Abbreviations. Do not break abbreviations over lines, regardless of their internal capitalization, , and spacing (BA, U.S., NATO, p.m., kg, PhD, Gov. Gen.). The only exception is that an abbreviation that already includes a , such as AFL-CIO, may be divided on the hyphen. See chapter 24 for more on abbreviations.

Punctuation. Never begin a line with a closing , parenthesis, or . Never end a line with an opening quotation mark, parenthesis, or bracket or with (a) or (1), as at the beginning of a list. See chapter 21 for more on punctuation and 23.4.2 for lists. Avoid breaking an (see 25.3.2) over a line; use your word processor's ellipsis character to prevent this problem.

URLs and e-mail addresses. Avoid breaking URLs and e-mail addresses over lines. If you have to break one, insert the break after a , a (or double slash), or the symbol @ but before a period or any other punctuation or symbols. are frequently included as part of a URL or e-mail address, so to avoid confusion, never add a hyphen to indicate the break, or break a URL or address at an existing hyphen.

http:// www.press.uchicago.edu http://www .press.uchicago.edu http://www.press.uchicago.edu/ cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/12917.ctl If your word processor automatically formats URLs and e-mail addresses as hyperlinks, it may break these items contrary to the guidelines above. In many settings, such breaks are acceptable as long as the full URL or address is clearly identified as a hyperlink (through underlining or a second color) and no extra hyphens are added to indicate the line breaks.

21 Punctuation

21.1 Period

21.2

21.2.1 Independent Clauses

21.2.2 Series

21.2.3 Nonrestrictive Clauses and Phrases

21.2.4 Other Uses

www.itpub.net 21.3

21.4 Colon

21.5

21.6 Exclamation Point

21.7 Hyphen and

21.7.1 Hyphen

21.7.2

21.7.3 Multiple Dashes

21.8 Parentheses and

21.8.1 Parentheses

21.8.2 Brackets

21.9 Slashes

21.10 Quotation Marks

21.11 Multiple Punctuation Marks

21.11.1 Omission of Punctuation Marks

21.11.2 Order of Punctuation Marks

This chapter offers general guidelines for punctuation in the text of your paper. Some rules are clear-cut, but others are not, so you often have to depend on sound judgment and a good ear. Special elements such as abbreviations, quotations, and citations have their own guidelines for punctuation, which are treated in relevant chapters in this book. If you are writing a thesis or dissertation, your department or university may have specific requirements for punctuation, which are usually available from the office of theses and dissertations. If you are writing a class paper, your instructor may also ask you to follow certain principles for punctuation. Review these requirements before you prepare your paper. They take precedence over the guidelines suggested here. For style guides in various disciplines, see the bibliography.

21.1 Period

A period ends a sentence that is a declarative statement, an imperative statement, or an indirect question. A period can also end a sentence fragment, if the context makes its rhetorical function clear. But this usage is rare in academic writing. In all these cases, the period is a terminal period and should be followed by a single .

Consider the advantages of this method. The question was whether these differences could be reconciled. Put a period at the end of items in a vertical list only if the items are complete sentences (see 23.4.2). Otherwise, omit terminal periods, even for the last item, and do not capitalize the first words. The report covers three areas: 1. the securities markets 2. the securities industry 3. the securities industry in the economy

Individual periods can also be used in other contexts, including abbreviations (see especially 24.1.3) and citations (16.1.2 and 18.1.2), and also in URLs (20.4.2, 17.1.7, and 19.1.8), where they are often called dots. Strings of periods, or dots, can be used in quotations (see 25.3.2), where they are called ellipses, and in tables (26.2.6) and front matter pages (A.2.1), where they are called leaders.

Do not use periods after chapter and part titles and most subheadings (see A.2.2) or after table titles (26.2.2). For periods in figure captions, see 26.3.2.

21.2 Comma

Commas separate items within a sentence, including clauses, phrases, and individual words. They are especially important when a reader might mistake where a clause or phrase ends and another begins:

Before leaving the members of the committee met in the assembly room.

www.itpub.net Before leaving, the members of the committee met in the assembly room.

For use of in numbers, see 23.2.2. For use of commas in citations, see 16.1.2 and 18.1.2.

