Syncretism and Adaptation in Rasiya, a Braj Folksong Genre

City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works

Publications and Research John Jay College of Criminal Justice

1994

Peter L. Manuel CUNY Graduate Center

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J ouRNnuoF V4tln/AVa91v9,99

*rt, \,,/'d,.\1ll AND ADAPTATION IN RASIYA -; )k,\ SYNCRE-TISM A BRAJroI-i

PetcrManuel

massmedia, capitalistsocio+conomic rela- r,- -rndcr the irlpact of the music I I tionr, anrl rithcr aspecrsof modernity, many lndian folk lJ g"*"s havc dcclinetl visiblyand even disappeared,and it may be temptin"gto concluclcthat folk musicas a whole hassulfered in the twentieth ientury. I lgwever,a rtumber of significantfolk music genreshave not only survivedbut flourlshed in tlre twentieth century,in some cascsby vir- tue qf tficir ability to syncretizeelcments from other traditions. One such genre is ran)a,rvhich, in its varioussubstyles, is the most popular and wide- ipreatl lblkinusic gcnrc of rhe llraj region. In rlis article I focus on the most pr.r,ninent liirms of rasiya,outlining aspeclsof their.textual and nrcl,r,iicsyn<:rctisrrr, arrd suggcsfinghow thcsefeatures conlribute to the cKrishna,and arb especiallyassociated with Iloli. [low- ever,rasiya tcxLs Inay in fact deal with all manner of topicsand are per- by rural qrqi folk in infor- formcctyca.-r<,urxl, Irlost typically,-seLsotl,rasiya is sung ural songscssions. Irr lkrli rasiyais widely perftrrmedin tcmples (espcci;rllycon<:lutling .ramaj scssions), and villagcrsand semi-specialists (some iing r"gi,x,al vru'ianr-sin assticiarionwith speciliclocal festivities of which ar-ctlcscribcd in llanerjce 1986).Rasiya is alsoincorporated into rtu- lita and naularthithc:ttcr, an{ rnodcrn ras-dhfis(toslild singer+omposcrs) havcplayrxl ituportartt l'

Of particular importance here are two modern rasiya subgerues. One with Ridha and the cowgirls. Like most Krishna-bhakti poetry, these songs is the Hathrasi style, which constitutes the most sophisticated, refined, are writtcn frorn the toihibhao perspective of the female lover or devo and coruciously cultivated form of rasiya. Like Bhojpui birha, Hathrasi tec.-paradigmatically, Radha. Sccular rasiyas,many of which are intended rasiya emergcd in the late ninetcenth century, is performed by compet- to bclexuiriy titiltating, arc also gencrally presented from the female per- ((angakl urg ahhaTasin all-night competitions , and syncreticallyincorpo sona, although the prbagonist is usually understood to be a young bahu rates elements from other genres. Another sub-style of rasiya is that (wife), discussing or addressing her husband, lover, or importunate would- which, since the mid-1980s,has come to be widely disseminated on com- be seducer. mercial cassettes.Both thcse stylesare performed by semi-professional On the wholc, thc topics of dcvotional rasiyasadhere to the conventions specialists,synthesizing traditional and modern elements, and illustrat- of traditional Krishna-bhakti vene and theater, especiatly the stock famil- ing how folk music genres c:rn in fact {lourish in the trventicth century. iar episodes (tt|is) of his youthful years in Brindarran. fu these have been This article explores two aspectsof contemporary rasiya.In thc first sec- ticscribetl eiscwltct'c(e.g', in llein 1972:165-78),they do not in tion, I suggesthow "mpiy erotic rasiya texts reprcsent a coherent confluence of the'nrsclvesrequire further discussion here. What is relevant fior this study at least two ovcrlapping, complcmcntary poetic traditions, synthesizing is that their usagc aligns [

