DOCSLIB.ORG

Facing Corruption

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Facing Corruption POLITICAL ANALYSIS December 2020 Head-to-Head with Corruption: The Lebanese Challenge* Executive Summary The corruption of the Lebanese political and It is crucial to analyse this devastating phenomenon bureaucratic system is nothing new. Since the early and better understand its origins and entrenchment in days of its independence, Lebanon has endured growing the Lebanese economic and political system. Corruption cases of corruption. Successive governments were was nurtured by political sectarianism as mirrored in unable – provided they were willing – to put an end to the design of the successive Lebanese cabinets and red tape practices whereby public servants would reproduced in sectarian elections. This sectarianism is extort bribes from citizens in return for administrative a patronage system that has paved the way to public services. These practices are illegal and constitute an embezzlement policies and to the redistribution of abuse of public positions to secure private benefits. captured funds. It has impacted the Lebanese state to the extent that the latter has become a “looted state” Today anti-corruption efforts are timelier as the by sectarian groups. The most severe impact, Lebanese state, suffering from a 100-billion-dollar symbolically speaking, is “the loss of state legitimacy”; debt, struggles to avoid total collapse. Lebanon’s debt a state considered to be corrupt, negligent, and showing crisis is the result of corruption, embezzlement and little concern for protecting public interests or soundly misuse of public funds, unlawful appropriation of public managing its finances. property and revenues, and the illicit enrichment of leaders and civil servants. This shows the magnitude The resilience of corruption in Lebanon finds its deeper and scale of the problem. Not one state agency has roots in regional history as much as from the trivialisation been spared by corruption. It has in fact led to “the of corruptive habits in national life. Corruption is not an privatisation of public affairs” and the establishment of irreversible phenomenon. It is an attitude that is a “patrimonial state”; a state where the management of constructed, learnt, and reproduced. This attitude owes public funds and assets, national heritage, and public its resilience to the prevailing impunity and the lack of interests is dictated by private interests. This monitoring and awareness programmes among phenomenon per se, once it becomes universal, is an students and grassroots. If nothing is done to eradicate indicator of the state collapse and incapacity to manage corruptive behaviour through appropriate civic the common good. It is an early sign of its obsolescence. education, it will continue to thrive. * This is the edited translation of an analysis originally prepared in French by Joseph Maïla, professor of geopolitics and director of the Mediation Programme at the Institute for Research and Education on Negotiation (IRENÉ) at the Higher School of Economic and Commercial Sciences (ESSEC), Paris. 2 I Head-to-Head with Corruption However, the demise of corruption requires a system From a legal and administrative standpoint, it is vital to that teaches civic values, care for common good and accelerate the appointment of members of the National transparency in the accounts and practices of both the Anti-Corruption Commission and to implement the state and the private sector. National Anti-Corruption Strategy adopted on 12 May 2020. It is vital, as well, to enforce and strengthen the To this end, reform in Lebanon is a requirement on at laws on illicit enrichment, and to enact a new law for least three levels. awarding public contracts with better transparency, control, and unified regulations. For this to happen and With regards to political accountability, elections held to be enforced, the financial expertise within the on the grounds of a new electoral law and facilitating Lebanese judiciary needs to be reinforced and judges the transition to a non-sectarian and civil political should be trained to investigate corruption files; this is system will loosen the sectarian grip over public part of a long-awaited reform of the judiciary. The latter institutions. This law should also allow citizens to vote must use all the means offered by international law to in their constituency of residence rather than at the track down the fraudulent evasion of illicitly constituted place of registration of their family’s civil status. funds and recover stolen assets and ill-gotten gains. Lebanese citizens would be better enabled to claim and control the improvement of their living conditions in the In terms of civic culture, it is urgently needed to change places where they live and exercise their profession mentalities and promote a culture