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Media Framing of US Abu Ghraib and British Detainee Abuse Scandals

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Media Framing of US Abu Ghraib and British Detainee Abuse Scandals ISOLATED INCIDENTS OR DELIBERATE POLICY? MEDIA FRAMING OF U.S. ABU GHRAIB AND BRITISH DETAINEE ABUSE SCANDALS DURING THE IRAQ WAR Ramune Braziunaite A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY August, 2011 Committee: Catherine Cassara, Advisor Timothy Pogacar, Graduate Faculty Representative Joseph Oliver Boyd-Barrett Nancy H. Brendlinger Matthew Heinz ii © 2011 Ramune Braziunaite All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Catherine Cassara, Advisor In order to examine how the detainee abuse by American and British forces tested not only the media’s ability to report on human rights abuses but also their professed ability to serve as watchdogs for their respective governments, this dissertation used the constructionist framing approach to compare news stories about abuse in Iraq that appeared in the New York Times, the Washington Post, the Guardian and the Times (London), from April 29, 2004 to May 14, 2004. Findings showed that abuse conducted by the American troops was covered extensively by the newspapers in both countries while the American newspapers tended to ignore revelations of abuse by British troops. However, volume is not the only significant measure of coverage quality. Reporting on human rights abuses is a complex process demanding both resources to investigate abuse as well as careful consideration about when and how to disclose them to the public. While Abu Ghraib photographs were the strongest impetus for disclosing the abuse by American soldiers, news coverage of British abuse was complicated by initial publication of what turned out to be photos of staged reenactment of abuse. The study found noteworthy differences in how the four newspapers defined, interpreted, evaluated, and treated abuse by both armies. Contrary to findings suggested by previous research, the newspapers examined in this study favored attribution of responsibility to the system rather than individuals in their coverage of U.S. events. However, the newspapers blamed individuals for the abuse by British forces. The four newspapers were similar in how they depersonalized and dehumanized Iraqi victims by utilizing the “them iv versus us” dichotomy to frame the people who appeared in the coverage. Reliance on official sources was noted as another significant commonality. The differences, however, were reflected in how the four newspapers utilized labels to portray the severity of abuse. These and the other findings from the study point to how valuable framing analysis is as an approach to exploring how the media function to constrict, manipulate or simply form readers’ attitudes, values and knowledge of topics of such vital importance as torture and abuse. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It has been a long journey and completing this work is definitely a high point in my academic career. I could not have come this far without the assistance of many individuals, and I want to express my deepest appreciation to them. Their examples as researchers and educators as well as responsible and engaged citizens will continue to serve as inspiration for my future academic career. First and foremost, I must thank my advisor Dr. Catherine Cassara who provided guidance, advice, and encouragement from the very beginning of this work. I could not have done this without her believing in me and my research and writing abilities. She has been patient when I needed more time, supportive when I was searching for ideas, and encouraging when I felt lost in the vast field of study of international media and communication. Dr. Cassara introduced me to the study of human rights reporting and helped me grasp the media’s role in covering war and conflict. Classes I took with Dr. Cassara on international news and global journalism contributed to my personal development and ability to contribute to international communication research. I am forever in dept to Dr. Cassara for spending countless hours helping me make sense of this complicated and important area of study. I am thankful to her for our long discussions and her continuous support and encouragement. My committee members deserve a special note of praise. I wish to thank Dr. Nancy Brendlinger for watching over me since my first days as a graduate student at BGSU. I enjoyed taking classes with Dr. Brendlinger that introduced me to the study of journalism and media systems. Her apt and insightful observations as well as constructive criticism on my research helped me focus my ideas. I am indebted to her for continuous support and vi encouragement. I wish to thank Dr. Matthew Heinz for helping me build my confidence as a teacher during my first years of teaching at BGSU. Dr. Heinz is responsible for