I'hus, in content, aesthetics, and formal sFucture, rasiyasexhibit marked (see music ex. sugar-ball (batasha)was distributcd. . . " The following excerPt aflinities and linla o classical Hindi verse, and to Great-Tradition literary 5) is also typical: and dramatic theory as presented in such works as Keshav Das's Rdsl*a- prfia and, for Orat rnatter, the Ndla Shostra(2nd c. B.C.E.-2nd c. C.E.). At IIar bichchLjhaijhro moii mari sharm hi mdi the same time, rasiyasremain rooted in rural folk traditions, perfornrance d.anr uldre bichchhnbaTa majo dYe contexts, and values, establishing, as it were, a natural continuum from folk to classical poetry. As I shall argue, this continuum is particularly evi- I so ashamcd whcn my anklets are removed dcnt in rasiya's stock characters and thematic conventions. lbutl I like whcn mY deaardoesit While Krishnaite rasiyas rcmain familiar and widespread, equally popular today are rasiyaswhose texts are explicitly or implicitly secular. Many Practically any sort r..,[cncountcr with a man may be interpretcd sexual- of these, like other regional f

In many songs,dre w

The following song, by singer-composerJangaliya Davedar (fl. mid-20th profane fiormsof love in South Asian art forms' (Manuel in erotic c.), uses a now-familiar euphemism referrinf to the fortress city Bharat- '-t*Ut, asI havepointed out elsewhere 1993:20+07)' suitor is most pur: .;t;';" attitude of dre female protagonist mward her wavering atG often ambivalent,mixing desire,shame, anO anxiety' This including Mohu Ahzk (or lagc rdt moi amma tude is overt in severalo1 tt song texts excerpted here' " given below' This jab re ipaila ne ghiighal pa1 hhole dasdosfu dihhdvebhaina nol znd"t'tnt ni bahuthhoiae' it can provoke titi! nain dononjhumi gae rd,tmori arnma ambivalencemay have its own aestheticappeal, since enablesdiffer- jab re ipaila ne choli bandh hhole lating fantasiesa'bout likely future consummation,and also joban donon ulhi gae rdt mori amma entmenandwomentointerprett}relyricsaccordingtot|reirownincli parallels jab re ipaiya ne nwo lahiga pahyo nations or tastes.Most impoitantly, tlte woman's ambivalence Bharatpur lul gayo Rndha moi amrna thatof c,,eg@teasedbylGishna,asportrayedinclassicalandfolkverse. feelsobliged' if In innumerablepoems and songs,the cowgirl (or Ridhi) {lirtatious teasingand I'm afraid at night, mother only for appearances,to protei agairut Krishna's charmed'o1' at least' When the soldier tore open my veil, alnorousadvances, while secretlybeing rtroroughly of commer- I lowered my eyesin shame... torn betweendesire and modesty'While a modern composer in classicalllindi When he grabbed my skirr, cial cassetterasiyas like M.II' Zaidi may not be stceped with that dcscribed' Bharatpur waspillaged, O mother and Sanskritpoetics, thc continuity of his irupiration for instance,in the ltaslAapriyae is obvious'Zaidi explains: In some songs, the protagonist implores her sahhito help her: a scxywoman who Whcn I write l-cxuI try to rePrcscnt,lor examplc' indiffercnt or urgry' Dul . Chanda fu fulo ujne mei holdhah-dhah jila mnc nin is being whist.lcdar; she is obliged ro act poruay' juun hah palii tne paila lz chal hhal andhne twi insidc sheis flattcred.It's that senlimentI try to

Chanda's husband is there in the moonlight Similarly,inbothKrishnaiteandsecularcrodcrasiy:ls'thcrasiyaormale and my heart is beating suitorhimsclfisusuallydcpictcdas[lirtatious'solicitous'andatoncean- originzrland^qu.intcsscntial I beg you, touching your feet, carry the cot out into the dark... noyrng and dcsirablc. rcrist*a, of coursc, is thc naturc

