018-a). However, a revision of the ‘Environmental vision’ became effective in January 2018. This revised ‘Environmental vision’ has two main objectives, which are a sustainable economic structure and ensuring quality and safety in the living environment. Besides, the province of Gelderland stated that generating sustainable energy meets both the objectives. As regards energy, the province of Gelderland formulated the vision to become energy-neutral by 2050 and to achieve a share of 14% renewable energy by 2020. In addition, shorter term objectives are formulated about actively involving citizens for support, mapping the spatial consequences of the energy transition, and designating locations for sustainable energy. The objective of the province of Gelderland as regard wind energy is that a capacity of 230.5 MW wind energy on land must be achieved by 2020. Thereby, it is indicated that this objective has large spatial consequences. Besides, the province of Gelderland indicated to prefer the combination of wind farms with other spatial functions such as infrastructure, agricultural landscapes and business parks (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-b).
5.2.7 Budget 2018 (November 2017) The ‘Budget 2018’ of the province of Gelderland includes, amongst other things, a pillar on ‘sustainable spatial development’ and a pillar on ‘environment, energy and climate’. As regards the energy transition, the province of Gelderland states the ambition to achieve a clean and healthy Gelderland, which is energy-neutral by 2050. The required sustainable energy is preferably generated locally, since local energy generation creates new employment and increases local independency. Moreover, the province of Gelderland states that increasing commitment is necessary in order to reach the energy objectives. Therefore, the province of Gelderland expresses that partnerships are of importance (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-a).
5.2.8 Main vision and objectives The main objectives formulated by the province of Gelderland that relate to solar and wind energy are to achieve 230.5 MW wind energy on land and to reach a share of 14% renewable energy by 2020. In addition, the province of Gelderland has once formulated the objective of 200 MW solar energy. The vision formulated by the province of Gelderland is to achieve an energy-neutral Gelderland by 2050.
33 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 5.3 Governance and roles The province of Gelderland stated the importance of collaboration with partners and other actors in achieving the energy objectives (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-a). As regards solar energy, the province of Gelderland has described its roles as inspiring and connecting. As regards wind energy, the province of Gelderland has described its roles as normative, enterprising, inspiring and connecting (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-b). Besides, the province of Gelderland stated to experience an effort obligation for the objectives that depend on the performance of other actors, and a result obligation for the objectives that depend on the performance of the province of Gelderland itself (Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland, 2014). As regards the execution of the ‘Energy Transition program 2012-2015’, the province of Gelderland established three ‘program teams’ that all have a different focus area. These focus areas are ‘saving energy’, ‘renewable energy’ and ‘EMT and bio-based economy’. The program team ‘renewable energy’ focuses, among other things, on solar and wind energy policy (Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland, 2014).
5.4 Budgets In the ‘Coalition agreement 2015-2019’ of the province of Gelderland, a budget of €80,000,000.- has been made available for the energy transition for a period of four years. The total budget within the coalition agreement is €560,000,000.- (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-b), of which €80,000,000.- is 14.3%. Within the ‘Energy program 2016-2019’, a budget of €2,000,000.- has been reserved specifically to increase the amount of generated renewable energy (Provincie Gelderland 2015-b). Furthermore, the total budget of the province of Gelderland for 2018 consisted of €680,766,000.-, of which €16,020,000.-; 2.35% is budgeted for the objective to become energy-neutral (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-a). In 2017 the province of Gelderland had a total budget of €724,000,000.-, of which €20,491,000.-; 2.83% is budgeted for the objective to become energy-neutral (Provincie Gelderland, 2016-a). Moreover, the province of Gelderland did not make a budget available to generate solar and/or wind energy itself.
5.5 Communicative instruments
5.5.1 Informing The province of Gelderland deploys some informative policy instruments for solar and wind energy. Firstly, the province of Gelderland contributes to the organization of public meetings at municipal level in order to provide information on wind energy to interested actors such as citizens and municipal civil servants (Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland, 2014). These meetings are about sustainable energy objectives, possible locations to generate wind energy, and the process associated with wind energy projects (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-a). Secondly, the province of Gelderland deployed the ‘Energy atlas’ – ‘Energieatlas’ – which is developed to provide information on energy projects in Gelderland to everyone who is interested (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-b). In addition, the ‘Energy atlas’ provides information on current energy initiatives (Alliander, GNMF, & Klimaatverbond Nederland, 2015) and indicates what the promising location for generating different forms of renewable energy are (Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland, 2014). The ‘Energy atlas’ consists of several theme maps including maps for solar energy, wind energy, biomass and infrastructure (Simons, 2013). Furthermore, a solar energy map and a wind energy map are attached to the ‘Environmental vision’. The solar energy map provides information on possible locations for solar parks, where these are not possible and where these are possible under certain additional conditions. The wind energy map provides information on the possible locations for wind farms and the locations which are disadvantaged, focus areas, already used for wind energy, excluded due to provincial policy or legal restriction, or being investigated (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-b).
5.5.2 Consulting In the ‘Wind vision Gelderland’, the province of Gelderland mentioned to exchange knowledge and information with other actors (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-a). Firstly, some workshops on wind energy – ‘windateliers’ – have been organized to find out what locations are suitable for wind farms in consultation with municipalities and functional regions. To do so, the municipalities suggested possible locations for wind energy, after which the province of Gelderland included these locations in the wind energy map that is attached to the ‘Environmental vision’ (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-c). Besides, the importance of wind energy and the barriers of wind energy are discussed in the workshops (Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland, 2014). Furthermore, the province of Gelderland
34 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 executes ‘motion 42’ in which the province of Gelderland, municipalities and ‘Rijkswaterstaat’ discuss the possibilities for sustainable energy projects along water- and motorways (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-a).
5.5.3 Research The province of Gelderland has carried out several researches into solar and wind energy. First of all, the province of Gelderland offered quick-scans on the feasibility of locations for wind energy to municipalities in response to the aforementioned workshops about wind energy (Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland, 2014). In addition to these quick-scans, the province of Gelderland carried out research on some large locations which may function as alternatives (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-a). Furthermore, the province of Gelderland and its partners do research on the possibilities to generate solar energy in specific areas such as alongside roads, and on old landfills, housing locations, business locations and vacant agricultural land (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-b).
5.5.4 Centre of expertise A couple of centres of expertise are established that are committed, among other things, to solar and wind energy in Gelderland. Firstly, the province of Gelderland has established a ‘Community of Practice (COP)’ (Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland, 2014). The ‘CoP’ is managed by a collaboration between the cooperative energy companies, the province of Gelderland, municipalities and network companies, who share knowledge, experience and studies (Alliander, GNMF, & Klimaatverbond Nederland, 2015). Besides, the ‘COP’ contributes to the professionalization of local energy cooperatives (Gelders Energieakkoord, 2016). Another centre of expertise is the ‘expertise pool’ established to use the expertise of members of local energy initiatives and involved municipal employees that have realized energy projects, to transfer knowledge and experience to other local energy initiatives. Initiators of local energy projects can select and hire experts from the ‘expertise pool’ to obtain relevant expertise, knowledge and experience on subjects such as project development, legal affairs and governance. The first couple of years the fees of the ‘expertise pool’ are financed by the province of Gelderland, after which the ‘expertise pool’ should be able to finance itself (Gelders Energieakkoord, 2016). Furthermore, a third centre of expertise is present, which is the ‘Provincial Council for Environmental policy’ – ‘Provinciale Raad voor Omgevingsbeleid (PRO)’. The ‘PRO’ provides independent advise about spatial environmental policy to both the ‘Provincial States’ and ‘Provincial Executive’ of the province of Gelderland. To do so, ‘PRO’ discusses topics from the political agenda (Provincie Gelderland, 2012-b). The ‘PRO’ is established through the ‘Regulation Provincial Council for Environmental Policy Gelderland, 2010’ – ‘Verordening Provinciale Raad voor Omgevingsbeleid Gelderland, 2010’. In the first article of this regulation it is stated that the national requirement of article 9.1 of the ‘Law Spatial Planning’ to establish a provincial spatial council is met through the establishment of the ‘PRO’. The second article of the ‘Regulation Provincial Council for Environmental Policy Gelderland, 2010’ states that the council has an advisory function as regards provincial environmental policy. In 2015, the ‘PRO’ has carried out a research on the obstacles and opportunities that arise in the energy transition to which the province of Gelderland can make a difference in order to promote the local energy transition in Gelderland and reach the set objectives (PRO, 2015).
