National Park Service U.S

National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior

Evaluation of Reference Conditions for Coastal Sand Habitats of Southern Lake Michigan at Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore

GLRI #94 Task Agreement #J 6300100405 Final Report

ON THE COVER

Lake Michigan and Mt. Baldy view from the east looking west along the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore coastal shoreline. Photograph used with permission from National Park Service, Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.

Evaluation of Reference Conditions for Coastal Sand Habitats of Southern Lake Michigan at Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore

GLRI #94 Task Agreement #J 6300100405

Thomas P. Simon, PhD

The School of Public and Environmental Affairs 1315 E. Tenth Street, Room 341 Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47405

Charles C. Morris, PhD

National Park Service Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore 1100 N. Mineral Springs Road Porter, Indiana 47468

March 2012

The National Park Service, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science office in Fort Collins, Colorado publishes a range of reports that address natural resource topics of interest and applicability to a broad audience in the National Park Service and others in natural resource management, including scientists, conservation and environmental constituencies, and the public.

The Natural Resource Data Series is intended for the timely release of basic data sets and data summaries. Care has been taken to assure accuracy of raw data values, but a thorough analysis and interpretation of the data has not been completed. Consequently, the initial analyses of data in this report are provisional and subject to change.

All manuscripts in the series receive the appropriate level of peer review to ensure that the information is scientifically credible, technically accurate, appropriately written for the intended audience, and designed and published in a professional manner.

This report received informal peer review by subject-matter experts who were not directly involved in the collection, analysis, or reporting of the data. Data in this report were collected and analyzed using methods based on established, peer-reviewed protocols and were analyzed and interpreted within the guidelines of the protocols.

Views, statements, findings, conclusions, recommendations, and data in this report do not necessarily reflect views and policies of the National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the U.S. Government.

This report is available from the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative and the Natural Resource Publications Management website (http://www.indiana.edu/~spea/faculty/simon-thomas.shtml).

Please cite this publication as:

Simon, T. P. and Morris, C.C. 2012. Evaluation of Reference Conditions for Coastal Sand Habitats of Southern Lake Michigan at Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. GLRI #94 Task Agreement #J 6300100405. Indiana University, School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Bloomington.

GLRI #94 Task Agreement #J 6300100405 March 2012

Contents

Page Figures...... vii

Tables ...... xi

Abstract ...... xiii

Acknowledgments...... xv

Introduction ...... 1

Local and Regional Setting ...... 1

Great Lakes Water Level Fluctuation ...... 1

Historical changes in the Southern Lake Michigan Coastal Shoreline ...... 2

Natural Costal Shoreline Processes ...... 2

Effects of Man-made Coastal Structures ...... 3

Coastal Shoreline Management...... 4

Lake Michigan Coastal Shoreline Erosional Areas ...... 5

Study Area and Site Descritions ...... 6

Methods...... 11

Study Design ...... 11

Field and Laboratory Methods ...... 12

Sediment toxicity ...... 12

Sediment Chemistry ...... 13

Sediment porosity, grain size characterization, and compaction ...... 14

Pebble Counts ...... 15

Sand Fractionation models ...... 15

Statistical Analysis ...... 15

Results ...... 16

Existing grain size composition of sand substrates within the park’s coastal shoreline of southern Lake Michigan ...... 16

Shoreline Characterization ...... 16

Grain size distribution ...... 16

Sediment Models ...... 20

Washington Park ...... 20

Mt. Baldy East ...... 22

Mt. Baldy West ...... 24

Central Beach ...... 26

Dunbar Beach ...... 28

Beach house blowout ...... 30

Dune Acres ...... 32

Portage Lakefront ...... 34

West Beach ...... 36

Lake Street Access ...... 38

Pebble Count Analysis ...... 40

Relationships between Lake Shoreline Reaches ...... 41

Sand compaction ...... 45

Porosity ...... 45

Sediment Chemistry Characteristics and Toxicity to Biota ...... 45

48 Hour Sediment Elutriate Test Results with Daphnia pulex ...... 47

Discussion ...... 49

Sediment chemistry ...... 49

Sediment toxicity ...... 49

Observations of the Elutriate Water ...... 49

Least-impacted conditions for sand compaction and porosity along the coastal area of southern Lake Michigan...... 50

Emerging and existing threats or stressors ...... 51

Predicting Relationships between Sediment Fraction and Coastal Shoreline Class ...... 52

Quantitative ranking criteria to determine selection of least-impacted reference conditions for beach nourishment of park beach reaches ...... 53

Portage Lakefront and Riverwalk Nourishment zone ...... 53

Mt Baldy Nourishment Zone ...... 54

Conclusions ...... 57

Literature Cited ...... 58

Appendix ...... 63

Appendix 1.Sediment grain analysis of nine beach and access locations for each individual node in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore during August 2010.

Appendix 2. Sediment grain analysis of nine beach and access locations for each row in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore during August 2010.

Appendix 3. Sediment grain analysis of nine beach and access locations composited for all nodes in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore during August 2010.

Appendix 4. The chemical analysis data sheets for five sediments sampled in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.

Appendix 5. The EPA (1994) Standard Operating Procedure for elutriate testing of Daphnia pulex to sediment.

Figures

Page

Figure 1. Beach and access points along the coastal shoreline of Lake Michigan in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore ..…………………………………………………………… 7

Figure 2. Conceptual aerial view showing the geometric study design used to characterize offshore and inshore materials for coastal beach habitat at the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore (Simon and others 2011)……………………………………………………………11

Figure 3. Washington Park model of shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships among a geometric sample design used during August 2010. Warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle size and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing concentrations …………………………………...21

Figure 4. Washington Park model of 3-dimensional shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships during August 2010. Elevation and warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle sizes and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing elevations. Black represents baseline absent condition…………………………………….…………………………………………...21

Figure 5. Mt. Baldy East model of shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships among a geometric sample design used during August 2010. Warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle size and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing concentrations……………………………………22

Figure 6. Mt. Baldy East model of 3-dimensional shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships during August 2010. Elevation and warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle sizes and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing elevations. Black represents baseline condition……………………………………………………………………………………….. 23

Figure 7. Mt. Baldy West model of shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships among a geometric sample design used during August 2010. Warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle size and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing concentrations……………………………………24

Figure 8. Mt. Baldy West model of 3-dimensional shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships during August 2010. Elevation and warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle sizes and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing elevations. Black represents baseline absent condition…………………………………………………………………………………25

Figure 9. Central Beach model of shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships among a geometric sample design used during August 2010. Warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle size and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing concentrations…………………………………….26

Figure 10. Central Beach model of 3-dimensional shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships during August 2010. Elevation and warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle sizes and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing elevations. Black represents baseline absent condition………………………………………………………………………………………....27

Figure 11. Dunbar Access model of shoreline sediment fractions based on spline- smoothed nodal relationships among a geometric sample design used during August 2010. Warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle size and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing concentrations …………………………….28

Figure 12. Dunbar Access model of 3-dimensional shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships during August 2010. Elevation and warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle sizes and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing elevations. Black represents baseline absent condition …………………………….………………………………………………………….29

Figure 13. Beach house Blowout model of shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships among a geometric sample design used during August 2010. Warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle size and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing concentrations ……………………….30

Figure 14. Beach house Blowout model of 3-dimensional shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships during August 2010. Elevation and warm colors (red- orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle sizes and cool colors (green-turquoise- blue) represent decreasing elevations. Black represents baseline absent condition……………..31

Figure 15. Dune Acres Access model of shoreline sediment fractions based on spline- smoothed nodal relationships among a geometric sample design used during August 2010. Warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle size and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing relative percentages ………………………………32

Figure 16. Dune Acres model of 3-dimensional shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships during August 2010. Elevation and warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle sizes and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing elevations. Black represents baseline absent condition …………………………………………….…………………………………………..33

Figure 17. Portage Lakefront model of shoreline sediment fractions based on spline- smoothed nodal relationships among a geometric sample design used during August 2010. Warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle size and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing relative percentages .………………………34

Figure 18. Portage Lakefront model of 3-dimensional shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships during August 2010. Elevation and warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle sizes and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing elevations. Black represents baseline condition absence………………………………………………………………………………...35

Figure 19. West Beach model of shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships among a geometric sample design used during August 2010. Warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle size and cool colors (green- turquoise-blue) represent decreasing concentrations …..……………………………………….36

Figure 20. West Beach model of 3-dimensional shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships during August 2010. Elevation and warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle sizes and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing elevations. Black represents baseline condition absence ……………………………………………………………………….………………….37

Figure 21. Lake Street Access model of shoreline sediment fractions based on spline- smoothed nodal relationships among a geometric sample design used during August 2010. Warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle size and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing concentrations …………………………….38

Figure 22. Lake Street model of 3-dimensional shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships during August 2010. Elevation and warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle sizes and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing elevations. Black represents baseline condition absence…………………………………………………………….………………….39

Figure 23. Pebble count and maximum dimensions of large fraction materials from seven beaches in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore ……………………………………....41

Figure 24. Relationships among Lake Michigan beach and access areas based on particle size attributes .…………………………………….…………………………………………….42

Figure 25. Side view and top view photographs of elutriate water immediately before adding Daphnia pulex to start the elutriate toxicity tests. From left to right: Mt. Baldy, Portage Lakefront near Ogden Dunes, receiving water (control elutriate), Beach House Blowout, and Central Beach ..…………………….……………………………………………49

Figure 26. The representation of the reference condition as influencing the biological condition gradient (Stoddard and others, 2006) ……………………………………………….50

Figure 27. Principal Component Analysis with varimax rotation showing Factor I and Factor 2 relationships. Right: Cluster 1 and Left: Cluster 2 ……………………………………52

Figure 28. Comparison of composite gradations in Reach 3…...………………………………54

Figure 29. Comparison of composite gradations in Reach 1 ..…………………………………55

Figure 30. Three-dimensional representation of the relative distribution of gravel materials at Mt. Baldy. Position “0” on the X axis represents the relative position of the water/ land interface with positive numbers indicating landward areas and negative numbers lakeward. Lakeward samples did not extend as far as shore samples due to excessive water depth beyond 20 meters. The “Y” axis represents alongshore distance. Colors represent the relative percent composition of gravel retained in sieve #4 ……………………………….56

Tables

Page

Table 1. Chronology of dredging operations in the vicinity of the Michigan City Harbor between 1956 and 1994 ………………………………………………………………………. 8

Table 2. Chronology of Beach nourishment in the vicinity of Mt. Baldy from 1996 to 2008 based on upland sources ………………………………………………………………... 9

Table 3. Chronology of dredging operations in the vicinity of the NIPSCO outfall between 1980 and 2009 …………………………………………………………………….10

Table 4. List of variables sampled at each of five beach reaches. Nodes refer to each point in the geometric design, while composited sample over the entire beach reach will be analyzed for sediment chemical parameters …………………………………………..…...... 10

Table 5. Summary of test conditions for Daphnia pulex 48 hour acute elutriate toxicity test (based on Peltier and Weber 1985; EPA method SM 2024)..……………………………..12

Table 7. Sieve rack sizes and screen mesh diameters associated with gravel and fine sand sediment fractions collected from nine beach access points in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore …………………………………………………………………………….14

Table 8. Composite site sediment grain size analysis of nine sieve sizes for nine beach coastal reaches in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore ..……………………………………17

Table 9. Cumulative grain size frequency with increasing particles finer than remaining for nine coastal shoreline reaches in Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore…………………………..17

Table 10. The percent deviation from the ASTM sand model for specifications at Sieve #4 and #100 for sediments at nine coastal shorelines in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore ….18

Table 11. Sediment compaction and porosity of on-shore sediments from the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore during 2010 ..……………………………………………………….19

Table 12. Correlations between ten coastal shoreline reaches with significant at p < 0.05……42

Table 13. Factor analysis of normalized transformed data using the Principal component varimax loadings for all sites. Principal components loadings > 0.700…………………………43

Table 14. Correlations (R > 0.700) between erosional and dynamically stable coastal shoreline reaches with significant at p < 0.05 (from cluster 1, Figure 24)…………………………………43

Table 15. Factor analysis of normalized transformed data using the Principal component varimax loadings for cluster 1. Principal component loadings > 0.700…………………………44

Table 16. Correlations (R > 0.700) between accretion coastal shoreline reaches with significant at p < 0.05 (from cluster 2, Figure 24)…………………………………………………………...44

Table 17. Factor analysis of normalized transformed data using the Principal component varimax loadings for cluster 2. Principal component loadings > 0.700………………………....45

Table 18. Detection limit and sediment chemistry results for composite sediments from five Beach reaches……………………………………………………………………………………46

Table 19. Sediment Reference Toxicity Values ………………………………………………..47

Table 20. Results of 48 hr Sediment Elutriate Toxicity Test using Daphnia pulex…………….48

Table 21. Results of NaCl Toxicity Test with Daphnia pulex…………………………………48

Table 22. Pre- and Post-Test Water Quality Data for The Elutriate Toxicity Test with D. pulex………………………………………………………………………………………….48