excerPt does not menuon rwhii 6vat chainl. Similarly, the following rasila ,c bdten mne dil hi ansenjab maii nihs:f,ll.tab hi hhdise it could easity be interpreted Krishna, but like innumerable similar verses, pardcshanrrrci pati hamdre,hichlv pare rahai ye haedre as referring to him: oi dar hai lore na hahii mqe madan ho ko1 due RasryaIu bin sun o gori tq nindrat mei na O sister, he showsme ten-rupee notes, sab rati hall. charhab that cursed may-lightning-strike-him bachelor Paling Whenever I go out he leers lasciviouslyand ensnaresme night O goi,without my rasiya I can't sleep at with his eycs as I lie on the cot every night" ' Like that he wounds me dcliberately in my breasts It makesme gaspwhen I go out and hear him cough at me considerable overlap in classicalarurtory there is often My husband Similarly PGuT, is out of town and these murderers are trailing me secular love' The protagoniss in and compatibility betr,r'ce" X'ist'naite and O sister, I fear that the wall of my own lust may be broken secular beings' and according- much classicalHindi and Sanskrit verse are poe try..1Pf::.:? derive from ly, many o[ thc convenuons of Radha-l/rrishna A sirnilar sensc of distressand ambivalence pervades thc text of this . as clas- of s"culi* iunarory vcrse (!)nwistle 1987:4244) Just next, extremely familiar traditional rasiya, Meri eri bahut hhojae(see ortler tradirions ex. to"t"*' an unrnarricd couple' so' for #2): sical Sarskrit erotrc verse generaliy Mughal court courtctT'l!f':: example, is GhanananJ:t""Elnof'"" u .I.he o[ portraylng an unknown woman. conventions Meri hari,s is in some cases ci bahut h.hojae,molu najar lagi hau ra(uo hii diffcr markcdly from those in romance in such casesdo not nccessarily eh dina milau mohcbaman ho,sarau ans nihal galo paman ho to scculirr Nor of course' is frank eroticism limitcd mopeulho jal Krishna-bhakti vcrse. na baithm like thc Btahmauaiuartapura4a u"*", it can be found in classical works ehd.ina milo rnohemaina ko,mzrau hajar chhul gayonaina ho fotlowing holi- ", aswell as in modern rasiyas'like the maii lo ro1 rahi pachtay (Entwistle 1987:47), prominent 20th

rahi sapnemti moperang dori Nandlola My heel itches,some bachelor must be staring at me Main to so1 , - rn^rreghar a1e'gwatbAl hoi sangna lay One day I me t the brahman, and my feet gave in sapnenwi Sh1am palihape goe m^eresang' laloran lAgem'ao ang I can't sit or stand still pauThi bhor bhar rang One day I met Maina, and my eye-make-upgot all dishcveled dai Pichhai I weep and weep ItJratI ever met himl me that Nandlal put rang (tloli color) on One day I met the gujar, As I slept I dreamt ShYam came to mY house' and the color in my headdrcss got all rnessedup ln mY dream bringing no one with him on the cot with me In many rasiyaverscs, as in so much runatory Ilindi poetry in general, He laY down me, and injected me full of rang' the ndyaha(male lover) can easiiybe interpreted either as Krishna or as a Groped, [elt wordly suitor, even if Krishna is not rnentioned. Thus, for example, there prominent in various rasiyasongs Such lkishnaite ribaldry is espccially is not really any signilicant difference bctlveen the lamiliar lhumri com- rasiyas sung by during iiuri tuttt as the iewd rcsponsorial mencing, "Wthout Shyam (Krishna) I have no peace of mind," and the performcd 1986:4243' ilathait' villages lsee' e'g'' Bane{ee alternate, "Without my lover I have no peace of mind" (Sham/piyabina I-lariharjaa atJab at'd {E u PE-TERMANUEL Synct'etisnand Ailaptati on in Ri;,silu'

his sweetheart automobilcengine'6 as RAdhtr, as in TumJamuna hi nuuj hoftom kiju Baw4 or rayedmetaphorically as a delunct Bol Radha bl, sangam lnga hi nahi4 from Raj Kapoor's Sangam(see Das hi Gupta l99l:149). Loigur ho bailti go2omor gha;e tyrli diiol goyodiualo Some aspects of the ovcrlap between Great Tradition,/devotional and ourlhoiiouani'nzn taignrhc nihal planjar lrralrlsecular poetic conventioru are also evident n ldiguttlo, a su\erue hedaatv iab lik jambhae nauiil aur de oc saibnsar'" of rasiya songs, most of which are sung in trvo or three stock melodies, and our pampna pichz 1etna dhuai lay jab mei ddme which are loosely associated with the goddess Ibila Devi (whose shrine aut bhaggaiioginiyo dihh nai ghar stands near Kirauli, southwest of Agra). These songs invariably include, is useless whether centrally or parcnthetically, the figure of the higuri;4 a super- Langur'sborc is tl treir subjcct*ot'"''i"l-'r"otm""t-unlike the younger says"spread rny hair part for me' scripturally-undclincatcdltrlk tional lirigut2o, *'nos" "Little-Traclition'" statuspermitstt'.*o,tfancifullymodernt.reaunent.lwou|dSuggestthatpresent In the subsequent languila text, from a modern song by c:Bsettesinger- somcextent contributes to the Ikishnaiterasiya's "in{lexibility' to songrriter Sevaram "Tanatan" Sharma, he is an impotent husband, por- which allow grcatcr scopelor popularityof thcsc altcrnativc'sut>genres f-