5.5.5 Process guidance On request, the province of Gelderland provides customized support to municipalities and initiators as regard wind energy projects by deploying a provincial project/process director, helping with the creation of a participation plan, spatial design and 3D visualization, exchanging knowledge and information and helping with the solving of financial bottlenecks (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-a). Moreover, in the ‘Energy Transition policy program 2016-2019’ the province of Gelderland stated the willingness to, in consultation with partners, offer process guidance to regional processes in order to contribute to regional and local energy ambitions (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-c).
5.5.6 Participation A precondition set by the province of Gelderland is that each project for wind turbines provides the possibility to citizens to participate. Therefore, initiators of wind energy projects are mandatory to organize participation. However, it is not stated how this participation should be designed or organized. Besides, the province of Gelderland formulated some codes of conduct that can be used as examples of how participation could be organized. Some of the examples are financial participation, involvement in spatial planning, citizens’ initiatives and an energy discount for citizens. The freedom to decide about how the participation is organized and designed is left to the initiators, because projects initiated by citizens often have their own ways to organize participation.
35 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Moreover, as mentioned before, the province of Gelderland offers support to initiators to create a participation plan (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-a).
5.5.7 Lobby Since the province of Gelderland does not have the power to influence all relevant matters as regards solar and wind energy directly, the province of Gelderland stated to execute lobbies at local, national and European level (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-c). For example, the province of Gelderland lobbies at the national government about removing financial bottlenecks as regards wind energy projects (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-a). In addition, the province of Gelderland lobbies at the ‘Dutch Investment Agency (NIA)’ and the ‘Dutch Investment Institution’ – ‘Nederlandse Investeringsinstelling (NLII)’ – about innovative forms of financing funded by institutional investors (Gelders Energieakkoord, 2016).
5.6 Economic instruments
5.6.1 Loans and guarantees
5.6.1.1 Pre-financing development costs of solar parks and wind farms In article 3.11 of the ‘Regulation on space of Gelderland’ – ‘Regels Ruimte voor Gelderland’ –, the province of Gelderland set up a loan in order support local energy companies by pre-financing the development costs of solar of at least 1 MW and wind farms of at least 5 MW. The loan is provided for hiring external experts for the spatial preparation of a wind or solar park, leading a project, marketing and communication, and/or technological preparing a wind farm or solar park. The loan is available for sustainable energy companies to which at least fifty natural persons are associated. In addition, the loan is available for companies that for at least 50% own an energy company to which at least fifty natural persons are associated. As regards the conditions, the loan is only provided if the planned project is not in conflict with spatial policies, can be funded as expected and natural or legal persons contribute, gain control, and profit for at least 50%. The external expert who is hired may not be the applicant’s manager, must be selected from three bids on the basis of objective criteria and must be experienced in the relevant field. Furthermore, article 3.1.7 of the ‘Regulation on space of Gelderland’ indicates that the maximum loan amount depends on what the subsidy actually will be used for, and varies from €75,000.- to €150,000.-. For example, when the subsidy will be used for marketing and communication the maximum is €100,000.-, and when the subsidy will be used for spatial preparation of the project the maximum is €150,000.-. In addition, article 3.1.7 states that the loan has a five percent interest rate and a maximum duration of five years. Furthermore, in paragraph i, Article 3 of the ‘Algemeen Plafondbesluit 2018’ the province of Gelderland has decided to set a total budget of €1,000,000.- for this loan in 2018.
5.6.1.2 Innovation and Energy fund Gelderland The province of Gelderland has implemented the ‘Innovation and Energy fund Gelderland’ – ‘Innovatie- en Energiefonds Gelderland (IEG)’ –, which is managed by Oost NL (Oost NL, 2017-a). The province of Gelderland deployed the ‘IEG’ to support SME’s with the execution of innovative projects, and to support companies with the realization of projects that contribute to a sustainable energy supply. In order to receive support from this fund for an energy project several conditions must be met. These conditions are that proven technologies are used to contribute to the energy transition in a short term, the focus is on energy saving, sustainable energy and/or increasing the efficiency of fossil energy, the expected return does not outweigh the non-technical risks, and a private investor invests under the same conditions as ‘IEG’ does (Oost NL, 2017-b). A loan provided from ‘IEG’ for an energy project is at least €100,000.- and at most €5,000,000.- (Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland, 2017-a). The ‘IEG’ is deployed in the forms of loans, guarantees and participations. With regard to energy projects supported by the ‘IEG’, 70% of the budget must be revolving, while for innovative projects this is 100% (Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland, 2014). At the moment the ‘IEG’ has a budget of €59,000,000.- for energy projects. An additional budget of €20,000,000.- will be made available when the demand and financial leverage is sufficient. Furthermore, in 2018 the possibilities are being examined for taking out a loan from the European investment bank to increase the ‘IEG’ budget for energy projects (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-a).
36 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 5.6.2 Traditional subsidies
5.6.2.1 Incentive subsidy for the pilot ‘Sun on Yard’ The province of Gelderland has made €500,000.- available for the execution of five demonstration projects executed as a part of the plan called ‘Sun on yard’ – ‘Zon op erf’ – in 2018. This plan aims to realize solar panels on yards of farmers who want to quit their farms (Gelders Energieakkoord, 2018). To do so, empty shreds are demolished, while at the same time the asbestos is remediated (AGEM, 2016). In 2016, the province of Gelderland and the municipalities of the ‘Achterhoek’ region co-financed ten pilots through the subsidy (Gelders Energieakkoord, 2016). Farmers could apply for the pilots, after which the business feasibility was assessed. The regional energy company ‘AGEM’ – ‘Achterhoekse Groene Energie Maatschappij’ –, which executed the ten pilots (Gelders Energieakkoord, 2018), has asked the province of Gelderland to implement the incentive subsidy to support the realization of five demonstration projects. The expectation is that no further budget is needed in the future because of the experience gained during these five projects (AGEM, 2016).
5.6.3 Investment funds
5.6.3.1 Sustainability fund The province of Gelderland and the partners of the ‘GEA’ jointly investigate the deployment of a large ‘Sustainability fund’ – ‘Duurzaamheidsfonds’ – through which multiple investors jointly invest in the realization of sustainable energy projects (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-c). This fund will contribute, among other things, to the realization of cooperative solar parks and wind farms. The ‘Sustainability fund’ will be set up jointly with private investors, institutional investors and banks. The ‘GEA’ requested the province of Gelderland to budget €35,000,000.- for the ‘Sustainability fund’ (Gelders Energieakkoord, 2016). In addition, the aforementioned ‘IEG’ can possibly become a part of the ‘Sustainability fund’. Furthermore, the ‘European Fund for Strategic Investments (EFSI)’ and the ‘Dutch Investment Institution’ are approached to financially contribute to the ‘Sustainability fund’ (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-c).
5.7 Legal instruments
5.7.1 Environmental Regulation Gelderland The province of Gelderland has laid down regulations on the physical environment in the ‘Environmental Regulation Gelderland’ – ‘Omgevingsverordening Gelderland’. The ‘Environmental Regulation Gelderland’, among other things contains a few articles on the spatial integration of wind energy, however, no articles on solar energy are included. Article 2.8.1.1 states that wind turbines can be allowed in ‘municipal zoning plans’ as long as the zoning plan contains a spatial design for the wind turbine or turbines. This spatial design must address multiple topics. These topics are the spatial characteristics of the landscape, the size, scale and spatial integration, the cultural-historical background, and the visual interference as regard to other wind turbines. Article 2.8.2.2 states that wind turbines cannot be allowed in ‘municipal zoning plans’ when it comes to certain areas designated in the ‘GML-document’ and the aforementioned ‘Wind energy map’. Wind turbines are excluded in these areas because of specific vulnerabilities such as meadow bird areas and winter geese resting areas. Article 2.7.4.1 states that ‘municipal zoning plans’ cannot allow plans that affect the spatial openness of land in ‘Valuable open areas’, however wind farms with four or more wind turbines can be allowed in these areas when the conditions of article 2.8.1.1 are met. This exception for wind turbines is made due to the potential of these areas. Furthermore, in article 2.7.1.1.3 it is stated that it is possible to allow wind turbines in zoning plans as regards the ‘GNN’ when two conditions are met. These conditions are that the location must consist of nature that is least vulnerable for wind turbines and that the core qualities of the ‘GNN’ are substantially strengthened.