of responsible instead of perpetuating traditional allegiances to clan citizenship to overcome the indifferent or nearly and family solidarity. This law would also reduce the tolerant attitude towards corruption that prevails voting age to 18 and ensure adequate female today. This will require awareness raising at schools representation so that women, young people, and and higher education institutions, and an extensive marginalised groups, can be integrated into the information and sensitisation campaign about the democratic process. A wider administrative values ​​of citizenship and the consequences of corrupt decentralisation will allow citizens to participate in the practices. It will be necessary to involve all civil society development of their region and, ultimately, to better actors, in particular the youth and women associations, monitor and control public spending. supporting them to lead the way for the emergence of a new civic engagement. Anti-Money Laundering and Law on the Countering Mechanism for the Financing Appointing of Terrorism Whistle-blower Grade-One Law Protection Law Civil Servants No. 44 dated No. 83 dated No. 7 dated 24/11/2015 10/10/2018 03/07/2020 Access to Anti-corruption Law on Illicit Information in the Public Enrichment Law Sector and the and the No. 28 dated Creation of the Declaration of 10/02/2017 National Anti- Assets and Corruption Other Commission Interests No. 175 dated No. 189 dated 08/05/2020 16/10/2020 Lebanese Legislation on Combating Corruption Since 2015 Lebanese Legislation on Combating Corruption Since 2015 Head-to-Head with Corruption I 3 Introduction Corruption in Lebanon governs all sectors of society. At must therefore be linked to the type of state in which it the level of public administrations as in the latter’s operates, to the legislations of the latter and the state relations with citizens, prevails a somehow mutually of their enforcement, to the economic system it agreed upon system intended to facilitate administrative operates in and to the political culture and traditions procedures, secure participation in public tenders and that make it possible.2 the exoneration from taxes. This system stems more from fraud and venality than from the respect of laws Corruption, in its various forms, is not a recent and legal procedures. At the top of the pyramid, phenomenon in Lebanon. Going back to the Ottoman politico-financial groups are splitting the wins of era, where the 19th century reform decrees, known as fraudulent contracts to supposedly ensure the smooth the “Tanzimat”, mentioned the fight against corruption running of public services. Commissions extracted in the Empire, or even to the Governorate or from the manipulated awarding of public tenders to Moutassarifate of Mount-Lebanon (1861–1915) where pre-determined bidders can lead to the illicit certain Governors of the Mountain, including Mouzaffar enrichment of political leaders and officials appointed Pacha (1902–1907), offered administrative positions to key ministerial or administrative decision-making for money, the circumvention of the law and illicit positions. As a consequence, bit by bit, all public enrichment never really ceased. The young independent sectors, let alone economic and social practices, Lebanese Republic fought crises in which corruption became plagued by corruption. was not absent. The first President of the Republic, also a hero of independence, was forced to resign on 17 Corruption is a set of practices whereby public servants September 1952, during his second mandate, following extort citizens in return for administrative services. It suspicions of nepotism.3 President Béchara El-Khoury pre-supposes a willingness to circumvent the applicable was accused of abusing his position as head of State laws or administrative regulations for the mutual for personal interests or for the benefit of his family.4 benefit of stakeholders. It supposes a relationship The bankruptcy of Intra Bank, the largest Lebanese between two parties, individuals, or groups, in which bank, in 1966, whose founder and director was convicted one party obtains advantages of whatever nature of fraudulent bankruptcy, shook the Lebanese banking (heritage property, services, public contracts, tax system and had regional repercussions.5 Likewise, at exoneration or discounts etc.) in return for illegal the end of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s, the retribution. This approach is the result of an abuse scandal surrounding the purchase of the Crotale committed by a person entrusted with a public position missiles in which the Commander-in-Chief of the Army of the jurisdiction and prerogatives arising from his/her was involved gave rise to the 1972 Chamber of Deputies position to secure private interests.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Increasing Enterprise Growth and Jobs in Lebanon