PE-IER MANUEL SytcyetLnnand Adaptation in Rasiln 47

contemporaneity. At the same [ime, the desirc to retain continuity with the Ikishnaite tradition may co'tribute to trre tcnAligarh rasiyz ahhaTa-DrLdVidhaBabu 1993 scvcral rasiyacasscttcs $,crc markctcd featuring varicd rcnditions of told me, in refercnce to tfie currcnt fondless for masdh, "Ab sharmha za' the chokhz pacfu fua hai ('\uhat's bchi'd my bodicc?"1 rhcnrc. on rhe ,ne m.dnanahii"-'"1'his is a shamclesscra." hand, thcsc wcrc clcarly inspired by anctcashing i' on thc voguc 'l'o concludc this scction-l havc arguctl that rasiya texts rcprcscnt a 'f'the choks<>ngs srr poprrlar in conrcmp.rary I Iindi firrru;(cspcci ary rthabmlah). conllucncc of rtistinct, yct cclmpatible traditions of crotic verse, nanrely, I lowcvcr, thcsc vcry film songscan bc secn to draw from ftrrt prototypcs. Ikishnaite :rnd classicalpocuy, sccular tolk ribaldry, and, lcsstangibly, {ilm whilc thc original Khalnalah or a wgrldly song is pcrhaps mcr'dicalty most rcminis- eroticism. Just as z lhumi text could easily refcr to Krishna cent of Rajzuthani folk music, its tcxt rcscrnblcs famiriar rirsiyaslike that lovcr, so, I suggcst,do Krishnaite and lcwd fuuar bhabhira.siyas share the given bcl.w- inde cd,.irrstas t-rrcaforcnrcntionccl tcxL Kau din u1hj'c mao sarnc convcntions and stcreotypical charactcr-typcs.Whi-lc I supposc tiat hath ("onc of thesc days...") wasuscd in a song in rhc {ilm.,/2oti baneJwah. some readers will tind this conclusion obvious, to othcrs it may sccm inap- propriate t1;conflate Krishna's personawith that of the truck drivcr pump- SarahAo raja andhariya hai, ing rhe [woman's] horn, the scpoy "looting Bharatpur," or the lecring mdthehz niche aihhiyai hai raja baihelor flashing t€n-rupee notes at he bahu.l would argue, nevertheless, aihhilan heniche chhatila hai sdjan that rasiya'saccommodation of such tiistinct, yct compatible erotic tradi- 'Ihc chhaliyahc nichehamai hai tions partially explains its continucd vitality and popularity. syn- hamaila l,c niche sayi hai raja cretisri of rasiya'stext content is paratleled by that of its melodic sourccs, sai heniche say hai sajan to which we may nolv turn.

Corne closc,rny princc, it's dark Melody and ProsodY bcneath my forchcad are my cycs ()f t:

