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A British Interplanetary Society Publication Human Space Flight

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SABRE

Vol 59 No 7 July 2017 £4.50

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242 Spaceflight Vol 58 March 2016

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Editor: Published by the British Interplanetary Society David Baker, PhD, BSc, FBIS, FRHS Sub-editor: Volume 59 No. 7 July 2017 Ann Page Production Assistant: 252-259 NASA’s Roadmap to Mars: Stepping stones or Ben Jones stumbling blocks Spaceflight Promotion: After many years of deliberation and hardware development to acquire Gillian Norman a deep space capability leading to putting humans on Mars, NASA has a map for how it will get humans to the Red Planet by the mid-2030s. Spaceflight Arthur C. Clarke House, 260-261 System Evolves 27/29 South Lambeth Road, London, SW8 1SZ, England. Now little more than two years away from its first flight, we look at the Tel: +44 (0)20 7735 3160 current state of development with what will become the world’s most Fax: +44 (0)20 7582 7167 powerful and assess how is being made against Email: [email protected] some challenging obstacles. www.bis-space.com ADVERTISING 262-268 Hubble and the Shuttle: Advanced Tel: +44 (0)1424 883401 Servicing Email: [email protected] Christopher Gainor FBIS takes time out from his work as one of a team DISTRIBUTION under contract to NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center for an official Spaceflight may be received worldwide by history of the HST to tell us about the challenges of servicing the giant mail through membership of the British telescope. Interplanetary Society. Details including Library subscriptions are available from the above address. * * * Regular Features Spaceflight is obtainable from UK newsagents and other retail outlets in many countries. 244-246 News Analysis – Hypersonic Strike or Reusable Launch Vehicle? In the event of difficulty contact: Warners Group Distribution, The Maltings, Manor Lane, 246 A Letter from the Editor Bourne, Lincolnshire PE10 9PH, England. Tel: +44 (0)1778 391 000 Fax: +44 (0)1778 393 668 247-249 ISS Report – 9 April - 8 May 2017 * * * 250 Briefing notes – news shorts from around the world Spaceflight is a publication which promotes the mission of The British Interplanetary Society. Opinions in signed articles are those of the 270-272 Satellite Digest – 534 April 2017 contributors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Editor or the Council of the British 273 Flashback – A regular feature looking back 50 years ago this month Interplanetary Society. * * * 274-276 Society News – It is science! – Anna Smith Visits the BIS – Suszann Back issues of Spaceflight are available from Parry Receives IAF Award the Society. For details of issues and prices go to www.bis-space.com or send an sae to the address at top. 278 What’s On

* * * The hydrogen tank structural test article for NASA’s first SLS rocket being prepared for shipping to the Published monthly by the British Interplanetary Marshall Space Flight Center. NASA Society. Registered Company No: 402498. Registered Charity No: 250556. Printed in the UK by Latimer Trend & Company Ltd. * * * Copyright © British Interplanetary Society 2017 ISSN 0038-6340. All rights reserved. No part of this magazine may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo- copying or recording by any information storage or retrieval system without written permission from the Publishers. Photocopying permitted by license only. * * * The British Interplanetary Society is a company limited by guarantee.

Mission The British Interplanetary Society promotes the exploration and use of space for the benefit of humanity, by connecting people to create, educate and inspire, and advance knowledge in Cover image: An 401 launches the cargo vehicle on 18 April. Designated CRS-7, it was all aspects of astronautics. named John Glenn after the first NASA to orbit the . Jacques van Oene

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243.indd 243 5/24/2017 8:18:22 AM britain in space Hypersonic Strike or Reusable Launch Vehicle?

Skylon has already produced optional variants for a diverse range of applications but will it be for space or for military purposes that the SABRE engine finds initial application? Reaction Engines/Adrian Mann

n 4 May, Reaction Engines Ltd Engine) was an offered solution for single- motor had been run for a few minutes prior began construction of a test facility stage-to-orbit (SSTO) capabilities, sought to cancellation. At the time, support came for demonstration runs of the SABRE since the advent of operational and from a potential application whereby winged Oengine core and associated technologies at missiles at the dawn of the space age. It aerospace-planes would replace ballistic Westcott, Bucks, which it hopes to commence advanced concepts originally funded in the rockets as space launch vehicles and carry operating by 2019. The ground-breaking United States through the Aerospace Plane the brunt of , spacecraft and piloted ceremony was conducted by Mark Thomas, (ASP) project of the late 1950s/early 1960s, vehicles beyond the atmosphere. The reaction CEO of Reaction Engines, along with completely re-modelled and redefined for the to Russia’s Sputnik I on 4 October 1957 representatives from the European Space defunct HOTOL (HOrizontal Take-Off and created NASA and a different direction for Agency, the UK Space Agency and the CEO of Landing) concept of the early 1980s and totally space projects. Buckinghamshire Thames Valley LEP. re-invented and engineered for the The desirability of a SSTO concept It was in July 2016 that Reaction Engines and satellite launcher. was overwhelmed for two decades by the announced the signing of a development Only the concept had remained surge in expendable rocket technology and contract for the ground based demonstrator, consistent, the ASP being far ahead of its applications, until British rocket engineer under a commitment pledging £60 million time, compromised by an imperfect design, Alan Bond submitted his precooled jet engine from the British government. An additional €10 inadequate testing and evolving priorities concept which cooled the air without the need million was secured from the European Space which caused its demise. But the search for for an air condenser required by the LACES Agency’s Technology Centre (ESTEC), this a reusable launch vehicle capable of carrying design. Along with British Aerospace engineer following a decision by BAE Systems to invest satellites into space endured on the sound Bob Parkinson, Bond married his motor design £20.6 million for a 20% share of the company. principle that one vehicle making many flights to a reusable aerospace vehicle and HOTOL Last year, Reaction Engines modified plans was more economical than many launchers was born. for the full-scale demonstrator, electing to each carrying only a few payloads on a single Through a series of frustrating episodes downscale the planned SABRE tests to better flight. which string together more like the plot for fit with cost and a lower funding uptake than The core propulsion concept for ASP had an industry-based thriller, best efforts were anticipated. Thomas also believes that a been the LACES (Liquid Air Collection Engine confounded and the project languished. smaller-scale demonstrator will help push System) which was designed by the Marquardt Locked out of cooperation with Europe by the concept toward an early application, one Corporation, a propulsion company successful vested interests in more conventional launcher that has stronger short-term prospects. But is with small rocket motors and supersonic concepts, frustrated by the actions of a the basic design goal of SABRE being slowly rocket propulsion systems. LACES worked by vacillating and indecisive government at home, weaned away from Reaction Engines by the compressing and liquefying oxygen taken in starved of funds by inadequate awareness sheer dynamic of its wider applications? Some during flight through the atmosphere, which would of its capability, and hampered by an Official history helps. be mixed with hydrogen as cryogenic propellants Secrets Act, HOTOL staggered on through for propulsion outside the atmosphere. several iterations until it ended up stripped of Form Marquardt and General Dynamics supported its unique propulsion system before funding SABRE (Synergistic Air-Breathing Rocket LACES research but only a small 1.2 kN test was withdrawn in 1988.

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In 1989, along with former Rolls-Royce engineers from the HOTOL days Richard Varvill and John Scott-Scott, Alan Bond formed Reaction Engines, reigniting the possibility of a British-based SSTO through a much modified and “unclassified” (albeit proprietary) engine. Performing the same function, but with critical improvements, under the name SABRE the new engine offered propulsion for a satellite launcher, Skylon, which through its very diversity of potential applications has brought a serious dilemma. While this may have been a serendipitous consequence of an evolved engineering focus – bringing many applications from a single and highly defined design originally developed for one purpose – that apparent bonus introduces a dilemma and presents problems as to where The US Air Force has married the SABRE engine to a conceptual satellite launcher for 2.2 tonne to position the SABRE as it slashes through payloads. USAF conventional ways of carrying out a multitude of roles. atmosphere to Mach 5.5, and above that speed sees potential application as one component of Functions using cryogenic liquid oxygen and hydrogen. a two-stage satellite launcher for which there is During the HOTOL days, the Americans showed Both engine and precooler are designed for a much more immediate potential. great interest in the RB545 engine designed Skylon but the feasibility of the concept on The AFRL examined its applicability by Alan Bond and capable of operating as a thermodynamic grounds shows it to have supporting two separate mission models, the jet engine in the atmosphere and as a rocket interesting applications far removed from its first involving placement of a 2,268 kg payload engine in the vacuum of space. But that engine original purpose. into a 185 km orbit at 28.5º inclination. Two had been the corporate possession of Rolls- The Air Force spent two years examining variations on that were to launch to a Sun- Royce and the British government (through every aspect of the propulsion system and synchronous orbit at 700 km from Vandenberg the Official Secrets Act) and was not for sale concluded that it would be feasible as a Air Force Base, California, and utilise a UK or transferable. The Skylon propulsion system SSTO. But the requirement for that is a in Newquay, UK, for which there is is different and Reaction Engines has better very long way off, they say, and there are great support from the US. The second model freedom. no plans to implement a programme of that was for placement of a 9,072 kg payload in In 2014 the US Air Force Research scale in the immediate future. Supporting orbit, which would require a different vehicle. Laboratory (AFRL) began an exhaustive the AFRL, Reaction Engines defined plans The two concepts were worked up with analysis and concept evaluation, examining for a demonstrator based on the broader SpaceWorks Enterprises and involved a the engine’s efficiency as a jet, in the conclusions drawn up by the Air Force, which partially reusable Two-Stage-To-Orbit (TSTO)

For payloads weighing 9 tonnes, applications may include a fully reusable, two-stage, system according vehicle incorporating a booster powered by to the Air Force. USAF SABRE engines and an upper stage powered by a conventional rocket motor. The AFRL’s High-Speed Systems Division defined the hardware concepts integrating the payload requirement with the unique technology from Reaction Engines. Partially reusable, the TSTO concept has the appearance of a re-worked Skylon, with the conventional supper stage encapsulated within a ventral payload bay. After a conventional takeoff, the TSTO would accelerate on the power of its two SABRE engines to a speed of Mach 4.5, start a vertical climb to over 79 km and a speed of Mach 8 whereupon the upper stage would deploy and separate. Devoid of any weight penalty from aerodynamic fairing or thermal protection, the combined boost stage and payload would fire to reach the required orbit. The TSTO stage, meanwhile, would re- enter the atmosphere and restart the SABRE engines for a conventional landing. The more advanced heavier-lift system

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examining. These include a multi-stage reusable launcher already envisaged as well as a hypersonic X-series research aircraft or even, via an intermediate step, to a combat air vehicle capable of speeds in excess of Mach 4.5. The reduced scale engine will also effect a better fit between the jet engine and the and through a three-step test process could find real applications in the US or Europe during the late 2020s. The first phase will progress through to 2020 to prove out the core of the SABRE engine and the heat exchanger. The second phase in 2020-2021 will demonstrate an integrated engine, while The essential design features remain unchanged while the test demonstrator will be a much smaller the third phase will support flight tests. engine than originally planned. Reaction Engines It is here that the SABRE will stand or fall, would be a scaled-up version, with greater these two steps are essential precedent for demonstrating how the incoming air can be body length increased from 45.7 m to 57.9 m any future decision on prototyping, there chilled from 1,000º C to -150º C in under 0.01 and wing span expanded from 30.5 m to 35.4 is still plenty of room for optional roles and second where it is dried by a closed-cycle m, and an external reusable upper stage with applications. helium loop for it to to a turbocompressor its own payload bay. This heavy version would Prototyping will be essential on a project of and thence to the expansion chamber for weigh an estimated 589,680 kg on the runway this sort, returning to an old style of achieving combustion with liquid hydrogen. If it works, but both would return for reuse, the first stage optimum configuration match between the potential applications are very wide. performing a direct fly-back loop with the upper airframe and engine from which the aviation With the current plan for a demonstrator with stage making a complete orbit of the Earth industry has departed in recent years. But the flight test incorporated, it is quite possible that before landing. The wing planform of the upper AFRL/SpaceWorks analysis and evaluation the SABRE engine will find its first application stage, already demonstrated by the X-37B, takes the potential range of applications to a as a propulsion system for a Mach 4+ would carry sufficient cross-range to get back different place. Especially given the support hemispheric strike or intercept system, a role to the launch site. for wider assignment on very different mission being developed by the US Air Force as it looks platforms. to invest strongly in strategic weapons systems Fortunes To accommodate reduced levels of funding, upgrades and improvements which could By mid-2016 the AFRL and its associates Reaction Engines plans to build a demonstrator lead to a completely new generation of trans- had firmly endorsed the SABRE concept but with a thrust level of about 195.7 kN, instead of atmospheric air vehicles. Only then might it be sceptics remain convinced that the theoretical the 667.2 kN originally planned. This should adopted for a satellite launcher, all of which will engineering requires not only a good set of speed the process of building and testing be greatly enhanced by the establishment of a ground demonstration tests but also a flight and display a better fit with some unexpected US subsidiary led by former Lockheed Martin verification of the entire package. Given that applications which the US Air Force is currently space systems architect Adam Dissel.

his month we have a human space Trump’s comments to aboard 1961 and longer by two months than the gap flight special, looking at strategies the International , as to whether between the Apollo Test Project in July unfolding from NASA and some of the NASA could get to Mars during his first term 1975 and the first flight of the Shuttle in April Tcommercial contractors, as well as a possible indicate a shortfall in understanding the 1981. It will be at least a year before any of link between the challenges posed – or maybe it was a straight- the commercial contenders get the chance to and Russia on a base, while is faced joke…! halt that widening gap. making assertive announcements positively Responding to questions from the White Operationally, NASA has conducted the aligning its future roadmap with settlements House Transition Team regarding the possibility 200th ISS space walk and achieved a major on the lunar surface. And while much is being of putting on the first flight of the milestone in developing techniques for made in the popular press about commercial new , NASA’s human assembly and construction of large objects operators planning trips to Mars there is little space flight boss William “Bill” Gerstenmaier in space. This may very well play a highly doubt that it will be a long time before human has examined that possibility and written it out significant role if astronauts are involved boot prints are left in red dust. – Exploration Mission 1 will launch sometime in assembling habitats and propulsion In the US, things seem to be settling down. in 2019 without crew, followed by EM-2 with modules for deep- in President Trump has reshaped NASA in the astronauts a few years later. the coming decade. A significant step in initial budget proposal (although Congress It is now almost five years eleven months that evolution was taken with the Hubble has yet to get to work on that) and aides since the last Shuttle flight in July 2011, a servicing missions and we examine those are speaking about a major space directive greater gap in US human space flights in an to remind us all just how far EVA has which could be announced within weeks American spacecraft from US soil than at any progressed and how hard-won lessons or months. Nobody knows what that is but time since the flight of Alan Shepard in May were learned.