21.2.1 Independent Clauses

In a sentence containing two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet), put a comma before the conjunction. This is not a hard-and-fast rule; no comma is needed between two short independent clauses with no internal punctuation.

Students around the world want to learn English, and many young Americans are eager to teach them. The senator arrived at noon and the president left at one. In a sentence containing three or more short and simple independent clauses with no internal punctuation, separate the clauses with commas and add a coordinating conjunction before the last one. (Always include a comma before the coordinating conjunction.) If the clauses are longer and more complex, separate them with (see 21.3)—or, better, rewrite the sentence. The committee designed the questionnaire, the field workers collected responses, and the statistician analyzed the results. The committee designed the questionnaire, which was short; the field workers, who did not participate, collected responses; and the statistician analyzed the results, though not until several days later. Ordinarily, do not insert a comma before a conjunction joining two subjects or two predicates. The agencies that design the surveys and the analysts who evaluate the results should work together. They do not condone such practices but attempt to refute them theoretically. When a sentence opens with a phrase or dependent clause that modifies following two independent coordinate clauses, put a comma after the introductory element but not between the two independent clauses. Within ten years, interest rates surged and the housing market declined.

21.2.2 Series

In a series consisting of three or more words, phrases, or clauses with no internal punctuation of their own, separate the elements with commas. Always use a comma before the conjunction that introduces the last item.

The governor wrote his senators, the president, and the vice president. Attending the conference were Fernandez, Sullivan, and Kendrick. The public approved, the committee agreed, but the measure failed. Do not use commas when all the elements in a series are joined by conjunctions. The palette consisted of blue and green and orange. If a series of three or more words, phrases, or clauses ends with an expression indicating continuation (and so forth, and so on, and the like, or etc.), punctuate that final expression as though it were the final item in the series. You may, however, add a comma after the continuation expression to prevent confusion after a long series. They discussed movies, books, plays, and the like until late in the night. Management can improve not just productivity, but hours, working conditions, training, benefits, and so on, without reducing wages. Use semicolons to separate the items in a series if one or more includes commas, or if the items are long and complex (see 21.3). If such a series comes before the main verb of a sentence, however, rephrase the sentence. The three cities that we compare are Hartford, Connecticut; Kalamazoo, Michigan; and Pasadena, California. but not Hartford, Connecticut; Kalamazoo, Michigan; and Pasadena, California, are three cities worth comparing.

21.2.3 Nonrestrictive Clauses and Phrases

Use paired commas to set off a nonrestrictive clause. A clause is nonrestrictive if it is not necessary to uniquely identify the noun it modifies.

These five books, which are on reserve in the library, are required reading. Here, the noun phrase These five books uniquely identifies the books that the writer has in mind; the nonrestrictive clause is not necessary to identify the books further. On the other hand, in the following sentence, the dependent clause (that are required reading) is restrictive, because it identifies the specific books that are required reading. Commas are therefore not used around the clause. The books that are required reading are on reserve in the library. Although which is often used with restrictive clauses, careful writers preserve the distinction between restrictive that (no comma) and nonrestrictive which (comma). The same principles apply to restrictive and nonrestrictive phrases. The president, wearing a red dress, attended the conference. The woman wearing a red dress is the president.

21.2.4 Other Uses

Commas are used in a variety of other situations. (For use of commas in dates, see 23.3.1.)

Introductory words and phrases. When you begin a sentence with an introductory

www.itpub.net element of more than a few words, follow it with a comma, especially if a slight pause normally occurs in speech. A comma is not necessary after a short prepositional phrase unless the sentence could be misread without one.

If the insurrection is to succeed, the army and police must stand side by side. Having accomplished her mission, she returned to headquarters. To Anthony, Blake remained an enigma. After this week the commission will be able to write its report.

Two or more adjectives preceding a noun. Separate two or more adjectives preceding a noun with commas when they could, without affecting meaning, be joined by and. Do not use a comma if the first adjective modifies the second and cannot be omitted without affecting meaning.

It was a large, well-placed, beautiful house. They strolled out into the warm, luminous night. She refused to be identified with a traditional political label.

Clarifying comments. Words and phrases such as namely, that is, and for example usually introduce a clarifying comment, so all take a comma after them, and may need a semicolon or period before them. Also, when you use or in the sense of “in other words,” put a comma before it. (These and similar expressions may also be set off by dashes or parentheses; see 21.7.2 and 21.8.1.)

