Cours De Sédimentologie

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Cours De Sédimentologie La classification des roches sédimentaires F. LES ROCHES ORGANIQUES (charbon, huile et pétrole) La matière organique qui compose l’essentiel des organismes vivants se décompose en présence d’oxygène et donne du dioxyde de carbone et de l’eau selon la réaction suivante: C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6 H2O Il s’agit de la réaction inverse de la photosynthèse qui associe le dioxyde de carbone et l’eau en utilisant la lumière solaire comme énergie et la chlorophylle comme catalyseur pour fabriquer des hydrates de carbone. Les bactéries et les microbes participent à la décomposition de la matière organique et ce dans tous les environnements à l’exception des environnements anoxiques où les conditions anaérobies sont actives très tôt. Comme la plupart des environnements sont oxydants, beaucoup de roches ne contiennent que très peu de matière organique (0,05% dans les grès, 0,3% dans les carbonates et 2% dans les mudstones). Les dépôts organiques modernes Trois types sont connus actuellement, l’humus, la tourbe et les sapropèles. L’humus se forme dans la partie supérieure des sols (voir partie concernant les sols). La décomposition affecte la matière organique et produit des acides humiques qui sont capables de lessiver les roches et les argiles. Il ne forme pas un dépôt organique car il est complètement oxydé avec le temps. La tourbe est une accumulation massive de débris de plantes dans des zones de marais. Les conditions anaérobiques préservent de manière extraordinaire la matière organique. La tourbe se forme à toutes les latitudes mais le climat froid ralentit encore l’activité des bactéries comme en témoigne les tourbes du Canada et du Nord de l’Europe développées au cours de l’Holocène. La classification des roches sédimentaires Les sapropèles correspondent à du matériel organique accumulé dans les bassins peu à très profond, dans les lagons et les lacs. La matière organique dérive du phytoplancton et il faut une circulation restreinte des eaux, une stagnation et une stratification des corps d’eaux pour obtenir des conditions anaérobies. Les dépôts organiques anciens On les classe en deux groupes principaux: les charbons humiques formés par l’accumulation de sédiments organiques de végétaux et de plantes in situ et les charbons sapropéliques constitués d’algues, de spores et de débris de plantes transportés ou déposés. Les charbons humiques forment une série naturelle depuis la tourbe jusqu’à l’anthracite en passant par la lignite et les charbons bitumineux. La houillification [coalification or carbonification] réfère à tous les processus nécessaires pour convertir de la tourbe en charbon au cours de la diagenèse et de l’enfouissement. On utilise la catégorie de charbon (ou le rang) pour mesurer le degré de houillification. Par changement progressif du rang, la teneur en carbone augmente et la teneur en volatils diminue. Les charbons contiennent des gaz volatils comme l’hydrogène, le dioxyde de carbone, l’azote et le méthane principalement mais également de l’eau qui disparaît dès que le charbon est chauffé en l’absence d’air. Les charbons qui contiennent beaucoup de volatils produisent de la fumée pendant qu’ils brûlent par opposition à ceux dont la teneur en volatils est plus faible (rang plus avancé) qui produisent de belles flammes. Le résidu carbonisé issu de la combustion du charbon s’appelle le coke. La classification des roches sédimentaires En surface d’une tourbière, la tourbe est brun claire et devient noire en profondeur, plus compacte et stratifiée. Plus compacte et plus homogène de couleur brune à noire 1 km soit des T° de 30-50°C Plus de traces de végétaux visibles à l’œil nu 5 km soit des T° de 100-200°C anchizone métamorphisme La classification des roches sédimentaires Les stades initiaux de la houillification: tourbe et lignite Les composés organiques des végétaux qui sont soumis à la décomposition en présence d’oxygène sont : la lignite, la cellulose et les tanins. •La lignite (composé fortement polymérisé à noyaux aromatiques) constitue la charpente et les tissus vasculaires des végétaux supérieurs. Sa résistance chimique est élevée et elle n’est pas attaquée par les bactéries. Elle est cependant attaquée par des champignons (jusqu’à ½ m de profondeur dans les tourbes) qui permettent sa transformation ultérieure par des bactéries aérobies en acides humiques. Cette transformation se poursuit de manière plus lente et provoque la disparition partielle de la lignite au cours du processus de houillification. •La cellulose qui forme le composant de la majeure partie des parois cellulaires est détruite par les bactéries et donne soit des gaz (CO2, CH4 et H2) en milieu oxique soit des acides humiques en milieu anoxique. Si le milieu est très acide, l’activité bactérienne