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By George Spiteri

Expedition 50 comes to a successful end on 10 April with the landing of Kimbrough, Ryzhikov and Borisenko in Soyuz MS-02/48S. NASA

n 9 April cognitive performance and together with NASA reported on 15 April that the crew relinquished command to Whitson, Pesquet reconfigured science hardware. successfully replaced a window pane inside the first female to command the ISS Novitskiy studied ways to improve piloting the Cupola without any risk to themselves Ofor a second time (Spaceflight Vol 50 No 1 p spacecraft with the ongoing Russian Pilot-T due to the “innovative design of the module’s 15). Kimbrough together with Sergey Ryzhikov experiment and worked on life support systems windows, which involve four panes allowing for and boarded their Soyuz in the Russian segment. internal replacement while risking no pressure MS-02/48S spacecraft and closed the hatches Novitskiy answered questions from loss”. The Cupola provides the crew with views to the Poisk module at 04:45 UTC on 10 April. journalists of Earth and Soyuz undocked from the ISS at 07:57 UTC to in honour of ‘Whitson took her turn with the also acts as a signal the official start to . Cosmonautics experiment…which converts urine Robotics Work Soyuz performed a 4 min 38 sec de-orbit Day on 12 and sweat into clean drinking water.’ Station. The burn at 10:28 UTC and in what NASA TV April. Whitson inner scratch described as “some of the most spectacular devoted a second day to the Lighting Effects pane was replaced on window No 7, the video we’ve ever seen” of a Soyuz landing, the study, whilst Pesquet worked with NASA’s Cupola’s large circular window. The windows Descent module was captured by TV cameras Fine Motor Skills experiment, which is helping are made up of an inner scratch pane, two under its huge parachute for the final twelve scientists understand how astronauts adapt to pressure panes and an outer debris pane. minutes to touchdown, which occurred at 11:20 touch-based technologies. The crew had their regular light-duty UTC (17:20 local time), 147 km south east of Whitson took her turn with the experiment weekend 15/16 April, conducting housekeeping Dzhezkazgan, Kazakhstan. on 13 April and worked on the Water Recovery chores, talking to family and friends and The mission had lasted 173 days 3 hr 15 System (WRS) which converts urine and sweat planning for the week ahead. Novitskiy took min. Kimbrough described the landing as into clean drinking water. Pesquet worked with time out to celebrate the Russian Orthodox “crazier” than he anticipated, “it was a wild ride JAXA’s Electrostatic Levitation Furnace (ELF), Easter, which this year coincided with the but it works, despite Soyuz hitting the ground which observes what happens to materials Western calendar. Whitson was asked by AP’s twice and we rolled over a bit”. He added his heated to extreme temperatures, whilst veteran correspondent Marcia Dunn how the highlights of the mission were the spacewalks Novitskiy spent most of the day troubleshooting crew would celebrate Easter? She said they and “we got the station ready for another a computer issue inside and later were “actually a little short on chocolate!” docking port”. changed out batteries in the Soyuz spacecraft. On 17 April, the crew conducted a On 14 April, Whitson and Pesquet replaced routine emergency evacuation drill. Whitson Three-person ops outdated routers with new ones providing also worked with NASA’s NeuroMapping On 11 April, Whitson worked with NASA’s expanded capabilities inside Destiny and experiment, which studies how the brain Lighting Effects experiment, which explores Harmony. The maintenance was conducted in adapts to , whilst Pesquet set how new lights are affecting the crew’s preparation for the arrival of the next ISS crew. up hardware to collect body fluid samples for

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UTC on 24 April. To commemorate the event President Trump spoke to Whitson and said it was “a very special day in the glorious history of American space flight”. Whitson responded that it was “a huge honour to break the record” and told the President that she was “absolutely ready to go to Mars”. The crew continued with unloading Soyuz and Cygnus on 25 April and worked with NASA’s Fluid Shifts experiment, which according to its Co-Principal Investigator, Dr Michael Stenger is designed to determine what is causing “changes in astronaut’s vision”. Whitson and Fischer live-streamed a broadcast from the station on 26 April using 4K ultra-high-definition technology for the first time. The astronauts called down to the National Association of Broadcasters in Las Vegas to demonstrate the advanced technology and promote space science and NASA astronaut Shane Kimbrough is carried to the medical tent shortly after touchdown. NASA film making. Pesquet and Novitskiy conducted ultrasound scans and eye exams for the Fluid Shifts study. Yurchikhin resumed unloading later analysis and answered questions from Russian space observer Anatoly Zak was due cargo from Soyuz whilst Pesquet transferred French media. to “a leakage discovered in the thermal control more supplies from Cygnus. Orbital ATK’s Commercial Resupply system” and resulted in a three and a half week Zvezda fired its thrusters for 30 sec at 05:10 Services-7 (CRS-7) OA-7 unmanned Cygnus delay to the launch. Vehicle 734 is planned for cargo vehicle was launched on an Atlas V launch in mid-September. UTC on 27 April to boost the complex by 0.8 km 401 rocket from Space Launch Complex 41 This was the first two person Soyuz launch to place the station in a 403.64 x 426.8 km orbit at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station at 15:11 since April 2003 (Spaceflight Vol 45 No.7 pp to accommodate the next Soyuz departure and UTC (11:11 local time) on 18 April. Named in 283-285) with the third seat occupied by a Progress arrival. honour of legendary Mercury astronaut John 70 kg cargo container. Last year The crew performed more biomedical Glenn, Cygnus was grappled by Canadarm2 at decided to vacate the seat to save money research and eye checks on 27 April. They 10:05 UTC on 22 April as the complex flew 400 by launching fewer resupply missions and underwent a series of further ultrasound scans km over Germany. increase efficiency until Russia launches its and eye tests courtesy of the ongoing Fluid Pesquet radioed Houston “we’re proud to much delayed Nauka Multipurpose Laboratory Shifts study. The United States Orbital Segment (USOS) astronauts continued welcome aboard the SS John Glenn”. ‘Fischer described the launch to his daughter Over two and a half hours later, at with Cygnus cargo transfers and 12:39 UTC Cygnus was installed onto as “a kick in the pants”.’ Pesquet took time out to answer Unity’s Earth facing port delivering 3,376 Module in 2018. This resulted in NASA questions from French school kg of pressurised cargo including supplies agreeing with Roscosmos to extend Whitson’s children about life aboard the ISS. for the crew and experimental hardware to stay for an extra three months to maintain a six Whitson, Fischer and Pesquet entered the enable studies on cancer research, crystal person presence (Spaceflight Vol 59 No. 6 p Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) growth and bioscience. Cygnus also delivered 209). on 28 April for another routine inspection of an additional 83 kg of unpressurised cargo Soyuz docked to Poisk at 13:18 UTC the habitat which Fischer described in a tweet including 38 CubeSats from several countries above the North Atlantic Ocean, the first time as a “wicked-cool space balloon”. The crew and academic institutions. the fast track profile was conducted for the also checked out the hardware for NASA’s Between the arrival of Cygnus and the improved Soyuz MS variant. At 15:25 UTC the Genes in Space-2 experiment which was next Soyuz crew, Whitson and Pesquet had hatches were opened and Fischer followed by delivered by Cygnus. Principal Co-Investigator continued practising the robotic manoeuvres Yurchikhin floated into the station. During the Dr Sebastian Kraves said the study is “a DNA they used to capture the vehicle. traditional greeting ceremony, the new arrivals analysis experiment” which tests ways to spoke to family and friends still at Baikonur. amplify DNA and make it possible to measure Three to five Fischer described the launch to his daughter and monitor telomere changes in space. Soyuz MS-04/50S was launched from as “a kick in the pants”. The newcomers Baikonur’s Site 1 at 07:13 UTC (13:13 then received the mandatory safety briefing External robotics local time) on 20 April carrying spacecraft from Whitson before spending several days Extensive robotics work conducted on 28 commander (age 58) on familiarising themselves to their orbital home. April when the NanoRacks External Platform his fifth space flight and USAF Colonel Jack Following two days of unloading both Soyuz (NREP) was installed outside the ISS. NREP Fischer (43) a space rookie. In January, and Cygnus the crew began their new working is an external payload facility which hosts Roscosmos swapped Soyuz vehicle 734 with week with Whitson surpassing Jeff Williams’ compact research payloads in the space 735, which the space agency denied was for record of cumulative time spent in space by a environment for educational institutions and “technical reasons” but according to veteran US astronaut of 534 days 2 hr 48 min at 05:27 commercial customers. NREP was fitted with

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a pair of new experiment payloads by Whitson preparations for their upcoming spacewalk. Yurchikhin and Fischer conducted Progress and Fischer before being placed in Kibo’s They also checked out the hardware for four cargo transfers and systems maintenance. equipment airlock for transfer outside the weeks work with NASA’s OsteoOmics bone The crew also took part in the first of two days station. loss investigation and collected blood and of compiling a Canadian questionnaire, which The extensible slide table moved the NREP urine samples for NASA’s Biochem Profile assesses cultural and psychological adaptation. within reach of the Japanese Robotic Arm that study, which examines the effects of space Between 4-6 May ground controllers then took control of the platform and moved flight on the human body. successfully removed and replaced one of the it into position for mechanical attachment Fischer began several days of work on four Main Bus Switching Units (MBSU-2) which to the JEM Exposed Facility, automatically NASA’s high intensity, low volume Sprint had partially failed on the central S0 truss and connecting electrical and data lines. The experiment on 2 May. The USOS crew also restored the complex to full power, sparing the following week NanoRacks reported the total continued with EVA preparations inside Quest, crew from conducting a contingency EVA. This success of the installation as both payloads whilst their Russian colleagues gathered was the first time Canadarm2 and had began downlinking data. measurements for the Matryoshka-R radiation conducted such an operation. MBSU-2 suffered The crew enjoyed another light-duty study and worked with the Kaskad biology an unexpected loss of communications on weekend 29/30 April, during which Houston experiment. 25 April with mission control being unable to wished Whitson and her colleagues “a great Yurchikhin, Whitson and Fischer devoted receive any telemetry from the unit. day in space” ‘MBSU-2 suffered an a couple of hours Fischer filmed himself having fun, spinning prompting the to emergency in zero gravity during the crew’s light-duty commander to unexpected loss of refresher training weekend 6/7 May, which he typically described jokingly reply communications on 25 April…’ on 3 May. The crew as the “tornado of awesomeness” and in a “someone’s got to do it!” also swapped out the Meteor hard drive located more serious vein having “voted in advance During the overnight hours of 30 April/1 May in the Window Observational Research Facility by proxy” Pesquet followed the results of ground controllers used the Special Purpose (WORF), a visible spectroscopy instrument the French presidential elections in what he Dexterous Manipulator (SPDM) or Dextre to with the primary purpose of observing meteors. described as “a very important day”. replace an external circuit breaker that had Novitskiy and Yurchikhin did further work with On 8 May, Whitson and Fischer continued tripped open in early April. Mission controllers the Kaskad investigation and the Algometriya with preparations for their spacewalk whilst confirmed the issue to be within a Remote experiment, which studies the changes that Novitskiy and Yurchikhin conducted further Power Control Module (RPCM) and decided to occur in a crewmember’s pain threshold during science research and routine maintenance replace it at the earliest convenience. long duration space flight. work in addition to sending a video message On 1 May, Whitson and Fischer began On 4 May, Pesquet worked with the Genes to commemorate victory in the Second World to configure their EVA tools and started in Space-2 experiment, whilst Novitskiy, War.

Named John Glenn, the Cygnus module arrives at the ISS on 22 April. NASA

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price savings can’t be as much as the cost The first refly recovery on 31 March was Briefing notes savings because we need to repay the fraught with tension as one of the grid fins massive development costs.” Musk has also used for positioning the stage back down • The X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle mission let out tantalising comments regarding his through the atmosphere caught fire and 4 (OTV-4), the Air Force’s unmanned, interest in the recovery of the upper stage, nearly burned through. Covered with a reusable space plane, landed at NASA’s a considerably more difficult challenge. thermal protection system, the aluminium Shuttle Landing fin core material is to be replaced with Facility on 7 May. The OTV-4 conducted • SpaceX plans to refly six Falcon 9 first forged titanium on subsequent flights. on-orbit experiments for 718 days during stages this year and up to 12 in 2018, its mission, extending the total number targeting 10 flights without refurbishment • The European Space Agency has of days spent on-orbit for the OTV and 100 flights with moderate developed a drill to penetrate 1-2 m programme to 2,085 days. “The landing refurbishment. There are currently eight beneath the Moon’s South Pole from of OTV-4 marks another success for the flown boosters in storage in addition to the Russia’s planned X-37B programme and the nation,” said one which has flown twice. Musk claims for launch in 2020. Developed by Lt. Col. Ron Fehlen, X-37B programme that SpaceX has spent approximately $1 Finmeccanica in Nerviano, Italy, the manager. “This mission once again set billion on the development of recoverability drill would first penetrate into the frozen an on-orbit endurance record and marks regolith and deliver samples to a chemical the vehicle’s first landing in the state of and stage reuse. Aware of the historic laboratory, developed by the UK’s Open Florida. We are incredibly pleased with the significance of these achievements, Musk University. The full design has been tested performance of the space vehicle and are is to give the US government the rocket with simulated lunar soil cooled to -140º excited about the data gathered to support stage that made the first reflight. Two more C, typical of the expected landing site of the scientific and space communities. We will be used as the side-boosters for the Luna-27. The permanently shadowed are extremely proud of the dedication and first flight of with a modified regions of the Moon are known to be hard work by the entire team.” Managed by core stage. That flight, planned for later down to –240°C. Indicative of stronger the Air Force Rapid Capabilities Office, the this year, will take place from the Kennedy cooperation with Russia, ESA is taking X-37B programme performs risk reduction, Space Center’s Launch Complex 39-A, advantage of new opportunities which experimentation and concept of operations itself a historic pad. become possible through merging of development for reusable space vehicle capabilities and extant technology. technologies. The Air Force is preparing to • Not content with recovering and reusing launch the fifth X-37B mission from Cape spent rocket stages, Elon Musk is now • Launched on 20 April (see page 270), Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, later planning a fully reusable launch vehicle China’s Tianzhou 1 (“Heavenly Vessel”) in 2017. to follow Falcon Heavy, a vehicle which may be designed for 24-hr turnaround. His docked to the Tiangong 2 orbiting module The USAF Rapid Capabilities Office saw the goal is to achieve a 100-fold reduction in prior to completing a propellant transfer return of its X-37B on 7 May after a record launch costs and if that can be achieved demonstration crucial to long-term plans duration of 718 days. USAF the cost of space travel will plummet, for a large 60-tonne orbiting laboratory by expand flight manifests and slash fees 2022. The core element of the new facility, to a level almost approaching that of the named Tianhe 1, could be launched as airline freight industry. By achieving two early as next year to which two research orders of magnitude reduction, Musk modules would be attached in subsequent may well feed wholly privatised deep- years. Tianzhou 1 will remain with Tiangong 2 until about late July, during which time space expeditions which, while sounding at least two more refuelling operations admirably aspirational, are still within the are scheduled. After that, Tianzhou 1 will gap between capital sums available and undock and operate autonomously for all-in costs of such missions. Using an about two months before being de-orbited. average Falcon 9 cost of $90 million, Musk

• While advocates of reusable rocket estimates that, through current levels of China’s automated refuelling operation with stages may well point to retrieval as the reusability, approximately two-thirds of the Tianzhou 1 marks a milestone in that country’s key to significantly lower launch costs, those rocket can show a cost reduction of 10% human flight programme. News CN actually doing the work are less confident (or $6 million). that it is a fast route to space accessibility at an affordable level for frugal service buyers. • Despite bold, and perhaps unwise, There is a lot that has to be recouped if assertions to the contrary, mainstream reusability is factored in to every flight, launch vehicle providers such as United as SpaceX founder Elon Musk has said Launch Alliance and , are following the successful reflight of a Falcon 9 very worried indeed about developments first stage on 30 March. The payload fairings at Space X regarding reusability and refly were also returned, each segment carrying capabilities. An embedded consultant with a dedicated thruster steering system and SpaceX, a former NASA Shuttle engineer parachute. One of the two payload shells who wishes to remain anonymous, says was recovered. In speaking about the that what SpaceX is attempting is very hard economics involved, Musk said that “The and that difficult challenges lay ahead.