Many people resent accidents of fate; that is, they look on illness or bereavement as undeserved. The compass stand, or binnacle, must be visible to the helmsman.

Appositives. A word or phrase is in apposition to a noun when it follows the noun and acts like a nonrestrictive clause (see 21.2.3). Such an element is set off by commas. When the appositive is necessary to identify the noun it modifies, however, commas are not used.

Smith, a Reed College graduate, taught at Harvard for several years. Kierkegaard, the Danish philosopher, asked, “What is anxiety?” but The Danish philosopher Kierkegaard asked, “What is anxiety?”

Place-names. Use commas to set off multiple individual elements in names of places. (For commas in addresses, see 23.1.7.)

Cincinnati, Ohio, is on the Ohio River. The next leg of the trip was to Florence, Italy.

Interjections and conjunctive adverbs. Set off interjections, conjunctive adverbs, and the like to suggest a break in the flow of thought or the rhythm of the sentence. But omit commas when such elements do not break the continuity and do not require a pause in reading.

Nevertheless, it is a matter of great importance. It is, perhaps, the best that could be expected. Perhaps it is therefore clear that no deposits were made.

Contrasted elements. Put commas around an interjected phrase beginning with not, not only, or similar expressions only if you intend the reader to pause before the phrase. Use a comma between clauses of the more . . . the more type unless they are very short or might be misread.

The idea, not its expression, is significant. She was delighted with, but also disturbed by, her new freedom. The more it stays the same, the less it changes.

Parenthetical elements. Use paired commas when you set off a parenthetical element between a subject and a verb or a verb and its object. If you find yourself setting off more than one such interrupting element in a sentence, consider rewriting the sentence.

The Quinn Report was, to say the least, a bombshell. Wolinski, after receiving instructions, left for Algiers.

Repeated words. Use a comma to separate identical words. An exception is the word that.

They marched in, in twos. Whatever is, is right. but He gave his life so that that cause might prevail.

21.3 Semicolon

A semicolon marks a greater break in the continuity of a sentence than does a comma. Use a semicolon in a compound sentence to separate independent clauses that are not connected by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, yet, for, so).

One hundred communities are in various stages of completion; more are on the drawing board. You can also use a semicolon with a coordinating conjunction if the clauses are long and have commas or other punctuation within them. In such cases, you probably should replace the semicolon with a period. Although productivity per capita in U.S. industry is much more than that in China, China has an increasingly well educated young labor force; but the crucial point is that knowledge—which is transferable between peoples—has become the most important world economic resource.

www.itpub.net Use a semicolon before the words then, however, thus, hence, indeed, accordingly, besides, and therefore when those words are used transitionally between two independent clauses. Some think freedom always comes with democracy; however, many voters in many countries have voted for governments that they know will restrict their rights. When items in a series have internal punctuation, separate them with semicolons (see also 21.2.2). Green indicates vegetation that remained stable; red, vegetation that disappeared; yellow, new vegetation.

21.4 Colon

A colon introduces a clause, phrase, or series of elements that expands, clarifies, or exemplifies the meaning of what precedes it. Between independent clauses, it functions much like a semicolon, though more strongly emphasizing balance or consequence.

People expect three things of government: peace, prosperity, and respect for civil rights. Chinese culture is unrivaled in its depth and antiquity: it is unmatched in its rich artistic and philosophical records. Use a colon to introduce illustrative material or a list. Do not place a colon directly after a verb; instead, use an introductory element such as the following or as follows. (See also 23.4.2.) The qualifications are as follows: a doctorate in economics and an ability to communicate statistical data to a lay audience. but not The qualifications are: a doctorate in economics . . .

Note that the first word following a colon within a sentence is generally not capitalized unless it is a proper noun. For capitalization in quotations introduced by a colon, see chapter 25.

Colons are also used in titles (see 17.1.2 and 19.1.3), in notations of time (23.1.5), in URLs (17.1.7 and 19.1.8), and in various ways in citations.

21.5 Question Mark

Put a question mark at the end of a complete sentence phrased as a question. If the question mark is the terminal punctuation, it should be followed by a single space.