engine'6 as a defunct automobile his sweetheart as Ridhl, as in TumJamuna hi nwuj ln lrom fuiju Baw4 or rayed metaphoricalty Bol Rad,habl sangamlrgo hi nohir from Raj Kapoor's Scngam (see Du hi galo mur ghaie l.1n!i dijal Gupta l99l:149). Langur ho boilhi lang;t hz..nihalgQo' diualo Some aspects of the ovcrlap benveen Great Tradition,/devotional and aut bhai javd;;"^k jam bhaenaujil aur ptonJar local,/secular poetic conventions are also evident n biguryo, a su\enre ied ualu iob lih no dhiari ac sdilntsar" ' of rasiya songs, most of which are sung in two or three stock melodies, and aurponp na p;iwhttet lt1oto dihh nai jab ghar mzi ddmc which are loosely associated with the goddess Kaila Devi (whose shrine our bhaggai j';;i" stands near Kirauli, southwest of Agra). These songs invariably include, the diesel tank is useless of the higwtla, a suPer- borc is clown' whether centrally or parenthetically, the figure Langur's bankrupt' " f-u"g"r has gone ab-solutely natural sidekick of sorts who, as Entwistle observes (1983), lacks a scriptur' ln ripe yo"tfo areall stuck al delineation and can be represented in all rnnner of personae (e.g., a Thehead not ""rtll"3'a"' "tia.gtuttsloii and the silcncerdoes boy, a lover, or a junior male divinity to Ibila Devi) (see also Manuel dnepump d";t'";;;;mp 1993:22$27). Thus, for example, in the traditional song given immediate- releasesmoke"' when not seenin the house' ly below, the lniguiyais at once a child and potential suitor (as suggested The woman i^' tu" away in the intimate final request). raisesone significant relcrctrces and mctaphors The useof such modcrn and lnigutiTa' As the Do-dojogini hz bich ahzlolInguila bctwccn fi;;;* ;o'iyu' 'Liv"' 20th- distinction "tut"iot tr'c c*a'"plcs citcd abovc' baTi jogini yon halu mo1 lihau la fu mal readcrmay havegt";;;'['-';;";; entitics' In many in referencesto modern chholijogini yoi hahemoy harua Ia de mdl centurysecular traditional themcs'Thus' '*'y* ti""to"**t"Ot'und of bai jogini yun halu mo1ghaTilai 16dz mdl cases,these apPeani 'ongs-*ith requestsgifis' she now slngs Dahu chholi jogini yoi hahenq tagta la de mal famili"' tu'"*oi Ir 1'r'-crein"dre a as op in the {an' (or' lor that matter' baTijogini yan hafu mo1 saTila de mal a rclevision;J ;; 'sari'theme of astsfor "I";"ic in the stock chholi jogini yoi hahemo1 sela ln fu mal poscdto ure uaaitio-n'Jii*skirt); now"''J-'on pleads to go in a motor-car- jogini mo1jurou la de mal uken to tt'" its' sne bayi yn kalw isking to be not only ride in a motor ii*iro'ry' hngurila can chholi jogini yoi hahefi Inl n^ni fu hhol prelerably t"t"ruu'i ierse of whimsical " ln'suchiong''-tftttt Lsno car-he ca,$beo the useof modernisms 'noto"'' of old and- Between two joginisQbgz women) there is a sole lLigurya postmodcrn;t*opo'itio" ""*i'J"t' the elder saysto him go buy me some lita powder ,ffi;;ilil*.r';:*TJffii*l,f the younger saysget me some halva not a lossulz lfru;:F,il::,^,,'"T.i.l':HI dition, Ho*ent'' there is no introducdon the eldcr saysgo buy me a watch text tt";;;;;;;;;;t'^'l por- to kecp its tu"ytt do not' for example' the younger saysgive me a waist-band mooe'nis"s'; Kl;;"i" curd [r'r* of such '^'iyu;K'ith;;"ndnucs to stcal the elder saysgo buy me a sari rav Ri

contemporaneity. At the same dme, the desirc to retain continuity with the Ikishnaite tradition rnay co'tributr to the tcnclency for secular rasiya beneath my eyesare breasts poets to adhcre to the general lkishnaite conventioru mentioned above, beneath the brcasts is a waist, especially the standard thcmc of thc ardcnt, flirtatirldly song is pcrhaps mcl.dicalty mosr rcminis- eroticisnt. Just as a lhumi text could easily refcr to cent of Rajzrsthanifolk music, its tcxt rcscmblcs familiar rasiyaslikc that lovcr, so, I suggcst,do Krishnaite and lcw{ dzaar'bhabhirasiyas share the given bclow- indccd,.just as drc afiorcmcndt-rncclrcxa Kau din ulh jdc mao sarnc convcntions and stcreorypicalcharactcr-typcs. While I supposc that hdlh (onc of thesc days...") was used in a song in rhc fitm.,/1oti baneJwah. some readers will fin{ this conclusion obvious, to othcrs it may sccm inap- pump- propriate to conflate Krishna's Personawith rhat of the truck drivcr Sarahao raja andhaila hai, ing-the lwoman's] horn, the sepoy "looting Bharatpur," or the lccring mathc hz niche aihhiyai hai raja bachelor tlashing ten-rupee notes at the bahu.I would argue' nevertheless, aihhiyan hzniche chhalila hai sajan that rasiya'saccommodation of such clistinct,yct compatible erotic tradi- 'Ihe chhalila hz nichehamai hai tions partially explains irs conrinued vitality and popularity. syn- hamarila hc niche saTihai raja cretisrn of rasiya'stext content is paralleled by that of its melodic sourccs, saTihe nichesaya hai sajan to which lve maYnolv turn.