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International cooperation has been the underpinning imperative for every US human space flight programme since the end of missions in 1974, epitomised here by a view of Zvezda during STS-129 in November 2009. NASA

fter several years of turbulent half-European; the first time a US manned to the ISS, and also the Automated Transfer and transformational change, the space vehicle has been built from elements Vehicles launched by Ariane V. US manned space programme is manufactured in different countries. The issue of leadership is defined by beginningA to show signs of a level of stability Prompted in no small part by the new America’s financial and facilities resource base aspired to, but not achieved, since the decision administration, in charge of the US government and does not allude to an assumed superiority was made early in this century to retire since late January, NASA has begun to define over non-US partners in science, technology or the Shuttle, limit the duration of American a roadmap which will lay down a series of engineering. It is a simple fact that collectively involvement in the International Space Station stepping stones to Mars. Not before time, the the governments of the world spend $75.6 (ISS) and build a new series of rockets and objective, and this roadmap, should establish billion on space activities of which 49% is spent spacecraft to take humans back to the Moon an architecture which will set out the separate by the United States alone. Of that $37.4 billion, and eventually on to Mars. sets of hardware necessary to send people to NASA receives just under 45%, the rest being Through a series of political moves the Moon- the surface of Mars. At a time when several spent by the National Oceanic & Atmospheric first programme known as Constellation and commercial, and at least one foreign country, Administration (NOAA), the military and the its complement of supporting hardware (Ares are planning to get to distant worlds, there national security services. I, , the spacecraft and the has never been a better time to establish a As we will report in next month’s Spaceflight, lunar lander) was cancelled, leaving only the centralised international command structure the global space industry was worth $335 Orion spacecraft to emerge as the foundation for for this exciting activity. billion in 2015, the last full accounting year for NASA’s revised future programme strategy. This which reports are complete. Global government had a Mars-first policy dominating the combined Leadership space spending is still a credible 22.5% of political and agency agenda since 2010. But This role comes up frequently when big and that total. But that is not really a great deal; there has been no real roadmap and still less an challenging objectives are considered by the removing US defence and national security architecture for accomplishing that objective. United States. Europe has been a willing partner space expenditure reduces the total available It is time, say some international partners of the American civilian space programme for a for civilian government projects eligible for of the ISS, for America to take the lead again very long time. Extending its cooperation from international partner projects. Nevertheless, and form a coalition of committed nations to pressure modules and pallets for NASA is recognised by existing and prospective direct human space flight away from Low Earth use in the Shuttle programme from the early partners as having a responsible role to play in Orbit (LEO) and into deep-space destinations. 1980s to the Columbus pressure module for leading large space projects. The core of that renaissance, they say, could the ISS, the European Space Agency (ESA) be the Space Launch System (SLS) and the has provided logistics modules launched by Strategy Orion spacecraft, itself now half-American and Shuttle, one of which is permanently attached For the moment, NASA is defining a strategy

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based on the existing hardware and the stronger US relationship with Russia’s space sustained investments to address the combined political/agency/industry objective to engineering capabilities and load-sharing challenges of future missions; put humans on Mars. It is no longer a case of in the heavy-lift toward ambitious goals, 4. Compatible with a sustained cadence Moon-first or Mars-direct but rather a synergy losing collaboration as a casualty of political of human and robotic missions for an between several national and international expediency. incremental build-up; objectives with non-US partners and space As ambitiously projected by NASA for the 5. Flexible to allow commercial participation agencies playing appropriate roles. A division last 50 years, the ultimate goal for US human for an expanded business base in the of applications where cislunar systems may space flight has been Mars and this has been private sector; attract some countries to build Moon landers is agreed by successive US administrations 6. Supported by resilient architecture with emerging as a likely matrix and we will discuss and endorsed by Congress as a mandate each mission leaving something for the that aspect later. for developing the SLS and Orion. President next; The multinational fabrication and assembly Trump also supports that objective and is as 7. Capable of international participation; of elements for the International Space Station equally assertive as his predecessors about it 8. Support a routine flow of crewed missions was a good starting point and the agreement being the driving imperative for strategy in the to cislunar space during the lifetime of the for Europe to build the for US civilian human space flight programme. So ISS. the first two SLS flights is the right way to go. how will this be done? Notwithstanding the understandable impact it Phased array has on expectations from US contractors for Stepping stones Previous issues of Spaceflight have defined the a “made in the USA” ethos, this international With the underwritten objective of placing three major stages NASA has planned for the agreement grows directly out of the long- astronauts on Mars sometime within the next 20 Mars journey: Phase 1: Earth Reliant; Phase 2: standing connection between NASA and years, NASA has established eight principles Proving Ground; Phase 3: Earth Independent. ESA in human space flight, originating with by which the framework can be accomplished Each segment would be self-contained yet the Spacelab agreement signed in 1973 and for a sustained Mars programme. It must be: leave a “hand-over” or “transmission mission” continuing through the ISS. 1. Financially affordable (which the former to the next. The underpinning imperative here As an aside, it is interesting to note that the Moon-bound Constellation programme is to establish a permanent highway to deep first international partner for the US in human was not) and within current and projected space objectives and not to conduct a fast- space flight was Russia, with the development budgets; track, one-way mission. of an international docking system for the US- 2. Supportive of scientific exploration as an These are preceded by Phase 0, the present built Docking Module used during the Apollo enabler and not an adjunct; use of the International Space Station but Soyuz Test Project in 1975. Sadly, 42 years on, 3. Focused around push-pull technologies leveraged to provide test-bed support for key for the time being the US Congress prevents a for near-term missions while focusing on capabilities supporting the Mars objective and

The Human Space Flight roadmap envisages a series of sequential steps toward the first landings on Mars by astronauts. NASA

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The initial stages in moving toward humans on Mars involving early exploitation of the SLS and Orion. NASA

to foster an emerging commercial market. It copy of the airliner market. By the mid-2020s, With the functional job of expanding the is expected to extend through to the end of these commercial companies will be to duration of human space flight excursions into operational use of the ISS and to overlap with show capability helping support the next phase deep space, the somewhat limited capabilities Phase 1. For this NASA has defined 17 specific in the Mars journey. of the unsupported Orion spacecraft (4 crew/21 objectives. From the outset, commercial Phase 1 begins in 2019 and is defined as a days) will stretch to a 16-26 day mission with participation in Phase 0 is taken as imperative cislunar demonstration of exploration systems EM-3 placed in a Near-Rectilinear Halo Orbit and can be seen as a similar cost/risk sharing and the bag of requirements for that includes 28 (NRHO) of the Moon, for which a Habitation exercise to that proposed by many international objectives. It is where the Deep Space Gateway Module, the second technology driver, will be advocates who contend that a Mars mission (DSG) will evolve on the back of flights with the necessary for sustaining the crew. cannot be undertaken by one nation alone. SLS Block 1 on Exploration Mission 1 (EM-1) , NRHOs have never been used in human In some respects NASA believes it can, SLS Block 1B (EM-2) and will include the SLS space flight operations but they are particularly subject to vibrant and productive commercial Block 1B Cargo rocket which may fit in quite attractive for stable residence without participation – US entrepreneurial participation early if this launcher is selected for the Clipper propulsive orbit make-up from where very playing the role of an international partner. At mission to the Jovian moon Europa. long duration flights can be undertaken. In the present Phase 0 is developing a broad based Notionally bridging the period from 2019 Earth-Moon system, the Lagrangian L1 and L2 level of commercial participation involving through 2026, Phase 1 may also include the locations evolve out of the Earth-Moon plane, cargo and logistics supply as well as the automated Asteroid Redirect Mission launched with close passes across one of the lunar poles emerging capability for crewed flights to the in 2021 and the Asteroid Redirect Crewed being attractive for NRHO trajectories. ISS from US soil. Mission in 2026, a period which is expected Many satellites have used halo orbits but By introducing a client-based relationship to support EM-1 to EM-5. NASA would like to the near-rectilinear types orbit around collinear with these companies it is adopting the fly a 40 kW power/propulsion bus on EM-2, points from where access to either model demonstrated though four decades the first flight of SLS Block 1B and the first of the surface of the primary body (in this case of commercial launch vehicle growth, where two technology demonstrations in Phase 1. If the Moon) or some distant destination (a the client’s requirements drive the launcher the mission is approved, this trans-Mars trajectory, for instance) becomes market even to the point of defining the lift and will add a sixth SLS launch in the eight years attractive on energy alone. For instance, it operating capabilities. And that, in itself, is a spanned by Phase 1. requires only 10 m/sec/year for station keeping

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at the NRHO position compared with 50 m/sec/ system that will be used to go to Mars. It will also This long duration mission would duplicate year for a low lunar orbit. Such a path affords explore the operation and handling of massive the flight plan for a Mars trip and validate no occultation periods and conventional assembled space structures around the Moon the “Proving Ground” concept of Phase 2. It spacecraft radiators are sufficient to maintain in high and low orbits with trade-offs made would demonstrate the viability of the electric thermal equilibrium. regarding optimum operating procedures. propulsion unit (DST) and the ability of the Amid seven specific types of lunar orbit, the This will be essential for supporting the next (DSG) to sustain the crew NRHO was chosen as the most applicable phases which will satisfy the “Proving Ground” for a year. Interspersed within this flow could and additional NRHO flights lasting up to requirements of the next missions. be planetary missions involving SLS launches 42 days will drive EM-4 and EM-5 mission for spacecraft to or Saturn but until planning to provide greater expertise through First Block 2 the completion of Phase 1 NASA does not extended duration. The DSG will build between Phase 2 will begin in 2027 and on present anticipate making more than one launch per EM-2 and EM-4 with exploitation from EM-5, schedules would extend to 2032, six years year. establishing the cislunar highway. The NRHO during which twelve SLS flights, EM-6 through The Deep Space Transport system would residential location is highly attractive and is EM-17, would be launched. This would be the way humans will first cross from the one of the operational evaluation trajectories transition the flight rate from one to two SLS orbit of the bi-planetary Earth-Moon system to discussed in this magazine recently. But the launches per year, averaging one crew and the orbit of Mars and for that it is required to function of these early flights to NRHOs will be one cargo flight per annum. support three Mars-class missions, designed to qualify hardware and to develop operational A Block 1B Cargo SLS would lift the - to launch on a single Block 1B Cargo vehicle expertise for mission managers in trajectory electric DST module on EM-6 followed by with minimal outfitting and supporting a crew of planning. We will be looking more closely at a four-person crew on EM-7 for a docked four for 1,000 days in deep space. different types of lunar orbit being considered checkout flight in NRHO at the Moon lasting Phase 3 will begin in 2033 and extend in next month’s issue of Spaceflight. 191-226 days. This would result in a DST through to 2037, initially involving EM-18 and Having established viability of the DSG refuelling flight in 2028 as EM-8 and the first EM-19 conducting a crewed orbit of Mars, (the Habitation Module) another important flight of the SLS Block 2 in 2029 adding lift initiating the Earth Independent stage. During technology objective of Phase 1 will be to capacity and logistics delivery for an extended this period NASA intends to test and evaluate establish the Deep Space Transport (DST) crewed flight lasting a full year (300-400 days) descent and ascent vehicles and conduct a which will be the solar-electric propulsion in cislunar space. visit to the moon Phobos. It will also provide

Evolved stages toward the first Mars orbit missions and the first use of the SLS Block 2. NASA

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flight, including modifications to the design of the crew module, which have had the collateral advantage of reducing weight. Nevertheless, there are still several challenging threats to the initially planned launch date in 2018, which is why it has now formally slipped by a year. The European Service Module (ESM) has experienced several delays to date and while it is a key element in the critical path the hardware fabrication and test appears to pose few challenges to the EM-1 mission date. Negotiations have been under way for some time on the ESM for EM-2 and this has embraced changes requested by the European Space Agency for design alterations to the mating interface occasioned by the new Exploration Upper Stage, scheduled to make its debut on this launch. Costs for the EM-2/ ESM are about $200 million which are rated as the barter price for reciprocal access to the International Space Station by ESA astronauts.