Who would lead the nation in its hour of need? Put a question mark after a clause phrased as a question and included as part of a sentence. Do not use quotation marks unless the question is a quotation and the rest of the sentence is not. Would the union agree? was the critical question. If the included question is at the end of the sentence, do not add a period after the question mark. You are not required to capitalize the first word of the included question, but an initial capital helps readers identify the question, especially if it includes internal punctuation. If the sentence becomes awkward, you may instead rephrase the question as a declarative statement followed by a period. Several legislators raised the question, Can the fund be used in an emergency, or must it remain dedicated to its original purpose? Several legislators raised the question of using the fund in an emergency, which was not its original purpose. A question mark may also indicate doubt or uncertainty, as in a date. The painter Niccolò dell'Abbate (1512?–71) assisted in the decorations at Fontainebleau.

21.6 Exclamation Point

Exclamation points are rarely appropriate for academic writing, except where they are part of quoted material. In this case, if an exclamation point is the terminal punctuation in a sentence, it should be followed by a single space.

21.7 Hyphen and Dashes

21.7.1 Hyphen

Hyphens are used in a variety of contexts, including compound words (see 20.3) and inclusive numbers (23.2.4).

21.7.2 Dash

A dash is an elongated hyphen used to set off text in a way similar to but more prominent than commas (see 21.2) or parentheses (21.8.1). Technically called an em dash (before the introduction of computerized fonts, it was exactly the width of the capital letter m), this character is available in most word processors.1 It can be represented with two consecutive hyphens, but most word processors can be set to convert double hyphens to em dashes automatically. Do not leave space on either side of the dash.

When you use dashes to set off a parenthetical element, pair them as you would commas or parentheses. Since they are rather intrusive, however, do not use more than one pair in any one sentence; instead, use parentheses for the second layer of parenthetical information. The influence of three impressionists—Monet (1840–1926), Sisley (1839–99), and Degas (1834–1917)—is obvious in her work. You can also use a single dash to set off an amplifying or explanatory element. It was a revival of a most potent image—the revolutionary idea.

www.itpub.net Use a dash or a pair of dashes enclosing a phrase to indicate a strong break in thought that also disrupts the sentence structure. Rutherford—how could he have misinterpreted the evidence? Some characters in Tom Jones are “flat”—if you do not object to this borrowing of E. M. Forster's somewhat discredited term—because they are caricatures of their names. A dash may also introduce a summarizing subject after a list of several elements. The statue of the discus thrower, the charioteer at Delphi, the poetry of Pindar—all represent the great ideal.

21.7.3 Multiple Dashes

When you quote from a mutilated or illegible text or represent an obscenity, indicate a missing word or missing letters with a 2-em dash (formed with two consecutive em dashes, or four hyphens). For a missing word, leave a space on either side of the dash; for missing letters, leave no space between the dash and the existing part of the word.

The vessel left the——of July. H——h? [Hirsch?] It was a d——shame. A 3-em dash (formed with three consecutive em dashes, or six hyphens) is used in bibliographies and reference lists to represent the repeated name of an author or editor (see 16.2.2 and 18.2.1).

21.8 Parentheses and Brackets

21.8.1 Parentheses

Parentheses usually set off explanatory or interrupting elements of a sentence, much like paired commas (see 21.2) and dashes (21.7.2). In general, use commas for material closely related to the main clause, dashes and parentheses for material less closely connected. The abbreviations e.g. and i.e., which may introduce a clarifying comment (see 24.7), are used only in parentheses or in notes.

The conference has (with some malice) divided into four groups. Each painting depicts a public occasion; in each—a banquet, a parade, a coronation (though the person crowned is obscured)—crowds of people are pictured as swarming ants. There are tax incentives for “clean cars” (e.g., gasoline-electric hybrids and vehicles powered by compressed natural gas and liquefied propane). Parentheses can also be used with citations (see chapters 16 and 18) and to set off the numbers or letters in a list or an outline (see 23.4.2). 21.8.2 Brackets

Brackets are most often used in quotations, to indicate changes made to a quoted passage (see 25.3 for examples). They can also be used to enclose a second layer of parenthetical material within parentheses.

He agrees with the idea that childhood has a history (first advanced by Philippe Ariès [1914–84] in his book Centuries of Childhood [1962]).

21.9 Slashes

The forward slash is used in a few contexts, such as fractions (see 23.1.3) and quotations of poetry (see 25.2.1). Single and double slashes, as well as backward slashes, appear in URLs and other electronic identifiers (see 20.4.2).

