DOCSLIB.ORG

The Uk Military in Iraq: Efforts

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Uk Military in Iraq: Efforts THE UK MILITARY IN IRAQ: EFFORTS AND PROSPECT FOR ACCOUNTABILITY FOR INTERNATIONAL CRIMES ALLEGATIONS? A Discussion Paper 1 October 2018 Dr Carla Ferstman, Dr Thomas Obel Hansen and Dr Noora Arajärvi 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS i. Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................................... 4 I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 5 II. THE CONTEXT ....................................................................................................................................... 11 II.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 11 II.2 LEGAL PROCESSES IN THE UK ..................................................................................................... 12 a) Criminal investigations and trials in the UK ...................................................................................... 12 b) The Iraq Fatality Investigations (IFI) ................................................................................................. 17 c) Public inquiries and judicial reviews .................................................................................................. 18 II.3 The International Criminal Court’s preliminary examination .............................................................. 19 a) Overview of the ICC process .............................................................................................................. 19 b) Focus of the preliminary examination ................................................................................................ 20 c) Evaluation of information providers ................................................................................................... 20 d) Engagement with the UK Government .............................................................................................. 21 e) Assurances concerning persons testifying before the IFI ................................................................... 22 f) Current issues relating to the assessment of complementarity ............................................................ 23 g) Standards for the ICC Prosecutor’s assessment of complementarity in phase 3 of the preliminary examination ............................................................................................................................................. 24 II.4 UK Government response to the ICC and broader approach to accountability .................................... 25 III. KEY AREAS FOR ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................. 26 III.1 THE NEED FOR EFFECTIVE INVESTIGATIONS ......................................................................... 26 a) Independence and impartiality ............................................................................................................ 26 b) Robust investigations .......................................................................................................................... 29 c) Prompt investigations ......................................................................................................................... 34 d) Transparent investigations .................................................................................................................. 36 e) Victims’ rights in the investigation ..................................................................................................... 39 f) Defendants’ rights ............................................................................................................................... 41 III.2 ACCOUNTABILITY FOR SYSTEMIC ISSUES .............................................................................. 42 IV. FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................................................................... 48 ANNEX 1: TIMELINE OF ACCOUNTABILITY FOR ALLEGED CRIMES IN IRAQ ..................... 51 ANNEX 2: A SUMMARY OF APPLICABLE LEGAL FRAMEWORKS ............................................. 54 1. UK DOMESTIC LAW ........................................................................................................................... 54 a) UK military law .................................................................................................................................. 54 b) 2005 Inquiry Act................................................................................................................................. 57 2. INTERNATIONAL LAW INCORPORATED INTO UK LAW ........................................................... 57 a) International humanitarian law ........................................................................................................... 58 b) International human rights law ........................................................................................................... 59 c) International criminal law ................................................................................................................... 