Cornc closc,rny princc, it's dark Melody and ProsodY bcneath my fbrehcad arc my cycs a sct o[c

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irlso a classicalSanskrit mctcr, cited in Kellogg 1972:562\. Various forms of retairuaconsistcllt,sctofntcttlrnitccl rasiyacontcxt, unitcd by the distinctive musical performance styleand the (mysdcal)songs,asinthescvcralfanliliarriuiyasdescribirrgthelover'sdesireto rcferring mctaphoricallyto the unilicd tlrernatic subject matter of the (angal. In this serue,I-Iathrasi rasiya reach thc bclovcd'scLari2a (uppcr bt:n' albcit syncrctic genre, rather than a soul's drivcrs porrrayingcncounrcrs *l,h .jurnblcrl pasticheof borrowcd fragrncnts.'l'hc samc,indeed, rnight bc said rFronr /iari)rn hn sartaj.r t,wrrsorrgs :r:: subgcnrcirr tltr:tnsclvcs'espc- Punjab(scc Manucl ..yct rcvilcsand suikesKrishna, rcs not (xrly to survivein modem timcs, but to grow and flourish. 4K.,l,uu Dascites a typicirlvcrstl itt which llidhe (in llahadur 1972:98)' stillrvhilc shc lovcd him in hcr rnincl" lNc 0l /272' Concltrsions 5Rccordedas a Krishnabhaiail on T-scriessl lastline is unctcaron the recording' 6OnN^hrdo, Laigwia(Irlrrx 1003)'l'hc Rasiyais a widespread and internally diversegenre. Much of its persistent 'I'ailor' on Rama668' 7t.g., " t, Maruti car'' ' '" t:t|'RajpalSingh popularity and rcsilience derive from its eclectic ability to accommodate a wide variety of'melodies, prosodic schemes,and text themes,while retain- RefcrcnccsCited ing a coherent and distinctive stylisticcore. Some aspectsof rasiya'seclecti- cism--cspecially is lcwdness and its use of lilm melodies-are higtrly con- Ram NaraYan Agrawal, Dethi: Raipal & Sons' troversial. However, it may be precisely rasiya's flexibility-like that of 1976 Sacngtt:El hknaQaparanpara' Bhojpuri birha, Cujerzi garba, and Punjabi bhangra--that enablcs it to change and flourish, unlike less adapuble genres (e.g., RajastharnPdhri Bahadur,I(P. of K*hntt Dus'l)clhi: Nlotil;rlllanarsidass' hi payh) which may be doonred to exrinction. Thus, for example, if lg72 \'fu llh'thafni1a Ilathrasi rasiya now appears to be dcclining somewhat under the influ- l(ani Bane rjcc, tlsha r)r. r.l ,ricc llrrrrraq I li'auIirr LI'rv. ence of cinema and elite dlsintercst,cassettc-bascd rasiya, however contro- atlhYeyrrr'"" I'h'l) diss'' llanaras 1986 "l}ai kt: r-'uiyotrkc versi:rland often crude, is a thriving idiom. Moreover, even cassetlerasiya 5.' b4 PETER MANUEL Sytcretkn and Aitaptaflon in Rasiya

DasGupta, Chidananda painted l99l Thc Face:Studics in Indian popuhr Cincma New Delhi: Roli Books.