Table 32. Sand grain statistics calculated from Mt. Baldy and Michigan City composite samples………………………………………………………………………………………….55

xii

Abstract

Natural wave induced processes manipulate sands/sediments that determine shoreline stability. However, anthropogenic disturbances such as breakwaters and jetties alter the natural wave climate, destabilizing the shoreline and block the natural along-shore sediment transport. Using a geometric design we sampled 590 individual points over ten shoreline reaches (59 points per reach) in and around Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore to document the current physical and chemical condition of shoreline sands/sediments. We evaluated Sediment porosity, grain size fractionation, sediment compaction, sediment toxicity and chemistry. Additionally, we used Cluster Analysis, Factor Analysis and Principal Components Analysis to evaluate both within site and between site sand grain patterns. No sand compaction differences were observed between shoreline reaches and sediments did not show any significant deviation from the expected porosity associated with well drained Oakville-Adrian (F1) soils. Total organic carbon (mg/kg) represented less than 1% of the soil content by weight across all sites. All sediment chemistry values were below detection limits. No significant chemical or water quality-related toxicity was observed. Cluster Analysis grouped shoreline reaches into two clusters, arranging four erosion/stable reaches, five accreting reaches, and pairing the furthest down drift site with the geologic remnant beach front sampled within a blowout inshore as an offshoot of the second cluster. Factor Analysis showed that 35% percent of the sand fractionations cumulative variance across all reaches was explained by an increased loading on sieve #60 (0.250 mm) with a corresponding decrease loading on sieve #4 (4.750 mm), and an additional 30% of the cumulative variance was explained by a negative loading on sieve #200 (0.075 mm). Further analysis on individual clusters showed that 43% of the cumulative variance within cluster one could be explained by increase loadings on sieves #60 and #100 (0.150 mm) with a corresponding negative loading on sieve #4. An additional 22% of the cumulative variance was explained by the positive loading on sieve #20 (0.850 mm). Cluster two was explained by a single factor (62% cumulative variance) highlighting an increased loading on sieve #4 and #20 and decreased loadings on sieve #60, #100 and #200. Principal Component Analysis showed that sediment data collected within five meters of the swash zone provided best explanation of between site variance.

xiii

xiv

Acknowledgments

Special thanks to Brenda Waters and Robert Daum, Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, for project management and professional services support. Field assistance was provided by Cameron Simon; Joshua Dickey, Marchan Richmond, Nina Cameron, Lanette Sweany, Kristin Totten and other INDU staff; and Elizabeth McCloskey, US Fish and Wildlife Service. Sediment grain analysis was completed by Sarah Weaver and Marchan Richmond, Indiana University. Figures were prepared by Josh Dickey and Thomas P. Simon and assistance with tables was provided by Alex Jackson, Nicholas Cooper, and Blair McCall, Indiana University. Special appreciation is extended to Stephen Walters, Director, Eppley Institute, Burnell Fischer and Diane Henshel, Indiana University, for project management support. This report was prepared with funding from the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative, Environmental Protection Agency Project Number 94, under Task Agreement J6300100405 of the Great Lakes-Northern Forest Cooperative Ecosystem Studies Unit under Cooperative Agreement H6000082000 between the National Park Service and the University of Minnesota.

xvi

Introduction

Local and Regional Setting

The Lake Michigan Region is predominantly urban and is heavily populated and industrialized including the largest steel and petrochemical refineries in the world. The study area includes a variety of highly developed transportation corridors that provide rail, shipping, interstate, and local highways. The St. Lawrence inland water navigation system includes the Port of Indiana and Indiana Harbor Canal. The southern Lake Michigan Rim includes hundreds of acres of natural areas with the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore and Indiana Dunes State Park preserving the former dune and wetland areas.

The study area represents about 604 square miles of land in northwest Indiana and about 241 square miles of Lake Michigan. About 2% of Indiana’s land area is contained in the Lake Michigan Region. The majority of drainage feeding the study area is comprised by streams that flow directly into Lake Michigan (81%), while the remaining amounts flow either into the states of Illinois or Michigan. Flow into Illinois leaves the basin and flows into the Mississippi River through the Illinois River. Major streams include the Little Calumet, Grand Calumet, Galena, Trail Creek, and many surface ditches that have drained the former wetlands known as the Great Marsh.

Lake Michigan coastal resources comprise about 45 miles of coast within the State of Indiana having a physiography determined by the surficial sediments deposited during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs. Lake bed sediments include sand near the shore, and gravel from 15 m (50 ft) to 30 m (100 ft) deep (Great Lakes Basin Commission 1976). Elongate sand dune ridges represent late Pleistocene and Holocene shorelines of ancestral Lake Michigan. Three of the ridges are major dune and beach complexes that developed during periods of stable lake levels.

Malott (1922) divided Indiana into nine physiographic regions based on glacier effects on the landscape that depicted the physiography of southern Lake Michigan as a result of late Wisconsinan glacial advances of the Lake Michigan lobe. As the lobes retreated from the morainal area the ancestral changes of Lake Michigan retreats and expansion caused the formation of the coastal shoreline.

Great Lakes Water Level Fluctuation

The fluctuation of Great Lakes water levels has occurred continuously as a dynamic process since their formation. The level of the Great Lakes depends on the mass balance of water quantity inputs and removals. Lake Michigan coast has experienced multiple transgressive and regressive events during the past 14,500 yrs with lake fluctuations as much as 18 m higher and 61 m or more lower than present (Hansel and others 1985). Lake level records for Lake Michigan and Huron has been kept since 1860 at Harbor Beach, Michigan, Within the period of record, the lowest monthly average was 575.35 feet International Great Lakes Datum 1955 (576.05 IGLD 1985), occurred on March 1964. The highest monthly average recorded was 581.94 feet IGLD 1955 (582.64 IGLD 1985) occurred in June 1886. The amounts to a difference

of 6.59 ft in water level during the 150 years since records have been kept. Lake levels affect flooding, shoreline erosion and resulting property damage, wetland acreage, and depth of navigation channels and hydroelectric power generation.

Historical changes in the Southern Lake Michigan Coastal Shoreline

The United States Surveyor General conducted a survey of the Lake Michigan shoreline between 1824 and 1849. The shoreline was altered significantly by 1900 with the reclamation of about 700 acres of submerged land by human filling to create valuable lake frontage or by natural lake accretion. In 1907, the littoral owners of land along Lake Michigan were granted the right by the State of Indiana to fill submerged land adjacent to their shoreline property (I.C. 4-18-13). The legislation stipulated that anthropogenically altered fill could not extend beyond lines established by the Army Corps of Engineers and required accurate surveys of proposed fill. Furthermore, after surveys were accomplished the governor shall issue authority to fill and improve such land. The filling of the lake bottom proceeded at a rapid pace creating peninsulas of land extending into the lake. By 1979, the Indiana Department of Natural Resources attempted to compile a complete inventory of man-made lands and complete a compilation of complete record of authority-to-fill permits and patents (IDNR 1979a). Since 1907, about 6,515 acres of man-made land has been authorized by the state.

Management of the coastal shoreline is subject to Federal, State, and local jurisdiction. The Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore has concurrent jurisdiction over a portion of Lake Michigan within 300 ft of the shoreline within park boundaries. The boundary between State and local jurisdiction is defined by the fixed elevation of 581.5 ft IGLD 1985 Ordinary High Water Mark. This boundary lies along the line where the Ordinary High Water Mark elevation meets either the sand of the shoreline or the face of a coastal structure. Since coastal processes are dynamic the boundary location changes with accretion or erosion of particular shoreline reaches. The interpretation of this jurisdiction is controversial and is not agreed upon between the state and federal entities.

Natural Costal Shoreline Processes

The intensity of Lake Michigan storm events determines the erosion amount during any given year. In the absence of storms there would be no waves or currents to move the large quantities of sand along the beach and lake bottom. Lake level affects the position of low attack waves on the beach face when lake levels are low or wave attack high on the back beach at the base of the erodible dune-bluff when lake levels are high. High lake levels and severe storms usually result in the highest erosion rates along non-protected natural coastal shorelines. While conversely, low lake levels and mild storms result in low erosion rates. The erosion and accretion of sand along the coastal shoreline is fastest and strongest around the edge of the lake in a narrow breaking wave zone. This represents an area between 5.4 m (18 ft) to 5.98 m (20 ft) depth extending toward the beach. This area is the greatest volume of sand transport or littoral drift. Waves approaching the coastal shoreline parallel to the beach cause sand to move both on-shore and offshore; while waves approaching the coast at an angle causes currents to move alongshore and can erode the shoreline in the direction of storm wave movement.

The amount of sand movement is dependent on sand availability, the wave size, and the length of time the waves are present to drive the water currents in one direction. The net direction of sediment movement is the direction that the largest volume of sand moves during the entire time of a storm event. The net direction of littoral drift sand movement from the Michigan state line to Gary, Indiana, is from east toward the west, while from the Illinois state line to Gary, Indiana, the direction of sand movement is from west to east. The two factors responsible for this opposite directionality is storm wave orientation and the shoreline shape. The most powerful storm surges approach the southern coastal area from the north with the strongest winds blowing out of the northwest, north, and northeast directions (Fox and Davis 1976). The transfer of energy into waves is a result of the 480 km (300 mi) of open water between northern Lake Michigan and the southern coastal shoreline. The shoreline orientation is also responsible for the net direction of sand movement. The shoreline east of Gary is oriented in a northeast by southwest direction, while the shoreline west of Gary is oriented in a northwest by southeast direction. Storm waves from the north are affected by the different orientations of the shoreline and result in currents flowing in both directions.

Effects of Man-made Coastal Structures

Anthropogenic lake-filled structure and breakwaters oriented perpendicular to the shoreline have divided the Indiana coastline into five littoral cell segments. These littoral cells are defined by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for Indiana’s Lake Michigan coast (Wood and others 1988). Large structures can restrict or block movement of sand through these cells. Reaches 1 and 2, which occur between Michigan City and the Port of Indiana constitute a single littoral cell. Structures that extend into Lake Michigan that extend beyond the lakeward boundary of the breaking wave zone restrict all sand transport. These structures are referred to as “primary sand trapping structures” and are classified as a “total littoral barrier”. If little or no sand can enter or leave either end of the cell, a “closed littoral cell” is formed. The sand in a closed littoral cell can move back and forth within that cell, but is not available to contribute sand to adjacent cells. Erosion of beaches and dune-bluff continues to add sand to the littoral drift replacing sand lost to deeper offshore waters during intensive storm events.

On the updrift side of a littoral barrier, erosion may decline or stop as accretion forms a widening beach in response to sand addition. The volume of sand retained is determined by the sand accumulation over time, and wind transport of dry sand to the back beach area to create new sand dunes. The blowing sand is trapped and stabilized by native dune grasses, which contributes to dune growth. This process occurs east of Michigan City, east of the Port of Indiana in Portage, and east of the U.S. Steel lakefill breakwater in Gary. In response to sand accumulation the beach east of the U.S. Steel breakwall has grown 170 ft lakeward between 1967 and 1979 (IDNR 1994). The presence of sufficient littoral drift provides stability for the wide beaches and broad offshore sand bars. This protects the erodible portions of the coastal zone from storm waves.

Areas that are continually sand starved usually have long-term erosion rates higher than other parts of the coast (IDNR 1994). If sand is not sufficient to maintain wide beaches and broad sand bars, erosion rates may be higher even though the same wave energy and lake levels are present. Erosion rates increase on the downdrift side of a new structure as a result of sand starved conditions created by sand retained on the updrift side of the littoral barrier. The lack of sand

input causes beaches to narrow and the offshore sand bars to lose height and width. This condition allows more wave energy to reach the shoreline increasing erosion of the erodible beach and dune bluffs.

Coastal Shoreline Management

The natural movement of littoral drift along coastal shorelines has been altered by anthropogenic changes associated with wetland filling, shoreline hardening, and urbanization and industrialization of land use (Pilkey and Clayton 1989). The creation of harbors and revetments interrupted the natural littoral drift of sand transport creating areas of both erosion and deposition. The original intention of coastal protection of shorelines was to manipulate natural processes to generate artificial barrier islands (Charlier and others, 2005) to control beach erosion (Vierlinck 1579). However these manipulations were not applicable across all shoreline conditions. Alternatively and more applicable to Southern Lake Michigan, beach nourishment has been widely used as a management tool to sustain natural processes along coastal environments. Beach nourishment has been used for shoreline management tool the 1920s (Hall 1952); however, nourished shorelines can be quickly dissipated after severe storms and beaches may require additional nourishment within 5 years of application (Leonard and others 1990)

Beach stability can be enhanced, potentially increasing the longevity of nourishment project, by applying material slightly coarser than native substrates (Dean, 1983; Nordstrum, 2000), but if materials are too coarse they can become static and resist the natural morphological change beaches undergo in response to varying wave conditions thereby diminishing the energy dissipating capacity of the shoreline. Conversely, if nourishment materials are too fine they will be removed from the shoreline, transported by wave action off shore, blown inland, or settle into interstitial spaces reducing drainage and percolation. Newman (1967) suggests that a slightly coarser material can increase beach resistance to erosion while still allowing wave action to naturally modify the beach profile. Conversely, Blotts and Pye (2004) observed that the performance of beach nourishment along Great Britain shorelines was significantly affected by sand grain distribution of imported material. These alterations to the natural shoreline condition in conjunction with increased total suspended solids associated with beach nourishment have the potential to negatively affect the natural ecology of the coastal zone (Elias and others 2000; Rakocinski and others 1996; Reilly and Bellis 1983; Wilber and others 2003). Replenishment can alter behavior and habitat use by altering beach morphology, which may alter local movement patterns, resting behavior, habitat use, and can alter feeding behavior (Grippo and others 2007). Elevated suspended sediment concentrations that are related to the potential biological effects caused either by physical contact with the sediments or by turbid water conditions could affect feeding and movement behavior (Moore 1978; Newcombe and MacDonald 1991; Wilber and Clarke 2001; Ross and others 1987; DeLancey 1989).