21.10 Quotation Marks

For the use of quotation marks in quoted material, see 25.2.1. For use in titles and other special situations, see 22.3.2. For use in citations, see 16.1.4 and 18.1.4.

Some fields—linguistics, philosophy, and theology, for example—use single quotation marks to set off words and concepts. The closing quotation mark should precede a comma or period in this case (see 21.11.1). kami ‘hair, beard’ The variables of quantification, ‘something’, ‘nothing’, . . .

In most other fields, follow the guidelines in 22.2.2 for using quotation marks and italics with definitions of terms.

21.11 Multiple Punctuation Marks

The guidelines given throughout this chapter sometimes call for the use of two punctuation marks together—for example, a period and a closing parenthesis. The guidelines below govern the omission of one of the marks and the order of the marks when both are used.

21.11.1 Omission of Punctuation Marks

Except for ellipses, never use two periods together, as when a period in an abbreviation ends a sentence. Keep the abbreviation period when a sentence ends with a question mark or an exclamation point.

The exchange occurred at 5:30 p.m.

www.itpub.net Could anyone match the productivity of Rogers Inc.? If a situation calls for both a comma and a stronger punctuation mark, such as a question mark or a dash, omit the comma. If he had read “What Do Dogs Think?” he would have known the answer. While the senator couldn't endorse the proposal—and he certainly had doubts about it—he didn't condemn it.

21.11.2 Order of Punctuation Marks

The most likely cases of adjacent marks of punctuation involve terminal punctuation marks with quotation marks, parentheses, or brackets. American usage follows a few reliable guidelines for ordering multiple marks.

WITH QUOTATION MARKS. A final comma or period nearly always precedes a closing quotation mark, whether it is part of the quoted matter or not.

In support of the effort “to bring justice to our people,” she joined the strike. She made the argument in an article titled “On ‘Managing Public Debt.’;”

One exception: when single quotation marks are used to set off special terms in certain fields, such as linguistics, philosophy, and theology (see 21.10), put a period or comma after the closing quotation mark.

Some contemporary theologians, who favored ‘religionless Christianity’, were proclaiming the ‘death of God’. Question marks and exclamation points precede a closing quotation mark if they are part of the quoted matter. They follow the quotation mark if they apply to the entire sentence in which the quotation appears. Her poem is titled “What Did the Crow Know?” Do we accept Jefferson's concept of “a natural aristocracy”? Semicolons and colons always follow quotation marks. If the quotation ends with a semicolon or a colon, change it to a period or a comma to fit the structure of the main sentence (see 25.3.1). He claimed that “every choice reflects an attitude toward Everyman”; his speech then enlarged on the point in a telling way. The Emergency Center is “almost its own city”: it has its own services and governance.

WITH PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS. When you enclose a complete sentence in parentheses, put the terminal period (or other terminal punctuation mark) for that sentence before the last parenthesis. However, put the period outside when material in parentheses, even a grammatically complete sentence, is included within another sentence. The same principles apply to material in brackets. We have noted similar motifs in Japan. (They can also be found in Korean folktales.) Use periods in all these situations (your readers will expect them). Myths have been accepted as allegorically true (by the Stoics) and as priestly lies (by the Enlightenment). (The director promised completion “on time and under budget” [italics mine].)

For terminal punctuation with citations given parenthetically, see 25.2.

1. There is a second type of dash, called an en dash (a dash that used to be exactly the width of the capital letter n), that is used in published works to mean “through,” usually in connection with numbers or dates (1998– 2008). It can also be used in other contexts, as discussed in 6.83–86 of the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition (2003). If your local guidelines require it, this character is available in most word processors; otherwise use a hyphen in these contexts. Note that this book uses en dashes where they are appropriate, as in the preceding reference to the Chicago Manual. 22 Names, Special Terms, and Titles of Works

22.1 Names

22.1.1 People, Places, and Organizations

22.1.2 Historical Events, Cultural Terms, and Designations of Time

22.1.3 Other Types of Names

22.2 Special Terms

22.2.1 Foreign Language Terms

22.2.2 Words Defined as Terms

22.3 Titles of Works

22.3.1 Capitalization

22.3.2

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