expanding my understanding of how culture influences communication and encouraging me to explore the power of language in shaping our realities. I appreciate the advice and critique I received from Dr. Oliver Boyd-Barrett. Having an internationally renowned scholar on my dissertation committee was an honor. Dr. Boyd-Barrett’s comments, questions, and advice were thought provoking and pushed me to enrich my ideas. Dr. Timothy Pogacar also deserves my sincerest thanks for support, encouragement, and apt observations. Many friends and colleagues in the School of Media and Communication at BGSU helped me to stay focused. Special thanks goes to Dr. Lara Martin Lengel who has befriended me and guided me towards excellence with her own personal example. Dr. Lori Liggett deserves my gratitude for carefully reading and editing of my manuscript. Her encouragement and friendship is greatly appreciated. Dr. Stephen Croucher was instrumental in helping me shape my confidence as a researcher. Dr. Mike Robison, Dr. Molly Swiger, Dr. Brigit K. Talkington, Kate LaPierre and many other friends provided emotional support during this journey. I would like to express my heart-felt gratitude to my immediate family--my parents, by brother, my niece and of course my husband. Their loving care and support made this journey possible. I must also acknowledge the Fulbright scholarship which brought me to BGSU. I am also grateful for the GradSTEP program that allowed me to continue my studies at BGSU. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND 12 The War on Terror and Detention Policies 12 Detention Facilities 12 Interrogation Policies and Procedures Leading to Detainee Abuse 14 U.S. Government Investigations and Response 23 U.K. Government Investigations and Response 27 Summary and Analysis of Detainee Abuse by Coalition Forces 30 Media Coverage Before the Abu Ghraib Story Broke 32 Definitions 36 Abu Ghraib’s Legacy 40 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 44 Studies on Abu Ghraib 45 Media’s Role in Covering Conflict and Human Rights Abuses 51 The Significance of Studying Media during the Times of War 52 Human Rights Reporting 58 Comparative Research of International News Coverage 63 Similarities and Differences between the United States and the United Kingdom 66 The Four Newspapers Compared 74 Framing as an Approach to News Media Analysis 79 Overview of Framing Research 80 Theoretical Perspectives: An Argument for Constructionist Approach 86 Cognitivist Perspective 87 Critical Paradigm 88 Constructionist Perspective 90 Framing as a Method for Analyzing News Coverage 93 Framing Devices: Tools to Detect Media Frames 94 Comparative Study as Model for Analysis of Detainee Abuse Coverage 97 CHAPTER 3 METHOD 101 Study Design 102 Newspapers 102 viii Unit of Analysis 103 Time Period 104 Sample Selection 106 Frame Identification and Definition 108 Coding Process 118 Limitations of the Constructionist Method 122 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS 125 Overall Salience of the Events 126 Covering Abu Ghraib (American Abuse) vs. British Abuse 128 Coverage of U.S. Events 130 Coverage of U.K. Events 134 Coverage of Common Topics 139 Portrayal of Responsible Agency 141 Attribution of Responsibility in U.S. Abuses 143 Attribution of Responsibility in the U.K. Abuses 175 Are the Readers Encouraged or Discouraged to Identify with those Directly Affected? 189 Human Interest Frames in the Coverage of the U.S. Events 191 Human Interest Frames in the Coverage of the U.K. Events 207 How are the acts categorized? 210 Labels 211 Diagnostic Frames 219 Conclusions and Generalizations Offered by the Media 229 Image and Prognostic Frames in the Coverage of the U.S. Events 230 Image and Prognostic Frames in the Coverage of the U.K. Events 246 Media Reflexivity Frame in the Four Newspapers 258 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION 271 Salience as the Basics of Framing 272 The Question of Agency as Essence of Framing 276 Them versus Us: The Enemy as the “Other” 281 Naming the Problem: Labels and Diagnostic Frames 285 Framing the Nature of the Two Nations and Their Media 289 ix CONCLUSIONS 298 Limitations 306 BIBLIOGRAPHY 310 APPENDIX A 326 U.S. Convictions 326 U.K. Convictions 327 APPENDIX B 332 Media Coverage of Detainee Abuse Prior to April of 2004 332 APPENDIX C 333 Guided News Search Results 333 APPENDIX D 334 Coding Instrument 334 x LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. LexisNexis Academic guided news search results using key term “Abu Ghraib”........... 105 2. The number of articles on detainee abuse published during the time period 4/29/2004-- 5/14/2004 .............................................................................................................................. 106 3. Frames utilized in the coverage of the U.S. and U.K. events by the four newspapers..... 118 4. Coverage of the war in Iraq
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