59 2 3 i. Acknowledgments A range of individuals, organisations and institutions have provided us with information, assistance and support in carrying out this research which we would like to acknowledge and thank. Firstly, we are grateful to our own institutions – the University of Essex School of Law and Human Rights Centre and the Transitional Justice Institute at Ulster University for hosting our research and providing the necessary institutional and administrative support. We are very thankful for the support of the University of Essex’s ESRC Impact Acceleration Account as well as faculty members of the University of Essex School of Law, who provided preliminary input on the research concept and planned methodology. This discussion paper and our wider research agenda has also benefited significantly from a workshop on accountability organised by Middlesex University School of Law in June 2017 as well as the Society of Legal Scholars Annual Seminar 2018: ‘The Legal Legacies of the 2003 Iraq War’, organised by SOAS University of London and the School of Law at the University of Sheffield. The bulk of the data upon which our research and analysis is based is open-source. This has been supplemented with select informal consultations with officials, lawyers, advisors in specialist organisations and others, as well as with formal information requests to government departments and others. We are thankful to all the individuals and organisations that supplied us with primary data, provided us with explanations to clarify certain data in our possession or provided context to missing or unavailable data. Due to the sensitivity of the subject matter, many persons with whom we have been in contact have provided analysis or background information on a personal, informal or confidential basis. We are very grateful for those inputs which have enriched significantly our findings. We are convinced that open and frank dialogue and exchange of views is essential to research, particularly on questions affecting public policy. Unfortunately, however, only a small proportion of relevant United Kingdom (UK) Government agencies with whom we have sought to be in contact have agreed to supply information or respond to requests for clarification. Official requests for information under the Freedom of Information Act have not yet led to substantive responses. We are concerned by the impact this may have on transparency and the public’s right to information. Despite these challenges, we have sought to explain and take into account governmental and other perspectives that have featured in public statements and reports. We are grateful to those agencies and institutions which agreed to answer certain questions in writing or meet with our research team to provide clarification, in particular the offices of the Iraq Fatality Investigations. This research is a collaboration between Dr Carla Ferstman at the University of Essex School of Law and Dr Thomas Obel Hansen at the Transitional Justice Institute at Ulster University. They are joined in the research by Dr Noora Arajärvi who serves as the Project’s research officer. While we are grateful for all the inputs and comments we have received as set out above, all errors and omissions are ours alone. In addition, the research was written in our personal academic capacities and does not necessarily reflect the views of the academic institutions with whom we are affiliated. 4 I. INTRODUCTION The focus of our research This research has been carried out in order to contribute to public debate about the adequacy of the official response relating to allegations of serious abuses perpetrated by the UK military during the Iraq war and occupation, also taking into account the ongoing International Criminal Court (ICC) preliminary examination concerning these allegations. The research has focused on reviewing and assessing the steps taken domestically to promote (or obstruct) accountability and developing recommendations regarding any accountability deficits concerning alleged abuses perpetrated by the UK military in Iraq. In our research we have considered the decision-making processes and rationales given for keeping open or closing domestic criminal investigations and not pursuing prosecutions, as well
Load more

Recommended publications
  • A New Age a Baby Born in the UK Tomorrow Can Expect to Live Five Hours Longer Than One Born Today
    Issue 22 2010–11 A new age A baby born in the UK tomorrow can expect to live five hours longer than one born today. Why is that a problem? Inside: The naked truth with zoologist and artist Dr Desmond Morris. See pages 20–23 2 The Birmingham Magazine The fi rst word A question I’m often asked as Vice-Chancellor is what is the University’s vision for the future? Inevitably now, I expect that will be accompanied by inquiries as to what the recent announcements about UK higher education funding will mean for Birmingham. I believe the recommendations from the Browne The combination of deep public funding cuts When alumni ask me to outline the future of Review of Higher Education Funding and and the changes recommended by Lord Birmingham, I usually give the following answer. Student Support outline a fair and progressive Browne’s Independent Review herald a period system for prospective students. If adopted, it of unprecedented fi nancial turbulence for the Over the next fi ve years we will build on and would be graduates, not students, who contribute sector. At Birmingham we have anticipated diversify from our existing areas of excellence to the cost of their higher education, and only these changes, prepared, and made fi nancial to become an institution of international when they are in work and can afford it. A provision. Our new strategy sets out an preeminence. We will produce exceptional generous support package will be available for ambitious vision for our future, including our graduates and impactful research which makes students with the talent to take up a university plans to achieve continuing fi nancial strength.