    INCREASING ENTERPRISE GROWTH AND JOBS IN LEBANON OPTIONS TO INCREASE SME GROWTH AND JOBS ASIA & MIDDLE EAST ECONOMIC GROWTH BEST PRACTICES PROGRAM Students at a Lebanese vocational school learn how to create garment patterns through a specialized training program in Beirut. 1 MAY 2015 Students at a Lebanese vocational school learn how to create garment patterns through a Thisspecialized publication training was producedprogram in for Beiru reviewt. by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by Douglas Muir, Janet Gohlke-Rouhayem, and Craig Saltzer of Chemonics International, Hayley Alexander of Banyan Global, and Henri Stetter of the Pragma Corporation for the Asia & Middle East Economic Growth Best Practices Program contract no. AID-OAA-M-12-00008. INCREASING ENTERPRISE GROWTH AND JOBS IN LEBANON OPTIONS TO INCREASE SME GROWTH AND JOBS ASIA & MIDDLE EAST ECONOMIC GROWTH BEST PRACTICES PROGRAM Contract No. AID-OAA-M-12-00008 Contracting Officer Representative, William Baldridge [email protected] (202) 712-4089 The author’s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government. CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................ 1 SECTION I: INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 6 A. Purpose of Assessment..............................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Rim Albitar ID# 201805108 Instructor: Professor Imad Salamey Lebanese American University Department of Social Sciences Political Science Senior Study
    LEBANON AND THE SPRING 2021 INTERNNATIONAL MONETARY FUND BAILOUT Rim Albitar ID# 201805108 Instructor: Professor Imad Salamey Lebanese American University Department of Social Sciences Political Science Senior Study Lebanon and the International Monetary Fund bailout 1 Table of Contents ABSTRACT: ............................................................................................................................................................ 2 BACKGROUND INFORMATION OF THE ECONOMIC MELTDOWN: ...................................................... 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE: ................................................................................................................................... 3 METHODOLOGY: ................................................................................................................................................ 5 FINDINGS: .............................................................................................................................................................. 5 IMF CONDITIONS WITH LEBANON: .............................................................................................................................. 5 THE FUTURE MOVEMENT RESPONSE: ............................................................................................................................ 7 HEZBOLLAH RESPONSE: ................................................................................................................................................... 8 THE FREE PATRIOTIC MOVEMENT
    [Show full text]
  • State Fragility in Lebanon: Proximate Causes and Sources of Resilience
    APRIL 2018 State fragility in Lebanon: Proximate causes and sources of resilience Bilal Malaeb This report is part of an initiative by the International Growth Centre’s Commission on State Fragility, Growth and Development. While every effort has been made to ensure this is an evidence-based report, limited data availability necessitated the use of media reports and other sources. The opinions in this report do not necessarily represent those of the IGC, the Commission, or the institutions to which I belong. Any errors remain my own. Bilal Malaeb University of Oxford and University of Southampton [email protected] About the commission The LSE-Oxford Commission on State Fragility, Growth and Development was launched in March 2017 to guide policy to address state fragility. The commission, established under the auspices of the International Growth Centre, is sponsored by LSE and University of Oxford’s Blavatnik School of Government. It is funded from the LSE KEI Fund and the British Academy’s Sustainable Development Programme through the Global Challenges Research Fund. Cover photo: Fogline Studio/Getty 2 State fragility in Lebanon: Proximate causes and sources of resilience Contents Introduction 4 State (il)legitimacy 9 Ineffective state with limited capacity 15 The private sector: A source of resilience 22 Security 26 Resilience 29 Conclusion and policy recommendations 30 References 36 3 State fragility in Lebanon: Proximate causes and sources of resilience Introduction Lebanon is an Arab-Mediterranean country that has endured a turbulent past and continues to suffer its consequences. The country enjoys a strong private sector and resilient communities.