Methods for delivering nourishment material in southern Lake Michigan include either mechanical, or hydraulic dredging, and inland trucking of materials. Hydraulic dredging is accomplished by pipeline dredging using powerful pumps to discharge materials over great distance, while hopper dredging is accomplished by hydraulically depositing material into a barge. Materials are then transferred to a disposal location and deposited off shore via doors on the bottom of the barge (Bruun and Willekes 1992). The disposal of dredged material was

originally based on convenience where material was deposited “out of the way”. More recently, materials are placed at selected sites specifically identified to minimize adverse effects on biological life. In some instances states and governments have prohibited dumping offshore materials requiring they be placed, if suitable, on beaches adjacent to the navigation channel or inlet (Brunn, 1990).

Lake Michigan Coastal Shoreline Erosional Areas

The Great Lakes Coastal Research Laboratory at Purdue University studied the 45 mile shoreline in July 1986. The study incorporated existing beach and nearshore survey data, recent aerial photography, wave climatology, and coastal dynamics models to evaluate coastal conditions and hazards (Wood and others, 1988).

The Mt. Baldy shoreline downstream of the Michigan City breakwater complex has been observed to erode more than 20 ft in a single storm season. The Mt. Baldy area has a long-term background erosion rate of about 10 ft/ yr, compared to the average background erosion rate of 3 ft/ yr or less along most of Lake Michigan coastal zone. The central portion of Mt. Baldy contributed 65 ft of dune-bluff recession from July 1983 to July 1985. The high loss rate occurred during Lake Michigan’s October 1986 high lake level. The recession of the Mt. Baldy dune was only 21.5 ft/ yr from 1983 to 1985, while other monitored stations further west eroded 5 ft/ yr during the same period. The decrease in short-term erosion rates from east to west is expected because erosion rates are generally highest immediately down drift of a sand-trapping structure where sand-starved conditions are severe, such as Mt. Baldy. As distance increases from the breakwater the contribution of sand from beach erosion, dune and offshore sand bars gradually reduce the severity of the sand-starved conditions reducing erosion rates. A total of 1.4 million cubic yards of dredged material has been removed from the outer harbor and Trail Creek using both hydraulic and mechanical dredging (Table 1).

The sand accumulation updrift of the Port of Indiana caused beach widths to expand lakeward more than 500 ft between the time construction began in 1967 to 1984 (Wood and others 1988). Downdrift of the Port of Indiana the Ogden Dunes shoreline began to erode at a higher rate than historical background rates shortly after the Port of Indiana breakwater and bulkhead complex was begun. Sand trapped and retained updrift of sand-starved conditions were created west at Ogden Dunes. The amount of material dredged from the accretion area of the NIPSCO outfall east of the Port of Indiana represents about 2.2 million cubic yards of dredged material that was used to nourish both Ogden Dunes and Beverly Shore coastal shorelines (Table 3).

The Portage Lakefront has received nourishment from the Burns Waterway Harbor. This area is a newly created access just west of the Burns Ditch mouth and the breakwater extension that surrounds the Ditch mouth (Table 4). The amount of dredged materials include about 0.4 million cubic yards that have been used to nourish Ogden Dunes. The majority of the sediments have been open lake deposited.

The U.S. Steel lakefill breakwater near Lake Street does not have a high erosion condition associated with either end of its structure despite the structure extends about 2000 ft into Lake Michigan. On the east side of the structure, sand accumulates as a result of net westerly

movement of sand. Toward the west of the lakefill breakwater there is about 6.8 mi of armored harbors and industrial bulkheads protecting the coast. These armored coastal shorelines extend into the portion of the shoreline where the net littoral drift is in an easterly direction. Therefore both ends of the structure from Gary Harbor complex (east) to Buffington Harbor are considered updrift ends.

Study Area and Site Descritions

Ten shoreline reaches were sampled in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore ranging from the east at Washington Park to the Lake Street access at the west (Figure 1). This study area occurs in the Lake Michigan Division of the Central Corn Belt Plain Ecoregion (CCBP; Omernik 1987). Land use in the CCBP includes a mosaic of urban, forestry, diverse cropland agriculture, orchards, and livestock production. The ecoregion includes dissected glacial till plains, which are covered by thick mantle loess, rolling narrow ridgetops, and steep sand dunes deposits positioned by wind processes (Schneider 1966). Both perennial and intermittent streams are common in the ecoregion. Constructed drainage ditches and channelized streams drain soils in flat, poorly drained areas. Stream density is about two miles per square mile in typical areas of the ecoregion.

Washington Park beach is located in Michigan City, LaPorte County. The area is classified as an accretion area (Baird 2011). The lighthouse and breakwater surrounding the mouth of Trail Creek is considered a littoral barrier. This area occurs in Reach 1 littoral cell (Wood and others 1988).

Mt. Baldy (east) and Mt. Baldy (west) include areas to the north of the foreface of the dune. The area includes the active beach nourishment area (Mt. Baldy east) and the erosional reach west of the foredune. These areas are both classified as “erosional coastal zones” (Baird 2011) are sand starved as a result of the Michigan City breakwall at the mouth of Trail Creek and found is Reach 1 littoral cell (Wood and others 1988).

Central Beach access is an “erosion beach habitat” at the terminus of Central Avenue. This area has stable erosion and accretion of sand littoral drift with extensive offshore sand bars and wide beach (Baird 2011). The beach has trough wave zone comprised of gravel and cobble substrates. This beach is dynamically stable between erosion and accretion. It is found in the Reach 1 littoral cell as defined the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Wood and others 1988). The reach is impacted slightly by rip-rap along the western edge.

The Dunbar, Porter and Kemil reaches are found in the vicinity of Beverly Shores. These shorelines are “dynamically stable” coastal areas that have equal amounts of erosion and accretion supplied in the littoral drift (Baird 2011). The Dunbar, Porter, and Kemil beaches have cobble and gravel trough zones. All three beaches are located in Reach 1 of the Lake Michigan littoral cell (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; Wood and others 1988).

Figure 1. Beach and access points along the coastal shoreline of Lake Michigan in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.

Beach house blowout represents a historic beach condition of Lake Michigan about 1,000 years before present and reflects pre-settlement conditions. The reach is part of the Indiana Dunes State Park and reflects higher Lake Michigan levels. The area is a dynamically stable coastal area. The beach is located in Reach 2 of the Lake Michigan littoral cell as defined by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Dune Acres is defined as the area just east of the Northern Indiana Power Corporation north of the Cowles Bog wetland complex. The area is artificially affected by fine sediment and is an accretion area (Baird, 2011). The sediment is dominated by 40-60 sieve mesh. The beach is contained in Reach 2 of the Lake Michigan littoral cell as determined by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

The Portage Lakefront is located west of the Burns Ditch Waterway west of the Port of Indiana and east of Ogden Dunes. The area is impaired and reflects previous beach nourishment activity. The Portage Lakefront is classified as an “erosional” reach (Baird, 2011). It is dominated by sediments that are sieved in the 60 to 100 micron mesh range. The beach is contained within Reach 3 of the Lake Michigan littoral cell (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Wood and others 1988).

West Beach is located west of Ogden Dunes and is found in Porter County off of County Line Road. The area is classified as “dynamically stable” (Baird, 2011) comprised of sediment grain sizes between 40-100 microns. The West Beach is a popular public beach and is classified as impaired due to the heavy public use. The beach is contained in Reach 3 of the Lake Michigan littoral cell (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Wood and others 1988).

The Lake Street Access is located in Lake County at the northern terminus of Lake Street. The area is classified as an accretion comprised of fine sand grain sizes. The area is affected by the U.S. Steel breakwall at the western edge of the coastal area (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Wood and others 1988).

Table 1. Chronology of dredging operations in the vicinity of the Michigan City Harbor between 1956 and 1994.

AMOUNT Outer Trail YEAR Months Method DISPOSAL AREA (Cubic Yards) Harbor Creek 1956 Nov-Dec 26,990 x x 1956 Aug-Nov 59,535 x 1957 Jul-Aug 98,835 x 1958 Oct-Nov 75,175 x x 1961 Aug-Sep 43,170 x x 1962 Jul-Aug 38,498 x 1963 Sep-Oct 5,330 x 1963 Sep-Oct 5,730 x 1964 May-Jun 62,150 x 1964 Aug 50,181 x x 1964 Apr-May 24,072 x 1965 Aug-Sep 30,098 x 1967 Sep-Jan 22,593 x N of MI city sewage and b/w C & D Streets, across Creek 1967 May-Jun 75,175 x 1968 May 48,100 x 1969 May 25,000 x 1970 May-Jul 45,075 x 1971 Jul 24,900 x along beach, (Beverly Shores) 1972 Sep 5,825 x along beach, (Beverly Shores) 1978-79 Jul-Mar 34,819 x north of MI city sewage, across Creek 1978-79 Jul-Mar 22,670 x north of MI city sewage, across Creek 1979 Jun-Jul 19,185 x north of MI city sewage, across Creek 1986 Oct-Nov 68,039 x Shoreline at Mt. Baldy 1987 Aug 25,054 x Confined Disposal Facility 1990 Apr-May Hydraulic 3,000 x spoil pumped onto beach 1992 Jun-Jul Mechanical 74,642 x near shore at Mt Baldy 1994 Submersible Hydr pump 36,316 x Incorporated into berm around property 1996 Jun 57,658 x open water & Mt Baldy 2000 Feb-Jul Hydraulic 85,251 x at beach by mount Baldy 2000 Feb-Jul Mechanical 2,971 x trucked to Deercroft Landfill 2002 May-Jul 39,750 x 2003 Jan-Apr 51,109 x 2006 Jul Hydraulic 42,000 2008 Apr-Jun 30,159 x

Table 2. Chronology of Beach nourishment in the vicinity of Mt. Baldy from 1996 to 2008 based on upland sources.

Year Cubic Yards 1996 57,000 1997 73,000 1998 107,000 1999 36,000 2000 Data Unavailable 2001 42,750 2002 Data Unavailable Spring, 2003 25,637 Fall, 2003 26,661 2004 17,500 2005 9500 2006 Data Unavailable 2007-2008 17,272 Total 412,320

It is generally agreed that nourished beaches are not appropriate study sites for examining natural coastal zone processes due to artificial changes in morphology and sand volume in the system (Park and others 2009). It becomes necessary to establish an undisturbed benchmark for determining impacts. Wilber and others (2006) used a reference condition approach in studying how the percent composition of fine suspended sediments generated by nourishment differed from native conditions. In this approach they targeted reference sites allowing for direct comparability between natural and altered condition. In our study we proposed a similar approach by evaluating the littoral drift along onshore and offshore transects to establish the expected particle size in three littoral drift classes. This approach enables the establishment of a baseline for comparison allowing future determination of the extent and magnitude of deviation from historical norms.

The following questions are included in the current project: 1) What should grain size composition be along the coastal shoreline of southern Lake Michigan? Hypothesis: Evaluation of the three littoral drift classes will provide insight into the proper sand grain size composition and chemistry along the Lake Michigan coastal shoreline, and 2) Determine quantitative ranking criteria based on sediment grain size characterization, sediment chemistry, and sediment toxicity to determine the factors important for selection of least- impacted reference conditions for beach nourishment of national lakeshore beach reaches. Hypotheses: Characterization of sand beach reach variation will enable an understanding of abiotic and biotic interactions and determine preferred habitats selected for promoting native biological diversity.

Table 3. Chronology of dredging operations in the vicinity of the NIPSCO outfall between 1980 and 2009.

AMOUNT STARTED/ YEAR COMPLETED DREDGED DISPOSAL AREA AWARDED (Cubic Yards)

1980 dredged by NIPSCO 275,000 Open Lake 1982 dredged by NIPSCO 218,000 Pumped to shore at Bailey Generating Station 1986 dredged by NIPSCO 320,000 Nearshore beach nourishment at Ogden Dunes (75%) & Beverly Shores (25%) 1989 dredged by NIPSCO 288,000 Nearshore beach nourishment at Ogden Dunes (75%) & Beverly Shores (25%) 1992 dredged by NIPSCO 209,000 Nearshore beach nourishment at Ogden Dunes (75%) & Beverly Shores (25%) 1995 dredged by NIPSCO 118,000 Nearshore beach nourishment at Ogden Dunes (75%) & Beverly Shores (25%) 1997 dredged by NIPSCO 146,000 Nearshore beach nourishment at Ogden Dunes (75%) & Beverly Shores (25%) 1999 dredged by NIPSCO 165,000 Nearshore beach nourishment at Ogden Dunes (75%) & Beverly Shores (25%) 2006 August September 30,000 Nearshore beach nourishment at Ogden Dunes 2007 July September 228,400 Nearshore beach nourishment at Ogden Dunes 2008 Data unavailable October 105,000 Nearshore beach nourishment at Ogden Dunes 2009 July October 108,400 Nearshore beach nourishment at Ogden Dunes

Table 4. Chronology of dredging operations in the vicinity of the Burns Waterway Harbor between 1985 and 2008.

AMOUNT STARTED/ YEAR COMPLETED DREDGED DISPOSAL AREA AWARDED (Cubic Yards) 1985-86 Data unavailable Data unavailable 66,818 Data unavailable 1995-96 Data unavailable Data unavailable 265,843 Open Lake (234,480 cy) and Ogden Dunes Disposal site (31,363 cy) 2007 August August Data unavailable open lake disposal 1-mile north of Harbor 2008 June October 98,695 open lake disposal 1-mile north of Harbor

Methods

Study Design

A geometric sampling design was used to characterize the coastal shoreline of Lake Michigan in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore (Figure 2). Three littoral drift classes were selected including, accretion, erosion, and dynamically stable drift types. Three beach or access reaches were selected to develop the particle size profile associated with each littoral drift classification. These three reaches included heavily disturbed habitat anthropogenically affected from poorly designed beach nourishment projects, least-impacted substrates representative of coastal shorelines of Lake Michigan natural accretion and erosion types, and best remaining reaches typical of Lake Michigan. In addition, we sampled a site reflective of historic conditions that may not be available to provide a measure of the deviation from historic reference conditions (i.e., Beach house Blowout, Indiana Dunes State Park). We also sampled sites already subject to beach nourishment studies (i.e., Mt. Baldy east and west).