    [Show full text]
  • Socialist Lawyer 43 (823KB)
    LawyerI G SocialistMagazine of the Haldane Society of Socialist Lawyers Number 43 March 2006 £2.50 Guantánamo: Close it down Clive Stafford-Smith Haldane’s Plus: HELENA MICHAEL FINUCANE: Plus: PHIL SHINER, 75th KENNEDY ON ‘WHY NO PUBLIC CONOR GEARTY, birthday ‘THE RIGHTS INQUIRY OF MY ISRAELI WALL, see back page OF WOMEN’ FATHER’S MURDER?’ SECTION 9 & more HaldaneSocietyof SocialistLawyers PO Box 57055, London EC1P 1AF Contents Website: www.haldane.org Number 43 March 2006 ISBN 09 54 3635 The Haldane Society was founded in 1930. It provides a forum for the discussion and Guantánamo ...................................................................................................... 4 analysis of law and the legal system, both Clive Stafford Smith calls for the release of the eight Britons still held by the US nationally and internationally, from a socialist perspective. It holds frequent public meetings News & comment ................................................................................ 6 and conducts educational programmes. US lawyer Lynne Stewart; Abu Hamza and Nick Griffin; Colombian lawyers; and more The Haldane Society is independent of any political party. Membership comprises Young Legal Aid Lawyers ............................................ 11 lawyers, academics, students and legal Laura Janes explodes the myth of youth apathy workers as well as trade union and labour movement affiliates. Human rights and the war on terror .. 12 President: Michael Mansfield QC Professor Conor Gearty discusses the Human Rights Act
    [Show full text]
  • Socialist Lawyer 72
    SL72_cover_pages.qxp_FINAL 14/02/2016 14:40 Page 1 SocialistLawyer Magazine of the HaldaneSociety of Socialist Lawyers Number 72 February2016£3 Women fightingback: international and legal perspectives ‘Radical, working class, anti-racist, anti-colonial feminism’ Angela Davis SL72_pp2-3_contents&editorial.qxp_print 14/02/2016 14:09 Page 2 Haldane Society of Socialist Lawyers PO Box 64195, London WC1A 9FD www.haldane.org The Haldane Society was founded in 1930. It provides a forum for the discussion and analysis of law and the legal reportdigital.co.uk / Hurd Jess Picture: system, both nationally and internationally, from a socialist perspective. It holds frequent public meetings and conducts educational programmes.The Haldane Society is independent of any political party. Membership comprises lawyers, academics, students and legal workers as well as trade union and labour movement affiliates. President: Michael Mansfield QC Vice Presidents: Geoffrey Bindman QC, Louise Christian, Liz Davies, Tess Gill, Tony Gifford QC, John Hendy QC, Helena “A hushed reverence met Professor Kennedy QC, Imran Khan, Catrin Lewis, Angela Davis, who – for many – is almost a figure of revolutionary Gareth Peirce, Michael Seifert, David Turner- mythology.” See pages 16-21. Samuels, Estella Schmidt, Phil Shiner, Jeremy Smith, Frances Webber & David Watkinson The current executive, elected at the AGM in December 2015 is as follows: Chair: Russell Fraser ([email protected]) Vice-Chairs: Natalie Csengeri & Michael Goold Secretary: Stephen Knight Number 72, February
    [Show full text]
  • To: Prosecutor Fatou Bensouda Cc: Emeric Rogier, Head of Situation
    _ EUROPEAN CENTER FOR CONSTITUTIONAL AND HUMAN RIGHTS e.V. _ To: ZOSSENER STR. 55-58 Prosecutor Fatou Bensouda AUFGANG D 10961 BERLIN, GERMANY _ Cc: PHONE +49.(030).40 04 85 90 FAX +49.(030).40 04 85 92 Emeric Rogier, Head of Situation Analysis MAIL [email protected] WEB WWW.ECCHR.EU and Information and Evidence Unit, Office of the Prosecutor Berlin, 01/09/2017 PUBLIC DOCUMENT Re: Situation Iraq/United Kingdom - Status of preliminary examination Dear Prosecutor Bensouda, On 10 January 2014 ECCHR, together with Public Interest Lawyers, submitted an Article 15 communication on the responsibility of UK officials for war crimes involving systematic detainee abuse in Iraq from 2003-2008 (hereinafter the 2014 Communication).1 On 13 May 2014 your Office announced its decision to re-open the preliminary examination of the situation in Iraq. In the annual reports on preliminary examinations your Office reported on its activities undertaken and stated that it was “concluding its comprehensive factual and legal assessment of information available in order to establish whether there is a reasonable basis to believe that alleged crimes committed by United Kingdom nationals in the context of the 1 Communication to the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, The Responsibility of Officials of the United Kingdom for War Crimes Involving Systematic Detainee Abuse in Iraq from 2003- 2008, submitted on 10 January 2014 by the European Center for Constitutional and Human Rights (ECCHR) and Public Interest Lawyers (PIL) [hereinafter ‘the 2014 Communication’], available at https://www.ecchr.eu/en/our_work/international-crimes-and-accountability/united- kingdom.html?file=tl_files/Dokumente/Universelle%20Justiz/UKICC-Communication-2014-01- 10_public.pdf.