An Orion spacecraft approaches the Deep Space Gateway for sustained habitation in a Near Rectilinear NASA plans to reuse some Orion subsystems Halo Orbit. NASA from EM-1, any adverse performance or operation of these on the first flight potentially opportunity for evaluating the operation of roadmap now for the sequence of stepping impacting the schedule for EM-2 and this has the crewed spacecraft in high and low Mars stones to a sustainable presence on Mars. caused some concern. There are a high number orbits and to conduct analysis of command of interdependent systems in the flow and a and control methodologies relating to Hardware status test failure on one could seriously impact the spacecraft communication with Earth and with The journey to Mars is built around the SLS schedule. Particular concern over the avionics autonomous operations. (see pages 260-261), which is expected unit has caused NASA to lift that unit for EM-2 off Notionally, across the five years, Phase 3 to make its initial flight in 2019 as the Block the critical path for this mission by purchasing a extends through to EM-27 and incorporates 1 before moving directly to the Block 1B, dedicated unit for the first crewed flight of Orion. 10 SLS vehicles but it overlaps beyond the raising lift capacity from 70 tonnes to LEO or Challenges to the heat shield have been start of Phase 4, the second element in the 24 tonnes to cislunar trajectory(70/24) with persistent since failures with the EFT-1 “Earth Independent” group of missions. They Block 1 to 105/40 tonnes from about 2021-23 to perform to design expectations forced are the most challenging and involve flights with Block 1B. The Block 2 is expected to fly engineers to change from a monolithic design which could take months or years to return from 2029 raising capacity to 130/52 tonnes, to a completely different shield for EM-1. The to Earth. This is by far the most challenging or 41 tonnes to a Mars flight path. Block 1 will new shield will consist of approximately 300 and technologically demanding part of the carry the Interim Cryogenic Propulsion System separate ablative blocks with special filler entire spread of missions. Phase 4 is only (ICPS), with the Exploration Upper Stage material for the gaps to allow both tensile and conceptually envisaged at present but is (EUS) as standard from Block 1B (EM-2). The compression loads to be absorbed without operationally divided into two sequential parts. new Advanced Boosters will be available for cracking the entire shield, as happened on Phase 4a involves combined robotic and the Block 2, completing the initial evolution. EFT-1. Considerable interest had been shown human flights beginning in 2034, preceding by The Orion spacecraft will provide the four- in the Apollo shield by engineers working on three years fulfilling the objectives of Phase person crew with a habitable volume of 8.94 Orion and visits were made to the National Air 3, as noted above. Phase 4b is envisaged m³ for 21 days and carry the first astronauts, and Space Museum to study that technology. as the initial crewed landing on Mars with a probably in 2023, on the first Block 1B It is interesting to note that 50 years ago the surface habitat and a roving vehicle. Picking distinguished only by the introduction of the Apollo heat shield threw up the same problem; up, some might say at Mars, where we left off EUS. Uncrewed, EM-1 will fly an incomplete dynamic testing indicated that any substantial at the Moon. Except the journey is toward a spacecraft devoid of life support as required by increasing in its surface area would create sustainable set of excursions and eventually a crew and will conduct a second empirical test stress fractures in the epoxy-resin matrix a place for scientists, engineers, technologists of the heat shield which has to date caused across the aluminium honeycomb cells. The and physicians to maintain a continuous some concerns and programme delays. exact technology and materials for Orion habitation with expeditions remaining in place Technical hurdles yet to be overcome have are different to those of Apollo but the same perhaps for six months at a time. played in to the decision not to fly a crew on the levels of resilience to bending moments are Phase 4 is extrapolated to 2050, although first SLS, since doing so would delay further the found across the two designs. The area of the there is no implication that it would end initial flight of the spacecraft proper and prevent Apollo base shield was 12.398 m² compared to there, involving missions EM-20 through the opportunity to fly a second unmanned 19.635 m² for Orion, an increase of 58%. EM-45, interleaving in its earliest phase mission following Exploration Flight Test 1 on a Moreover, some of the software is causing with the second half of Phase 3. All of this Delta IV Heavy on 5 December 2014. Several additional problems through incurred delays to will undoubtedly change but it is the defined design changes were made following that initial EM-2 programming and development and this

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caused NASA to expand test facilities which and hypergolic propulsion unit would employ up to 90 km across the surface. The ascent will also be handling SLS software verification two 200 kW class arrays while a nuclear thermal component employed for Phase 4b would use as well. A not insignificant impact has also propulsion system is also being looked at with locally sourced oxygen and methane to carry been caused by a substantial increase in availability by the late 2020s. four people plus 250 kg of samples or cargo the cost reported by Lockheed Martin finding The long-duration deep-space habitat from the surface back into orbit. Total uplifted solutions to some of the technical problems. In under the Deep Space Gateway project would mass would be 35 tonnes. The vehicle would 2016, an independent audit of costs revealed support a crew of four for 1,100 days and then dock with the in-space propulsion system a projected total overrun of $258-707 million to feed in to Phase 2 in time for one-year NRHO and the deep-space habitat in Mars orbit for the end of the primary contract in 2020. After trajectories to simulate a Mars journey. The return to Earth orbit. the cancellation of Constellation in 2010, NASA long-duration habitat would have to come in A significant shift in the trajectories planning renegotiated the Orion work with the contractor under 21 tonnes mass and form the basis for is to place the entire assembly back in Earth in February 2014 and as of February 2016 cost crew habitation on the Phase 3 and Phase 4 orbit from where the docked Orion spacecraft growth had risen to $190 million. Mars missions. would return the crew and samples to the For Phase 3 NASA would like to acquire a surface. This alleviates stress on the heat Expansion Mars Taxi capable of scurrying between high shield and prevents an over-engineered crew Development of the Habitation Module – and low Mars orbits supporting a crew of four module carrying excess weight all around the the Deep Space Gateway – is required to for up to 2.5 days every two years or so, weigh transportation loop to Mars and back. Given support four people for 60 days to evaluate the 14 tonnes and using solar power in a reusable that the primary function of the architecture technology for growth and to remain dormant design also capable of being refuelled in orbit, which will evolve from this journey is to provide for up to a year in space. Six contractors were where it would remain. Its main function would a sustainable and persistent presence on selected in August 2016 for initial proposals expand to convey lander and crew to low Mars Mars, consideration has also been given to the and NASA will make a decision within the orbit for a descent to the surface on a long- Mars Surface Habitat (MSH). next year on the winning bid. The Deep Space duration stay. The essential design requirement here Transport is baselined around a solar-electric Phase 4 requires development of a Mars is to support four crew for up to 500 days in propulsion system delivering 30-50 kW and is Lander which can transport 20-30 tonnes of a mass of 11 tonnes provided with 40 kW of referenced to the Asteroid Recovery Mission, payloads to the surface at an entry speed of electric power. Oxygen production would gross which may not happen. up to 4.7 km/sec using an inflatable heat shield 1 tonne with 20 kW of power and the facility Alternative propulsion concepts include a solar- or parachutes and rocket engines for terminal would support all infrastructure needs for the electric/oxygen-methane propulsion system soft landing. The prepositioned rover would be four-person expeditionary team on the surface with a 190 kW class solar array and an oxygen/ capable of supporting a crew of four plus three of Mars. Along with the other Phase 4 systems methane engine. An alternative solar electric tonnes of cargo on geological expeditions of requirements, the Mars Lander and Ascent

An Orion spacecraft approaches the Deep Space Gateway for sustained habitation in a Near Rectilinear Halo Orbit. NASA

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effect on the scheduling of crewed flight operations planning. The Orion spacecraft flown on EFT-1 by Delta IV Heavy is different to the one which will fly on EM-1. Some of these design changes have been referred to previously but significant improvements have made Orion one of the biggest challenges to getting EM-1 off on time. By early 2017 NASA and the contractor were a potential 10 months behind spacecraft delivery and this has impacted the previous decision to fly in November 2018, causing the deferment to the following year in an as The European Space Agency likes the idea of using hardware in cislunar space developed through yet undefined month. Current practice and a NASA-led architecture allowing the establishment of the first bases on the Moon, seen here under evaporation of time and cost reserves indicates construction. ESA a potential to schedule EM-1 no earlier than December 2019. Changes to the engineering Vehicle are at a low level of definition, their Development and Operations Programme involve a wide range of single-point failure operational deployment still 15 years away, (GSDOP) which has involved modifications zones which, arguably, should have been although a continuous low level of technology to the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) and picked up long before now. For instance, observation is continuing. associated LC-39B. Preparation for EM-1 has prior to modification, a small leak in any of the Associated with the other Phase 4 called for the removal from the VAB of more fuel valves for attitude orientation thrusters requirements is the question of a suitable than 240 km of cabling installed since the days could have quickly resulted in the total loss of for EVA at the Martian moon Phobos, of Apollo, with new elevators, upgraded cranes propellant. perhaps in cislunar space (should the asteroid and revised fire safety features. As referred to previously, development of mission be resurrected by Congress) and Some 10 new platforms have had to be the all-important activities on the surface of installed to allow access to the SLS and Orion Orion’s Environmental Control and Life Support Mars. There has been little real development spacecraft and complications have resulted System (ECLSS) has been one of the long of suits based on the present generation of in some delay to that work although it was poles on the tent, a system designed to provide Extravehicular Mobility Units and this is a lapsed completed in February this year. Additional a mixed gas, oxygen/nitrogen atmosphere programme starved of funds by general agency challenges will be met with the shift to EM-2 at 101.3 kPa, or at a reduced pressure of financial pressure on a restricted budget. The flight preparation and the adoption of the taller 55.2-70.03 kPa. Concerns expressed by the existing EMU suits used at the ISS are ageing, Block 1B launcher and an additional storage Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel focused on wearing out and urgently in need of replacement. tank at the launch complex to handle the the use of a crew on the mission that will carry This is unlikely, pending the requirement for a additional propellant carried by the Exploration the first fully operational ECS unit in space. completely new design with greatly enhanced Upper Stage. The Panel, and Congress, wanted to expand limb joint, wrist and glove advancements. Initially, NASA planned to fly Block 1 for the the period in Earth orbit so that engineers could first two SLS launches but after completion check it out. Responding, NASA has modified Infrastructure of the Critical Design Review in 2015 the the flight plan so that the first 24 hours of EM-2 While the spacecraft and launch vehicles Congress instructed NASA to adopt the Block will be spent in a highly elliptical Earth orbit involved in the journey to Mars make the 1B for the second flight and this brought before heading off for a cislunar path, affording biggest headlines, none of these plans would several unwanted pressures on cost and time to verify its integrity. be possible without NASA’s Ground Systems development cycles. This has also had an Partnerships Nearly complete, the first Moon base is protected from solar and cosmic rays by regolith covering an Cooperation, between international partners aluminium dome. ESA and between NASA and the domestic commercial market, will be essential for completing the journey to Mars. No single company, agency or country can hope to achieve the ambitious goals laid down here unless there is coordinated funding divided among several participants toward the common objective. Current and projected budgets for all the space faring shareholders separately is just too small to pay for it. The four core partners of the ISS (NASA, ESA, Roscosmos and JAXA) form a solid working relationship with experience and demonstrated performance. While NASA is concentrating on a Mars programme, other agencies are more interested in the Moon. Quietly, over the last couple of years, ESA and

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Roscosmos have been talking about a Lunar Orbit Space Station (LOOS) which may fit well with NASA’s own plan for concentrated use of SLS flights to NRHO trajectories. ESA is already providing hardware for the Orion spacecraft and has always favoured added value – using Spacelab to build experience to produce Columbus and the Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules to develop the Automated Transfer Vehicle. It would be a logical synergy for a potential cooperation between ESA and Roscosmos to develop a LOOS capability alongside NASA and for there to be some modest integration between these programmes. Even to the point of using NRHO/ LOOS missions to go down to the surface of the Moon. There is commonality too in the use of A lunar base fabricated from 3D printers and cupolas of the type fitted to the International Space Station. hardware. The non-US ISS partners are very ESA interested in using solar-electric propulsion and as this is a key objective for NASA’s Phase 1 A major concern at NASA is the potential expensive SLS on several missions with a development path it is synergistic with moving launch cost of an SLS rocket, currently much cheaper rocket from the commercial large masses between different lunar orbits from assessed at around $1 billion in present money sector. Detailed analysis of the work carried where chemical propulsion could take modules values. For this reason it is keen to seek out out by SpaceX alone, while costing the down to the surface. Just as the Habitation use of commercial launch vehicles for lifting agency serious money has already saved Modules forming the Deep Space Gateway are some of the less massive hardware integrating NASA between $1.4 billion and $4 billion in applicable to several applications, value-sharing with the programme outlined here. The Block development costs. Space Act agreements are of associated hardware could prove economical 2 SLS has a cislunar delivery capacity of 52 the very cornerstone of the present logistical for all the partners. In this way, barter deals done tonnes. The SpaceX Falcon Heavy is expected supplies, and soon the crew delivery missions, between ISS partners over hardware traded for to fly within the next year and this will have to the International Space Station. crew time on the station may be a highly useful a cislunar capacity of 12.9 tonnes, while the Given that NASA is very unlikely to receive method for integration. Delta IV Heavy could lift 10.5 tonnes to that any additional funding, the key enabler will be Meanwhile, the model for public-private path. When Vulcan becomes available around to relieve the government agency of support partnerships is progressing toward a single 2023, that launcher will put 14 tonnes to a for the LEO space station it is currently source contractor for the Habitation Module, cislunar flight path. managing and open a funding wedge to start after the award of NextSTEP-2 seed money to There is a real need for SLS to do the heavy-lift building deep-space support infrastructure. But Bigelow Aerospace, Boeing, Lockheed Martin, job, a fully fuelled Orion alone weighs nearly 29 how can that happen? There are several ways, Orbital ATK, Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC) tonnes, but some analysts are already claiming some of them very exciting indeed, and we will and NanoRacks. Bigelow is concentrating on that it would be possible to substitute the very examine those options next month. its inflatable and expandable habitats based on the BA-330 design, Boeing is leveraging its Commercial crew and cargo lifters will doubtless bear the brunt of LEO and, through experience gained this way, support cislunar, lunar base and trans-Mars supply chains. SpaceX ISS modules, Orbital is basing its proposal on the Cygnus logistics module, SNC is working up the cargo module from its , NanoRacks is adapting its existing modular facility into a pressurised habitat and Lockheed Martin is reworking the MPLM. The partnership programme is taking off in a range of different directions. NASA is providing SpaceX with deep-space communications, telemetry, navigation and trajectory design for the Red Dragon highly elliptical flight leading to a Mars mission which the company claims it can deliver in the mid-2020s. In return for spending $30 million on this activity, NASA will receive entry, descent and landing data in addition to science information obtained at Mars. In February this year, NASA announced its intention to seek out partnerships with private industry securing payloads on any non- government missions to Mars.

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Welders inside the liquid hydrogen tank (see text below). NASA

n the top image, welders inside a large liquid end of each weld, holes remain where the element that the Exploration Upper Stage will hydrogen tank for NASA’s Space Launch rotating pin tool enters and exits the metal. Six be attached from the second vehicle and to System at the Michoud Assembly Facility in 6.7 m-tall barrels and two domed caps were which the Advanced Rocket Boosters will be INew Orleans are plugging holes left after the joined together to create the qualification test attached for Block 2 vehicles. The decision tank was assembled. Using frictional heating article, which measures an astounding 8.38 m over whether to use liquid or solid propulsion and forging pressure, friction stir welding in diameter and over 39.6 m long. for those is pending. produces high-strength bonds virtually free of Qualificationtest articles, like the one shown Initially, the first SLS for Exploration Mission defects. here, closely replicate flight hardware and are 1 will employ two five-segment Solid Rocket The process transforms metals from a built using identical processing procedures. Boosters similar to the four-segment SRBs solid state into a “plastic-like” state and uses The liquid hydrogen tank, a liquid oxygen used for Shuttle missions but modified to a rotating pin tool to soften, stir and forge a tank, four RS-25 engines and other elements incorporate a central booster segment and bond between two metal sections to form a form SLS’s core stage, which also serves as lighter insulation saving 860 kg in weight. uniform welded joint. At the beginning and the rocket’s structural backbone. It is to this These SRBs will provide a thrust of 16,000 kN each, about 25% more than the Shuttle An RS-25 engine controller is installed prior to engine tests conducted by NASA and Aerojet SRBs, and burn for 124 seconds. Should a Rocketdyne. Four of these refurbished Shuttle engines will power each SLS core stage. NASA solid propellant design be selected for the Advanced Rocket Boosters, they will likely be a developed version of the five-segment ATK design, each with a thrust of 20,000 kN. Overall, there have been a number of technical issues which have eroded schedule margins built in to accommodate unexpected problems. A design change had to be made when engineers discovered that solid rocket propellant could detach itself from insulation on the inside of the casing and result in booster failure. There were problems too in fabricating the separate panels bolted together to form the intertank section of the core stage. Early attempts to bend some of the materials necessary for the core stage resulted in unrepairable cracks but that has now been resolved. However, there are a number of milestones which must be achieved before the core is

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ready for Exploration Mission-1 in 2019. The contractor is scheduled to complete production of the flight unit and deliver it to the Stennis Space Center in September but reserve time has already been absorbed on a learning curve with this first full-scale element. Welding on the core stage was stopped for several months due to low weld strength in the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen tanks resulting from a decision between NASA and the contractor to change the weld tool configuration during fabrication. The revised procedure resulted in several different welds with the programme managers having to verify that they conform to specification. A corrective plan to accommodate this is in progress and the welding resumed in April with only a marginal impact on the overall Quietly into the night. The barge Pegasus departs NASA’s Stennis Space Center in Bay St. Louis, schedule, which envisages the core being Mississippi, to ship parts of the Space Launch System. NASA delivered to Stennis on time. There, it will be filled with hydrogen and oxygen for the first time. It is here that seasoned engineers are Shuttle programme and initial flights will make associated human space flight cargo, overall, holding their breath, as former Shuttle workers use of the modified RS-25D but later engines the human-rated SLS configuration returns know that they were chasing leaks in the will be cheaper and carry engineered changes safety concepts to the essential design cryogenic External Tank for the entire duration which do not take account of recovery and mandate that underpinned the first three of the 135-launch Shuttle programme. During a reuse, which will not be possible with the SLS generations of US manned space vehicles: planned “green run” test, the core flight stage, rocket. The core stage will provide a sea-level that the crew are not placed below physical with RS-25 engines attached, will be fired for thrust of 7,440 kN from the four cryogenic structures that could invalidate escape 500 seconds to test a real-world engine flight engines which burn for approximately 500 systems. That “rule” was contravened in the test profile. Managers have built in 20 days of seconds. Collectively, the SLS Block 1/1B has configuration of the several Shuttle elements reserve here so as to allow mitigation of any a lift-off thrust of 39,440 kN, or about 27,440 kN and proved fatal to the seven-person crew of problems encountered at this critical phase for the Block 2 variant which is expected to fly STS-107. But the Space Launch System can prior to delivery. for the first time in 2029, ten years after the first also launch planetary and science missions The four RS-25 engines attached to the core flight of the Block 1. and there is nothing currently being developed stage have been scavenged from the Space Designed specifically to lift Orion and which can equal it in capacity.