The geometic design was placed equidistant using a series of nodes across an area that included both 30 m offshore and onshore over a 100 m reach. Each node was separated from any other node by 10-m (Figure 2). This area is the amount of habitat that is currently monitored for fish assemblages and would provide areas of high native fish assemblage biological diversity. The positioning of the geometric network was modified to consider dune formation or offshore depth concerns. Due to safety and physical constraints, depths over 1.2 m were excluded from sediment composite sampling.

Field and Laboratory Methods

Sediment toxicity

Sediment toxicity measures included Daphnia pulex pore water elutriate test. These tests were conducted from composited material from offshore (aquatic habitats) and on-shore composited sediments from each node in the geometric design following standard EPA sediment toxicity methods (Burton and others. 1996; EPA 1994a, b, c; and EPA 2000). This information evaluated nutrient and metal toxicity from sand beach reaches (Table 5). Water quality measurement was simultaneously taken during the preparation of the elutriate sample. Elutriate samples were comprised of 300 mL of culture water (moderately hard water) overlying 100 mL of sediment. Samples were vigorously shaken for 30 minutes and then allowed to settle for 30 minutes prior to preparation of samples. Daphnia pulex, less than 24 hours old, were placed in individual containers and exposed to 30 mL of a 100% sediment elutriate mixture for a 48 hour period. Water quality measurements were taken following standard parameter measurements using a Eureka™ multi-parameter water-chemistry analysis unit. Parameters included pH (standard units), temperature (C), specific conductance (micro Semens), oxidation-reduction potential (mV), and dissolved oxygen (ppm). Mortality was the endpoint of the test and was checked at times 0, 24 and 48 hours. Full details of the testing protocol and are shown in Appendix 5.

Table 5. Summary of test conditions for Daphnia pulex 48 hour acute elutriate toxicity test (based on Peltier and Weber 1985; EPA method SM 2024).

Test type: Static, non-renewal, 48 hr Temperature: 20.0 + 2 C Light quality: Ambient laboratory illumination Light intensity: 50-100 foot candles Photoperiod: 16 hr light: 8 hr dark Test chamber size: 50 mL containers Test solution volume: 30 mL/ replicate Renewal: None Age of test organisms: <24 hr old neonates Number/container: 1 per cup/ 10 replicates Aeration: None unless dissolved oxygen is <40% saturation, then < 2 bubbles/ s Dilution water: Moderately hard reconstituted deionizer water: culture water Test media/ concentration: Control, screen test Elutriate: 300 mL culture water: 100 mL sediment Test duration: 48 hrs Effects measured: Survival at 0, 24, and 48 hrs; Activity at 0, 24, and 48 hrs Dissolved oxygen, pH, and specific conductance

Sediment Chemistry

Methods adopted by EPA (EPA 1989, 1993, 1994) were used for sediment sample collection including holding times for chemical analysis. Sediment samples were a composite (aliquots representing 1 tsp) from all of the sampled nodes representing on-shore and off-shore nodes. Each of the five sites were composited across rows by site, homogenized, and stored in a clean 500 mL glass jar. The containers were sealed and kept refrigerated at 4oC until sent off for analysis at the Indiana State Department of Health Chemistry Laboratory.

Table 6. List of variables sampled at each of five beach reaches. Nodes refer to each point in the geometric design, while composited sample is the analysis of the aliquots of the entire beach reach for sediment chemical parameters. Parameter Composite Node Analysis Method Sediment Chemistry Metals Arsenic X EPA Method 200.8 Barium X EPA Method 200.8 Cadmium X EPA Method 200.8 Chromium X EPA Method 200.8 Copper X EPA Method 200.8 Cyanide X EPA Method 9010B Iron X EPA Method 200.7 Lead X EPA Method 200.7 Manganese X EPA Method 200.8 Mercury X EPA Method 245.5 Nickel X EPA Method 200.8 Selenium X EPA Method 200.8 Zinc X EPA Method 200.8 Nutrients Nitrogen, as nitrate+nitrite X EPA Method 353.1 Nitrogen, as Ammonia X EPA Method 350.1 Total Keldahl Nitrogen X EPA Method 351.2 Total Phosphorus X EPA Method 365.1 Total Organic Carbon X EPA Method (1994) Sediment Composition Grain size analysis X Wentworth 1922; Geosystems Software Compaction X Callaway and Siegel (2002) Porosity X Glasbey and others. (1991) Moisture Content X EPA-USACE Methods (1994) Sediment Toxicity Daphnia elutriate X EPA Method SM 2024

Table 7. Sieve rack sizes and screen mesh diameters associated with gravel and fine sand sediment fractions collected from ten beach access points in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.

Sieve # Size (mm) #4 4.750 #10 2.000 #20 0.850 #40 0.425 #60 0.250 #100 0.150 #140 0.106 #200 0.075 < #200 (pan) <0.075

Sediment porosity, grain size characterization, and compaction

Following the methods outlined in Simon and Morris (2011) a geometric design was used to capture both long-shore and cross-shore variability at both borrow and nourished beaches by collecting grab samples from 70 locations (nodes) within a 100 by 90 meter sampling zone. Nodes were arranged in a staggered grid formation maintaining 10 meters distance from each adjacent node (Figure 2). Sampling zones were arranged such that approximately half the nodes would fall on land while the other half would be in the water. Nodes at water depths greater than 1.2 meters were excluded. An additional series of samples were collected directly from the water/land interface every 10 meters throughout the zone. Samples from dry land were collected using a stainless steel hand shovel and those from the water using a hand operated dredge. Sand compaction was measured using a soil compaction tester by forcing the probe into the sand at each node and recording the depth of penetration at 100 psi. For each node materials were placed into a stainless steel pail and thoroughly mixed. Once mixed a single 18 oz sample bag was filled with sand/sediment and retained for analysis.

Sand/sediment samples collected from each node were placed into aluminum pans and dried at 63-65°C to a constant weight (12-24 hours). Each dried sample was weighed to the nearest 0.01 gram, loaded into a stacked series of standard sieves ranging in mesh size from 4.75 to 0.010 mm, and processed using an automated sieve shaker for fifteen minutes. Once processed, materials remaining in each successive sieve were weighed to the nearest 0.01 gram. As a quality assurance check final sum weights were compared to start weights. If samples losses exceed 1%, established acceptable loss for the method, the data were flagged and not included in the final calculations. The grain size distributions were compared to quantify the compatibility of the grain size of borrow materials with native sediments following standard methods. Sediment porosity followed Glasbey and others (1991) based on the gas expansion method.

Pebble Counts

Pebble count data were collected from five random square meter grids placed in the swash zone. Large particle sizes greater than 25 mm in diameter were accumulated during a 15 minute search and measured in the laboratory for maximum length, maximum width, and maximum depth.

Sand Fractionation models

Sand fraction data from each node within site were used to generate models of sand fractionation. Each node within site was treated as an independent observation contained within a data matrix. From this matrix relative concentration of each sieve size was projected using both 2D and 3D models using Surfer 9.1 (Golden Software, Golden, Colorado).

Statistical Analysis

The distribution of sediment grain sizes were assessed in three different manners consistent with the various attributes necessary to evaluate standard analysis (Geosystems Classification Suite, Ft. Collins, Colorado). This software provides soil classification and grain size analysis of information including D10, D30, D60 fineness modulus and coefficients of concavity and uniformity, and percent gravel, sand, silt, clay based on upon various particle classification systems. Particle distribution curves were plotted on semi-log, log (size) compared to probability, linear, particle diameter and Phi (Wentworth 1922) charts. Tabulated sieve percentages were computed and deviations compared from the ASTM sand specification model. The USDA soil classification chart for composite site sediments were created for each site.

Standardized grain size data were analyzed with cluster analysis using an Euclidean Distance Similarity Matrix based on Ward's Method to create a two-dimensional dendogram of the similarity matrix (StatSoft, Inc. 2002). This similarity matrix model groups data, or in this case sites, in "clusters" that represent relative similarity within the group and a corresponding dissimilarity with adjacent groups. The vertical distance that separates each model cluster represents the degree of dissimilarity between the groups.

To understand within cluster grain size variability we first normalized and standardized the data then evaluated for strong correlation using Pearson correlation. If a compilation of sieve sizes demonstrated a strong correlation (r2 > 0.80) then only one was chosen to represent the cumulative relationship. This step was necessary to prevent strongly correlated sieves sizes from driving the analysis. The remaining sieve seizes were analyzed for within clusters effects with factor analysis using the Principal Components method and interpreted using a Varimax raw rotation.

To evaluate the relative explanation of cumulative variance between row data within cluster (i.e., which rows running parallel to the shoreline explain the most variability within cluster) we used Principal Components Analysis (PCA). Normalized and standardized data were tested for primary row drivers and evaluated using a unit circle vector plot by graphing PCA 1 v/s PCA 2. This approach provides a visual interpretation of the relative power and magnitude of contributing variables. 15

Results

Existing grain size composition of sand substrates within the park’s coastal shoreline of southern Lake Michigan

Shoreline Characterization

The sediment grain size for the ten Lake Michigan beach and access sites along the coastal shoreline was conducted during the summer of 2010 and 2011. The beaches were classified into three sediment littoral drift types, including erosion, dynamically stable, and accretion types. Three beaches were placed into each category. The erosional littoral drift areas included Mt. Baldy (East), Mt. Baldy (West), and Lake Street. The dynamically stable areas included Beach house Blowout, Central, and Dunbar beaches. Erosional littoral drift habitats included Dune Acres, Portage Lakefront, and West Beach.

Grain Size Distribution

A total of 590 individual points (nodes) were sampled within the geometric design at ten Lake Michigan coastal shoreline sites (Appendix 1). The information presents the on-shore (rows A, B, C), off-shore (D, E, F), and the swash or surf zone (W). The surf zone measure is the only row that is not 10 m separated from rows C and D. The surf row (W) was located equidistant between these two rows at about 5 m separation and reflected the washing effects generated by wave erosion.

The second analysis was of the composite of rows parallel to the wetted shoreline. These rows were composited to represent similar age and exposure to natural and anthropogenic disturbance (Appendix 2). A total of 58 rows were analyzed for row properties.

The third analysis was of composite of the entire site nodes so that a single representative analysis was evaluated for the nine coastal reaches (Appendix 3). The analysis of the composite site information is presented in Tables 8-10. Table 8 shows the distribution of the sediment grain sizes based on the nine sieve types. The Dune Acres, Portage Lakefront, and Lake Street sediments were comprised of relatively small grain sizes that were retained in sieves #4 and 10 (Table 8). Dunbar, Central, and Mt. Baldy (West) sediments had the largest grain sizes retained in the largest sieve sizes #4 and 10 (Table 8), while Mt. Baldy (West) and Beach house Blowout

Table 8. Composite site sediment grain size analysis of nine sieve sizes for nine coastal reaches in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Final Sum Site #4 (g) #10 (g) #20 (g) #40 (g) #60 (g) #100 (g) #140 (g) #200 (g) #p (g) Wt. Mt. Baldy (East) 936.61 386.82 379.15 878.21 1216.61 650.76 32.77 5.74 4.96 4491.64 Mt. Baldy (West) 1094.9 714.62 506.76 437.4 1071.66 1426.61 89.01 24.06 3.22 5368.2 Central 1250 642.05 360.96 758.3 1214.4 498.23 24.96 3.59 3.03 4755.48 Dunbar 1538.6 494.46 283.32 371.9 1605.15 851.22 15.16 1.88 0.71 5162.36 B. House Blowout 279.7 214.87 400.99 472.11 1144.43 1207.67 33.67 5.31 12.65 3771.41 Dune Acres 166.51 265.75 228.84 540.55 2156.08 721.83 10.26 1.54 0.37 4091.73 Portage Lakefront 52.04 71.63 108.97 804.7 3491.59 429.2 44.42 10.96 2.01 5015.53 West Beach 280.41 273.35 340.39 730.38 2168.32 1165.09 55.86 9.78 0.84 5024.42 Lake Street 1.86 7.29 85.01 565.82 1051.66 2244.73 201.7 9.87 0.79 4168.73

Table 9. Cumulative grain size frequency with increasing particles finer than remaining for nine coastal shoreline reaches in Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Final Site #4 (g) #10 (g) #20 (g) #40 (g) #60 (g) #100 (g) #140 (g) #200 (g) #p (g) Sum Wt. Mt. Baldy (East) 936.61 1323.4 1702.6 2580.8 3797.41 4448.17 4480.94 4486.68 4491.6 4491.64 Mt. Baldy (West) 1094.9 1809.5 2316.3 2753.7 3825.31 5251.91 5340.92 5364.99 5368.2 5368.2 Central 1250 1892 2253 3011.3 4225.67 4723.9 4748.86 4752.45 4755.5 4755.48 Dunbar 1538.6 2033 2316.4 2688.2 4293.39 5144.61 5159.77 5161.66 5162.4 5162.36 B. House Blowout 279.7 494.57 895.56 1367.7 2512.11 3719.77 3753.44 3758.75 3771.4 3771.41 Dune Acres 166.51 432.26 661.1 1201.7 3357.73 4079.56 4089.83 4091.36 4091.7 4091.73 Portage Lakefront 52.04 123.67 232.64 1037.3 4528.93 4958.14 5002.55 5013.51 5015.5 5015.53 West Beach 280.41 553.76 894.15 1624.5 3792.85 4957.94 5013.8 5023.58 5024.4 5024.42 Lake Street 1.86 9.15 94.15 659.97 1711.63 3956.36 4158.06 4167.93 4168.7 4168.73

Table 10. The percent deviation from the ASTM sand model for specifications at Sieve #4 and #100 for sediments at nine coastal shorelines in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.

Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Sieve Site #4 (g) #10 (g) #20 (g) #40 (g) #60 (g) #100 (g) #140 (g) #200 (g) #p (g) Final Sum Wt. Mt. Baldy (East) -15.9 - - - - -1 - - - - Mt. Baldy (West) -15.4 - - - - PASS - - - - Central -21.3 - - - - -1.3 - - - - Dunbar -24.8 - - - - -1.7 - - - - B. House Blowout -2.4 - - - - -0.6 - - - - Dune Acres PASS - - - - -1.7 - - - - Portage Lakefront PASS - - - - -0.9 - - - - West Beach -0.6 - - - - -0.7 - - - - Lake Street PASS - - - - PASS - - - -

Table 11. Sediment compaction and porosity of on-shore sediments from the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore during 2010. Field Site Littoral Drift Type Compaction at 100 psi (m) Porosity Row A 0.074455 B 0.174600 Mt. Baldy (East) Erosion C 0.124727 Avg 0.123031 100% A 0.180182 Mt. Baldy (west) Erosion B 0.118100 Avg 0.150619 100% A 0.237727 B 0.123900 Central Erosion C 0.171273 Avg 0.179313 100% A 0.157455 B 0.153400 Dunbar Dynamically Stable C 0.127273 Avg 0.145813 100% A 0.065400 Beach House B 0.114444 Dynamically Stable Blowout C 0.100000 Avg 0.092000 100% A 0.157091 B 0.170200 Dune Acres Accretion C 0.150727 Avg 0.159000 100% A 0.143091 B 0.171500 Portage Lakefront Erosion C 0.122273 Avg 0.144813 100% A 0.190545 B 0.193100 West Beach Dynamically Stable C 0.196273

Avg 0.193313 100%

comprised the highest weights in the #20 sieve sizes. The Portage Lakefront had the highest weight retained in the #60 sieve, followed by Dunbar and Central (Table 8). Lake Street comprised the highest weight retained by sieve # 100 and 140 (Table 8).

Cumulative frequency for sediment grain size by weight retained in each sieve is shown in Table 9. This table shows that sediment weight doubled for Beach house Blowout, Portage Lakefront, Dune Acres, and West Beach (Table 9) with decreasing sieve size. The smallest fraction of sediment retained in the largest sieve was observed in Lake Street, which increased almost 1000% between sieves #4 and 10 (Table 9).

The percent deviation from the ASTM sand model shows that the greatest deviation from the model were seen at Dunbar, Central, Mt. Baldy (East) and Mt. Baldy (West)(Table 10). These sites had deviations at the larger sand grain sizes that exceeded 15%.

Sediment Models

Sediment relationships were modeled in 2-dimensions and 3-dimensions. These models represent spline smoothed relationships between the individual node points and the sampled beach shoreline including both onshore and offshore rows (Figures 3-22). The (0,0) node point represents the furthest southwest corner of the onshore reach. Both graphic depictions represent the equivalent nodal point location, but the 2-D figures provide aerial extent and magnitude of the sediment fractions, while the 3-D figures provide perspective on the changes in spatial relationships based on the normalized relative percentage.

Coastal shoreline models are presented from an east to west orientation to represent the patterns without bias. The littoral drift in the study area is typically in an east to west pattern (Baird and Associates 2011; Simon and others 2012).

Washington Park

Washington Park showed a significant fraction of the sediment was comprised of sieve #60 and #40 and was equally distributed both onshore and offshore (Figures 3 and 4). Large fraction materials were distributed throughout the swash zone (sieve fractions #4, #10, and #20), with highest relative amounts along the western edges. Fine fraction materials were distributed equally onshore and offshore (fraction #100). Fine clay materials were distributed in the onshore, middle third of the reach as were fractions #200 and #140, while fraction #100 and #140 had the greatest distribution in the northeast third of the offshore and northwest third of the offshore reach (Figure 3).

Mt. Baldy East

Mt. Baldy East showed the highest fraction of sediment comprised of sieve #60 and #100 in offshore water (Figures 5 and 6). These fractions were equally distributed along the distal portions of the reach and primarily were found in the furthest offshore portion of the reach. Coarse sieve fractions were found in the swash zone with fractions #4 and #10 in the eastern portion of the swash zone, while sieve fraction #20 was found in the center and west-central portions of the swash zone. Fine fraction sediment was limited to the northwestern offshore quarter of the reach, and in the east-central onshore reach for sieve fractions #140, 200, and pan fraction. Additional pan fraction clay was found in the southwest edge of the reach.

Mt. Baldy West

Sediment fraction #60 was the dominant sediment particle size found at the Mt. Baldy West reach (Figures 7 and 8). This fraction was distributed onshore with the highest relative percentage along the southern edge of the reach. The course fraction was distributed along the swash zone (fraction #4) or equally onshore and offshore in the swash zone (fraction #10 and 20). The highest relative percentage of fraction #10 is in the eastern portion of the swash zone and in the onshore western quarter of reach. Fraction #20 lies primarily along the swash zone, while fraction #40 occurs onshore elevation peaks in the west-central and south-east onshore portions of the reach (Figure 7 and 8). Fine fraction materials (sieve fractions #100, 140, 200, and pan) are primarily offshore along the furthest edge of the reach. Fraction 200 is only found in the furthest northwestern quarter of the reach (Figure 7).

Central Beach

Sediment fractions #60 and #100 are the dominant sediment fractions in offshore waters (Figure 9 and 10). These two fractions show a clinal relationship with distance offshore. Sieve fraction #60 also shows an increasing relative abundance with distance onshore. Coarse fraction materials (sieve fractions #4 and 10 are primarily located along the swash zone and to some degree both onshore and offshore. Sieve fraction #20 and 40 are found on the onshore side of the swash zone; however, fraction #40 has highest relative abundance along the southern edge of the reach (Figure 9). Fine sieve fractions (#140 and 200) are found along the furthest offshore and onshore edges of the reach, while the pan fraction was only found in the mid-central eastern edge of the reach.

Dunbar Beach

Sediment fractions at Dunbar were dominated by onshore relative abundance of sieve fraction #60, while offshore fractions were comprised primarily of sieve fractions #4 and 10 (Figures 11- 12). Coarse material was distributed in the central and eastern swash zone and offshore (fraction #4); in the western offshore quarter (fraction #10); and along a series of elevations in the northwestern quarter of the reach (fraction #20). Fine fraction material was generally distributed along the distal edge of the offshore reach (fractions #140 and 200), while the pan fraction was also distributed in the southwestern onshore quarter of the reach (Figures 11-12).

Figure 11. Dunbar Access model of shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships among a geometric sample design used during August 2010. Warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle size and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing concentrations.

Beach house blowout

Sediment fractions at Beach house Blowout represents a historical condition of Lake Michigan geologically 500-1000 bpy (Thompson 1987, 1989). Sediment fractions were dominant by coarse materials (sieve fractions #4, 10, 20 and 40) along the central and eastern portions of the reach (Figures 13-14). Fine fraction material was not dominant at the site and was found only along the western portion of the reach. Characteristic of this reach is the presence of large flat clay pebbles that were apparently more common along the Lake Michigan coastal shoreline (see Pebble count section).

Figure 14. Beach house Blowout model of 3-dimensional shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships during August 2010. Elevation and warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle sizes and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing elevations. Black represents baseline condition.

Dune Acres

Dune Acres was dominated by sieve fraction #40 on both onshore and offshore portions of the reach (Figure 15-16). Sediment fractions were dominant by fine fraction materials (sieve fractions #100, 140, 200, and the pan fraction). Course materials (sieve fractions #4, 10, and 20) comprised a relatively minor portion of the swash zone. Sieve fraction #40 was dominant in the onshore western portions of the reach (Figures 15-16). The pan fraction had the highest relative abundance with high amounts in the central and eastern offshore. Fine fraction material (sieve fraction #140 and 200) was dominant in the middle of the offshore portions of the reach and fraction 200 was present diagonally through the center of the reach.

Figure 15. Dune Acres Access model of shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships among a geometric sample design used during August 2010. Warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle size and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing relative percentages.

Portage Lakefront

Portage Lakefront was dominated by fine material sieve fraction #60 along either side of the reach grading toward the swash zone (Figure 17-18). Sediment fractions were dominant by fine fraction materials (sieve fractions #100, 140, 200, and the pan fraction). Fine fraction #100 was dominant onshore, especially in the southwest half of the onshore reach, while fractions #140 and 200 were found as a mosaic with higher relative abundance near the distal and proximal third of offshore and onshore. Course materials (sieve fractions #4, 10, and 20) comprised a negligible portion of the swash zone primarily along the western edge. Sieve fraction #40 was dominant in the central and western portions of the swash zone (Figures 17-18).

Figure 17. Portage Lakefront model of shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships among a geometric sample design used during August 2010. Warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle size and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing relative percentages.

West Beach

West Beach was dominated by fine material sieve fraction #100 along the central and eastern side of the onshore and offshore (Figure 19-20). Fraction #100 grades toward the swash zone. Sediment fractions at West Beach were dominated by fine fraction materials (sieve fractions #60, 140, 200, and the pan fraction). Fine fraction #100 was dominant, while all of the other fine fraction materials showed a similar distribution with the highest relative abundance in the northwest quarter of the offshore reach. The pan fraction comprised a portion of onshore areas in the southwest and southeast along the edge of the reach. Coarse fraction materials (sieve #4, 10, and 20) represent a minor portion of the reach with the highest relative abundance in the eastern portion of the swash zone (Figure 19).

Figure 19. West Beach model of shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships among a geometric sample design used during August 2010. Warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle size and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing concentrations.

Lake Street Access

Fine fraction materials were dominant at Lake Street Access and sieve fraction #100 had the highest relative percentage onshore and offshore (Figures 21-22). Lake Street was dominated by fine material sieve fraction #60 along the eastern side of the swash zone and graded onshore and offshore toward the edges of the reach. Fractions #140 and 200 grades from the proximal and distal edges of the reach towards the swash zone, while the highest relative percentage was distributed in the eastern and western thirds of the offshore. The pan fraction was found only along the eastern edge of the reach. Coarse fraction materials (sieve #4, 10, and 20) represent a minor portion of the reach with the highest relative abundance in the western portion of the swash zone (Figure 21).

Figure 21. Lake Street Access model of shoreline sediment fractions based on spline-smoothed nodal relationships among a geometric sample design used during August 2010. Warm colors (red-orange-yellow) represent larger percentages of particle size and cool colors (green-turquoise-blue) represent decreasing concentrations.

Pebble Count Analysis

Pebble counts from 5 random square meter grids from the swash zone were counted from seven shoreline reaches. Large particle sizes greater than 25 mm in diameter was accumulated during a 15 minute search and measured in the laboratory for maximum length, maximum width, and maximum depth. Relationships among the seven beaches show that Washington Park, Portage Lakefront, West Beach, and Lake Street all were without large fraction material (Figure 23).

Dunbar Access had the highest mean pebble count, while Mt. Baldy pebble count was greater than Central Beach. The classification of Washington Park, Portage Lakefront, West Beach, and Lake Street as accretion shoreline reaches shows a significant difference in count from Mt. Baldy, Central Beach, and Dunbar Access (Figure 23). Portage Lakefront had a total pebble count of 79, while West Beach had the fewest with a total of 31 pebbles. Mean pebble count for Central Beach was 40 (n=129 total) and Dunbar had a mean pebble count of 25 and the highest total pebble count (n = 456) among the random samples.

Pebbles along most of the southern Lake Michigan shoreline are comprised of flat, near spherical, worn clay material. Pebble maximum dimensions showed that Central Beach had the highest mean maximum dimension, while Central Beach was significantly different in dimensions from Mt. Baldy and Dunbar. The classification of Washington Park, Portage Lakefront, West Beach, and Lake Street as accretion shoreline reaches shows a significant difference from Mt. Baldy, Central Beach, and Dunbar Access in maximum dimensions (Figure 23). Mt. Baldy had an average maximum mean length of 29.01 mm, mean width 20.6 mm, and mean thickness 9.4 mm. Mt. Baldy material was shaped differently and comprised of different mineral composition than all other coastal shorelines. Central Beach had the largest maximum mean length dimension 54.1 mm (range: 21.47-165.1 mm) and largest particle size measured, while mean depth was 41.6 mm, and thickness was 23.8 mm. Dunbar had maximum mean length dimension of large fraction material as 38.5 mm (range: 20.0-117.4 mm), mean width 27.1 mm, and mean thickness 14.21 mm. Washington Park, Portage Lakefront, West Beach, and Lake Street Access did not contain pebbles.

6 120

5 100

4 80

3 60

Count

2 40

Max Dimension (in) Dimension Max

1 20

0 0

-1 Washington Park Mt. Baldy Central Dunbar Portage West Beach Lake Street

Figure 23. Pebble count and maximum dimensions of large fraction materials from seven beaches in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.

Relationships between Lake Shoreline Reaches

Three clusters were recognized based on the Ward’s cluster method using Euclidean distance rotation (Figure 24). The first cluster included Mt. Baldy (East and West), Central Beach, and Dunbar. These sites would have been identified as erosion-dynamically stable reaches. A second cluster was comprised of Portage Lakefront, West Beach, Dune Acres, and Washington Park, while Lake Street and Beach House Blowout are considered accretion littoral drift reaches.