    [Show full text]
  • Whatremains Photos from the Last Days of the War in Gaza in 2014, by Eduardo Soteras Jalil SL69 Pp2-3 Contents&Editorial Print 16/02/2015 08:08 Page 2
    SL69_cover_pages_print 16/02/2015 08:08 Page 1 SocialistLawyer Magazine of the HaldaneSociety of Socialist Lawyers I Number 69 G February 2015 £3 Whatremains Photos from the last days of the war in Gaza in 2014, by Eduardo Soteras Jalil SL69_pp2-3_contents&editorial_print 16/02/2015 08:08 Page 2 Haldane Society of Socialist Lawyers PO Box 64195, London WC1A 9FD www.haldane.org The Haldane Society was founded in 1930. It provides a forum for the discussion and analysis of law and the legal system, both nationally and internationally, from a socialist perspective. It holds frequent public meetings and conducts educational programmes.The Haldane Society is independent of any political party. Membership comprises lawyers, academics, students and legal workers as well as trade union and labour movement affiliates. President: Michael Mansfield QC Vice Presidents: Geoffrey Bindman QC, Louise Christian, Liz Davies, Tess Gill, What remains is a photo essay about the consequences Tony Gifford QC, John Hendy QC, Helena Kennedy QC, Imran Khan, Catrin Lewis, 28 of the last attack on the Gaza Strip in 2014. These images Gareth Peirce, Michael Seifert, David Turner- were taken by freelance documentary photographer Samuels, Estella Schmidt, Phil Shiner, Eduardo Soteras Jalil during the last days of the war and Jeremy Smith, Frances Webber & David the first week of the ceasefire. Watkinson The current executive, elected at the AGM on 19th November 2014 is as follows: Chair: Russell Fraser ([email protected]) Vice-Chairs: Michael Goold & Hannah Rought-Brooks
    [Show full text]
  • The Fog of Law an Introduction to the Legal Erosion of British Fighting Power
    The Fog of Law An introduction to the legal erosion of British fighting power Thomas Tugendhat and Laura Croft Foreword by the Rt Hon Lord Justice Moses Policy Exchange is the UK’s leading think tank. We are an educational charity whose mission is to develop and promote new policy ideas that will deliver better public services, a stronger society and a more dynamic economy. Registered charity no: 1096300. Policy Exchange is committed to an evidence-based approach to policy development. We work in partnership with academics and other experts and commission major studies involving thorough empirical research of alternative policy outcomes. We believe that the policy experience of other countries offers important lessons for government in the UK. We also believe that government has much to learn from business and the voluntary sector. Trustees Daniel Finkelstein (Chairman of the Board), Richard Ehrman (Deputy Chair), Theodore Agnew, Richard Briance, Simon Brocklebank-Fowler, Robin Edwards, Virginia Fraser, Edward Heathcoat Amory, David Meller, George Robinson, Robert Rosenkranz, Andrew Sells, Charles Stewart-Smith, Patience Wheatcroft and Simon Wolfson. © Policy Exchange 2013 Published by Policy Exchange, Clutha House, 10 Storey’s Gate, London SW1P 3AY www.policyexchange.org.uk ISBN: 978-1-907689-60-4 Printed by Heron, Dawson and Sawyer Designed by Soapbox, www.soapbox.co.uk 2 | policyexchange.org.uk About the Authors Thomas Tugendhat is a strategy consultant and a Territorial Army Lieutenant Colonel. His most recent period of active service was as Military Assistant to the Chief of the Defence Staff, General Sir David Richards. Previously, he served operationally in Afghanistan and Iraq.