    [Show full text]
  • The Political Salience of Corruption: the Politics of Corruption During the Arab Spring
    The Political Salience of Corruption: The Politics of Corruption During the Arab Spring Eric Freeman Department of Political Science McGill University October 2015 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the degree of Master of Arts in Political Science Copyright © Eric Freeman 2015 I Table of Contents Abstract Acknowledgements Figures and Tables Chapter 1: Introduction The Puzzle of Corruption’s Destabilizing Effect Literature Review Corruption and Authoritarian Stability in the MENA Literature Framing Effects Literature Post-Arab Spring Corruption Literature The Argument The Dependent Variable Independent Variable Intervening Variables Methodology Chapters to Follow Chapter 2: Tunisia Introduction The Politics of Corruption in Tunisia Type of Corruption Elite-Level Cronyism, Intermediate-Level Patronage, and Low-Level Bribery Cronyism and the Framing of Corruption The Limitations of Intermediate-Level Patronage in Tunisia Making Matter Worse: Intervening Variables that Frame Corruption Macroeconomic Conditions Conspicuous Consumption Regime Type The Political Salience of Grievances about Corruption in Tunisia Chapter 3: Morocco Introduction The Politics of Corruption in Morocco Type of Corruption: Elite-Level Cronyism Intermediate-Level Patronage and the Dense Web of Patron-Client Relations in Morocco The Efficacy of Intermediate-Level Patronage in Morocco Intervening Variables: A mixed bag of effects Macroeconomic Conditions Conspicuous
    [Show full text]
  • The National Anti-Corruption Strategy 2020 - 2025
    Republic of Lebanon The National Anti-Corruption Strategy 2020 - 2025 Republic of Lebanon The National Anti-Corruption Strategy 2020 - 2025 The National Anti-Corruption Strategy (2020 - 2025) Republic of Lebanon . 1 Table of Content Executive summary ........................................................................................................................ 91 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 91 General context .......................................................................................................................... 91 The Process of Development since 2009 ....................................................................... 91 Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 91 Part I: Status of corruption and anti-corruption in Lebanon ..................................... 91 The concept of corruption ...................................................................................................... 91 General Overview ....................................................................................................................... 91 Influencing Factors ................................................................................................................... 91 Political Factors .......................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Rule of Law Quick Scan Lebanon
    Rule of Law Quick Scan Lebanon The Rule of Law in Lebanon: Prospects and Challenges Rule of Law Quick Scan Lebanon Prospects and Challenges HiiL Rule of Law Quick Scan Series This document is part of HiiL’s Rule of Law Quick Scan Series. Each Quick Scan provides a brief overview of the status of rule of law in a country. April 2012 The writing of the Quick Scan was finalised in January 2012 HiiL Quick Scans | The Rule of Law in Lebanon 2 Foreword This document is part of HiiL’s Rule of Law Quick Scan Series. Each Quick Scan provides a brief overview of the status of rule of law in a country. The Quick Scan Series is primarily meant for busy practitioners and academics who want to have a snapshot of the rule of law in a country, particularly with a view to understanding what the main trends and challenges regarding the rule of law are and where local and international stakeholders can possibly make a positive difference. Each Quick Scan is written by a reputable rule of law expert from academia and/ or practice, who is either from the concerned country or has spent many years living and working there. The Quick Scan Series aims to be neutral and balanced. To achieve this aim, the authors have consulted sources from a wide range of stakeholders, including the government, (inter)national NGOs, academia, and international organizations. They present differences of opinion or analysis, but do not pronounce judgment on which view is correct. In the context of their work on the Quick Scan they have visited the country and talked to different stakeholders, presented drafts and revised in view of the comments they received.
    [Show full text]
  • Phd Thesis, That Is, the Theoretical Model, Estimation Results and Policy Implications
    The Impact of Corruption on Economic Growth in Lebanon Moe Farida* Agricultural and Resource Economics Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources The University of Sydney NSW 2000 Phone: 61 2 93514684 Fax: 61 2 93514953 Email: [email protected] Abstract This paper seeks to examine the direct and indirect effects of corruption on economic growth in Lebanon. We hypothesise that corruption reduces a country’s standard of living as measured by the real GDP per worker. We argue that corruption deters economic growth, reduces the productivity of capital and decreases the effect of government expenditure on growth. Using a neoclassical model, we find empirical support indicating that corruption increases inefficiencies and reduces economic growth. Results also suggest that corruption does not alter the effect of foreign aid on output. They imply that the marginal benefit to output of reducing corruption outweighs virtually any other policy action. That is, unless corruption is reduced in Lebanon, efforts to improve private and public investment will have a minimal impact on per capita GDP. Keywords: corruption, economic growth, investment, government expenditure, and foreign aid. * I am indebted to A/Prof Fredoun Ahmad-Esfahani for his supervision and constructive insights Preface Title of Thesis: The Impact of Corruption on Economic Growth in Lebanon Supervisor: A/Prof Fredoun Ahmadi-Esfahani Corruption is a major barrier to sound development, affecting a wide range of economies across the world. Measuring and explaining corruption is no easy task. The increased interest in such a phenomenon has produced a multitude of policy prescriptions, reform initiatives and international fora.