Mt. Baldy (East) Total

Central Total

Dunbar Total

Mt. Baldy (west) Total

Portage Lakefront Total

West Beach Total

Dune Acres Total

Washington Park Total

Lake Street Total

Beach House Blowout Total

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 (Dlink/Dmax)*100 Figure 24. Relationships among Lake Michigan beach and access areas based on particle size attributes.

Significant correlations were observed between large fraction sieves #4 and #10 (R=0.821), #10 and #20 (R=0.828), and significant negative relationships with smaller fine fractions (i.e., sieves #60 [R=-0.636]. Fine fraction sieve #60 was correlated with #100 [R = 0.606], sieve #100 was correlated with #140 [R=0.800] and sieve #200 [R=0.610], sieve #140 and #200 [R=0.878], and sieve #200 and the sieve pan [R=0.639]) (Table 12).

Factor Analysis was used to evaluate the variance explained within the entire sieve set (Table 13). Sieve #4 and #60 explained 35% of the variance associated with the first factor loading. A negative association was observed between sieve #4 and #60 (Table 13). Factor 1 explained 35% of the variation, while Factor 2 explained an additional 29.3% of the variance. The cumulative loadings explained 64.3% of the variance associated with the entire data set.

Table 12. Correlations between ten coastal shoreline reaches.

Sieve #4 Sieve #10 Sieve #20 Sieve #40 Sieve #60 Sieve #100 Sieve #140 Sieve #200 (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Sieve #10 (%) 0.821054 1

Sieve #20 (%) 0.589991 0.827918 1

Sieve #40 (%) -0.033835 0.104334 0.491578 1

Sieve #60 (%) -0.648666 -0.636404 -0.425445 0.239349 1

Sieve #100 (%) -0.429125 -0.402848 -0.306449 -0.148601 0.605618 1

Sieve #140 (%) -0.410639 -0.393463 -0.349599 -0.280193 0.419017 0.800338 1

Sieve #200 (%) -0.341377 -0.354572 -0.379623 -0.299068 0.388827 0.609763 0.878124 1 Sieve #p (%) -0.030531 -0.035285 0.000645 -0.052178 0.13637 0.344485 0.532012 0.638546

Table 13. Factor analysis of normalized transformed data using the Principal component varimax loadings for all sites. Principal components loadings > 0.700.

Factor 1 Factor 2

Sieve #4 (%) -0.865099 0.074226 Sieve #60 (%) 0.91827 -0.043263 Sieve #200 (%) 0.365049 -0.817944 Sieve #20 (%) -0.541078 0.415411 Sieve #40 (%) 0.230791 0.693689 Sieve #100 (%) 0.612851 -0.507067 Sieve #p (%) 0.027329 -0.682776 Explained Variance 35% 30% Cumulative Variance 35% 65%

Cluster 1 represents coastal shoreline reaches associated with erosional and dynamically stable areas (Figure 24). These coastal shorelines had fine fractions correlated between sieve #60 and sieve #100 (R=0.766), sieve #100 and #140 (R=0.808), and sieve #140 and #200 (R=0.931) (Table 14). Sieve #4, #60, and #100 explained 43.1% of the variance associated with the first factor loading. A negative association was observed between sieve #4 and sieves #60 and #100 (Table 13). Factor 1 explained 43.1% of the variation, while Factor 2 explained an additional 21.6% of the variance. The cumulative loadings explained 64.7% of the variance associated with the entire data set.

Table 14. Correlations (R > 0.700) between erosional and dynamically stable coastal shoreline reaches with significant at p < 0.05 (from cluster 1, Figure 24).

Sieve #4 Sieve #10 Sieve #20 Sieve #40 Sieve #60 Sieve #100 Sieve #140 Sieve #200

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Sieve #10 (%) 0.670307 1

Sieve #20 (%) 0.20588 0.574851 1

Sieve #40 (%) -0.355339 -0.20941 0.492584 1

Sieve #60 (%) -0.648841 -0.551785 -0.015358 0.607307 1

Sieve #100 (%) -0.572281 -0.41253 -0.074886 0.210322 0.765826 1

Sieve #140 (%) -0.413334 -0.273176 -0.067711 0.052384 0.469999 0.808089 1

Sieve #200 (%) -0.341011 -0.216575 -0.075175 0.029981 0.364118 0.633273 0.931541 1 Sieve #p (%) -0.133289 -0.081107 0.093292 0.201508 0.159571 0.221331 0.527331 0.695995

Table 15. Factor analysis of normalized transformed data using the Principal component varimax loadings for cluster 1. Principal component loadings > 0.700.

Factor 1 Factor 2 Sieve #4 (%) -0.799078 0.226594 Sieve #60 (%) 0.879637 0.070244 Sieve #100 (%) 0.829912 -0.031442 Sieve #20 (%) -0.11225 0.932562 Sieve #40 (%) 0.512159 0.589421 Sieve #10 (%) -0.672416 0.567918 Sieve #200 (%) 0.6549 0.09578 Sieve #p (%) 0.438375 0.345998 Explained Variance 43% 22% Cumulative Variance 43% 65%

Cluster 2 represents the accretion coastal shoreline reaches identified in the cluster analysis (Figure 24). Table 16 shows that coarse fraction sieve #4 was correlated with fraction #10 (R=0.840) and #20 (R=0.776). Sieve #10 was correlated with sieve #20 (R=0.947) and negatively correlated with sieve #60 (R=-0.733). Sieve #20 was negatively correlated with sieve #60 (R=-0.744), sieve #60 was correlated with sieve #100 (R=0.704), sieve #100 with sieve #140 (R=0.753), and sieve #140 was correlated with sieve #200 (R=0.857).

Factor analysis found that a single factor loading explained 61.2% of the variance. The fine fraction (sieve #60, #100, #200) was negatively weighted with the coarse fraction (sieve #4, #20, #40) (Table 17).

Table 16. Correlations (R > 0.700) between accretion coastal shoreline reaches with significant at p < 0.05 (from cluster 2, Figure 24). Sieve #4 Sieve #10 Sieve #20 Sieve #40 Sieve #60 Sieve #100 Sieve #140 Sieve #200

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Sieve #10 (%) 0.8398 1 Sieve #20 (%) 0.776012 0.947317 1 Sieve #40 (%) 0.431062 0.456526 0.577514 1 Sieve #60 (%) -0.663056 -0.732814 -0.74375 -0.38731 1 Sieve #100 (%) -0.5005 -0.53229 -0.5457 -0.449151 0.703514 1 Sieve #140 (%) -0.569722 -0.59791 -0.634557 -0.589156 0.631422 0.752522 1 Sieve #200 (%) -0.520871 -0.559367 -0.633645 -0.569404 0.584204 0.539731 0.856655 1 Sieve #p (%) -0.398715 -0.422501 -0.463852 -0.452533 0.434183 0.351216 0.661164 0.672894

Table 17. Factor analysis of normalized transformed data using the Principal component varimax loadings for cluster 2. Principal component loadings > 0.700.

Factor 1

Sieve #4 (%) 0.794382 Sieve #20 (%) 0.878178 Sieve #60 (%) -0.837306 Sieve #100 (%) -0.748882 Sieve #200 (%) -0.825859 Sieve #40 (%) 0.695613 Sieve #p (%) -0.675786 Explained Variance 61%

Sand compaction

Sand compaction differences were observed between Beach house Blowout and all other sites (Table 11). Mt. Baldy East sediment compaction was greatest along the middle of the onshore zone (Figure 4). The greatest compaction is from the central mid-reach to the west, while Mt. Baldy West compaction was greatest at the furthest onshore edge of the reach and diminished near the swash zone and offshore (Figure 6). Central Beach had low compaction and was greatest at only a single point in the southcentral edge of the reach (Figure 8), while Dunbar compaction was greatest along the central and eastern portion of the swash zone (Figure 12). The Beach house blowout compaction was greatest along the eastern edge of the reach (Figure 14) along the lowest elevation. Compaction at Dune Acres was generally similar throughout the reach and was greatest along the eastern two-thirds (Figure 16). The only depressions was in the center of the Dune Acres reach, which showed decreasing compaction. The Portage Lakefront was generally comprised of loose material, with the exception of a portion of the west-central area onshore (Figure 18). West Beach compaction was greatest in the western portion of the reach and generally decreased to the west and north to the swash zone (Figure 20). No compaction measurements were made at either Washington Park or Lake Street, which are both considered accretion zones.

Porosity

Porosity of the five sediments did not show any significant deviation from the expected porosity associated with Oakville-Adrian (F1) soils. These soils are well drained. Porosity recovered 100% of the liquid fraction drained through these sediments (Table 11).

Sediment Chemistry Characteristics and Toxicity to Biota

Sediments were analyzed for inorganics and metal analysis using standard EPA methods (Table 6). The results of the chemical analysis are listed in Table 18 along with the method detection procedures used for each analyte. The chemical analysis data sheets are included in Appendix 4.

Most of the sediments analytes were below the detection limits reported by the ISDH Chemistry Laboratory. Of the samples not below detection limits, none exceed values that would raise concerns about toxicity based on a screening level analysis compared to the values listed in Table 18, the Sediment Reference Toxicity Values Table. Detection limits for several of the analytes (arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, and nickel) are above the Threshold Effects Level reported in multiple screening values tables (as reported in Table 19), but below other effects screening levels. However, arsenic detection levels reported by the laboratory are above not just the Threshold Effect Concentration, but are also above the Midpoint Effect Concentration (MEC) and the consensus-based Probable Effect Concentration (PEC). This suggests that arsenic levels could potentially be high enough to cause adverse ecological effects, even though they are below the detection limits for the analysis.

Table 18. Detection limit and sediment chemistry results for composite sediments from five Beach reaches (all units are in Mg/kg). Detection Central Portage Beach House Parameter Mt. Baldy Dune Acres Limit Beach Lakefront Blowout

Iron 4.75 1900 2140 1880 3380 4350 Lead 57 < 57 < 57 < 59 < 60 < 59 Arsenic 38 < 38 < 38.2 < 9.76 < 39.8 < 39.5 Barium 114 < 114 < 114 < 29.3 < 59.5 < 118 Cadmium 1.9 < 1.90 < 1.91 < 0.488 < 1.99 < 1.98 Chromium 76 < 76 < 76.4 < 19.5 < 79.6 < 79 Copper 1.9 < 1.90 < 1.91 1.465 < 1.99 < 1.99 Manganese 1.9 78.5 47.5 67.2 110 64.8 Nickel 38 < 38 < 38.2 < 9.76 < 39.8 < 39.5 Selenium 2.47 < 2.47 < 2.48 < 2.54 < 2.59 1.285 Zinc 76 < 76 < 76.4 < 19.5 < 79.6 39.5 Mercury 0.0705 < 0.0705 < 0.066 < 0.22 < 0.0669 < 0.0668 Nitrogen - ammonia 4.6 < 4.6 < 4.7 < 2 < 4.7 < 4.7 TKN 6 23 73 14 33 22 Nitrogen - nitrate+nitrite 0.6 1.2 0.7 < 2 2.3 0.8 Phosphorus, total 2.25 32.9 41.3 25.3 52.6 49.3 Cyanide 0.25 < 0.25 < 0.25 < 0.25 < 0.25 < 0.25

Table 19. Sediment Reference Toxicity Values.

Parameter PELa SELb TETc ERMd PEL HA28e TECf MECf PECg

Iron 20,000 30,000 40,000

Lead 91.3 250 170 110 82 36 83 130 Arsenic 17 33 17 85 48 9.8 21.4 33 Cadmium 3.53 10 3 9 3.2 0.99 3 5 Chromium 90 110 100 145 120 43 76.5 110 Copper 197 110 86 390 100 32 91 150 Manganese 460 780 1,100

Nickel 36 75 61 50 33 23 36 49 Selenium ------Zinc 315 820 540 270 540 120 290 460 Mercury 0.486 2 1 1.3 NG 0.18 0.64 1.1

aPEL = Probable effect level; dry weight (Smith and others, 1996).

bSEL = Severe effect level, dry weight (Persaud and others, 1993).

cTET = Toxic effect threshold; dry weight (EC and MENVIQ 1992).

dERM = Effects range median; dry weight (Long and Morgan 1991).

ePEL-HA28 = Probable effect level for Hyalella azteca ; 28-day test; dry weight (USEPA 1996).

fTEC = Threshold effect concentration; dry weight (Wisconsin DNR 2003). gMEC = Midpoint effect concentration; dry weight (Wisconsin DNR 2003). hPEC = Consensus-Based Probable effect concentrations above which harmful effects are likely to be observed (MacDonald and others 2000a,b)(Wisconsin DNR 2003).

* QA/QC evaluation designated result as a reliable PEC (e.g. >20 samples and >75% correct classification as toxic).

48 Hour Sediment Elutriate Test Results with Daphnia pulex

Daphnids are commonly used for water quality (USEPA 2002) or sediment elutriates toxicity assessment (Sasson-Brickson and Burton 1991). Sediment toxicity was evaluated using the most sensitive of the commonly used freshwater ecological test species, the water flea Daphnia pulex. The 48 hour elutriate test was used to test sediment toxicity (Sasson-Brickson and Burton 1991; USEPA 1994).