5.7.2 Provincial Coordination arrangement The province of Gelderland has deployed the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ for wind energy projects several times. In June 2016 the province of Gelderland decided to apply the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ for wind farm ‘Bijvanck’ in Zevenaar (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-c). In addition, in May 2017 the province of Gelderland decided to apply the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ for wind farm ‘Bommelerwaard-A2’ in Zaltbommel (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-d). Furthermore, the Provincial Executive has decided to not apply the
37 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ for a wind farm along the A15-motorway in Overbetuwe. Reason not to apply the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ is that such an arrangement will not accelerate the process. So far, the relevant municipality has been the decision-making government body and it is decided to keep the municipality authorized to grant the required permits in order to keep the procedures insightful for the interested parties (Provincie Gelderland, 2016-b).
5.7.3 Provincial Integration Plan (PIP) The support provided by the province of Gelderland in order to realize wind farms involves adopting a ‘PIP’ (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-a). Currently the province of Gelderland adopted two ‘PIPs’ for the spatial integration of wind farms in Zaltbommel and Zevenaar (Provincie Gelderland, 2016-c). The ‘Vereniging Windpark Bommelerwaard-A2’ initiated the plan to develop three wind turbines in Zaltbommel (Provincie Gelderland, 2018-b). The project for a wind farm in Zevenaar is called ‘Bijvanck’ and is initiated by ‘Raedthuys Windenergie B.V.’. The initiator wants to develop four wind turbines along the ‘Didamse Wetering (Provincie Gelderland, 2018-c).
5.7.4 M.e.r.-procedure In order for the province to prepare a ‘PIP’ and grant the required permits, the ‘m.e.r.’-procedure has been initiated for the wind energy projects in Zaltbommel (Pondera Consult, 2017) and Zevenaar. A form free ‘m.e.r.’-assessment has been carried out, because the projects comprise less than ten wind turbines and have a capacity less than 15 MW. The carried out ‘m.e.r.’-assessments include the impact on the environment caused by the characteristics and location of the project, and the characteristics of the potential effects (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-e). Furthermore, the province of Gelderland has initiated the ‘m.e.r.’-procedure in order to prepare the ‘Wind vision’, since the ‘Wind vision’ designates areas for wind turbines with a capacity that is probably more than 15 MW (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-a).
5.7.5 Environmental permits The province of Gelderland stated that it is up to private initiators to come up with plans for wind energy projects, after which the relevant municipality or municipalities can be requested to adjust the ‘Municipal zoning plan’ and grant the ‘Environmental permit’ (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-a). However, the province of Gelderland received two ‘Environmental permit’ applications for wind farms. Firstly, the province of Gelderland started a trajectory to grant the ‘Environmental permit’ for the wind farm in Zevenaar in 2012. In 2018, the ‘State Council’ – ‘Raad van State’ – approved the ‘Environmental permit’ after it was challenged in court (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-d). Secondly, the ‘Environmental permit’ for the wind farm in Zaltbommel. This ‘Environmental permit’ has not yet been approved, as the permit is currently being examined by the ‘State Council’ (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-c). Furthermore, the province of Gelderland has approved an application for an ‘Environmental permit’ which allows a solar park in Dinxperlo. This permit was made available for inspection at the time this research was carried out (Provincie Gelderland, 2018-d).
5.8 Physical instruments The province of Gelderland adopted ‘Motion 59; exemplary government’ to set an example in sustainable development as regards the provincial buildings, public lightning, and more (Provincie Gelderland, n.d.-g). Moreover, the province of Gelderland possesses plots of land that can be used to generate solar and/or wind energy.
5.8.1 Plots of land In the ‘budget 2018’ the province of Gelderland stated to contribute to the further development of sustainable energy from solar, wind, water and biomass (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-a). However, the province of Gelderland did not set a budget to realize solar or wind energy projects itself. In the ‘Energy Transition policy program 2016-2019’ the province of Gelderland stated to leave the actual realization of wind farms to citizens, private organizations and developers (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-b).
38 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 5.9 Structural collaborations In the ‘Energy Transition program 2012-2015’ the province of Gelderland stated that the energy objectives will only be achieved if everyone contributes. In addition, the province of Gelderland stated to fully commit to close collaboration with partners including entrepreneurs, researchers and education, other governing bodies and civil society (Provincie Gelderland, 2012-a).
5.9.1 Gelderland Energy Agreement In 2015, the ‘Gelderland Energy Agreement’ – ‘Gelders Energieakkoord (GEA)’ – has been initiated by the ‘Network company Alliander’ – ‘Netwerkbedrijf Alliander’ –, the ‘Dutch Climate association’ – ‘Klimaatverbond Nederland’ – and the ‘Nature and Environmental federation Gelderland’ – ‘Gelderse Natuur- en Milieufederatie’. The ‘GEA’ has been established in order to collaborate on the acceleration of the energy transition in Gelderland (Alliander, GNMF, & Klimaatverbond Nederland, 2015). In addition to the initiators, various other actors were actively involved in the establishment of the ‘GEA’, including the province of Gelderland. Besides, the province of Gelderland invited all other actors in Gelderland to become a partner of the ‘GEA’ (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-c). The ‘GEA’ partners are committed to the energy objectives of Gelderland, which are about reaching a share of 14% sustainable energy by 2020, realizing a capacity of 230.5 MW wind energy on land by 2020, and becoming climate-neutral by 2050. In practice, the ‘GEA’ is an indicative declaration of intentions that includes ambitions, but no obligations. Therefore, the agreements made within the ‘GEA’ are not legally binding. The governance of the ‘GEA’ has been formed by connecting the already existing boards through a committee at provincial level. The secretariat of the ‘GEA’, which is engaged in the coordination and direction of the ‘GEA’, is formed by the three initiators of the ‘GEA’, the province of Gelderland and ‘VNO-NCW’. As regards solar and wind energy projects, the ‘GEA’ partners agreed that citizens cooperatives are involved at an early stage of the process for cooperation. In addition, it is agreed that the province of Gelderland and municipalities will facilitate wind energy projects as much as possible. As regards solar energy, the ‘GEA’ stated the ambitions to increase the amount of large-scale solar parks in Gelderland (Alliander, GNMF, & Klimaatverbond Nederland, 2015). The roles of the province of Gelderland within the ‘GEA’ are to provide financial, legal and physical space, to connect actors and to set an example (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-a).
5.9.2 GEA Implementation plan In 2016, the ‘GEA’ partners adopted the ‘GEA Implementation plan’ – ‘Implementatieplan Gelders Energieakkoord’ – for 2016-2019. This implementation plan contains concrete measures for energy saving, sustainable energy, heat, waste and mobility. The objectives formulated in the ‘GEA Implementation plan’ align with the previous set objectives, which includes the ultimate objective to become climate-neutral by 2050. Seventeen theme-tables and sub-tables have been established that focus on certain topics of the energy program of the ‘GEA’. Each of these theme-tables has drawn up an implementation plan, which jointly led to the ‘GEA Implementation plan’. In addition, in order to focus on regional and local processes each of the six regions in Gelderland has drawn up its own implementation plan which includes the regional ambitions. Amongst other things, the ‘GEA’ organizes a series of meetings and thematic networks regarding the energy transition in order to share knowledge and experience between government bodies, businesses and knowledge institutions. In the ‘GEA implementation plan’ it is stated that large-scale solar parks in landscapes, alongside other strategies, are required for achieving the energy ambitions. Furthermore, one of the desirable developments described is that sustainable energy is organized, generated and used by and for citizens and businesses in Gelderland (Gelders Energieakkoord, 2016).
5.9.3 GEA theme-tables: ‘Wind Energy’ and ‘Professional Energy Cooperatives’ As mentioned before, several theme tables have been established within the ‘GEA’. Some of these theme-tables are specifically focused on an energy subject such as the table ‘sustainable energy’, while other theme-tables have a more general focus such as the table ‘financing’ (Gelders Energieakkoord, 2016). The province of Gelderland and the theme-table ‘Wind Energy’ have jointly worked on a model that contributes to the development of locations for participative wind energy projects in Gelderland (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-a). Another theme-table is called ‘Professional Energy Cooperatives’ – ‘Professionele Energiecoöperaties’. This theme-table has been established to provide a professional support structure for energy cooperatives by 2020. The theme-table ‘Professional Energy Cooperatives’ aspires that citizens know how to reach a local or regional energy initiative that has an attractive community and is able to answer the citizen’s questions about energy (Gelders Energieakkoord, 2016).
39 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 5.9.4 Energy roadmap Through the ‘energy roadmap’ – ‘energieroutekaart’ – the province of Gelderland collaborates with partners such as municipalities, regions, businesses and ‘Alliander’ to draw up regional plans and establish local renewable energy projects (Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland, 2014). In these roadmaps, organized per region, agreements are made with network operators and partners who own plots of land (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-b). Each region and its society draws up a regional ‘energy roadmap’ with the aim to become energy-neutral (Alliander, GNMF, & Klimaatverbond Nederland, 2015). Therefore, each region describes its ambitions, barriers, measures, governance and implementation program. Furthermore, the regions inform the ‘GEA’ partners about successes and bottlenecks regarding the ‘energy roadmaps’ (Gelders Energieakkoord, 2016).