The core stage of the Space Launch System, the only structural element which will remain consistent throughout all evolutions of the rocket. NASA

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By Christopher Gainor, FBIS

Mission Control played a vital role in coordinating activities during the HST servicing missions, resulting in an outstanding success for the continued update and improvement of telescope services. NASA

he Hubble Space Telescope is for the programme at NASA was split between between NASA and the European Space inextricably tied in to the . the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Agency, which agreed to provide an HST was deployed in orbit by the space Alabama, which supervised the building of instrument, the (FOC), Tshuttle Discovery on 25 April 1990 and five the spacecraft, and the Goddard Space Flight the telescope’s solar arrays, and a share of the shuttle flights were dedicated to servicing and Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, which has research work. In 1981, the Space Telescope repairing Hubble through the end of the Shuttle responsibility for scientific instruments and Science Institute (STScI) was established in programme in 2011. It is the success of these operational responsibility for HST. Baltimore, Maryland. While HST was originally missions that have allowed Hubble to operate The telescope became a joint project slated to be launched as early as 1983, the successfully to date for more than 27 years. Frank Cepollina assembled within NASA an effective satellite servicing programme which helped give After its deployment, HST quickly ran into the HST the performance it was designed for. Via Chris Gainor a number of difficulties, most importantly the discovery that its main mirror had been ground to an incorrect shape. NASA developed fixes for those problems in time for the first Shuttle servicing mission in December 1993, and since then Hubble and its scientists have produced a bounty of data that have revolutionised our view of the universe we live in. The first shuttle servicing mission to the Hubble Telescope is a landmark event in the history of extra-vehicular activity. Together with the four HST servicing missions that followed, it advanced the art of satellite servicing, and was a vital link in preparing for the construction and maintenance of the International Space Station.

Conception In 1977, what was then known simply as the Space Telescope officially got under way with approval from the US Congress. Responsibility

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launch slipped to 1986, and was postponed again when the space shuttle Challenger was lost on 28 January that year. At launch, HST weighed nearly 11,000 kg, and was 13.2 m long and 4.2 m in diameter. Hubble’s 2.4-m diameter main mirror was designed to direct light to a 0.3-m secondary mirror that in turn reflected light to the telescope’s five instruments and its fine guidance system, which also acts as a sixth instrument. HST was expected at launch to operate for 15 years or more. Many media reports highlighted the accuracy of the main mirror – quoting the statement of its maker that if the mirror were scaled up to the size of the Earth, its highest peak would only be 125 mm high.

Satellite Servicing The idea of servicing satellites was an part of the Shuttle programme, even before it officially got underway in 1972. As NASA Primary elements of the Hubble Space Telescope, designed for compatibility with servicing was trying in 1970 to sell the concept to the requirements. NASA administration of President Richard M Nixon as a way of accessing space in an economical Lindley, with support from Mathematica, Writing in 1975, Cepollina advocated manner, the agency assigned Robert N Lindley argued that the Shuttle would not only reduce refurbishing satellites using the Space Shuttle to deal with economic questions related the launch costs but also the costs of the payloads Remote Manipulator System, the robot arm shuttle. themselves. The latter could be achieved then under development in Canada, along Lindley had begun his career in aviation in through standardized lower cost components with equipment inside the Shuttle payload bay Britain at A V Roe, alongside famed aircraft that could be refurbished by visiting astronauts containing replacement modules for satellites, designer Roy Chadwick designing aircraft such flying on reusable shuttle orbiters [1]. and a cradle to hold satellites while they were as the Lancaster, the York and the Vulcan. After Among those at NASA who sought to being serviced. Since Goddard was NASA’s crossing the Atlantic, he worked at Canadair advance the idea of satellite servicing was major centre for building scientific satellites, and Avro Canada from 1947 to 1959, and then Frank J “Cepi” Cepollina, who led a team of Cepollina’s work on extending the lifetimes of at McDonnell Aircraft in St Louis, Miss, on engineers at Goddard Space Flight Center. A these spacecraft through shuttle servicing was Gemini, amongst other things. native of California, Cepollina had joined NASA given priority by centre management [2]. After Lindley was given the Shuttle job Goddard in 1963 and worked on the Orbiting NASA had learned in Gemini, Apollo and at NASA Headquarters, he commissioned Solar Observatory and Orbiting Astronomical Skylab that sending astronauts to do useful a number of consulting firms to study Observatory programmes. He championed low work in open space during Extra-Vehicular the economics of the shuttle, including cost with systems built into Activities (EVAs) was both difficult and Mathematica Inc., of Princeton, New Jersey. modules for easy servicing. dangerous. Following the ideas advanced

The Optical Telescope Assembly encapsulated the science instruments which could be changed out and by Cepollina and others, NASA built a few replaced over time. Lockheed Martin satellites with modular systems, including the Solar Maximum Mission, which was launched by a Delta rocket in 1980. The Solar Max spacecraft was fitted with a that would allow it to be grabbed by the shuttle robot arm. The space shuttle’s first flights took place the following year, and the first spacewalk from a shuttle took place in on the STS-6 mission in April 1983. By then, Solar Max had suffered equipment failures, and astronauts were launched on mission STS-41C in April 1984 aboard Challenger to attempt repair work on the troubled satellite. Astronauts George Nelson and James van Hoften were equipped with a Manned Maneuvering Unit to catch the satellite, but when a capture tool failed, Solar Max spun out of control. Two days later Solar Max was stabilized, grappled with the shuttle robot arm, and placed in a cradle for servicing. The

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announced that Hubble’s main mirror suffered from spherical aberration due to the mirror having been precisely ground to the wrong shape by about two microns, or one-fortieth the thickness of a human hair. This announcement was met by outrage in Congress, and Hubble quickly became the target of cartoonists and comedians [4]. NASA and STScI moved quickly to find the cause of the spherical aberration and to develop fixes to the problem. A NASA Review Board chaired by Jet Propulsion Laboratory director Lew Allen traced the defect in the mirror to a skewed testing device and the failure of managers at the mirror’s manufacturer and at NASA to notice conflicting test results due to time, budget and security pressures. Another panel set up by STScI examined a number of ideas for overcoming HST’s spherical aberration. The first shuttle servicing mission to Hubble was already on the launch manifest for 1993, and it quickly became clear that this mission would provide a good opportunity to repair HST’s problems. While changes to the optics inside each of HST’s five scientific instruments could restore clear vision to the telescope, it would not be possible to change Steven Smith works a complex set of EVA tasks during the STS-103 (SM3A) mission in December all the instruments at once. Since NASA was 1999. NASA developing a more powerful version of the next day Nelson and van Hoften successfully and other glitches that caused the telescope to Wide Field/Planetary Camera (WF/PC), NASA changed out an module in go into safe mode. decided to devise corrective mirrors for Wide Solar Max and replaced an electronics box. HST took its first image on May 20, and Field Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) and The flight’s success did not obscure the hard examination of the early HST images showed install it in WF/PC’s place in the first servicing lessons for the astronauts, their trainers and that something was wrong with the telescope’s mission. controllers at Johnson Space Center, and for optics. Finally on June 27, NASA officials The STScI panel, with help from optical Cepollina and his team at Goddard. On other The Orbital Replacement Unit Carrier for the third servicing mission containing a Fine Guidance Sensor flights, Shuttle astronauts were also employed and Advanced Computer Connector Converter Box. NASA to rescue and repair wayward communications satellites, and astronauts also tested repair and construction techniques in space walks. They often found that the work was tougher than anticipated [3]. As HST was being developed in the 1970s and 1980s, NASA decided that it would be designed for deployment and routine servicing by the Space Shuttle, and it rejected the idea of bringing HST back to Earth for servicing. The instruments flown on board the telescope and systems with limited lifetimes such as its gyroscopes were designed to be replaced by visiting astronauts from the shuttle. Hubble was finally launched on STS-31 on April 24, 1990. The next day, the shuttle’s remote manipulator system with astronaut Steven Hawley at the controls lifted HST out of Discovery’s payload bay and released it. Within days a number of problems cropped up, including a “jitter” caused by temperature changes in the solar arrays as HST passed between day and night portions of each orbit,

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expert Murk Bottema of Ball Aerospace in Boulder, Colorado and an ingenious idea from Jim Crocker of STScI, designed an instrument called COSTAR that used small mirrors to reverse the spherical aberration in three other HST instruments, including FOC, the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS) and the Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS). Hubble’s fifth instrument, the High Speed Photometer, would have to be removed to permit installation of COSTAR. The two new instruments were slated for installation on Servicing Mission 1 in 1993. In addition, astronauts on the mission would replace the jittery solar panels, along with two of the telescope’s gyroscopes.

Preparation Cepollina and his team were already preparing for the first servicing mission before HST was launched, along with specialists from the Johnson Space Center (JSC) and Lockheed. Major systems and science instrument changes during the five servicing missions. NASA Experienced astronauts were chosen for the who performed spacewalks in the mission spent for each task the astronauts performed, along Servicing Mission 1 (SM1) crew, and in an 738 hours training in water tanks, and they with the carriers for the new and the returning unprecedented step, a mission director was also trained on mechanical and virtual reality equipment from HST inside the Shuttle payload appointed to oversee the mission. simulators, and where possible with the actual bay. The tools were tested far more thoroughly The crew of STS-61 entered intensive hardware – even the only full-scale mockup of than had been the case in previous flights, and training, along with flight controllers and the STS-61 crew took full part in the testing. mission managers. While testing EVA HST, which was located at the National Air and SM1 preparations accelerated in 1991, and procedures inside a vacuum chamber set Space Museum in Washington, DC. the following year another gyro failed, along to the low temperatures expected to be “We had to get it right. We couldn’t screw with a computer unit and the power supply for encountered during HST repairs, STS-61 up Hubble,” Cepollina said [5]. Just relying on the Faint Object Camera. NASA got a further payload commander Story Musgrave suffered photos or drawings of the hardware, which had warning in a 1992 shuttle flight of the difficulties from frostbite in his fingers. The painful lesson been done in earlier missions and been found of satellite repair work when spacewalking paved the way for necessary changes to be wanting, wasn’t done this time, he added. astronauts nearly failed to capture the Intelsat made before the mission. Cepollina and his group, together with experts VI . The STS-49 Musgrave and the three other astronauts from JSC, also created the complicated tools mission was saved only thanks to a last minute The configuration of the HST within the Shuttle Orbiter, berthed at the Fixed Service Structure and plan to send three astronauts into Endeavour’s surrounded by the payload bay work stations. NASA payload bay to catch the wayward satellite. The importance of the HST servicing mission to NASA grew in 1993 as Congress came close to cancelling the Space Station programme, the Mars Observer spacecraft disappeared as it approached the Red Planet, the Galileo spacecraft was hobbled on its way to Jupiter by a stuck antenna, and the space shuttle was periodically grounded due to an annoying series of problems. The importance of the HST servicing mission to the future of NASA was reflected in several high-level reviews of the mission carried out at the order of NASA Administrator Daniel S Goldin. Shuttle missions in 1992 and 1993 were modified to include space walks with tests of repair technologies. STS-61 lifted off in the predawn darkness of December 2, 1993, and two days later Endeavour and its crew of seven reached HST, berthing it in a special device in Endeavour’s payload bay. Over the next five days, two teams of two spacewalking astronauts successfully made the planned repairs to

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successful robotic mission “remote” [6]. After O’Keefe announced in 2005 that he was leaving NASA, his successor Michael D Griffin said he was open to flying SM4 and gave it the go-ahead in October 2006. The mission was approved with safety measures including the preparation of another shuttle for launch on a rescue mission should the shuttle used on SM4 sustain a damaged heat shield as Columbia did on its final mission. SM-4 was scheduled to fly aboard the shuttle Atlantis on mission STS-125 in October 2008, but it was postponed for six months when HST’s primary science computer unexpectedly shut down. Atlantis lifted off on 11 May 2009 from Pad 39A at Kennedy Space Center, while Endeavour stood ready nearby on Pad 39B in case it was needed for a rescue mission, which it was not. The crew of STS-125 changed out WFPC2 Improvements to the solar array power output across the life of the HST through judicious upgrades in for the new Wide Field Camera 3 and the performance and resilience. NASA COSTAR, which was no longer needed because all new instruments were fitted with the Hubble Telescope in five spacewalks, an studies leading to a robotic servicing mission optics to deal with spherical aberration, with unprecedented number in Shuttle history. A for HST. the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph. few days after the STS-61 crew released HST NASA let contracts to Lockheed Martin The astronauts installed new gyros, and returned home, tests of the refurbished to build a de-orbit module to fly to Hubble batteries and a new computer, and they telescope showed that the mission had been and to MacDonald Dettwiler and Associates performed repairs on STIS and ACS using new a complete success and that Hubble would be (MDA) of Brampton, Ontario, for Dextre, tools and methods that were developed during able to meet its original promise. the Special Purpose Dexterous Manipulator preparations for that mission, since neither that the firm was building for use on the ISS, instrument had been designed for repairs in Further Missions to be repurposed for HST servicing. While orbit. Components with a large numbers of Each of the four servicing missions that the studies and the contracts related to the fasteners needed to be repaired, and the new followed had their own challenges and stories. robotic servicing mission led to some technical tools were designed to contain the fasteners Servicing Mission 2 flew on Discovery in STS- advances that caused some experts to believe after they had been removed. The final HST 82 in February 1997, and installed two powerful that such a mission was feasible, a board from servicing mission returned to Earth after a instruments, the Space Telescope Imaging the National Academies of Science urged successful but challenging mission of thirteen Spectrograph (STIS) and the Near Infrared NASA to fly the SM4 mission with astronauts days. Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer as planned, and it called the chance of a Each of the five Hubble Servicing Missions (NICMOS) in the place of the FOS and GHRS. Gigabyte data enhancements significantly improved data gathering and transmission to the ground via STS-82 also made repairs to the telescope, the TDRS satellites in geostationary orbit. NASA but failing gyroscopes led NASA to divide the next servicing mission into two flights, with one set for an earlier than planned launch. STS-103, or SM3A, launched on Discovery in December 1999, replacing the gyros and repairing other balky equipment. SM3B was launched on Columbia in March 2002, and the STS-109 crew installed the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) in place of the FOC. The crew also installed a third set of solar arrays and updated other equipment. Early in 2003, on its first flight after SM3B, Columbia was destroyed and its crew lost on re-entry at the end of a scientific research mission. In January 2004, NASA Administrator Sean O’Keefe cancelled HST Servicing Mission 4, which had been slated to fly in 2005. O’Keefe’s decision proved to be controversial with astronomers, politicians, and members of the public, and so he decided to support