    [Show full text]
  • Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)
    Wednesday Volume 589 17 December 2014 No. 82 HOUSE OF COMMONS OFFICIAL REPORT PARLIAMENTARY DEBATES (HANSARD) Wednesday 17 December 2014 £5·00 © Parliamentary Copyright House of Commons 2014 This publication may be reproduced under the terms of the Open Parliament licence, which is published at www.parliament.uk/site-information/copyright/. 1385 17 DECEMBER 2014 1386 Justine Greening: The right hon. Gentleman is right House of Commons to say that we need to learn some lessons from how the WHO and the international community has responded Wednesday 17 December 2014 to the crisis. Speed was of the essence, so I think there are lots of lessons to be learned. I had a chance to meet some of the amazing UK personnel working on our The House met at half-past Eleven o’clock behalf, including some fantastic NHS health workers who are out there providing front-line care. PRAYERS Keith Vaz (Leicester East) (Lab): May I commend the Government for what they have done so far? How much [MR SPEAKER in the Chair] of the money spent was directed towards projects to do with health awareness as opposed to dealing with the after-effects of Ebola? Oral Answers to Questions Justine Greening: We have a several million pound programme that is focused particularly on so-called social mobilisation. It is about training community workers to go out into communities and talk to people INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT about how they can take practical steps themselves to reduce the risk of catching Ebola. Of course, the work The Secretary of State was asked— we are doing in putting in place safe burial teams, which are now burying 100% of bodies safely in the main Ebola western area zone and 95% across the country, is one of the key ways in which we can stop the infection from 1.
    [Show full text]
  • How to Get a Career in Human Rights 2 June 2014 in Association With
    How to Get a Career in Human Rights 2 June 2014 In association with: Human Rights Lawyers Association human rights lawyers association 0 1 How to Get a Career in Human Rights 2 June 2014 Contents The Law Society’s International Action Team ........................................................................ 3 About the Human Rights Lawyers’ Association ..................................................................... 4 Biographies: Bill Bowring ........................................................................................................................... 6 Jamie Burton………………………………………………………………………………………….8 Sara Chandler ..................................................................................................................... 10 Samantha Ede .................................................................................................................... 13 Alison Ewart………………………………………………………………………………………….15 Jonathan Exten - Wright……………………………………………………………………………17 Alison Gerry ........................................................................................................................ 19 Nikolaus Grubeck ................................................................................................................ 22 Tim Jewell ........................................................................................................................... 24 Matthew Jury ...................................................................................................................... 26 Alastair Logan
    [Show full text]
  • Socialist Lawyer 60
    SocialistLawyer Magazine of the Haldane Society of Socialist Lawyers n Number 60 l February 2012 £3 INSIDE: Housing in The 2011 riots The fight for land Austerity cuts; job East Jerusalem: sentencing: unfair, rights in Mexico; the seekers allowance international legal inconsistent and end of the Basque challenge; news, mission report unequal? ETA armed struggle reviews and more SocialistLawyer Number 60 – February 2012 –ISSN 09 54 3635 Editor: Tim Potter Special thanks to: Liz Davies, Russell Fraser, Contents Stephen Knight and Declan Owens Cover picture: Jess Hurd (Report Digital) Luis Eduardo Garc – a trade union member at News & comment........................................................................................................................ 4 Coca Cola – living under paramilitary death Colombia, Employment Tribunals, Stephen Lawrence, Francis Khoo and more threat at Buchramanga in Colombia. Many thanks to all our other contributors, readers Young Legal Aid Lawyers ................................................................................ and members who have helped with this issue. 11 Design: Smith+Bell (www.smithplusbell.com) Connor Johnston on an illuminating report on the costs of cutting legal aid Print: The Russell Press (www.russellpress.com) Fairness? Consistency? Equality? ...................................... 12 Paramjit Ahluwalia asks why these basic tenets are absent from the post-riot sentencing Housing in East Jerusalem ........................................................................ 14 Haldane
    [Show full text]
  • NLJ Vol26-2017.Indb
    NOTTINGHAM LAW JOURNAL VOL. 26 2017 General Editor Dr Janice Denoncourt, BA (McGill), LLB (W.Aust.), LLM (Murdoch), LLM (Bournemouth), PhD (Nottingham), SFHEA Deputy Editor Dr Helen Hall, BA (Cantab), MA (Cantab), BA (Dunelm), MA (Dunelm), PhD (Cardiff) Associate Editor Dr David Barrett, LLB (Leic), LLM (Edin), PhD (Bris) Advisory Board The Rt Hon the Lord Saville of Newdigate The Rt Hon Sir Philip Otton Judge Bostjan Zupancic, the European Court of Human Rights Prof Conor Gearty, London School of Economics Prof Mark Findlay, University of Sydney Prof Michael J. Gunn, University of Staffordshire Mr Jonathan Griffiths, Queen Mary, University of London Prof Geraint Howells, Lancaster University Prof Martin Hunter, Essex Court Chambers & Nottingham Prof Robert G. Lee, Exeter Law School Law School Mr Christopher Muttukumaru, Director of Legal Mr Roger Leng, University of Warwick Services, Department of Transport Prof Gary Watt, University of Warwick Prof John Peysner, University of Lincoln Prof Barry Rider, University of Cambridge Prof Mary Seneviratne, Nottingham Law School Mr Paul Smith, Partner, Eversheds Mr Marc S. Stauch, Leibnitz University, Hannover Mr John Snape, Warwick University Prof Adrian Walters, Nottingham Law School Dr Kim Stevenson, University of Plymouth Prof George A. Sarpong, former Director Ghana Dr Christian Twigg- Flesner, University of Hull School of Law Prof Stephen Weatherill, University of Oxford Mr Chuka Agbu, Lexavier Partners, Nigeria Editorial Board Marketing: Alfonso Valero, LLB (Complutense of Madrid), LLM (QMUL), PGC Sports Law (King’s College), PGCHE (Nottingham Trent University) Administrative Assistant Miss Kerri Gilbert The Nottingham Law Journal is a refereed journal, normally published in Spring each year.