5.9.5 Oost NL ‘Oost NL’ is a development company that is committed to enhancing the regional economy in the Eastern part of the Netherlands, including Gelderland. ‘Oost NL’ is active in multiple sectors, including the sector ‘Cleantech & Energy’. The development company works on behalf of the province of Gelderland, the province of Overijssel and the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Climate (Oost NL, 2017-c), and manages some of the public funds that have been made available by these governing bodies. One of these funds is the aforementioned ‘IEG’ (Oost NL, 2017-a). In addition, ‘Oost NL’ provides support to entrepreneurs by sharing knowledge and expertise and making use of its networks (Oost NL, 2017-c).
5.9.6 Kiemt The foundation ‘Kiemt’ forms a network for innovation focused on energy technology and a circular economy in Gelderland. The network is established for private businesses, government bodies and knowledge institutions. ‘Kiemt’ offers support to entrepreneurs by helping them with subsidies, financing and getting in touch with partners (KiEMT, n.d.). The province of Gelderland and ‘Kiemt’ collaborate by working on an innovation agenda that is focused on ‘Energy and Environmental Technology (EMT)’ (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-c). The ‘GreenTechAlliances (GTA) Implementation plan’ emerged from this collaboration. The ‘GTA Implementation plan’ was implemented to support the ‘EMT’ sector, accelerate ‘EMT’ innovations and stimulate the energy transition in Gelderland (Kiemt, 2013). The aforementioned innovation program is executed by ‘Kiemt’ and for 90% funded by the province of Gelderland. The other 10% was funded through businesses that have participations in ‘Kiemt’. Furthermore, the innovation program has been given support to renewable energy projects, for example, by providing vouchers for feasibility studies to initiators (Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland, 2014).
5.9.7 VECG The ‘Association Energy Cooperative Gelderland’ – ‘Vereniging Energiecoöperaties Gelderland (VECG)’ – is an association consisting of dozens of local energy cooperatives. The ‘VECG’ provides a professional network that is useful as regards saving energy and generating solar, water and wind energy (Gelders Energieakkoord, 2016). The Energy cooperatives realize local projects, and contribute to the participation of local society in projects. In the ‘Energy Transition policy program 2016-2019’ it is described that the ‘VECG’ wants to accelerate wind energy projects of citizens’ initiatives by providing financial and administrative support. In addition, the ‘VECG’ helps new energy cooperatives to establish, since the ‘VECG’ aims to have at least one local energy cooperative in each municipality (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-c). The province of Gelderland stated to support the ‘VECG’ in realizing this aim (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-a). The province of Gelderland stimulates the sharing of knowledge between cooperatives within the ‘VECG’ by introducing certain vouchers. The energy cooperatives can provide these vouchers to each other, after which the vouchers can be used to pay for expertise from the aforementioned ‘expertise pool’. This voucher-system is reimbursed by the province of Gelderland in the first few years, after which the system will be privatized. Furthermore, the ‘VECG’ manages an acceleration fund that, in consultation with others actors including the province of Gelderland, is used for the deployment of certain projects on knowledge and development (Gelders Energieakkoord, 2016). Moreover, the province of Gelderland transfers the management of the aforementioned ‘Community of Practice’ to the ‘VECG’ (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-c).
5.9.8 Government bodies The province of Gelderland collaborates with multiple government bodies as regards solar and wind energy policy. As mentioned earlier, the province of Gelderland cooperates with municipalities in several ways. Firstly, the
40 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 province of Gelderland and municipalities jointly sought for wind energy locations through the participation in workshops on wind energy (Provincie Gelderland, 2015-c). In response, the province of Gelderland offered quick-scans to municipalities in order to examine the feasibility of wind energy locations (Rekenkamer Oost- Nederland, 2014). Secondly, the province of Gelderland contributes to the organization of public meetings about wind energy on municipal level (Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland, 2014). Furthermore, the province of Gelderland and municipalities collaborate through the ‘CoP’ (Alliander, GNMF, & Klimaatverbond Nederland, 2015) and the ‘energy roadmaps’ (Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland, 2014). As regards collaboration with other provinces, the province of Gelderland has explored collaborations as regards the energy transition. In the ‘Budget 2018’, the province of Gelderland stated the willingness to jointly realize energy projects with the Dutch provinces of Limburg, Noord-Brabant and Overijssel and the German state Noordrijn-Westfalen. This cross-border cooperation of the province of Gelderland aims, amongst other things, on forms of financing for renewable energy projects (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-a). In addition, several German regions and the provinces of Gelderland, Limburg and Overijssel collaborate on several policy areas including the energy transition. A provincial representative has been appointed by the provinces of Gelderland, Limburg and Overijssel in order to facilitate the collaboration process (Provincie Gelderland, 2017-a).
5.10 Evaluating and monitoring The province of Gelderland carried out or commissioned a third party to do a monitor on the implemented solar and wind energy policies several times. In 2010, the province of Gelderland evaluated the ‘Climate program Gelderland for 2008-2011’ – ‘Gelders Klimaatprogramma 2008-2011’ – in which recommendations are provided in preparation to the energy program that had to be written for 2012-2015. This evaluation concluded that the energy consumption decreases less quickly than expected, causing that more sustainable energy is required in order to reach the objective about the share of renewable energy. In addition, it is stated that biomass provides a major contribution to the share of renewable energy, while the local generation of wind energy lags behind (Gedeputeerde Staten van Gelderland, 2010). In 2014, the ‘Audit Office East Netherlands’ – ‘Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland’ – has carried out an analysis on the ‘Energy transition program 2012-2015’. This analysis indicated that the province of Gelderland will probably not achieve the energy objectives by 2020. However, the analysis concluded that the current way of monitoring does not provide a clear insight in the efficiency and that it is questionable which developments are a result of the ‘Energy transition program 2012-2015’. In addition, the ‘Audit Office East Netherlands’ described that the Provincial Executive have to report on the share of renewable energy, and that the partners that receive support for a project have to report on the progress of the project each year (Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland, 2014). Another monitor carried out by ‘Audit Office East Netherlands’ is about the ‘Innovation and Energy fund’. This monitor concluded that the information on utilization and results of the fund should be improved (Rekenkamer Oost-Nederland, 2017-b). Furthermore, the ‘GEA’ partners carry out monitors on the progress of the energy transition in Gelderland (Alliander, GNMF, & Klimaatverbond Nederland, 2015). To do so, a zero measurement for 2014 has been performed by the ‘GEA’ in 2016, after which annual reports are made. Moreover, the ‘GEA’ has established the theme-table ‘monitoring’ consisting of three sub-tables including the sub-table ‘government and business policy aspects’ (Gelders Energieakkoord, 2016).
5.11 Outcomes
5.11.1 MW’s and TJ’s solar and wind energy This section describes the outcomes realized as regard solar and wind energy in Gelderland so far. Firstly, according to Rijkswaterstaat, Gelderland achieved a total of 173.53 MW solar energy through registered solar panels in 2015 (Rijkswaterstaat, 2017). In the same year, a total of 471 TJ solar energy has been generated in Gelderland (Rijkswaterstaat, n.d.). Furthermore, the total capacity of ground-mounted solar energy is 16.18 MW in Gelderland to date, while another 202.81 MW ground-mounted solar energy is in preparation (ROM3D, 2018). Regarding wind energy, Gelderland achieved a capacity of 82.4 MW; 35.75% of the 230.5 MW objective, at the end of 2016. Therefore, another 148.1 MW wind energy has to be realized by 2020 in order to achieve the objective (RVO, 2017-b). Furthermore, a total of 457 TJ wind energy on land has been generated in Gelderland in 2016 (Rijkswaterstaat, n.d.).
41 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 5.11.2 Expectations wind energy Gelderland will achieve a capacity of 236.3 MW; 100% wind energy on land by 2020 if all projects for wind energy are realized, counting both the 82.4 MW; 34.87% already realized and the 153.9 MW; 65.13% in preparation in 2016. However, according to RVO, 51.8 MW; 21.92% can be classified as uncertain and unclear to be realized and 63.1 MW; 25.94% can be classified as vulnerable. The remaining 121.4 MW; 51.38% is classified as certain to be realized, which includes the 82.4 MW of projects that have already been realized. As mentioned before, the four preparatory stages distinguished by RVO are the preliminary phase, the spatial procedure, the licensing phase and the construction phase. At the end of 2016, Gelderland had a capacity of 42.2 MW wind energy in the preliminary phase, 27 MW in the spatial procedure, 84.7 MW in the licensing phase and 0 MW in the construction phase (RVO, 2017-b). The gap that has to be filled between the capacity of projects that are certain to be realized and the 2020 objective is 109.1 MW; 47.3%.