    [Show full text]
  • Corruption in Reconstruction: the Cost of National Consensus in Post-War Lebanon
    Corruption in Reconstruction: The Cost Of National Consensus in Post-War Lebanon by Charles Adwan December 1, 2004 During Lebanon’s civil war, local warlords and militias replaced unifying public institutions as the basis of government and social services. The extension of wartime elites into the post-war political system, a common feature in post- conflict countries, resulted in a system ostensibly deigned to promote cooperation among competing factions but which, in reality, removed all checks and balances and facilitated the diversion of state resources for private financial and political gain. Government mismanagement combined with the elements of reconstruction – large public works projects, inflows of international assistance, privatizations – provides a recipe for systematic, organized, and almost legitimized corruption. In Lebanon, initial anti-corruption efforts floundered whether they came from elected leaders, the media, international pressure, or civil society because the political system in Lebanon, designed to compel political actors to chose between either consensus or deadlock, may have prevented the resumption of fighting but only at the cost of endemic corruption. Transparency, accountability, and good governance may be new terms in Lebanese politics, but corruption, nepotism, and conflict of interest certainly are not. Unlike in neighboring countries, discussing corruption in Lebanon has rarely been a taboo. On the contrary, accusations and allegations of corruption have often been excessive and not well founded. However, despite a growing international body of literature on corruption, research on this phenomenon in Lebanon remains scarce, and there is a particular deficit of work on methods of dealing with corruption. Studying corruption in Lebanon in the context of post-conflict reconstruction provides additional insight into designing adequate strategies and tools to reduce it.
    [Show full text]
  • The Criminalization of Peaceful Speech in Lebanon WATCH
    HUMAN RIGHTS “There is a Price to Pay” The Criminalization of Peaceful Speech in Lebanon WATCH “There Is a Price to Pay” The Criminalization of Peaceful Speech in Lebanon Copyright © 2019 Human Rights Watch All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America ISBN: 978-1-6231-37830 Cover design by Rafael Jimenez Human Rights Watch defends the rights of people worldwide. We scrupulously investigate abuses, expose the facts widely, and pressure those with power to respect rights and secure justice. Human Rights Watch is an independent, international organization that works as part of a vibrant movement to uphold human dignity and advance the cause of human rights for all. Human Rights Watch is an international organization with staff in more than 40 countries, and offices in Amsterdam, Beirut, Berlin, Brussels, Chicago, Geneva, Goma, Johannesburg, London, Los Angeles, Moscow, Nairobi, New York, Paris, San Francisco, Sydney, Tokyo, Toronto, Tunis, Washington DC, and Zurich. For more information, please visit our website: https://www.hrw.org November 2019 ISBN: 978-1-6231-37830 “There Is a Price to Pay” The Criminalization of Peaceful Speech in Lebanon Summary ............................................................................................................................... 1 Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 8 I. Background: Restriction of Space for Free Speech in Lebanon ...................................... 10 II. The
    [Show full text]
  • Contextualizing the Current Social Protest Movement in Lebanon: the Politicization of Corruption in Lebanon in a Global and Regional Perspective
    News Analysis November 2015 Contextualizing the current social protest movement in Lebanon: the politicization of corruption in Lebanon in a global and regional perspective Martin Beck News The recent social protest movement in Lebanon, which started in late August, made it to the headlines of international media with its slogan “You Stink.” Yet, the movement is not confined to decrying the incapability of the administration to collect garbage in Beirut and its surroundings. Rather, as Jamal Elshayyal from Al-Jazeera put it, the social movement pointed from the very beginning to the “inherent corruption within the state.”1 In September the social movement developed into “a full-fledged movement against political corruption.”2 Key Words Lebanon, “You Stink” movement, social movement, corruption, sectarianism, Arab uprisings Note This article was first published on E-International Relations on October 10, 2015, available at: http://www.e-ir.info/2015/10/10/contextualizing-the- current-social-protest-movement-in-lebanon/. About the Author Martin Beck is Professor for Contemporary Middle East Studies at the Univer- sity of Southern Denmark. An overview of his latest publications and activities can be found at http://www.sdu.dk/staff/mbeck. 1 Al Jazeera, Protester dies during demonstrations in Beirut. One dead and scores injured as “You Stink” protests over corruption and uncollected rubbish continue into second day, August 24, 2015, available at: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/08/injuries-protests-lebanon-beirut-intensify-150823183908444.html. 2 Global Young Voices, Garbage crisis thrusts corruption into limelight, drives Lebanon to edge, September 14, 2015, available at: http://www.globalyoungvoices.com/article/garbage-crisis-thrusts-corruption-limelight-drives-lebanon- edge.