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A magnificent view of the HST after the first servicing mission (SM1) in December 1993. NASA

involved new challenges for astronauts, flight Capabilities Office, where it continues to discovery in 1998 that the expansion of controllers and the people who developed the advance the art of using robots to service, fuel universe is accelerating, and scientists now tools and instruments for this activity. The work and repair spacecraft on orbit. Cepollina retired postulate that this is related to a mysterious that went into these missions not only caused from NASA in January this year. form known as dark energy. The Hubble Deep the repairs to be successful, contributing greatly Field observations of 1995 have led to a series to the success of HST, they also opened the Achievements of similar observations using not only HST but door to the successful construction, servicing HST has been associated with many also other telescopes observing in different and repair of the International Space Station discoveries that have changed how we view wavelengths, increasing our knowledge of how and future spacecraft. the universe. Thanks in large part to HST stars and galaxies formed and have evolved Many astronauts, controllers, trainers and observations, scientists now estimate that over time. managers who worked on the HST servicing the universe is roughly 13.8 billion years old, HST observations have found black holes missions went on to work on the ISS, and and the uncertainty around this figure is just at the centres of most galaxies. While planets acknowledged the lessons they learned from a few percentage points, in contrast to earlier orbiting stars other than our Sun were first Hubble. Frank Cepollina’s group in 2009 estimates. discovered using earthbound telescopes and became known as the Satellite Servicing Hubble helped confirm the surprising more recently other space telescopes, HST

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its engineers and astronauts for the challenges of assembling the station on orbit. The STS-61 Mission Director’s Post-Mission Report contained many recommendations for upcoming missions to the station as well as future HST servicing missions. Many people involved with the mission, including Mission Director Randy Brinkley and lead Flight Director Milt Heflin, went on to work in the space station programme. As shown by media praise for STS-61, the mission restored public confidence that NASA had the capability to carry off its ambitious plans for the station [8]. “I think Hubble was critically important to the International Space Station because the success of the Hubble was directly related to success of EVAs, just as the assembly of Partially obscured, Andrew Feustel positions the Wide Field/Planetary Camera III for installation in the radial instrument bay during the fourth servicing mission in May 2009. NASA the Space Station is”, Brinkley said. In an assessment of early HST servicing missions, gave us our first direct glimpses at exoplanets Most importantly, Hubble will leave behind Goddard engineer Russell L Werneth wrote and provided a great deal of information about the mass of data that will occupy scientists for that HST has taught NASA many valuable their composition. “Hubble’s greatness lies not many years to come, and stunning images that lessons about preparing for satellite and so much in the singular discoveries that it has have altered everyone’s view of our universe. station servicing missions. HST, he wrote, “has made as in confirming suggestive results from And the work that went into HST servicing become NASA’s pathfinder for observatories, other observatories,” STScI astrophysicist missions has made possible maintenance, EVA development and EVA mission execution” Mario Livio wrote. “As new details have repair and construction work today on the [9]. become visible, astrophysicists have had to ISS and tomorrow on other satellites and refine their theories about the Universe” [7]. spacecraft. Recognizing the value of historical analysis, A dozen years past its estimated 15 year The success of HST servicing missions NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in lifetime, the Hubble Space Telescope is still marked a major step forward for the concept of Greenbelt, Maryland, decided to support the operating well, and about 10,000 scientists a satellite and spacecraft servicing in orbit. The creation of a history book and archive covering year apply to use the telescope, although only missions showed the importance of thorough HST operations since its launch. The three- a small fraction of these applications can be preparation for servicing Hubble, which year contract for this work was awarded to a approved. Most of the data obtained by HST is involved far more complex work than had been group including the author and archivist John also available on the Space Telescope Science previously done in space. For the Johnson D. Ruley of Modesto, California, in association Institute’s online archive for anyone to use. Space Center, which had responsibility for the with Foresight Science & Technology, Inc. The The James Webb Space Telescope is space station programme, the missions were author is now in the midst of researching this scheduled for launch next year as the successor probably more important in terms of preparing book. to Hubble. JWST is much bigger than Hubble, References will be placed in an orbit much farther away 1. T.A. Heppenheimer, "The Space Shuttle 5. Cepollina interview. from Earth than HST, which means that it Decision: NASA’s Search for a Reusable 6. Committee on the Assessment of Options cannot be serviced. JWST will operate mainly Space Vehicle”, National Aeronautics for Extending the Life of Hubble Space in the infrared in hopes of looking farther out and Space Administration History Office, Telescope, National Research Council, than any other instrument to the early days of Washington, 1999, pp.260-264, pp.284- “Assessment of Options for Extending the 286; Oral History Interview of Robert N. Life of the Hubble Space Telescope: Final the universe. Astronomers hope that they will Lindley by Chris Gainor, September 28, Report”, The National Academies Press, get at least two years of overlapping operation 1997. Washington, DC, 2004. with HST and JWST. 2. Frank J. Cepollina and James Mansfield, 7. Mario Livio, “Hubble’s legacy: Twenty- A recent estimate has HST remaining in “In-Orbit Servicing”, Astronautics & five years after launch, the wild success orbit until 2037, at which time it could fall into Aeronautics, pp.48-56, 1975. of the space telescope argues for a new 3. Frank J. Cepollina, Oral History Interview era of bold exploration in the face of tight the Earth’s atmosphere. Astronauts in the last by Chris Gainor, May 8, 2015; Robert budgets”, Nature, 520, pp.287-289, 2015. servicing mission added a fixture to HST that Zimmerman, “Mr. Fix It: Frank Cepollina 8. Ronald L. Newman, “STS-61 Mission would allow a spacecraft to attach itself to Takes Repair Calls to New Heights”, Director’s Post-Mission Report: NASA Hubble and cause a controlled re-entry or boost http://www.airspacemag.com/space/mr- Technical Memorandum 104803”, NASA fix-it-10234989/. (Last Accessed 11 May Johnson Space Center Space Station HST into a higher parking orbit. Nothing definite 2017) Program Office, Houston, January 1995. is planned at the present time. While there is 4. Joseph N. Tatarewicz, “The Hubble Space 9. Oral History Interview of Randy H. Brinkley no plan to bring HST back to Earth to show at Telescope Servicing Mission”, Chapter by Rich Dinkel, Johnson Space Center a museum, three instruments that flew on HST 16, Pamela E. Mack, Ed., in “From Oral History Project, 25 January 1998; for several years are on display at the National Engineering Science to Big Science: The Russell L. Werneth, “Lessons Learned NACA and NASA Collier Trophy Research from Hubble Space Telescope Extra Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C., Project Winners”, NASA History Office, Vehicular Activity Servicing Missions”, 31st along with a backup mirror and HST’s full-scale Washington, DC, 1998, pp.365-396, International Conference on Environmental Structural Dynamic Test Vehicle. contains many details about SM1. Systems, Orlando, FL, July 2001.

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Satellite Digest is Spaceflight’s regular listing of world space launches. It is prepared by Geoff Richards using orbital data from Satellite Digest-534 the United States Strategic Command Space-Track.Org website.

Spacecraft International Date Launch Vehicle Mass Orbital Inclin. Period Perigee Apogee Notes Designation Site kg deg min km km Shi Jian 13 2017-018A Apr 12.46 Xichang Chang Zheng 3C 4,600 Apr 25.10 0.07 1,436.03 35,768 35,806 [1] John Glenn 2017-019A Apr 18.63 ETR Atlas V 401 7,225 Apr 22.61 51.64 92.56 400 409 [2] Soyuz MS-04 2017-020A Apr 20.30 Baykonur Soyuz-FG 7,220 Apr 20.50 51.64 92.56 400 410 [3] Tianzhou 1 2017-021A Apr 20.49 Wenchang Chang Zheng 7 12,910 Apr 22.70 42.79 92.13 380 390 [4]

Notes 1. Telecommunications and technology development satellite built using a CAST DFH-4S bus carrying a high-throughput communications payload and new systems including ion propulsion and laser communications. The satellite is located over 110.5°E, co-located with Zhongxing 10. Following completion of test programme, satellite will be used operationally by China Satcom as Zhongxing 16. 2. Cygnus freighter spacecraft named in honour of the late astronaut, ISS Mission OA-7, built by Orbital ATK and launched by ULA as part of NASA’s CRS programme for transport to ISS, with 3,459 kg of cargo including new experiments and several NRCSD Cubesat deployers. Spacecraft captured by the ISS arm April 22.42 and docked at the ISS/Unity nadir port April 22.53. Some of the NRCSD deployers are to be transferred to ISS. These contain three Cubesats forming the NASA ELaNa 17 mission, 28 Cubesats from the European Commission’s QB50 programme and four other Cubesats. The ELaNa 17 satellites are: CXBN 2 (Cosmic X-ray Background Nanosat), a scientific 3 kg 2U Cubesat built by Morehead State University with a CZT detector for cosmic background X-radiation; CSUNSat 1 (California State University Northridge Satellite), a technology development 2 kg 2U Cubesat built by CSUN and JPL carrying a low-temperature energy storage system with lithium-ion batteries and ultra-capacitors for performance test and IceCube, a technology development and Earth science 4 kg 3U Cubesat built by NASA Goddard carrying a microwave radiometer for evaluation for detecting ice in clouds and COTS systems for performance test. The QB50 satellites are part of a multinational programme of atmospheric science Cubesats, mainly 2 kg 2U configuration and from educational institutes, co-ordinated by the Von Karman Institute and each carrying one of three main scientific instruments, a temperature monitoring system and possibly other equipment. Eight satellites carry as the main instrument an INMS mass spectrometer from the UK for neutral and ion atmospheric composition. They are: SUSat (Science Unit Satellite, AU01) from the University of Adelaide; UNSW-EC0 (University of New South Wales Educational Cubesat, AU02) from the UNSW with additive manufacturing structure and other components for performance test; Ziding 1 (LilacSat, BE02) from the Harbin Institute of Technology with a transponder (supplied by CAMSAT) for amateur communications and a thermal imaging camera; Aoxiang 1 (BE04) from Northwestern Polytechnical University with COTS components for performance test; QBITO (ES01) from Madrid Polytechnic University with phase-change material components and an infra-red detector for performance test; LINK (Little Intelligent Nanosatellite of KAIST, KR01) from KAIST with two Langmuir probes for electron density; Phoenix (TW01) from National Cheng Kung University with an extreme ultraviolet detector for Solar radiation and QBUS 1 or Challenger (US01) from the University of Colorado Boulder.

Expedition 51 crewmembers share a meal inside the Unity module. From left: Flight Engineers Oleg Novitskiy, Fyodor Yurchikhin and Jack Fischer and Commander Peggy Whitson. NASA

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Peggy Whitson in the ISS Cupola, who on 24 April broke the record for the time spent in space by a US astronaut, 534 days. NASA

Eight satellites carry an mNLP Langmuir probe from Norway for electron density. They are: i-INSPIRE 2 (Integrated Spectrograph Imaging and Radiation Explorer, AU03) from the University of Sydney with a camera, a Geiger counter for radiation and a photon spectrograph; ExAlta 1 (Experimental Albertan, CA03) from the University of Alberta, a 4 kg 3 U Cubesat with a digital fluxgate magnetometer for performance test; Aalto 2 (FI01) from Aalto University, the first Finnish satellite; DUTHSat (GR01) from the Democritus University of Thrace with components for performance test; UPSat (GR02) from the University of Patras and Libre Space Foundation with a camera for Earth imaging; Duchifat 2 (IL01) from the Herzliya Science Center with components for performance test; BeEagleSat (TR01) from the Istanbul Technical University and the Turkish Air Force Academy with a semiconductor hard X-ray detector for performance test and HAVELSAT (TR02) from HAVELSAN and the Istanbul Technical University with a GAMALink software-defined radio and an image processor for performance test; The remaining twelve satellites carry a FIPEX electrolyte sensor from Germany for atomic oxygen concentration. These are: ZA-Aerosat (AZ01) from Stellenbosch University with an aerodynamic attitude control system for performance test and two cameras for stars and Earth observation; nSight 1 (AZ02) from SCS-Space with a Gecko camera for Earth imaging; NJUST 1 (BE03) from Nanjing University of Science and Technology with a GAMALink communications system for testing as part of GAMANET; SOMP 2 (Student Oxygen Measurement Project, DE02) from the Technical University of Dresden with four thin-film solar cells, an accelerometer, EMC protection film and thermoelectric generator components for performance test; X-CubeSat 1 (FR01) from École Polytechnique with a transponder for amateur communications; SpaceCube (FR05) from MINES ParisTech with a transponder for amateur communications; SNUSAT 1 and 1b (KR02 and KR03), both from Seoul National University; qbee50-LTU-OC (SE01) from Luleå Technical University and Open Cosmos; PolyITAN 2-SAU (UA01) from NTUU “KPI” (National Technical University of Ukraine) with sponsorship from Shenyang Aerospace University carrying an amateur radio transponder; QBUS 2 or Atlantis (US02) from the University of Michigan and QBUS 4 or Columbia (US04) from the University of Turabo. The other four internally carried Cubesats are: Altair Pathfinder, a technology development 6 kg 5U Cubesat built by Millennium Space Systems for NASA carrying new bus systems including an inertial platform and trackers for performance test; SHARC (Satellite for High Accuracy Radar Calibration), a calibration 8 kg 6U Cubesat built by AFRL carrying a C-band transponder for calibration of TriService ground and ship-based radars, a communications system using the Globalstar satellites, retro-reflectors for laser tracking and a GPS receiver; Biarri-Point (Biarri means to track), a technology development 4 kg 3U Cubesat built using a Boeing Colony 2 bus by Project Biarri (a government/industry consortium from Australia, USA, UK and Canada) carrying a GPS receiver and retro-reflectors for precision tracking and micro-thrusters for orbit control to test systems for a later three-satellite formation flying mission and KySat 3 or SGSat (Stellar Gyroscope Satellite), a 1 kg 1U Cubesat built by the Kentucky Space Consortium of universities and other organisations carrying a camera for Earth pictures and an image processing unit capable of measuring satellite spin from star images. The remaining NRCSD-E deployers are mounted externally on the Cygnus for use after it departs the ISS and contain four Lemur 2 dual-mission 5 kg 3U Cubesats built by each carrying an AIS receiver (SENSE) to track shipping and a GPS receiver (STRATOS) for atmospheric data from occultation of GPS signals. 3. Spacecraft with two-man crew launched to the International Space Station, mission ISS-50S. Crew comprises Fyodor Yurchikhin (Soyuz Commander, ISS flight engineer and Commander) and Jack Fischer (Soyuz and ISS flight engineer, NASA astronaut). Spacecraft docked with ISS/Poisk port on April 20.55. Crew are part of ISS Expeditions 51 and 52. 4. Test of unmanned freighter spacecraft built by CAST and launched to the Tiangong 2 module. Spacecraft docked April 22.18. Payload consisted of about 4000 kg of ballast to represent dry cargo, 2000 kg of transferable propellant, a number of microgravity experiments and a deployer for the Su Li 1-01 (Silk Road) satellite. Conducted propellant transfer to Tiangong from April 22 to 27. Su Li is a 4 kg 3U Cubesat from a consortium of institutes in Xian with a camera for Earth imaging and an image processing computer.