42 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Chapter 6: Comparing the cases This chapter is about the differences and similarities between the solar and wind energy policies implemented by the province of Noord-Brabant and the province of Gelderland. In order to provide a clear overview the key points of the policies of both cases are displayed in a table first. Thereafter, the differences and similarities are described and the drivers for these differences and similarities are discussed.
6.1 Table of policies The table below shows the key points of the solar and wind energy policies implemented by the province of Noord-Brabant and the province of Gelderland. In advance, the first part of the table shows the spatial characteristics of the provinces.
Categories Components Province of Noord-Brabant Province of Gelderland Spatial Inhabitants (Jan 2016) 2,498,749 2,035,351 characteristics Surface (in km2) 5082.06 (100%) 5136.3 (100%) Land (in km2) 4908.29 (96.58%) 4967.19 (96.7%) Water (in km2) 176.59 (3.47%) 172.6 (3.36%) Agricultural land (in km2) 3045.15 (59.92%) 2984.43 (58.1%) Open nature and forest (in 853.12 (16.79%) 1154.27 (22.47%) km2) Build-up terrain (in km2) 617.59 (12.15%) 472.13 (9.19%) Sub: Residential area (in km2) 396.66 (7.8%) 311.7 (6.07%) Sub: Business parks (in km2) 157.01 (3.09%) 102.48 (2%) Traffic area (in km2) 176.12 (3.46%) 160.9 (3.13%) Recreation area (in km2) 144.28 (2.84%) 139.09 (2.7%) Semi-build-up terrain (in km2) 69.21 (1.36%) 52.89 (1.03%) Municipalities 64 54 Municipalities (>100k) 4 (Breda, Eindhoven, 4 (Appeldoorn, Arnhem, Ede en s'-Hertogenbosch and Tilburg). Nijmegen). Municipalities (<100k) 60 50 Vision and When energy-neutral By 2050 By 2050 objectives Percentage renewable energy 14% 14% by 2020 MW wind energy on land by 470.5 MW (7.84% of 6,000 MW) 230.5 MW (3.84% of 6,000 MW ) 2020 MW solar energy 2050 MW (includes both 200 MW (includes both ground-mounted, on rooftops ground-mounted, on rooftops and more) and more) Governance Subject 'energy' in portfolio of Yes. Yes. and roles Provincial Executive Mentioned roles (Solar and wind:) connecting, (Solar:) inspiring and connecting. directing, facilitating and (Wind:) normative, enterprising, participating. inspiring and connecting. Governance Program manager and three Three teams: 'saving energy', teams: 'sustainable energy 'renewable energy' and 'EMT technology', 'directing' and and bio-based economy'. 'sustainable implementation'. Budgets Coalition agreement 2016-2019 € 536,000,000 € 560,000,000 total budget Coalition agreement 2016-2019 € 30,000,000 (5.6%) € 80,000,000 (14.3%) 'Energy Transition' budget
43 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Total provincial in budget 2018 € 1,232,000,000 € 680,766,000 Energy transition in budget € 5,481,000 (0.44%) € 16,020,000 (2.35%) 2018 Communicative Informing Public meetings, Wind energy Public meetings, Energy atlas, instruments map. Solar Energy map, Wind energy map. Consulting Public meetings, public contest. Workshop: 'Windatelier', motion 42 Research on ‘The integration of solar parks’, ‘The feasibility of locations for ‘Spatial and financial wind energy through quick- opportunities of sustainable scans’, ‘Some large locations energy’, ‘Scenarios energy which may function as challenge 2050, and the alternatives’, ‘The possibilities to potential and spatial impact’, generate solar energy in specific ‘The public support for energy areas’. measures’, ‘The possibilities for a large windfarm’, ‘The spatial placement of 100 MW wind turbines A16’, ‘Business cases when farmers are willing to realize solar parks’. Centre of expertise ‘BERK’, ‘Werkplaats de Gruyter’, ‘Community of Practice (CoP)’, ‘Provincial Council for the Living ‘Expertise pool’, ‘Provincial Environment’. Council for Environmental Policy (PRO)’. Process guidance Expertise, capacity and The province of Gelderland knowledge is provided to offers customized support to municipalities for solar and wind municipalities and initiators as energy projects. regards wind energy projects. The aim is expressed to discuss The province of Gelderland energy projects and local stated its willingness to offer participation with at least process guidance to regional fifteen municipalities. processes. Participation The province of Noord-Brabant, For each wind energy project in project developers and involved Gelderland it is mandatory that municipalities agreed that a participation is organized, but it quarter of the return achieved is not legally established how by the project along the this participation should be A16-motorway will be invested designed and organized. The in funds for projects that freedom to decide how the contribute to both the local participation is designed is left society and the energy to the initiators. transition. The province of Gelderland offers support to initiators to create a participation plan. Lobby The province of Noord-Brabant The province of Gelderland talks stated that it actively uses its with ‘NIA’ and ‘NLII’ about lobby expertise to support innovative forms of financing partners in obtaining funds from from institutional investors. the European Union. The province of Noord-Brabant The province of Gelderland communicates with the national negotiates with the national government about bottlenecks government about removing that arise from national policies financial bottlenecks as regards as regards 'Energetic wind energy projects. Landscapes'.
44 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Economic Loans and guarantees Green deal: Solar cell Pre-financing development costs instruments technology of solar and wind farms Innovation- and Energy fund Gelderland Traditional subsidies Incentive subsidy for the pilot 'Sun on Yard' Investment funds Energy fund Brabant Sustainability fund Network budget Investment in the Energy transition Legal The Spatial regulation. Rules on solar parks: a municipal Not established anymore. instruments zoning plan can allow the construction of independent solar panels in the 'Groenblauwe mantel' and mixed rural areas. Rules on wind turbines: a municipal zoning plan can allow the construction of wind turbines larger than 25 meters in urban areas, the 'Groenblauwe mantel, and mixed rural areas under the following conditions: the location is on or adjacent to terrain intended for heavy or medium-sized industrial site, the wind turbines are clustered by a minimum of three, and it is ensured that the wind turbines are demolished after the end of use. For urban areas and the 'Groenblauwe mantel' there may be deviation from the first condition when the wind turbines offer social added value and the realization takes place on a landscape that is suitable for wind turbines. In addition, a municipal zoning plan can allow wind turbines of at least 25 meters high in the ‘search areas wind turbines’. The conditions that have to be met are that the location is not a part of the ‘Nature Network Brabant’, the wind turbines are placed in a cluster or line formation of at least five wind turbines, the wind turbines are demolished after the end of use, and the wind turbines are compatibility with the spatial environment.
45 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 The Environmental regulation Not established yet. Rules on solar parks: none
Rules on wind turbines: wind turbines can be allowed in municipal zoning plans as long as the zoning plan contains a spatial design for the wind turbine(s). This spatial design must address certain topics, such as the spatial characteristics of the landscape, the size, scale and spatial integration, the cultural-historical background, and the visual interference with regard to other wind turbines. However, wind turbines cannot be allowed in municipal zoning plans for areas designated to exclude wind turbines. Although the ‘Valuable open areas’ and the ‘GNN’ are designated to exclude wind turbines, it is possible to allow wind turbines in these areas when certain conditions are met. Provincial Coordination Applied for the wind energy Applied for the wind energy arrangement project along the projects in Zevenaar and the A16-motorway. wind energy project in Zaltbommel. It is decided not to apply the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ for the wind energy project in Overbetuwe.
Provincial Integration Plan Along the A16-motorway: for Zevenaar: for 4 wind turbines. 30-50 wind turbines. Agro&Food cluster: for 6-8 wind Zaltbommel: for 3 wind turbines. turbines. M.e.r.-procedure Applied for the ‘PIPs’. Applied for the ‘PIPs’ and the established Wind vision. Environmental permits Several applications have been The 'Environmental permit’ for submitted for the development the wind energy project in of wind energy projects along Zevenaar has been approved. the A16-motorway. The ‘Environmental permit’ for the wind energy project in Zaltbommel is currently being examined by the ‘State Council’.
The ‘Environmental permit’ for The ‘Environmental permit’ for the small building that is the solar park in Dinxperlo has required for the solar park in been made available for Budel has been approved. inspection.