    [Show full text]
  • Ictj Briefing
    ictj briefing Nour El Bejjani Noureddine Anna Myriam Roccatello Dead at the Root December 2020 Systemic Dysfunction and the Failure of Reform in Lebanon Lebanon is in crisis and its people are tired-tired of decades of endemic corruption, mis- CONTENTS management, and impunity and tired of moving from one disaster to the next without making progress on long-awaited reforms. The massive explosion in the capital on August Inconsistent Justice: Lack of 4, 2020, was only the latest tragedy, the result of decades of systemic dysfunction that Accountability for Violations perpetuates injustice for victims of all types of human rights violations in Lebanon and against Ordinary Citizens 2 inflicts harms on countless Lebanese. The High Price of Injustice, Dysfunction, and Corruption 4 During the 15-year civil war (1975–1990), more than 150,000 people died, 300,000 Ineffective Tools to Curb were injured or disabled, more than one million were displaced, and more that 17,000 Impunity 5 went missing. Although the 1990 Ta’if Agreement effectively ended the armed conflict, it Recurring Political Paralysis 8 failed to address human rights abuses committed during the war, a shortcoming that has Conclusion 9 meant a failure to address victims’ rights. Rather than curbing sectarianism, one of the root causes of the war, the agreement strengthened it by establishing a system of power sharing among the different warring factions along sectarian lines. More than three decades after the signing of Ta’if, its proposed constitutional reforms remain little more than ink on paper. The agreement cited the need for a gradual plan for implementing political and institutional reforms, such as the promulgation of an electoral law on a nonsectarian basis, the establishment of a confessional senate, administrative decentralization, and the creation of a national committee to discuss the abolishment of political sectarianism.
    [Show full text]
  • Beyond Islamists and Autocrats
    PROSPECTS FOR POLITICAL REFORM POST ARAB SPRING essays by HALA ALDOSARI LORI PLOTKIN BOGHARDT JAMES BOWKER MOHAMED ELJARH BEYOND JOHN P. ENTELIS SARAH FEUER SIMON HENDERSON ISLAMISTS HASSAN MNEIMNEH GHAITH AL-OMARI DAVID POLLOCK AND NATHANIEL RABKIN NADIA AL-SAKKAF VISH SAKTHIVEL AUTOCRATS DAVID SCHENKER ANDREW J. TABLER SARAH FEUER, SERIES EDITOR ERIC TRAGER essays by HALA ALDOSARI LORI PLOTKIN BOGHARDT JAMES BOWKER BEYOND MOHAMED ELJARH JOHN P. ENTELIS SARAH FEUER SIMON HENDERSON ISLAMISTS HASSAN MNEIMNEH GHAITH AL-OMARI DAVID POLLOCK AND NATHANIEL RABKIN NADIA AL-SAKKAF VISH SAKTHIVEL AUTOCRATS DAVID SCHENKER ANDREW J. TABLER ERIC TRAGER SARAH FEUER, series editor Prospects for Political Reform Post Arab Spring The opinions expressed in this book are those of the authors and not necessarily those of The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, its Board of Trustees, or its Board of Advisors. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, includ- ing photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permis- sion in writing from the publisher. © 2017 by The Washington Institute for Near East Policy THE WASHINGTON INSTITUTE FOR NEAR EAST POLICY 1111 19TH STREET NW, SUITE 500 WASHINGTON, DC 20036 www.washingtoninstitute.org DESIGN: 1000colors.org COVER PHOTO: Demonstrators chant slogans during a protest to support the transformation of the country into a federal state in Benghazi, Libya, 2012 (REUTERS/Asmaa Waguih). Introduction ... 1 CONTENTS DAVID SCHENKER, June 2015 By the first months of 2015, Post-Jasmine Tunisia ..
    [Show full text]