    [Show full text]
  • The UK in Iraq and the ICC: Judicial Intervention, Positive
    Carsten Stahn (editors) Morten Bergsmo and Publication Series No. 32 (2018): Editors of this volume: Quality Control in Preliminary Examination: Volume 1 Morten Bergsmo is Director of the Cen- tre for International Law Research and Policy Morten Bergsmo and Carsten Stahn (editors) (CILRAP). This is the fi rst of two volumes entitled Quality Control in Preliminary Examination. They Carsten Stahn is Professor of International form part of a wider research project led by the Centre for International Law Re- Criminal Law and Global Justice at Leiden search and Policy (CILRAP) on how we ensure the highest quality and cost-effi ciency Law School, and Programme Director of the during the more fact-intensive phases of work on core international crimes. The Grotius Centre for International Legal Stud- 2013 volume Quality Control in Fact-Finding considers fact-fi nding outside the criminal ies in The Hague. justice system. An upcoming volume concerns quality control in criminal investiga- The Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher tions. The present volume deals with ‘preliminary examination’, the phase when crim- 1 Volume in Preliminary Examination: Quality Control (TOAEP) furthers the objective of excellence inal justice seeks to determine whether there is a reasonable basis to proceed to full in research, scholarship and education by pub- criminal investigation. The book does not specifi cally recommend that prosecutorial lishing worldwide in print and through the discretion in this phase should be further regulated, but that its exercise should be Internet. As a non-profi t publisher, it is fi rmly committed to open access publishing. more vigilantly assessed. It promotes an awareness and culture of quality control, including freedom and motivation to challenge the quality of work.
    [Show full text]
  • Assessing Damage, Urging Action: Report of the Eminent Jurists Panel on Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and Human Rights
    Assessing Action Urging Damage, is report of the Eminent Jurists Panel, based on one of the most comprehensive surveys on counter-terrorism and human rights to date, illustrates the extent to which the responses to the events of 11 September 2001 have changed the legal landscape in countries around the world. Terrorism sows terror, and many States have fallen into a trap set by the terrorists. Ignoring lessons from the past, they have allowed themselves to be rushed into hasty responses, intro- Assessing Damage, ducing an array of measures which undermine cherished values as well as the international legal framework carefully developed since the Second World War. ese measures have Urging Action resulted in human rights violations, including torture, enforced disappearances, secret and arbitrary detentions, and unfair trials. ere has been little accountability for these abuses or justice for their victims. Report of the Eminent Jurists Panel on Terrorism, Counter-terrorism and Human Rights e Panel addresses the consequences of pursuing counter-terrorism within a war paradigm, the increasing importance of intelligence, the use of preventive mechanisms and the role of the criminal justice system in counter-terrorism. Seven years aer 9/11, and sixty years aer Report of the Eminent Jurists Panel the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, it is time for the international on Terrorism, Counter-terrorism community to re-group, take remedial action, and reassert core values and principles of inter- and Human Rights national law. ose values and principles were intended to withstand crises, and they provide a robust and eective framework from within which to tackle terrorism.
    [Show full text]