46 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Physical Land owned by the province The province of Noord-Brabant The province of Gelderland instruments leaves solar and wind energy leaves the actual realization of projects to other actors. In wind turbines to citizens, private addition, the province of organizations and developers. Noord-Brabant did not set a The province of Gelderland did budget to use its plots of land to not make any budget available generate solar and/or wind for carrying out initiatives for energy. wind farms and/or solar parks on plots of land that are owned by the province of Gelderland itself. Structural Province-wide alliances BEA GEA collaborations BEA 2.0 GEA Implementation plan REA's Energy roadmaps Established tables Table 'Social Sun' Table 'Wind Energy' Table 'Professional Energy Cooperatives' Development company BOM Holding B.V. Oost NL
Power grid company Enexis Holding N.V.
Foundations Kiemt (network)
Associations VECG (network) Government bodies The province of Noord-Brabant The province of Gelderland and and municipalities collaborate municipalities jointly sought for within the ‘RROs’. In addition, wind energy locations, after the province of Noord-Brabant which the province offered the collaborates with four municipalities quick-scans these municipalities through the wind locations. In addition, the energy project along the province of Gelderland and A16-motorway. municipalities collaborate within the 'CoP' and the 'Energy roadmaps'.
The province of Noord-Brabant The province of Gelderland shares knowledge and stated the willingness to jointly experience with other provinces realize energy projects with the within the 'IPO' context. Dutch provinces of Limburg, Noord-Brabant and Overijssel and the German state Noordrijn-Westfalen. In addition, several German regions and the provinces of Gelderland, Limburg and Overijssel collaborate on several policy areas including the energy transition. Evaluating and Evaluating actors of provincial Technopolis Group in 2014 The province of Gelderland in monitoring policy programs 2010 CE Delft in 2017 Audit Office East Netherlands in 2014
Evaluating actors of certain Audit Office East Netherlands in provincial policy instruments 2017
47 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Monitoring of the energy BEA conducts a province-wide GEA monitors the energy transition monitoring of the energy transition and carries out a transition each year. report annually.
Outcomes TJ Solar energy in 2015 646 TJ 471 TJ MW solar energy at the end of 237.98 MW 173.53 MW 2015 MW ground-mounted solar 17.86 MW 16.18 MW parks MW ground-mounted solar 247.31 MW 202.81 MW parks in preparation TJ wind energy on land in 2016 1296 TJ 457 TJ MW wind energy on land at the 218.7 MW (46.48% of the 470.5 82.4 MW (35.75% of the 230.5 end of 2016 MW objective) MW objective) MW wind energy in 304.2 MW 153.9 MW preparation at the end of 2016 MW wind energy projects 522.9 MW 236.3 MW realized and in preparation MW wind energy that RVO 254.2 MW 121.4 MW classified as probably feasible to be realized by 2020 Gap between what is probably - 216.3 MW (46.0%) - 109.1 MW (47.3%) feasible and the objective
6.2 Differences and similarities This section is about the differences and similarities between the solar and wind energy policy implemented by the selected provinces. In addition, the main drivers for the differences and similarities found are discussed. The similarities and differences are discussed consecutively by making use of the same policy components that have been used in this research before.
6.2.1 Vision and objectives As regards the vision and objectives the first things that become clear are the similarities in the vision to become energy-neutral by 2050 and the objective to achieve a share of 14% renewable energy by 2020. Reason for the similarity in objectives is that both provinces have committed themselves to the national objectives. The first notable difference that became clear is about the objectives for realizing a certain amount of MW wind energy on land by 2020. For each Dutch province a different amount of MW wind energy on land has been agreed. This different amount is caused by the negotiations between the provinces and the national government on the distribution of 6,000 MW wind energy on land among the provinces. In these negotiations, amongst other things, arguments were used about potentials and existing initiatives. Besides, political arguments were used. The province of Noord-Brabant has an objective of 470.5 MW; 7.84% of 6,000 MW , and the province of Gelderland has an objective of 230.5 MW; 3.84% of 6,000 MW. Both the provinces are holding back on formulating an objective for ground-mounted solar energy. The possible reasons for this is that solar parks were not considered to be efficient until recently and that provinces do not consider it as their task to actively implement solar energy policy. Furthermore, both the province of Gelderland and the province of Noord-Brabant have once mentioned an objective for solar energy. The province of Gelderland stated the objective to achieve 200 MW solar energy, and the province of Noord-Brabant formulated the objective to achieve 250 MW solar energy. These objectives are probably formulated because of the notion that a mix of sustainable energy is required and the increasing cost-effectiveness of solar energy.
6.2.2 Governance and roles The province of Noord-Brabant mentioned to have a directing, participating, connecting and facilitating role when it comes to achieving the energy objectives. The province of Gelderland mentioned to have an inspiring and connecting role as regard solar and wind energy and also a normative and enterprising role as regard wind energy
48 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 alone. In practice, the roles mentioned by both provinces are not very different: directing-normative, participating-enterprising, and connecting-connecting. The notable differences are the facilitating and participating role mentioned by the province of Noord-Brabant, and the inspiring role mentioned by the province of Gelderland. As regards the governance of the provincial energy programs, both the provinces of Gelderland and Noord-Brabant have included the subject ‘Energy’ in the portfolio of the Provincial Executive. In addition, both provinces have established three teams that are focused on specific parts of the energy transition, of which one is focused on ‘technology for sustainable energy’. Besides, the province of Gelderland established teams for ‘saving energy’ and ‘renewable energy’, while the province of Noord-Brabant established teams for ‘directing’ and ‘sustainable implementation’.
6.2.3 Budgets The total amount budgeted by the province of Gelderland and the province of Noord-Brabant in the coalition agreements 2015-2019 is almost equal to each other. However, a difference is visible in the amount budgeted for the energy transition. In the coalition agreement 2015-2019 of the province of Gelderland a total of €560,000,000.- is budgeted, of which 14.3% is budgeted for the energy transition, while in the coalition agreement 2015-2019 of the province of Noord-Brabant a total of €536,000,000.- is budgeted, of which 5.6% is budgeted for the energy transition. Furthermore, the total budgets for 2018 are quite different between the selected provinces. The province of Gelderland has a total budget of €680,760,000.- for 2018 and spends 2.35% on the energy transition. The province of Noord-Brabant has a total budget of €1,232,000,000.- for 2018 and spends 0,44% on the energy transition. The province of Gelderland clearly spends more on the energy transition than the province of Noord-Brabant does. Unfortunately, no further distributions of the budgets are shown. Moreover, the decisions on how to distribute budgets across the various policy areas are made by the political government body. Therefore, at least political drivers are at play.
6.2.4 Communicative instruments The province of Noord-Brabant and the province of Gelderland both implemented communicative instruments for solar and wind energy. The province of Noord-Brabant organized meetings focused on specific projects such as the A16-motorway project. The province of Gelderland, on the other hand, contributed to the organization of meetings at municipalities to discuss sustainable energy in general and locations for wind energy. Besides, both provinces carried out a map on wind energy in order to inform interested parties on possible locations. The map of the province of Noord-Brabant indicates the areas wherein locations are sought for wind turbines, and what locations are preferred by the municipalities. The map of the province of Gelderland indicates locations for wind turbines that are possible, disadvantaged, focus areas, already used for wind energy, excluded due to policy or restriction, and being investigated. In addition, the province of Gelderland drawn up a map to indicate locations where solar parks are possible under what conditions. The province of Gelderland, municipalities and regions jointly sought suitable locations for wind energy in consultation workshops. The province of Noord-Brabant organized consultation meetings such as an ‘Energy dinner’, and makes a part of the A16-motorway available for a contest in which participants draw up ideas for renewable energy projects. Both provinces carried out studies on solar and wind energy. The province of Gelderland offered municipalities quick-scans on the feasibility of wind energy locations, and the province of Noord-Brabant offered farmers scans on the realization of solar parks. Besides, both provinces carried out a study about the possibilities to integrate solar parks. In addition, the province of Noord- Brabant carried out studies about public support, scenarios of becoming energy-neutral by 2050, and financial opportunities of sustainable energy. Both provinces have centres of expertise that, amongst other things, are involved in solar and wind energy policy. The province of Noord-Brabant has ‘BERK’, ‘Werkplaats de Gruyter’ and the ‘Provincial Council for the Living Environment’, and the province of Gelderland has the ‘CoP’, ‘Expertise pool’, and ‘PRO’. The ‘CoP’ is established to focus on energy cooperatives and the ‘expertise pool’ is established to focus on energy initiatives. As regards process guidance, the province of Gelderland offers customized support for wind energy projects to municipalities and initiators, while the province of Noord-Brabant offers customized support for solar and wind energy projects to municipalities. Furthermore, in Gelderland it is mandatory for initiators of wind energy projects to provide possibilities to participate. Besides, the province of Gelderland supports initiators to draw up a participation plan. The province of Noord-Brabant did not impose any obligations for participation in wind energy projects. However, the actors involved in the A16 project agreed that a quarter of the return achieved will be invested in projects that contribute to the energy transition and local society. In terms of lobbying, the
49 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 province of Noord-Brabant and the province of Gelderland both lobby to solve bottlenecks that arise from national policies. In addition, the province of Noord-Brabant supports partners to obtain funds from the European Union, and the province of Gelderland talks about a new fund with ‘NIA’ and ‘NLII’.