Entwistle,Alan 1983 "Kaila Dcvi and lamguriyaJ Indo-IranianJowwJ2|:g5-101. 1987 Braj: Ctntrc piigrimagc. of Krishna Groninfen: Egbert Forsten. /R PM G /RGRSR S-I'I /S P P P MG to llansen, Kathrytt Ka-udi -n u-thj6-e me-ro hdthba-la-ma | 992 Goundslm play Ttu Nautanti Thcaln of North India Berkeley:Univ. of Calif.

llein. Norvin 1972 ThcMiracb lrlalsof Mathura Delhi: Oxford Univ. press. .J v --/ A4M M GM Ibkar, Sudhir /RGR SR S N /S gi ai-so me-rflh- 1989 Intimatellzlntions: Explnring Indian &x:uatiE. ai-so ma - rflil New Dclhi: Viking. Ikllogg, S.tl. 1972 A Gammarof thc llindi Langaage.Dethi: Oriental Books. Reprint. J Manucl,Peter G lvl /tt IP S S S ND IP DP MM 1990 Thumi in Hisloricaland St)listicltetspcclruas. Delhi: Morilal ai -so me - rdil gi Banarsidass. gi ba-la-mato t993 C-a,ssclkCulturc: Populnr Music and Tcchnologin NorthIndia Chicago:LJniv. of Chicagol,ress. #2 Marcus, Scott 1987 -fhe rise of a fiolk music genre: Birha,' ln Culturcand powa it Banaras: Communitl,Paformana, and Environnntl, g\t SMM I I 9g0, NS /R.RR R-RM /G.R ed.Sandra Freirag, pp. 911l3 (Berkeley:Univ. otCalif. press). o kho- me-ri e-riba-ha-tkho-jd Sugarman,Janc 1989 "I'he Nightingale and the partridge; Singing and C,ender arnong PrespaAlban lans.' Ehwmusicolog35( 2), pp I g l -gI 6. Vikal, Devkinandan'Parikar' 1988 "l"ok gayakika prarnukh kendra l{a0rras aur rasiya R /R S SNS /G-R-S-S S /N NN S R.G parampara,-in NalharamSharma Caur Shatabdihmcroh la*gi kau ra-du-a kiit {athras:Sharma Gaur Book Depor,pp. gd8?. je - emo-he na-ja-r 56 PTTER MANUEL Syno'atistnand Adaptation in Rasiyn s7

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tc GR R/SS ma ri sharm ki mi-ri S NN N SRR-.R-R RPMG /R S-S S"S- mo- hekha-vlcde ci-m - ma mo- hedi "khtri de 60 PE-TERMANUEL

/SSSSS -S - /N NDP ba-ha-t-di-n hai bhe de-o

tD D DP-P M M /tr-M-G-R-/R-G-R-G- {'tlrc various lrth lndi sa-ma-nsa gu-mdn ma - nl-fir-gi bhai-Yahe geo dhrupa.disgcn :d, bY 'scl \-t ils the 'oldcst', est',ntosl'sacrcd', ancla erallyassumcd to bc extinct) besLn burgconingPoPularitY of o style;o music-khY'al,thumri, -L^-^ of in /R-GGR G .IP-MGG RS of tilm music, dhrupad retreated into sr mo - he li-vde de maih pi-ha- r ko decadcsof rhis ccntury. During this pcri cordings of dhrupad could be nunbcr (Savan) Nevcrthcless,during thc last twcnty yeal thc shatlows:it. can nrxv be l'rcard on th dre West, fcst-ivalsdcvotcd cxclusivcly t< numbcr of places,and thc volume of rcc tP DND.P-lM P ily incrcasing.l'Ihanlcs to tltc cfftlrts o[th /RSS disci ja-un- gi sd- ma-nka ma - hi na mcrnbersof the lv{allik funily, their promoters, dhrup\ is once again plal musicalculture. In this sitttaLion, th\atus of dlyup comesa nlatter of sonre imP ind exunplc,dccry what they seeas the-ex that whateverwas ber P-D-P- nM-P singeis,and claim /lvI-P-D-N into other, more progressivestyles (Bis me-re la- ge gae oji pi-ya singersfor the oppositcrcason' narnely t ncitagc frorn thc pastwith sufftcicntftc mcntstt:nds to bc that dhrtrllad is a sac 6l