No significant chemical or water quality-related toxicity was observed (Table 20). Only two instances were observed where the daphnids died (single individual in Control 2 and Mt. Baldy (West) elutriates) were instances that the animals were observed to have been caught in the

Table 20. Results of 48 hr Sediment Elutriate Toxicity Test using Daphnia pulex

Beach House Central Dune Portage Endpoint Mt. Baldy Control 1 Control 2 Blowout Beach Acres Lakefront Mortality (0hr) 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Mortality (24 hr) 0% 0% 10%* 0% 0% 0% 10%* Mortality (48 hr) 0% 0% 10%* 0% 0% 0% 10%* * Trapped in surface tension

Table 21. Results of NaCl Toxicity Test with Daphnia pulex

Endpoint 0 mg/L 1000 mg/L 1500 mg/L 2000 mg/L 2500 mg/L 3000 mg/L

Mortality (0hr) 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Mortality (24 hr) 0% 0% 20% 30% 50% 80% Mortality (42 hr) 0% 10% 60% 100% 100% 100%

surface tension, a situation that is known to cause Daphnia mortality independent of any chemical or pH effects. To prove that these daphnids were indeed sensitive to toxicants, individuals from the same colony were tested with a reference toxicant, i.e., salt (NaCl), at doses ranging from 1000 to 3000 mg/L, and as expected the LC50 was somewhat below 1500 mg/L as shown in Table 21. Data for the water quality parameters are reported in Table 22.

Table 22. Pre- and Post-Test Water Quality Data for The Elutriate Toxicity Test with D. pulex

Dissolved Oxygen pH Conductivity (µS) Temperature (oC) (mg/L)

Test Hour 0 48 0 48 0 48 0 48 Control 1 7.7 7.5 71.8 82.5 3.5 4.54 22 20.9 Mt. Baldy 8.5 7.9 104.9 98.7 3.95 4.49 22.2 20.8 Portage Lakefront 8 7.7 141.4 124.1 3.59 5.01 22.6 21 Central Beach 8.1 7.7 145.4 102.7 3.77 5 22.2 20.7 Beach House Blowout 7 7.5 90.5 88.5 4.07 4.64 22.5 20.8 Control 2 7.6 7.4 78.5 69 3.62 4.21 22.7 20.8 Dunes Acres 7.8 7.7 70.5 97.6 3.03 4.6 22.7 21

Discussion

Sediment chemistry

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1994) have established sediment chemistry guidelines to determine the levels of contamination safe for beach nourishment. These standards are the reference used in EPA Methods in Table 6.

Sediment toxicity

Sediments tested during this study were not toxic using the most sensitive organism, Daphnia pulex. The relationship between the lack of sediment chemistry contamination and sediment toxicity should be associated with clean sediments that would meet the reference condition for beach nourishment.

Observations of the Elutriate Water

The turbidity of elutriate waters used for the toxicity test was not equally clear across sites (see Figure 25). The site with the finest material was Beach house Blowout. Presumably this is due to organic dust settling onto the sands over time, long ago (as the samples were taken a foot below surface level to ensure that it represented “reference conditions”. The elutriate from the two sites that had recent sand supplementation (Portage Lakefront near Ogden Dunes and Mt. Baldy (West)) were also not fully clear, but the amount of fines presented in the elutriate was much less than for Beach house Blowout. Notably, Mt. Baldy (West) elutriate had a distinctive yellow cast, while the Portage Lakefront near Ogden Dunes and Beach house Blowout elutriates had a more brown color cast to the water, indicating increasing (i.e., Portage Lakefront near Ogden Dunes) and even greater (i.e., Beach house Blowout) fine organic material remaining in the elutriate at the time the toxicity tests were begun. As there was no toxicity associated with any of the sediments, regardless of the amount of fines still evident in the water, there was no second tier toxicity testing required on the centrifuged sediments.

Least-impacted conditions for sand compaction and porosity along the coastal area of southern Lake Michigan.

The unique freshwater resource of the Great Lakes makes them of immense value. Thus, as the degradation of this highly valued resource has occurred since settlement, the ability to reconstruct the historical undisturbed condition becomes increasingly difficult without sufficient information. Stoddard and others, (2006) described the various states of condition that has historically been described as the “reference condition”. These various states can range from the “historical minimally disturbed” native or natural condition with high biological condition, to the “least disturbed – best attainable” condition that may represent the worst potential biological condition (Figure 26).

Stable onshore sand beaches are a result of stable offshore sand bars and littoral drift nourishing these offshore habitats (Nordstrom 2000). A weight-of-evidence approach was used to determine the proper sand compaction and porosity along the coastal shoreline of southern Lake Michigan. First, porosity should be high (approaching 100%) by definition of the expected soil types. Deviation from 100% porosity would suggest that either too much organic carbon or improper soil types are present on the coastal shoreline. Likewise, compaction of sand beach substrates may be changed as a result of heavy equipment, improper settling of sediments or improper sand mix with too heavy particles sizes represented in the deposited material. The compaction results for the five sediment sites, i.e., Mt. Baldy (West), Central Beach, Beach house Blowout, Dune Acres, and Portage Lakefront showed that the greatest compaction was near the swash zone with declining levels of compaction further onshore (Table 11).

Figure 26. The representation of the reference condition as influencing the biological condition gradient (Stoddard and others, 2006).

Emerging and existing threats or stressors

The presence of emerging and existing threats or stressors based on patterns of sediment associations with various natural and anthropogenic influences was evaluated for response to fraction, sediment color, turbidity, sediment contamination, and sediment toxicity. No sediment contamination or toxicity was observed among the sediments tested. Sediment color was similar between sediment starved areas and accretion areas. Thus, no impediment to sediment nourishment of coastal shoreline habitats should be limited.

Prevailing water currents change over season and net movement is determined by the movement of sediments. For example, the net movement of sand east of Gary is to the west, but there are times that the sediment budget may move to the east. The eolian movement of sand by wind is an important mechanism for the formation of dunes and the movement of sand across the landscape. The Mt. Baldy unit of the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore has been particularly affected by wind mechanisms. Another area that is also affected by wind movement is the West Beach unit. The western portion of Ogden Dunes was condemned as a result of the dune movement.

Another component of existing or future stressors will be the potential for climate change-related impacts. The model prediction for the Great Lakes is that freshwater will be reduced in quantity and lake levels will decline. This will affect sand dynamics, composition, and net movement laterally along the coastal area. The reorientation of the lake dynamics and change of wind and water currents will change the mechanisms of sand movement and dune formation.

The contamination of the coastal area by anthropogenic disturbance has potential to affect the biological assemblages. The chemical contamination from industrial sources may be within authorized permit levels, but coupled with changing water currents, additional mass balance and time of travel studies for lake changeover will be necessary. This has the potential to affect the amount of pollutants authorized for release and also change the associations of chemicals in the sediments. The potential change in pH levels may affect the carbon dioxide and carbonate system, which will increase metal valence state changes thus increasing toxicity to sensitive benthic organisms.

Other human-related activities that may influence the sediment associations of coastal shoreline of Lake Michigan includes the continued dredging of accretion areas and the deposition of sand starved areas with beach nourishment. Four specific areas in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore are particularly sand starved, including Mt. Baldy west of the Michigan City breakwall, Port of Indiana on the eastern area near Dune Acres, western portion of the Portage Lakefront at the Burns Ditch Waterway, and the Lake Street access near the U.S. Steel breakwall. Lastly, the influence of E. coli on the beach sand is affected when there are beach closures. Concomitant with beach closures is a greater exposure of park visitors to beach sand. It is known that beach sand magnifies E. coli, since the numbers of colonies may increase by an order of magnitude greater than the water concentrations. This places greater risk to visitors recreating on the beach sand, especially in areas wetted by wave action, i.e., where children are known to play.

The contamination of beach sands by animal activity is likewise a potential source of contamination by the deposition of pets and invasive wildlife excrement anddefecation on the beach. Canada goose, gulls, and increasing associations of migratory birds that are remaining and not migrating south have potential to impact the beach sands and expose visitors to aesthetically unpleasant odors, but also the potential to ingest or absorb through their skin the contaminants from the defecation pellets. Pets also provide another source of potential defecation as they enter into the water or dig into the beach sands. These mechanisms are increasing in magnitude as more visitors bring pets to the beach.

Predicting Relationships between Sediment Fraction and Coastal Shoreline Class

The relationships among individual sampling points and their associations within rows along the geometric sample design were evaluated using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) (Figure 2). The relationships of PCA 1 was graphed against PCA 2 to show the relationships among rows in order to determine whether a reduced sampling effort could be used to evaluate the primary sediment relationships between littoral drift classes.

Cluster 1 sites showed a relationship between onshore rows A and B and offshore rows E and F (Figure 27). The onshore row C showed an intermediate relationship with rows A and B and E and F. Rows D and W (swash zone) were most closely associated. The Cluster 2 PCA showed that rows A-F were closely associated and showed limited distance between the furthest rows C and F. The relationship of row W to the remaining rows showed that the coarse fraction associated with the swash zone is different from all other rows (Figure 29).

An analysis of row PCA analysis of the geometric design suggests that rows C, W, D, and E contains the most information content. Rows E and F were so closely associated that limited information content was gained from sampling both. Likewise, rows A and B did not differ from rows E and F. As a result, reduced sampling of rows W, D, and E would provide enough information content to determine the littoral drift classification.

Row W Row W 1.0 Row D 1.0

0.5 0.5

Row C Row C

Row A Row DB 0.0 Row B 0.0 Row A Row E RowRow E F Row F

Factor27.73%2:

Factor 15.42% 2 :

-0.5 -0.5

-1.0 -1.0

-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 Factor 1 : 60.32% Factor 1 : 83.73%

Figure 27. Principal Component Analysis with varimax rotation showing Factor I and Factor 2 relationships. Right: Cluster 1 and Left: Cluster 2.

Quantitative ranking criteria to determine selection of least- impacted reference conditions for beach nourishment of park beach reaches

The sediment used for beach nourishment should ideally be indistinguishable from native site sediment in terms of color, shape, size, mineralogy, compaction, organic content, and texture. The particle size distribution of any proposed beach nourishment material should be compared with the distribution for native material at the site. Any beach nourishment material should be similar in color, mineralogy, and organic content to the native sample and free of harmful chemical contaminants, trash, debris, or large pieces of organic material.

There are two proposed beach nourishment locations within the lakeshore. For the Mt Baldy beach area, the borrow location is east, up-drift, of the Michigan City Harbor structure and the native site for proposed nourishment is located to the west, down-drift, approximately 1.5 miles at Mt. Baldy. For the Portage Lakefront and Riverwalk area, the borrow location is located northeast of the Port of Indiana Industrial Complex (Dune Acres) and the native site for proposed nourishment is located to the west, down-drift, approximately 3.5 miles at Portage Lakefront and Riverwalk. Sand samples used to characterize both borrow and nourishment locations were collected from the beach/shoreline area at or immediately adjacent to each location and are representative of that material.

Portage Lakefront and Riverwalk Nourishment zone

An overfill factor of 1.52 was computed for the Dune Acres borrow site. The overfill factor is used to define the volume of borrow material required to produce a unit volume of material on the native beach. It can also be used to assess the general suitability of fill material. The overfill factor was calculated using the method described in Gravens and others (2008) that compares the mean sediment diameter and sorting values of the native beach and borrow sediment. A range of 1 -1.5 is considered satisfactorily compatible. The overfill factor for Dune Acres was on the high

Particle Size Distribution 100 90 Dune Acres - Borrow 80 Portage Lakefront - Native 70 60 50 40

PERCENT FINER PERCENT 30 20 10 0 10 1 0.1 0.01 Grain Size, mm

Figure 28. Comparison of composite gradations in Reach 3. end of the range; however, the median sediment diameter is matched and the material represents sediment that would be moving in the littoral system if navigation structures had not interrupted littoral transport. The Dune Acres borrow source has similar grain size and color to that of the native material at Portage Lakefront and is considered to be a compatible source of material for the restoration project.

Mt Baldy Nourishment Zone

The sediments located in the borrow sites are similar in color to the material at the native sites and no significant levels of contaminants were present in the borrow materials. Figure 29 presents a comparison of site composite grain size curves for the native and borrow material. There is a significant coarse “gravel” fraction of material in the site composite gradation for Mt. Baldy. The gradation has 20% of material retained on the #4 sieve, which is greater than 4.75 mm and defined as gravel in the ASTM Classification System. Both of the samples are classified as poorly graded sand (SP) under the Unified Soils Classification System (USCS). As a result of the large gravel component of the native site composite, the median grain size of the borrow material and native site are 0.1 mm different (Table 23). An overfill factor of 1.6 was computed for the Michigan City borrow site when compared to the Mt. Baldy native site composition sample.

Particle Size Distribution 100 Michigan City - Proposed 90 Fill Mt Baldy - Native 80 Mt Baldy gravel removed - 70 Native 60 50 40

PERCENT FINER PERCENT 30 20 10 0 10 1 0.1 0.01 Grain Size, mm

Figure 29. Comparison of composite gradations in Reach 1.

The beach nourishment component of a restoration project is designed to restore the natural sediment transport along the shoreline and replenish material that would naturally be moving in the littoral system. Gravel is a natural component of the Mt. Baldy area but is not representative of material readily mobilized by natural wave driven littoral transport. Since the focus of this comparison is in nourishing those materials naturally moving in the littoral system a modified site composite gradation was generated.

Three-dimensional modeling of the sieve #4 data (gravel) at Mt. Baldy (Figure 30) clearly illustrates both the position and shoreline orientation of the gravel component. These materials are predominantly located in a narrow band arranged alongshore extending from the water shore interface to approximately 10 meters into the lake. This gravel orientation is consistent with other shoreline areas adjacent to Mt. Baldy. To deemphasize the material not readily mobilized in the littoral system, gravel, a modified site composite was generated using all samples, except those located where the gravel material was dominant. This site composite was designed to be more representative of the sand-sized material that would be

Table 32. Sand grain statistics calculated from Mt. Baldy and Michigan City composite samples.