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Additions and Updates Designation Comments 1992-058A Navstar 27 (USA 84, SVN 27), a decommissioned satellite, was switched off 2017 Apr 18. 1996-067A Eutelsat 48A was manoeuvred off station at 48°E April 25 and is drifting to the west. It has been retired. 1997-034A Iridium 15 was moved out of the Iridium constellation and into a reserve orbit April 19. 1997-049B 7 was manoeuvred off station at 57.5°E April 3 and is drifting to the west. It has been retired. 1997-069C Iridium 40 was moved out of the Iridium constellation and into a disposal orbit April 7. Add orbit: Apr 12.82 86.39° 94.45 min 284 km 703 km 1997-061A Cassini performed its 127th fly-by of Titan at 979 km on April 22.26, using Titan gravity to lower its periapsis to about 2,600 km and leading to first of a series of periapsis passes inside the rings on April 26. 1999-006A JCSat 4A was manoeuvred off station at 82°E April 26 and is drifting to the east. 2001-046A USA 162, according to amateur trackers, was manoeuvred off station at 127°W in February and is drifting to the east. 2002-039A Echostar 8 was manoeuvred off station at 77°W April 20 and is drifting to the west. It has apparently been retired. 2003-059A AMOS 2 was manoeuvred off station at 4°W April 2 and is drifting to the west. It has apparently been retired. 2005-046A Telkom 2 was manoeuvred off station at 118°E April 22 and is drifting to the east. 2007-043A Dawn reached its new high science orbit, 8,600 to 52,000 km, period 59 days, on April 24 and observed Ceres at opposition phase on April 29. 2007-046A WGS 1 (USA 195) has manoeuvred off station at 180°E and was relocated at 24°E, according to amateur trackers. 2010-039A AEHF 1 (USA 214) has manoeuvred off station at 68°W, according to amateur trackers, and is drifting to the east. 2012-019A AEHF 2 (USA 235) was manoeuvred off station at 19°E early March, according to amateur trackers, and is drifting to the west. 2015-020D Kosmos 2504 has performed several more perigee-lowering manoeuvres and appears to have reached a disposal orbit. Add orbit: Apr 20.90 82.52° 106.46 min 627 km 1,502 km 2016-017A TGO lowered its periapsis to 113 km by April 6 for prolonged aerobraking phase to reduce apoapsis. 2016-026B Aist 2D was declared operational April 20. 2016-038A ABS 2A was declared operational January 21. It was partially leased to MongolSat Networks from April 19 as MongolSat 1. 2016-041A MUOS 5 was declared operational April 24. 2016-063A Soyuz MS-02 crewed by Ryzhikov, Borisenko and Kimbrough undocked from the ISS/Poisk port April 10.33 and landed near Zhezkazgan in Kazakhstan April 10.47. 2016-065A Shi Jian 17 was manoeuvred off station at 163°E April 25 and is drifting to the west. 2016-066B-D 2016-066D is now identified as Pina 2B, not Xiaoxiang 1. Pina 2 is actually a pair of satellites, rather larger than Cubesats, to measure atmospheric density, perform laser ranging and test systems for a new bus. A mass of 20 kg has been reported. The amateur radio satellite Xiwang 2A was Pina 1. Add objects and orbits: Xiaoxiang 1 2016-066B Nov 11.49 97.40° 94.62 min 493 km 512 km Pina 2A 2016-066C Nov 11.30 97.40° 94.62 min 491 km 513 km 2017-002A,C 2017-002A is now identified as Xingyun S1 and 2017-002C as Kaitun 1. 2017-004A SBIRS GEO 3 (USA 273) orbit previously given was incorrect, apparently a result of confusion with Kirameki 2. It is actually located in a slightly inclined over 160°W, according to amateur trackers. Add orbit: Apr 3.79 5.88° 1,436.04 min 35,670 km 35,905 km 2017-005A Kirameki 2 has been detected by amateur trackers located at 93°E. Add orbit: Apr 29.33 0.02° 1,436.04 min 35,764 km 35,810 km 2017-007A Telkom 3S was declared operational April 17. 2017-016A WGS 9 (USA 275) has been detected by amateur trackers in an elliptical geosynchronous orbit centred over 121°W. Add orbit: Apr 16.29 0.19° 1,436.04 min 27,087 km 44,488 km 2017-017A SES 10 is stationed over 68.5°W for test. Add orbit: Apr 11.63 0.07° 1,435.99 min 35,775 km 35,798 km

International Space Station activity Recently detailed orbital decays There were the following orbital manoeuvres of ISS during April, boosted by Zvezda: International Object name Decay Pre-manoeuvre orbit: Apr 2.88 51.64° 92.55 min 399 km 409 km Designation 1998-067HW STMSat Apr 21 Post-manoeuvre orbit: Apr 3.90 51.64° 92.67 min 400 km 411 km 1998-067JJ Lemur 2 Nick-Allain Apr 5 Pre-manoeuvre orbit: Apr 26.87 51.64° 92.56 min 400 km 409 km 1998-067JK Lemur 2 Kane Apr 7 Post-manoeuvre orbit: Apr 27.89 51.64° 92.58 min 401 km 410 km 2016-063A Soyuz MS-02 Apr 10.47 End-of-April orbital data: Apr 30.92 51.64° 92.57 min 401 km 409 km

The NASA/ESA Cassini spacecraft is nearing the end of its mission. This montage was created in 2004/2005 showing the complex ring system in visible light (upper) and by radar (lower). NASA

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FLASHBACK – July 1967

A regular feature looking back 50 years this month

ith the Trump administration still translates into costed support. And so it is with of 4,074.3 N for 21 seconds. Two hours later the scrambling to fill an unprecedented the way we see the 1960s, the heyday some motor was jettisoned and Explorer 35 settled into number of vacancies in top would say, of space achievements. an elliptical retrograde lunar orbit at 804 x 7,400 Wgovernment jobs, all eyes are on the NASA km with an inclination of 174º. budget for the next several years. Early 9 July 1967 Otherwise known as Anchored Interplanetary indications are that the space agency will have Considerable interest surrounded the display Monitoring Platform-E (AIMP-E), Explorer to make do with a flat-lined allocation of federal of spacecraft and rockets at the 1967 Soviet 35 was identical to Explorer 33, which had funding, as measured in same-year dollars air show held at Domodedovo Airport near launched on 1 July 1966 but remained without any accommodation for inflation (see . Russians got to see for the first time stranded in an unintended Earth orbit with page 246). some of the hardware that had been revealed apogee beyond the orbit of the Moon. The Politicians listen to the electorate because to visitors at the Paris Air Show in June, first IMP satellite (Explorer 18) had been it is they who hold the decision over who including the Vostok spacecraft. launched on 27 November 1963 to study the goes and who stays in power. With intervals space environment in cislunar space and the between US elections narrower than those 19 July 1967 “Anchored” series were to achieve the same in the UK, what the average American thinks objective from lunar orbit. The year had been relatively kind to US Moon- should be spent on space matters greatly Explorer 18 operated spasmodically until 10 bound spacecraft. Only one of the three NASA to the legislature in the Senate and in the May 1965; Explorer 33 until 21 September 1971 lunar spacecraft launched in the first six and a House of Representatives. Which is why it is and Explorer 35 was permanently abandoned half months had failed, contact with interesting to compare the abrupt downturn when a signal was sent to turn it off on 24 June having been lost on 17 July, 41 seconds after in popular support for the current space 1973. The two AIMP satellites contributed to an it fired its main solid-propellant retro-rocket on programme with opinion during the first time early understanding of the lunar environment the way down to the surface and 1.4 seconds NASA’s budget suffered a significant fall – 50 and verified the lack of a lunar magnetosphere. before the motor was expected to burn out. It years ago. Albeit marred by the Apollo fire of 27 January descended to the Sinus Medii but the exact In 1967 NASA’s budget was in sharp 1967, NASA’s record for 1967 was one of the location was never discovered, nor was it ever decline, few new programmes could get best thus far, unmanned spacecraft achieving known whether it survived and touched down funding (see 31 July below). It was in this unprecedented levels of success, performance or was the subject of a catastrophic failure. period of decline, where even expansion of and reliability. The lunar-bound missions in Two days later, early in the afternoon of 19 July, the Apollo programme into a set of permanent particular heralded a new age of cautious NASA launched the 104 kg Explorer 35 from LC- deep-space habitats around the Moon and on expectation that the days of successive failures 17B at Cape Canaveral on a Thrust-Augmented its surface floundered, that the public began were over. As history would record, indeed Delta. Propelled to a trajectory, two to express disinterest in the activities of their they were. days later and approaching the Moon it fired its space programme. Which is surprising, if only Between its formation in October 1958 and 176 kg retro-motor producing an average thrust because the 1960s is usually presented on mid-1964 NASA had launched 13 spacecraft

reflection as a time of confidence in advanced Explorer 35 began operations this month in 1967, to the Moon for various objectives with only space activity, in the beneficial value of human helping to define the lunar environment. GSFC two partial successes. However, since mid- exploration and in the broad consensus for 1964, NASA’s Moon missions had achieved a new age of adventure and technological high success rates, bringing to a satisfactory advancement. conclusion the troublesome Ranger lunar-impact It will interest many of those who did not series and seeing the start of the Surveyor live through the realities of that stringent age lander and Lunar Orbiter programmes with only to learn that only 34% of American voters one failure in seven attempts by the end of 1966. believed the space programme was worth the money it cost, which in 1967 was $4.86 billion 31 July 1967 or 0.55% of the national government budget. Ambitious plans to explore the surface of Only two years earlier, 45% of the population Mars and characterise the environment once had supported the programme at that level of thought to have supported life received a expenditure. But in 1967 there was a broad death blow when funds for the advanced call among the electorate for considerable cuts exploration of the Red Planet were slashed to the space budget and even in the light of in half, eventually forcing NASA to cancel the historic events two years later, public support Voyager programme. Envisaged as a complex was never higher than 50%. of two orbiters and landers launched by a single We often interpret history in the way , the demise of Voyager left NASA with which fits best with our prejudices, positively the dual Mariner-Mars 1969 spacecraft, at the or negatively, and advocacy hardly ever time the sole remaining NASA planetary project.

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273.indd 273 5/23/2017 2:55:27 PM society news It is rocket science!

The great balloon race - for books and prizes, concluding an outstanding success at the Royal Institution. Via Scott Hatton

ike many ideas, this one started in a Bob Bailey flying a 1.5 gram model aeroplane, cannot do yet but Hollywood insists they can pub, this particular one on Piccadilly in propelled by an elastic band, in a circuit of the – real time video from space and zooming in London’s West End and the lubricating theatre. By the end of the opening lecture, we on demand to any location on Earth to see Lpints for this particular idea were Bishops had learned why we can’t simply take off in a people working on something evil – was well Finger and Spitfire. By the end of our January plane and fly to orbit. and truly debunked. evening, Stuart Eves and I had thrashed Next up, Shaun Kenyon inspired many of Olesya Myakonkaya then talked briefly out a plan for a one-day event called “An the next generation with his talk about building about how open innovation is disrupting the Introduction To Rocket Science” (ITRS), aimed satellites – a sort of “Haynes manual” (this space industry. She introduced her Mars at an audience which the BIS largely doesn’t one is actually commissioned! – ed) of how Nation project which she has been putting reach – adults with an interest in space, they are planned, put together and launched together with the help of the Society, before primary school children, families and A Level (and sometimes fail). He explained how Stuart Eves and Chris Welch were summoned students. Luckily, by the next day and with many different kind of jobs are available in to the stage. clearer heads, the concept still seemed to be the industry – not simply rocket scientists but Chris and Stuart had twice before debated a good one and a simple email to the Royal writers, sales people, project managers and in public whether astronauts or humans were Institution in London had secured a venue. more. the future of space exploration, winning one The concept for ITRS grew around a At the first coffee break, I simply wandered round each. This time, before an audience at series of lectures to be given by expert the venue and it was amazing and inspiring the Faraday Theatre, was to be the “decider”. communicators in their field. eW would begin to hear the excited talk of primary school Chris Welch argued for astronauts as our the day with a question which is asked again children talking to each other about launchers insurance as a species against annihilation by and again: “Why can’t you simply fly an and satellites. The day was going to be a asteroid or Armageddon. Stuart concentrated aeroplane to space?” We would then proceed success! on the reduced cost of robotic missions to talk about satellites and their uses in the After the break, the session was about compared with manned. It was put to the vote morning, with planetary science, missions to putting satellites to good use with Matthew and robots won the argument by the merest of the Solar System and more in the afternoon. Stuttard of Airbus and Andrew Cawthorne small margins! Five months later, with the programme in of Surrey Satellite Technology Limited, who Lunch followed. The Royal Institution place, the doors opened to a crowd of some developed the theme roughly titled “So what allowed ITRS attendees to eat in the beautiful 200 people early on a Saturday morning, have satellites done for us?” A subject full surroundings of its first floor library. Again it eager to learn about astronauts, space and all of acronyms – EO, GEO, LEO and GPS was fun to eavesdrop on the conversations things orbital. was explained. We were told how weather about satnav, space stations and Sputnik. Taking their seats in the Royal Institution’s forecasting has improved, how we can The BIS stands, staffed by our wonderful Faraday Theatre, home of the annual BBC navigate around cities with an iPhone rather volunteers, were doing great business – we Christmas lectures, ITRS began with a bang. than a map and how pressing a button on a sold over £100 worth of books alone. Thank Nigel Bannister exploded isopropyl alcohol TV remote control brings TV pictures to our you Alan, Alexa, Alistair, Colin, Gill, Grif, Ian, with the aid of a brave volunteer and Dr living rooms from satellites more than 35,000 Rebecca and Steve for your help with ITRS! Bannister was ably assisted by model expert km above our heads. Equally, what satellites Things got underway after lunch with