6.2.5 Economic instruments The provinces of Gelderland and Noord-Brabant both implemented economic instruments for the purpose of solar and wind energy. Some of the instruments are established to serve multiple aspects of the energy transition, making it unclear to what extend the instrument actually contributes to the development of solar parks and wind farms. The first striking difference is that the province of Gelderland implemented several loans and guarantees, while the province of Noord-Brabant established several investment funds. The ‘Energy fund Brabant’ is implement to invest in large-scale projects that cost at least €4,000,000.- and contribute to saving energy or generating sustainable energy. The investments finance projects for up to 25% of the required capital, and as soon as the project proved its performance the shares are sold. The province of Gelderland implemented the ‘IEG’ to financially support companies in realizing projects that contribute to a sustainable energy supply. Moreover, the ‘IEG’ is a revolving fund consisting of loans, guarantees and participations. Both provinces implemented an economic instrument for the purpose of developing solar parks. A traditional subsidy for the pilot ‘Sun on Yard’ is implemented by the province of Gelderland to co-finance pilots that aim to realize solar panels on yards of farmers. A guarantee called ‘Green deal: solar cell technology’ is implemented by the province of Noord-Brabant to provide support to innovative solar energy projects executed by entrepreneurs and the installation of innovative solar cell technology executed by legal entities of partnerships thereof. A standalone investment in the energy transition is done by the province of Noord-Brabant in order to gain an international competitive position in three areas including solar energy. The province of Gelderland implemented a fund to pre-finance the development costs of solar parks of >1 MW and wind farms of >5 MW through loans. In order to receive the loan at least fifty natural persons have to be associated with the requesting company. Furthermore, both the province of Gelderland and the province of Noord-Brabant planned to establish a large investment fund; the ‘Network budget’ in Noord-Brabant and ‘Sustainability fund’ in Gelderland. Both funds are implemented to jointly with public and private investors invest in the energy transition, which includes the realization of solar parks and wind farms.
6.2.6 Legal instruments Both similarities as well as differences as regards the legal instruments implemented by the province of Gelderland and the province of Noord-Brabant. The province of Gelderland adopted the ‘Environmental regulation’ in which it is regulated that wind turbines can be allowed in municipal zoning plans under the condition that a spatial design is attached that has to address several topics. However, it is also regulated that wind turbines cannot be allowed in municipal zoning plans when it comes to areas designated to exclude wind turbines because of certain vulnerabilities. An exception to these areas of exclusion are the ‘Valuable open areas’ and the ‘GNN’. No regulations on solar parks are adopted in the ‘Environmental regulation’. The province of Noord-Brabant adopted the ‘Spatial regulation’ in which it is regulated that municipal zoning plans can allow wind turbines larger than 25 meters in urban areas, mixed rural areas, the ‘Groenblauwe mantel’ and the ‘search areas wind turbines’ when certain conditions are met. Except for the ‘search areas wind turbines’, the location has to be on or adjacent to terrain intended for heavy or medium-sized industrial site, the wind turbines have to be clustered by a minimum of three, and it has to be ensured that the wind turbines are demolished after the end of use. Deviation from the first condition is possible for urban areas and the ‘Groenblauwe mantel’ when the wind turbines offer social added value and the landscape is suitable for wind turbines. For the ‘search areas wind turbines’ the set conditions are that the location is not a part of the ‘Nature Network Brabant’, the wind turbines are placed in a cluster or line formation of at least five wind turbines, it has to be ensured that the wind turbines are demolished after the end of use, and the wind turbines are compatible with the spatial environment. As regards solar parks, the spatial regulation states that municipal zoning plans can allow the construction of solar parks in mixed rural areas and the ‘Groenblauwe mantel’ even if the solar park is larger than 5000m2. A notable difference is that the province of Noord-Brabant has set multiple conditions for municipalities to allow wind turbines in municipal zoning plans, while the province of Gelderland gives more freedom to municipalities to allow wind turbines in municipal zoning plans. In addition, it is striking that the ‘Environmental regulation’ of the province of Gelderland does not include regulations on solar parks. The difference in type of regulation is caused by the changes that Dutch spatial policy is going through until 2021. The province of Gelderland already started to adapt to these changes by implementing
50 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 the ‘Environmental regulation’. Another legal instrument is the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’. The province of Gelderland decided to apply this arrangement for the wind energy projects in Zevenaar and Zaltbommel, but decided not to apply the arrangement for the wind energy project in Overbetuwe. The province of Noord-Brabant decided to apply the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ for the wind energy project along the A16-motorway. Although wind energy projects are in first instance left to municipalities, at request of the initiator the competent authority for allowing such wind projects is transferred from the rejecting municipality to the relevant province. Therefore, the application of the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’ depends on initiatives for wind energy projects that are rejected by municipal governments. Moreover, taking over the authority is in line with the policy that the national government prescribes. A ‘PIP’ logically follows a ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’, since the ‘PIP’ is used to overrule the municipal zoning plan. Therefore, the province of Gelderland and province of Noord-Brabant decided to draw up ‘PIPs’ for the same projects to which the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangements’ are applied. Besides, the province of Noord-Brabant drew up a ‘PIP’ for the wind energy project in the Agro&Food cluster. Prior to deciding on a ‘PIP’, the ‘Me.r.-procedure’ is followed to assess the environmental effects. In addition, the province of Gelderland used this procedure to establish the entire ‘Wind vision’. Furthermore, the province of Gelderland approved the ‘Environmental permit’ for the wind energy project in Zevenaar, and made the permit for the wind energy project in Zaltbommel available for inspection. The province of Noord-Brabant has recently received several applications for ‘Environmental permits’ for wind energy projects along the A16-motorway. Overall, the nationally prescribed policy is the main reason for the similarities in legal instruments. On the other hand, the differences in present initiatives to which the municipalities do not cooperate is the main reason for the differences found. The difference in type of regulation is an exception to this, since this difference is caused by the changes that take place in the nationally prescribed policy.
6.2.7 Physical instruments Both the province of Noord-Brabant and the province of Gelderland do not take initiatives to realize solar and wind energy projects themselves, because the realization of solar parks and wind farms is approached as something that should be initiated by private organizations and civil society. The reasons for this similarity are the presence of other actors who already taking initiatives for solar parks and wind farms, and the national policy that does not prescribe to the provinces to take such initiatives themselves.