est limitée et une partie de la cellulose est préservée (marais à Sphagnum). •Les tanins qui imprègnent certains tissus végétaux comme les écorces et les racines sont particulièrement résistants auxquels on ajoute les chlorophylles, les huiles, les cires cuticulaires et les résines. Deux phases successives de dégradation se produisent: l’humification et la gélification. L’humification correspond à la transformation des composés organiques en acides humiques. Elle se développe au stade des tourbes et est quasi terminée au stade des lignites tendres. Elle conduit à une concentration en carbone de 50-60% et une perte d’eau de 70-90% (par compaction essentiellement). Selon les conditions du milieu (Eh, pH, oxygénation), on distingue la tourbification et la putréfaction. La classification des roches sédimentaires •La tourbification qui se produit en milieu oxique dans les 50 premiers cm de l’accumulation de matière organique (en milieu sec ou aqueux), permet la destruction de la cellulose et la transformation de la lignine en acides humiques. •La putréfaction qui s’opère en conditions anaérobies (eaux stagnantes) induit la préservation de la lignine alors que la cellulose produit des acides humiques. Ce sont ces deux processus qui induisent les variations de composition des vitrinites qui sont soit plus ligneuses soit plus cellulosiques. La gélification constitue une seconde phase de dégradation au cours de laquelle les matières humiques prennent une forme colloïdale d’abord pendant une phase de gélification biochimique (contrôlée par le milieu de dépôt au stade tourbe/lignite tendre) ensuite par une phase de gélification géochimique (au passage entre les lignites mat/brillant). Cette dernière transformation nécessite une évolution thermique et correspond à la vitrinisation. La houillification sensu stricto: les charbons (houilles et anthracites) Les charbons se composent d’une fraction organique (les macéraux) et d’une fraction inorganique (les cendres). - Les macéraux sont répartis en trois grands groupes à partir des propriétés optiques (pouvoir réflecteur) en: • exinite (ou liptinite) formée à partir des spores, pollens, résines et cuticules (peu réfléchissante) • vitrinite composée essentiellement de bois (pouvoir réflecteur moyen), • inertinite, résidu oxydé de débris de plantes est le plus réfléchissant. La classification des roches sédimentaires La classification des roches sédimentaires Les charbons sont classés en six lithotypes en fonction de leur aspect macroscopique. On distingue les charbons humiques (lithotypes Vitrain, Clarain, Fusain et Durain) qui proviennent de débris de plantes macroscopiques >< aux charbons sapropéliques (lithotypes Cannel coals – spores et pollens, Bogheads – algues). La majorité des charbons exploitables sont de type humiques et proviennent de la transformation de la tourbe. La présence de charbons sapropéliques au sommet de ces séquences indique la disparition de la tourbière par ennoiement graduel. - La teneur en cendres comprend: (1) des minéraux détritiques (d’origine éolienne essentiellement) avec parfois des niveaux détritiques liés à des inondations fluviatiles des marécages en période de crue. Les tonsteins représentent des niveaux de cendres volcaniques préservés dans ces milieux. (2) des minéraux dérivés des végétaux comme l’opale des graminées amenées par voie éolienne mais leur pourcentage est difficile à estimer. (3) les minéraux authigènes se développent précocement dans la tourbe au cours de l’accumulation de matériel végétal et poursuivent leur croissance au cours de la houillification. La houillification ou carbonification Ce processus correspond à un enrichissement en carbone et à l’élimination des éléments volatils (gaz + eau) depuis la tourbe jusqu’au graphite. On observe également une augmentation du pouvoir de réflectance de la vitrinite. Le passage lignite/houille correspond à la formation de la micrinite. Elle correspond au stade de la genèse des hydrocarbures (fenêtre à huile des pétroles) ou zone de bituminisation pour les charbons. La majorité des gisements de charbons sont interprétés comme des systèmes deltaïques. On distingue au Carbonifère, les gisements paraliques (Westphalien) où l’accumulation se fait dans les deltas et les lagunes >< au gisement limniques (Stéphanien) où l’accumulation se fait dans des lacs. La classification des roches sédimentaires Les pétroles La composition des pétroles est un mélange complexe de solides (bitumes), de liquides (huiles) et de gaz. Les pétroles bruts contiennent 85% de carbone et 13% d’hydrogène + des éléments mineurs (< 3%) dont S, N, O, V, P. Les pétroles bruts contiennent une variété de produits dont des hydrocarbures saturés (alcanes et naphtènes), des hydrocarbures non saturés ou aromatiques et des bitumes (asphaltes). Le gaz naturel peut
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