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“The higher or lower quiz”, hosted by Stuart. Everyone was told to stand up and Dr Eves asked a series of questions to which the answer was either “higher” or “lower”. Each time, if you thought that the answer was “higher”, you put your hands on your head. If you thought the answer was lower, you put your hands on your bottom. Stuart then told us the answer. If you were wrong, you were out of the game, and you had to sit down. If you were right, you were still in, and you stayed standing up. It was great fun, especially when the President of the Royal Astronomical Society failed an astronomy question and had to sit down prematurely. The winner won a book. The lectures resumed with an after-lunch Abbie Hutty gives scale to the solar system, with the help of four volunteers. Via Scott Hatton theme of “Beyond Earth Orbit”. Chris Welch talked about designing better rockets and famous Drake Equation. The Universe, that had happened and missions to be. using new technology to help us explore new said Don, is unimaginably big (and empty) John Zarnecki talked about his part in the worlds. There wasn’t so much mathematics but pointed out that our galaxy still might Cassini- mission and even brought as a professor of astronautics and space have 20,000 advanced civilisations – if only along the spare “Huygens Surface Analyser” engineering at the International Space we could find them. The tour of exoplanet (not its official name). This tiny instrument University might normally give to students. But discoveries he made on the way to that measured the texture of Titan as it landed Delta V was explained for all to understand. conclusion was fascinating. on the surface of this moon of Saturn. John We were privileged to welcome Abbie We were very grateful that NASA astronaut Zarnecki explained that the two instruments Hutty from the ExoMars team. It is a common Cady Coleman could join us at ITRS. She made were swapped before launch – the one misconception that once we get to the Moon, flew across the Atlantic especially for us and he demonstrated could have been the flown Mars is a simple next step for a mission. With her talk, all about life aboard the International version, but for a twist of fate. the help of four volunteers from the audience Space Station as an astronaut, was fantastic. Nearly fifty years ago now, Neil Armstrong under ten years of age, Abbie explained Thanks Cady! and Buzz Aldrin stepped onto the Moon. Are we distances showing the Earth and an artificial During the final coffee break, Cady was on our way to Mars now or even further? Or will satellite, the Moon and Mars. If the Earth thronged by folk wanting a photo with her. robotic missions take us further to other solar and Moon were positioned to scale within We had also brought along “Flat Tim”, our systems? Chris Bridges, Lecturer in On-Board the Faraday theatre, Mars would be located life sized Tim Peake cut out to the event. So, Data Handling at the University of Surrey took at BIS headquarters at Vauxhall – three tube many had “selfies” with two astronauts by the us on this tour in his fascinating talk. stops away! end of the afternoon. And with that, we had covered launching, Next, Don Pollacco talked about the In the final session, two lectures took us orbiting and exploring to conclude a tour of chances of finding ET with the help of the on a tour of the solar system, with missions contemporary rocket science. But we decided to have one final fun talk: “We’re doomed! Or are we?” Jay Tate told us how, at any moment, Earth could be hit by an Journal of the British asteroid or comet which would wipe us out, Interplanetary Society as happened to the dinosaurs. You’ll have to JBIS watch the ITRS video to find out if we might be safe after all! Stuart organised a very silly game at the end of ITRS whereby the Faraday Theatre witnessed perhaps the first mass balloon launch in its history. The “owner” of each balloon that landed closest to a book or prize The September/October 2016 issue of the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society is that had been placed on the stage, won that now available and contains the following papers: item! As ITRS concluded, attendees picked Babies on Mars: Biomedical Considerations for the First Martian Generation up their attendance certificates – ideal for Staggered Launch Sequences for Fleets of Interstellar Worldships displaying on walls and signed by the BIS Breakthrough Propulsion II: A Mass Change Experiment President Mark Hempsell. It was a truly Russian Photoreconnaissance Satellites, 1991-2016 inspirational day – while it WAS rocket science Copies of JBIS, priced at £15 for members, £40 to non-members plus P&P. it took the BIS 84 years to run such a course. Full list of available issues – www.bis-space.com/eshop/products-page/publications/jbis/ We think that the next one might be sooner! Back issues are also available and can be obtained from The British Interplanetary Society, Scott Hatton Arthur C Clarke House, 27/29 South Lambeth Road, London, SW8 1SZ, England Content manager, ITRS

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274-276.indd 275 5/23/2017 2:55:03 PM society news Anna Smith Visits the BIS t’s not often that we meet the grandchild of The BIS Library also has many books a former Chairman of the BIS. Anna Smith, illustrated by Ralph, such as Exploration of a London primary school teacher, is the the Moon, and The Exploration of Space, Igranddaughter of Ralph Smith, Chairman of both written by Arthur C Clarke, and the Council of the BIS from 1956 to 1957. Anna more recent High Road to the Moon, by Bob contacted us wanting to find out more about Parkinson. her grandfather, whom she had never met. Seeing Ralph Smith’s artwork ‘in the flesh’ Her father, Bryan Smith, was Ralph’s first son, was rather like that special feeling when born in 1928. visiting a gallery to view a famous painting I showed Anna around the headquarters for the first time. His art is impressive in building, starting with the reception area, both its technical execution and its artistic which displays some of Ralph’s work, to the quality and represents a visual history of the Conference Room, with its displays of space future from the perspective of the 1940s and memorabilia, and on to the library. Finally, 1950s. the Council Room where the Society keeps a Anna’s grandfather was very much a space Anna Smith with her grandfather’s famous gallery of many of Ralph Smith’s most familiar painting of the BIS Lunar Spaceship. Colin Philp visionary, and it was a pleasure to be able to paintings. show her the work, being both a connection Anna and I looked through the Society’s years, but we were amazed at the range of with her own family history, and to the archive of Ralph’s space art, ranging from line work her grandfather had produced, from the pioneering early years of the BIS recognised drawings to oil paintings. I was familiar with memorable paintings of the BIS Lunar Space around the world. some of the work, published widely over the Ship, to space stations and Martian colonies. Colin Philp

Next Month Suszann Parry The Other MOL by John Charles China’s Station Plan Receives IAF Award by Phillip Clark n the 23 March, the International Unfortunately Suszann could not attend Interstellar Comm’s Astronautical Federation awarded in person due to family commitments so the by Peter Milne the former BIS Executive Secretary award was accepted on her behalf by Gill OSuszann Parry with their Distinguished Service Norman, the current Executive Secretary, Plus! Award, which is intended to reward active who read out a short statement on her behalf: Ariane 6 volunteers for their contributions to the progress “Thank you very much for this award. I am Bigelow’s Space Station of astronautics and the Federation. It was honoured to accept it. Having worked for the awarded to Suszann “for her enthusiasm, energy BIS for many years I have enjoyed working Medical risks and competence to serve IAF as volunteer with and supporting the Federation. I have Crashing the ISS and member of the Congress and Symposium made many friends and would like to especially Advisory Committee (CSAC) contributing year thank Michelle Claudin, Claude Gourdet, Annie International Moon Base after year to best choice of location for the Moulin and Philippe Willekins who helped me ...and much more! International Astronautical Congress.” organise the Brighton and Glasgow IACs.”

New BIS Members Joe Skelham, London Daniel Rice, West Midlands Alessandro Prosperi, Italy Lakshmi Milar, Surrey Rufus Atkins, Oxfordshire Rowland Lindill, Buckinghamshire Leonardo Walcher, Italy Phoebe Morton, Somerset Peter Holmes, New Zealand Piers Beckley, London Joshua Woodcock, Herts Patrick Harding, Bucks Vitaliy Milke, Cambridge

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BIS Lectures and Meetings BIS Summer Get-Together 22 July 2017, 1.30 pm - New Date & Venue Venue: The Observatory Science Centre, Herstmonceux, Hailsham, East Sussex, WMA/BIS Space Art Show: Visions of Space 2 BN27 1RN 9-24 June 2017, 10 am - 5 pm Join us at the spectacular and historic Herstmonceux Observatory Science Centre after the Society’s AGM, followed by an afternoon social and picnic. Catch up with BIS friends and bring Venue: Wells & Mendip Museum, 8 Cathedral Green, Wells, Somerset, BA5 2UE all the family for a relaxing afternoon at the Observatory. Wells & Mendip Astronomers, in association with BIS Southwest, present ‘Visions of Space 2’ – The focus of the afternoon will be the social, with a series of interesting short talks. There An Exhibition of Astronomical and Space Art by British IAAA artists, including David A. Hardy will be fun activities for all the family, and a raffle of tempting space-related prizes. If you FBIS, Fellow and European Vice-President of the IAAA, former BIS President Bob Parkinson feel like donating any space-related prizes, perhaps an unwanted book or a piece of space MBE, Jackie Burns, Richard Bizley, Gavin Mundy, Mark A. Garlick and Nick Stevens, as well as memorabilia, please let us know. works by well-known US artists. Tickets are available at £15 each, with under 16s free. The ticket price includes access to the The exhibition will also feature a history of space exploration illustrated by models by BIS Observatory and a guided tour. Bring all your own food and drink, a picnic rug and chairs. Fellow Mat Irvine, BBC special effects wizard, designer, producer and director. Please advise us if you will be attending the AGM only, for which there is no charge. Exhibition Preview: by booking only from 7:30pm on Friday 9th June 2017, including a Tickets for the Get-Together are on a first come, first served basis, so visit www.bis-space.com/ lecture, ‘Faces of the Moon’ by David A. Hardy, on how the Moon has been seen and portrayed herstmonceux to book. over the years, as well as a live Skype-up with artists at the IAAA art show at Spacefest 8 in Tucson, Arizona. Tickets for the preview and lecture are £7 and are available from www. wellsastronomers.org.uk . Skylark - Britain’s First Space Rocket Matt Irvine will be demonstrating his craft all day on Saturday 10th June (free entry) and will 5 October 2017, 7.30 pm give a talk on his work with Sir Patrick Moore for the ‘Sky at Night’ at 14:00 that day. Entrance to the talk is £2 for BIS members, £3 for non-members, £5 for families. Bookings for the talk Venue: Bath Royal Literary and Scientific Institution, 16 Queens Square, Bath, BA1 also through www.wellsastronomers.org.uk. 2HN A joint event by the William Herschel Society and the BIS South West Branch The BIS NLV Feasibility Study In 1957 ‘Skylark’ was Britain’s first rocket to reach space, and became the basis of the country’s 14 June 2017, 7 - 8.30 pm first space programme and the birth of British space science and technology. Over the next 48 years, hundreds were fired from Australia and around the world, launching into space Speaker: Robin Brand thousands of scientific instruments that made pioneering observations of the Earth, Sun, stars and galaxies. This activity produced some of the earliest UV and X-ray astronomical images This talk will provide an overview and update of the ‘BIS Nanosat Launch Vehicle (NLV) obtained, a little-known result this talk will emphasise. feasibility study’. Call for Papers This two-year BIS Technical Project was started in March 2016, its original aim “to determine how cheaply access to space could be for small space satellites.” Since then it has become UN Space Treaty Symposium more UK oriented, and the title of the interim report issued in February is “Direct UK access to space? – The BIS Nanosat Launch Vehicle feasibility study”, which reflects this change in 10 October 2017 emphasis. The British Interplanetary Society is holding a one day symposium to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the UN Space Treaty which has been the foundation of for half a At present the UK space scene is changing rapidly, with recent welcome UK Space Agency and century. The Society invites proposed papers as contributions to this symposium on two government initiatives aimed at promoting British and access to space. Following themes: Theme 1 - The history of the UN Space Treaty and its contribution to the exploration Robin Brand’s article “Space access from UK by 2020” in June’s Spaceflight magazine, the talk and exploitation of space. Theme 2 - The future of the UN Space Treaty and how it may need will also highlight these latest developments, and discuss how they affect the study. to change to reflect the changes in space activity such as the growth in non-government activity. Visit to Spadeadam Speakers are asked to send details of their papers via the BIS, un_space_treaty_symposium@ 27 June 2017 bis-space.com, to Mark Hempsell and Jerry Stone, coordinators of the symposium. This event is now fully booked. Please call the office on 0207 735 3160 to be added to the waiting list in case of cancellations. Lectures 72nd Annual General Meeting Venue: BIS HQ, 27/29 South Lambeth Road, London, SW8 1SZ, unless otherwise stated. Members can attend free of charge. Places must be booked in advance, online or by post. 22 July 2017, 1 pm - New Date & Venue Each member may also obtain a free ticket for one guest subject to availability of space. Venue: The Observatory Science Centre, Herstmonceux, Hailsham, East Sussex, Non-Members are able to attend the Society’s lectures for a fee. You can order a ticket BN27 1RN online or by post (please make cheques payable to the British Interplanetary Society). If oversubscribed Society Members will be given priority. The 72nd Annual General Meeting of the Society will be held on Saturday 22 July 2017 at 1 pm. If applying via our website the confirmation receipt is your entry ticket. Admission to the AGM is open to Fellows only but all Members are welcome to join the If, for reasons outside its control, the Society is required to change the date or topic of a discussion after the formalities of the AGM around 1.10 pm. Please advise in advance if you meeting, every effort will be made to avoid inconvenience to attendees either by notice of wish to attend. change in Spaceflight/JBIS, on our website or by special advice to each participant.

Readers are reminded that these Notices contain only a reduced description of the event. Full details can be found online: www.bis-space.com/whats-on

278 Spaceflight Vol 59 June 2017

278.indd 278 5/23/2017 2:54:21 PM The British Interplanetary Society From Imagination to Reality Join online by going to www.bis-space.com/join or fill in this form Why not take a digital subscription where a PDF version of your chosen publication(s) is delivered to your inbox each month? Go to www.bis-space.com/digital

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The British Interplanetary Society

JOIN NOW FOR 2017! Your BIS membership includes: • Monthly issues of Spaceflight, the world’s leading space magazine, or JBIS, the global leader in peer-reviewed astronautical papers and our seminal history journal Space Chronicle is available for a supplementary fee • Access to a members-only website page with frequent new material including videos, lectures and reports • Membership of a worldwide network of like-minded people, uniting space industry professionals, enthusiasts and students • The opportunity to meet leading figures in space science, technology and exploration, including astronauts, with free entry to exciting evening talks (also available to members online) • Reduced rates to BIS workshops and social events meeting astronauts, scientists, engineers and opinion shapers at regular meetings • Access to the BIS library, one of the world’s most comprehensive astronautical collections including books, technical reports, journals and a full backlog of all the BIS’ publications • Odyssey, the BIS members’ e-magazine featuring interviews and articles, Society news and events with special articles covering sci-fi, art and a range of subjects linked to space and astronautics. Six issues per year. See p279 for an application form, visit our website or write for an application form to: British Interplanetary Society, Arthur C. Clarke House 27/29 South Lambeth Road, London, SW8 1SZ, UK Join online: www.bis-space.com/join

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