6.2.8 Structural collaborations The province of Noord-Brabant and the province of Gelderland established multiple structural collaborations on, amongst other things, solar and wind energy policy. In this regard, both similarities and differences between the provinces became clear. The first striking similarity is the province-wide agreements that have been made. Many actors within Noord-Brabant collaborate through the ‘BEA’, with which commitment to the set energy ambitions is expressed. Some of these actors subsequently agreed upon setting an effort obligation and the execution of implementation plans in the ‘BEA 2.0’. Also in Gelderland many actors have signed a province-wide agreement through which the affiliated actors have committed themselves to the energy objectives. Several of these actors have agreed upon the execution of concrete measures through the ‘GEA Implementation plan’. In order to focus on regions within the province, ‘REAs’ have been established in Noord-Brabant, and ‘energy roadmaps’ have been developed in Gelderland. In addition, certain tables have been established to put an extra focus on specific topics of the energy transition. Amongst other things, the ‘BEA’ established the table ‘Social Sun’, and the ‘GEA’ established the table ‘Wind energy’. Apart from the provincial-wide agreements, the province of Gelderland and the province of Noord-Brabant are active in other collaborations on solar and/or wind energy. The province of Gelderland has accommodated the ‘Innovation the and Energy fund’ at ‘Oost NL’. The province of Noord-Brabant has accommodated the ‘Energy fund’ at ‘BOM Holding B.V.’. In addition, the province of Noord-Brabant allocated two FTE at ‘BOM Holding B.V.’ to help municipalities and ‘REAs’ with updating knowledge. As regards networks, the province of Gelderland is a partner in the ‘Kiemt’ network that has adopted the ‘GTA Implementation plan’, which was mainly funded by the province of Gelderland and executed by ‘Kiemt’. Amongst other things, the ‘GTA Implementation plan’ offered support to renewable energy projects in Gelderland. Another network is the ‘VECG’ which is facilitated by the province of Gelderland facilitates to accelerate of wind energy projects initiated by citizens. Therefore, the province of Gelderland and the ‘VECG’ jointly have the goal to achieve that each municipality has at least one local energy cooperative. Besides, the province of Gelderland deploys vouchers that stimulate the knowledge sharing between the cooperatives of the ‘VECG’. The province of Noord-Brabant, on the
51 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 other hand, and ‘Enpuls B.V.’ have agreed to jointly support ten sustainable energy projects of residents. Furthermore, the provinces of Noord-Brabant and Gelderland collaborate with other government bodies. Firstly, the province of Noord-Brabant, municipalities and water boards consult spatial policy within the ‘RROs’. In addition, the province of Noord-Brabant collaborates with the municipalities Breda, Drimmelen, Moerdijk and Zundert through the wind energy project along the A16. The ‘Project office wind energy A16’ was set up from this latter collaboration to manage the process of the project as regards social participation. The province of Gelderland and municipalities jointly sought for wind energy locations, after which the province of Gelderland offered the municipalities quick-scans on the feasibility of these wind energy locations. In addition, the province of Gelderland contributed to the organization of public meetings on wind energy projects at municipal level. Besides, the province of Gelderland and municipalities collaborate in the ‘CoP’ and ‘Energy roadmaps’. Moreover, the province of Gelderland stated the willingness to realize energy projects in collaboration with other provinces. The reason for the province of Gelderland to look for cross-border partnerships are the developments that take place across these borders. Meanwhile, the province of Noord-Brabant appears to be more focused on the developments that take place within the provincial borders.
6.2.9 Evaluating and monitoring Both the provinces of Gelderland and Noord-Brabant have carried out, or commissioned other actors to carry out, policy evaluations. The province of Noord-Brabant commissioned ‘Technopolis Group’ to evaluate the ‘Energy agenda of Noord-Brabant 2010-2020’, and ‘CE Delft’ to evaluate the ‘Energy implementation program’. The province of Gelderland evaluated the ‘Climate program Gelderland for 2008-2011’, and commissioned the ‘Audit Office East Netherlands’ to carry out an analysis on the ‘Energy Transition program 2012-2015’. In addition, the ‘Audit Office East Netherlands’ evaluated the ‘IEG’. Furthermore, both the ‘GEA’ and the ‘BEA’ partnership annually monitor the progress of the province as regards the energy transition.
6.2.10 Outcomes The available figures show that Noord-Brabant is slightly ahead of Gelderland as regards solar and wind energy. To date, Noord-Brabant had achieved 17.86 MW ground-mounted solar energy, and Gelderland had achieved 16.18 MW ground-mounted solar energy. At the same time, the capacity of ground-mounted solar energy in preparation is 247.31 MW in Noord-Brabant and 202.81 MW in Gelderland. The difference in capacity between the solar parks realized and the solar parks in preparation shows how solar parks are currently emerging. With regard to wind energy, Noord-Brabant has generated 1296 TJ in Noord-Brabant in 2016, and Gelderland has generated 457 TJ in Gelderland in the same year. At the end of 2016, the capacity of wind energy on land was 218.7 MW in Noord- Brabant and 82.4 MW in Gelderland. At the same time, the capacity wind energy on land in preparation was 304.2 MW in Noord-Brabant, and 153.9 MW in Gelderland. According to ‘RVO’, 254.2 MW wind energy on land can be classified as probably feasible to be achieved in Noord-Brabant by 2020, leaving a 216.3 MW; 46.0% gap with the 470.5 MW objective. Regarding Gelderland, RVO states that 121.4 MW wind energy on land can be classified as probably feasible to be achieved by 2020, leaving a 109.1 MW; 47.3% gap with the 230.5 MW objective. Although clear differences are visible between the provinces in capacity and quantity as regards wind energy, the difference between the percentages on how much capacity is still needed to achieve the wind energy objective is not that big.
52 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018 Chapter 7: Conclusions This concluding chapter gradually provides an answer to the main question of this research. The main question is: ‘How do the province of Gelderland and the province of Noord-Brabant differ from each other as regards solar and wind energy policy, and are the regional spatial characteristics an important driver for pluriformity?’.
In order to answer the main question several steps have been taken. First, a framework is developed for describing and comparing provincial solar and wind energy policy. Secondly, the selected cases are described on the basis of the framework. Thirdly, the selected cases are compared to each other, with which the similarities and differences became clear. Finally, drivers are sought for the differences and similarities found.
During the development of the framework, it appeared that provincial solar and wind energy policy consists of several components. The components are vision and objectives, governance, budgets, communicative instruments, economic instruments, legal instruments, physical instruments, structural collaborations, monitoring and evaluating, and outcomes. Some of these components contain sub-components. For example, the ‘Spatial regulation’ is one of the available legal instruments. Ultimately, a description of provincial solar and wind energy policy drawn up on the basis of the aforementioned components potentially leads to an all-encompassing insight in the policy.
The descriptions of the two cases show that both the province of Noord-Brabant and the province of Gelderland have implemented solar and wind energy policy. When implementing such policy provinces are partly bound by national policies, laws and agreements. This is evident, amongst other things, from the formulated objectives and the application of legal instruments such as the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangement’. In addition, the provinces to some extent have the freedom to decide on the implementation of policies themselves. This freedom is apparent, for example, from the choices for certain economic instruments and the size of the budgets. Furthermore, the descriptions show that the spatial characteristics are hardly a driver for the decisions of the province of Noord-Brabant and the province of Gelderland as regards solar and wind energy policy. The times that the provinces did take spatial characteristics into account was by investigating the feasibility of solar parks on agricultural land in Noord-Brabant, making a subsidy available for solar panels on farmyards in Gelderland, and including some of the spatial characteristics such as the nature networks in the regulations relevant for solar and wind energy.
During the comparison of the two cases it turned out that there are similarities as well as differences between the province of Noord-Brabant and the province of Gelderland regarding solar and wind energy policy. It can therefore be said that there is no obvious presence of pluriformity or uniformity, but that it is actually in between. The most obvious similarities arise from the alignment with national policies, laws and agreements. With the exception of the wind energy objectives agreed with the national government, no distinctions are made in how the provinces have to fill in their policies. Clear similarities are found in vision on energy-neutrality and the objective of 14% renewable energy, application of the ‘Provincial Coordination arrangements’ and ‘PIPs’, physical instruments, evaluating and monitoring, the province-wide collaborations: ‘BEA’ and ‘GEA’, and the current capacity of ground-mounted solar energy. The differences mainly seem to arise from the presence of initiatives, actors and networks, negotiations, developments that take place, and political decisions. Clear differences are found in the wind energy objective, budgets, economic instruments, ‘Spatial/Environmental regulation’, collaboration with other provinces, and the capacity of wind energy on land at the end of 2016.
Beforehand, uniformity was expected as regards provincial solar and wind energy policy, since the province of Gelderland and the province of Noord-Brabant have to deal with homogenous spatial characteristics when integrating solar parks and wind farms. Yet, pluriformity is just as evident as uniformity. Therefore, homogeneous regional spatial characteristics seem not be the main driver for uniformity as regards solar and wind energy policy. In addition, as previously stated, the regional spatial characteristics hardly influence policy decisions. Other drivers, such as the aforementioned national policies, laws and agreements, presence of initiatives, actors and networks, negotiations, developments that take place, and political decisions have a joint influence on how the policy is shaped.
53 Provincial solar and wind energy policy Luuk Beimans 30-7-2018
To conclude, the province of Noord-Brabant and the province of Gelderland have very similar regional spatial characteristics, but these characteristics only barely influence solar and wind energy policy. The comparison showed that there are both similarities and differences between the policy implemented by the province of Noord-Brabant and the province of Gelderland, which indicates that other drivers than spatial characteristics are at play. The national policies, laws and agreements, presence of initiatives, actors and networks, negotiations, developments that take place and political decisions appear to have a greater influence on provincial solar and wind energy policy in comparison to the spatial characteristics. The relationship between homogeneous regional spatial characteristics and the presence of uniform provincial solar and wind energy policy is significantly less than expected at the start of this research.
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