Sample D50 (mm) % Fines % Gravel

Mt. Baldy - Native 0.45 0.1 20.4 Mt. Baldy gravel removed - Native 0.4 0.2 8.2 Michigan City - Borrow 0.35 0 1.5

moving in littoral transport. The sand trapped at Michigan City represents sediment that would be moving in the littoral system if navigation structures had not interrupted the littoral transport. The restoration project includes alternatives other than nourishment to maintain and restore the gravel material at the native site, so the focus of the grain size compatibility is the sand fraction of material. When comparing the modified site composite sample to the borrow source, the median grain size diameters are within 0.05 mm (Table 23). The borrow material has zero percent fines passing the #200 sieve, so silt is not present in the composite sample. An overfill factor of 1.2 was estimated for the Michigan City borrow site, which is considered to be compatible. The Michigan City borrow source has similar grain size and color to that of the sand fraction of the native material at Mt. Baldy and is considered to be a compatible source of material for the restoration project.

Figure 30. Three-dimensional representation of the relative distribution of gravel materials at Mt. Baldy. Position “0” on the X axis represents the relative position of the water/land interface with positive numbers indicating landward areas and negative numbers lakeward. Lakeward samples did not extend as far as shore samples due to excessive water depth beyond 20 meters. The “Y” axis represents alongshore distance. Colors represent the relative percent composition of gravel retained in sieve #4.

Conclusions

The evaluation of chemical and physical attributes of Lake Michigan coastal shoreline reaches was conducted during the summer of 2010 and 2011. Beaches were classified based on sand littoral drift. Ten beach reaches were studied for sand grain particle analysis and associations determined between sand grain size, porosity, compaction, and total organic carbon.

Sediment chemistry was done on five shoreline reaches including Mt. Baldy (West), Central, Beach house Blowout, Dune Acres, and Portage Lakefront. Sediment chemistry included 13 metals and 9 nutrients were analyzed (Tables 12). None of the parameters showed levels that would preclude the survivorship of aquatic organisms or limit application for beach nourishment (Table 13).

Sediment toxicity testing was conducted with Daphnia pulex, which is considered the most sensitive of the aquatic invertebrates. No adverse effects or toxicity was observed for the five sediments assessed from the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.

A cluster analysis using the sediment fractions for 10 coastal shoreline beaches was analyzed. Three clusters were found during an analysis. Beaches clustered in the first grouping were separated as either erosional-dynamically stable or as accretion sites (Figure 24). Patterns among the three clusters contributed to the selection of Central Beach as the Mt. Baldy reference sediment, while the Portage Lakefront sample collected during the current study will provide the reference sediment mixture for future nourishment activities.

Literature Cited

Baird and Associates, 2011. 1951/52 to 2010 Shoreline Change Analysis Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. DRAFT report to U.S. National Park Service, Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, Porter, Indiana.

Blotts, S.J., and Pye, K. 2004. Morphological and sedimentological changes on an artificially nourished beach, Lincolnshire, UK. Journal of Coastal Research, 20(1), 214-233.

Bruun, P., and Willekes, G. 1992. Bypassing and backpassing at harbors, navigation channels, and tidal entrances: use of shallow-water draft hopper dredges with pump-out capabilities. Journal of Coastal Research, 8 (4), 972-977.

Burton, G.A., Jr., C.G. Ingersoll, L.C. Burnett, M. Henry, M.L. Hinman, S.J. Klaine, P.F. Landrum, P. Ross, and M. Tuchman. 1996. A comparison of sediment toxicity test methods at three Great Lake Areas of Concern. Journal of Great Lakes Research 22, 495- 511.

Callaway, J. and S. Siegel. 2002. Data collection protocol: Sediment Erosion Tables (SET’s). Standard methods for Wetland Investigation. http://www.sfei.org/wetlands/Current%20Projects/Wetlands%20Regional%20Monitorin~ 000/Monitoring%20Protocols/2%20Sedimentation%20Protocol.pdf

Charlier, R.H., Chaineux, M.C.P., and Mocos, S., 2005. Panorama of the history of coastal protection. Journal of Coastal Research, 21(1), 19-111.

Dean, R.G. 1983. Principals of beach nourishment. In: Komarm P.D. (ed), Handbook of Coastal Processes and Erosion. Boca Raton, Florida: C.R.C. Press, 53-84.

DeLancey, L.B. 1989. Tropic relationship in the surf zone during the summer at Folly Beach, South Carolina. Journal of Coastal Research, 5(3), 477-488.

Environment Canada and Ministere de l'Envionnement du Quebec (EC and MENVIQ). 1992. Interim criteria for quality assessment of St. Lawrence River sediment. ISBN 0-662- 19849-2.

Elias, S.P., Fraser, J.D., and Buckley, P.A. 2000. Piping plover brood foraging ecology on New York barrier islands. Journal of Wildlife Management, 64, 346-354.

Fox, W.T. and Davis, R.A., Jr., 1976. Weather and coastal processes. In Davis, R.A., Jr. and Ethington, R.L. (Eds). Beach and Nearshore Sedimentation. SEPA Special Publication 24. pp. 1-23.

Great Lakes Basin Commission. 1976. Limnology of lakes and embayments (app. 4). Great Lakes Basin framework study: Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Grippo, M.A., Cooper, S. and Massey, A.G. 2007. Effects of beach replenishment projects on waterbird and shorebird communities. Journal of Costal Research, 23:5, 1088-1096.

Hall, J.V. 1952. Artificially constructed and nourished beaches. Proceedings of the 3rd Coastal Engineering Conference (Cambridge, Massachusetts, ASCE), 119-133.

Hansel, A.K., Mickelson, D.M., Schneider, A.F., and Larsen, C.F., 1985. Late Wisconsian and Holocene history of the Lake Michigan basin, In. Karrow, P.F., and Calkin, P.E. (Eds.). Quarternary Evolution of the Great Lakes. Geological Association of Canada Special Paper 30, Ottawa, Ontario, pg. 39-53.

Indiana Department of Natural Resources (IDNR). 1979a. An inventory of man-made land along the Indiana shoreline of Lake Michigan. Technical Report Number 304.

Indiana Department of Natural Resources (IDNR). 1979b. Shoreline erosion along the Indiana coast of Lake Michigan. Technical Report Number 307.

Indiana Department of Natural Resources (IDNR) 1994. Water resource availability in the Lake Michigan Region, Indiana. State of Indiana, Department of Natural Resources, Division of Water, Water Resources Assessment 94-4.

Kilham S.S., Kreeger D.A., Lynn S.G., Goulden C.E. & Herrera L. (1998) COMBO: a defined freshwater culture medium for algae and zooplankton. Hydrobiologia, 377, 147–159.

Leonard, L., Clayton, T., and Pilkey, O. 1990. An analysis of replenishment beach design parameters on U.S. east coast barrier islands. Journal of Coastal Research, 6, 15-36.

Long, E.R., and Morgan L.G., 1991. The potential for biological effects of sediment-sorbed contaminants tested in the National Status and Trends Program. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS OMA 52. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA, 175 pp + appendices.

MacDonald, D.D., DiPinto L.M., Field J., Ingersoll C.G., Long E.R., Swartz R.C., 2000b. Development and evaluation of consensus-based sediment effect concentrations for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Environmental Toxicology Chemistry, 19, 1403-1413.

MacDonald, D.D., Ingersoll C.G., and Berger T., 2000a. Development and evaluation of consensus-based sediment quality guidelines for freshwater ecosystems. Archives Environmental Contamination Toxicology, 39:20-31.

Malott, C.A. 1922. The Physiography of Indiana. In Indiana Department of Conservation, Handbook of Indiana Geology: Division of Geology.

Moore, P.G., 1978. Inorganic particulate suspensions in the sea and their effects on marine animals. Oceanography and Marine Biology Annual Review, 15, 225-363.

Newcombe, C.P. and MacDonald, D.D., 1991. Effects of suspended sediments on aquatic ecosystems. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 11, 72-82.

Newman, D.E., 1967. Beach replenishment: sea defenses and a review of the role of artificial beach replenishment. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 60, 445-460.

Omernik, J.M. 1987. Ecoregions of the conterminous United States. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 77: 118–125.

Park, J.,-Y. Gayes, P.T., and Wells, J.T., 2009 Monitoring beach renourishment along the sediment-starved shoreline of Grand Strand, South Carolina. Journal of Coastal Research, 25:2, 336-349.

Persaud, D, Jaagumagi R, Hayton A. 1993. Guidelines for the protection and management of aquatic sediment quality in Ontario. Water Resources Branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Toronto, ONT, 27 p.

Pilkey, O.H., and Clayton, T.D., 1989. Summary of beach replenishment experience on U.S. east coast barrier islands. Journal of Coastal Research, 5:1, 147-159.

Rakocinski, C.F., Heard, R.W., Lecroy, S.E., McLeeland, J.A., and Simons, T. 1996. Responses by macrobenthic assemblages to extensive beach restoration at Perdido Key, Florida, U.S.A. Journal of Coastal Research, 12, 326-353.

Ross, S.T., McMichael, R.H, Jr., and Ruple, D.L., 1987. Seasonal and diel variation in the standing crop of fishes and macroinvertebrates from a Gulf of Mexico surf zone. Estuarine Coastal and Shelf Sciences, 25, 391-412.

Sasson-Brickson G., and Burton, Jr. J.A. (1991) In situ and laboratory sediment toxicity testing with Ceriodaphnia dubia. Environmental Toxicology Chemistry, 10(2), 201-208.

Schneider, A.F. 1966. Physiography, in Lindsey, A.A. (Ed.). Natural Features of Indiana. Indiana Academy of Science, Indianapolis.

Simon, T.P., Morris, C.C., and Henshel, D. 2011. Interim Report: Evaluation of Reference Conditions for Coastal Sand Habitats of Southern Lake Michigan at Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. GLRI#94 Task Agreement #J 6300100405. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

Smith S.L., MacDonald D.D., Keenleyside K.A., Ingersoll C.G., and Field J., 1996. A preliminary evaluation of sediment quality assessment values for freshwater ecosystems. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 22, 624-638.

Stoddard, J. L., Larsen, D. P., Hawkins, C.P., Johnson, R.K., and Norris, R.H. , 2006. Setting expectations for the ecological condition of streams: The concept of reference condition. Ecological Applications, 16(4), 1267-1276.

Thompson, T.A. 1987. Sedimentology, internal architecture, and depositional history of the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore and State Park. Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington.

Thompson, T.A. 1989. Anatomy of a transgression along the Southeastern shore of Lake Michigan. Journal of Coastal Research, 5, 711-724.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1989. Evaluation of the apparent effects threshold (AET) approach for assessing sediment quality. Report of the Sediment Criteria Subcommittee SAB-EETFC-89-027. Washington, D.C.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1993. Technical basis for deriving sediment quality criteria for nonionic organic contaminants for the protection of benthic organisms by using equilibrium partitioning. EPA/822/R-93/011. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Office of Science and Technology, Health and Ecological Criteria Division, Washington, DC.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1994a. Assessment and Remediation of Contaminated Sediments (ARCS) Remediation Guidance Document. EPA 905-B94-003. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Great Lakes National Program Office, Chicago, IL.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1994b. Methods for measuring the toxicity and bioaccumulation of sediment associated contaminants with freshwater invertebrates. EPA 600-R24-024. Duluth, MN.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1994c. 48-hour acute toxicity test using Daphnia magna and Daphnia pulex. SOP Number 2024. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Duluth, MN.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)-U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1994. Evaluation of dredged material proposed for discharge in inland and near coastal waters (draft). EPA-823-B-94-002. Washington, DC.

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1996. Calculation and evaluation of sediment effect concentrations for the amphipod Hyalella azteca and the midge Chironomus riparius. EPA 905/R-96/008, Chicago, IL.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2000. Methods for measuring the toxicity and bioaccumulation of sediment-associated contaminants with freshwater invertebrates. 2nd Edition. EPA 600/R-99/064. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Mid-Continent Ecology Division, Duluth, MN.

U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 2002. Methods for Measuring the Acute Toxicity of Effluents and Receiving Waters to Freshwater and Marine Organisms. 5th ed. 2002. EPA Office of Water. Web. 26 Jan. 2011.

Vierlinck (Vierlingh), A., 1579. Tractaet van dijckagie: Amsterdam.

Wentworth, C.K. 1922. A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediments. Journal of Geology, 30, 377-392. 1922.

Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. 2003. Consensus-Based Sediment Quality Guidelines; Recommendations for Use and Application. WT-732. Department of Natural Resources, Wisconsin 17 p.

Wilber, D.H. and Clarke, D.G. 2001. Biological effects of suspended sediments: a review of suspended sediment impacts on fish and shellfish with relation to dredging activities in estuaries. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 21, 855-875.

Wilber, D.H., Clark, D.G., Ray, G.L., and Burlas, M.H., 2003. Surf zone fish response to beach nourishment on the northern coast of New Jersey. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 250, 231-246.

Wilber, D.H., Clarke, D.G., and Burlas, M.H., 2006. Suspended sediment conditions associated with beach nourishment perfect on the northern coast of New Jersey. Journal of Coastal Research, 22:5, 1035-1042.

Wood, W.L., Hoover, J.A., Stockberger, M.T., and Zang, Y. 1988. Coastal situation report. Great Lakes Coastal Research Laboratory, Purdue University. West Lafayette.

Appendix

Appendix 1.

Sediment grain analysis of ten beach and access locations for each individual node in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore during August 2010.

Appendix 2.

Sediment grain analysis of ten beach and access locations for each row in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore during August 2010.

Appendix 3.

Sediment grain analysis of ten beach and access locations composited for all nodes in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore during August 2010.

Appendix 4.

The chemical analysis data sheets for five sediments sampled in the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.

Appendix 5.

The EPA (1994) Standard Operating Procedure for elutriate testing of Daphnia pulex to sediment.