UN IVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

AUREATE TERM S

A ST U D Y IN T H E L I T E RA RY D I CT I O N O F T H E F I FT E EN T H C EN T U RY

JOHN COOPER MENDENHALL

A THESIS

PRESEN TED TO THE FACUL TY OF THE GRAD UATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREM ENTS FOR THE D EGREE OF DOC TOR OF PHILOSOPHY

V”

PREFACE

I have made this study in the literary diction of the fifteenth century f or the purpose o f looking further into the important problems that still confront one who wishes to investigate the development of form in English style . That there w as a very vital feeling for form throughout the medieval period is a ac a has a or too u in f t th t been disreg rded , lightly to ched upon, o r es most f ou literary histories . Without a knowledge of th e a ca a of c r or e rly nons of form, m ny whi h su vived with little , no a a o-ur a o ch nge into l ter times , ide f subsequent develop c ments is in omplete or even erroneous . a b a a a o a ca As eginning, I h ve m de t pogr phi l survey of the a a a a for and a liter ture now v il ble the period , investig ted more particularly the influences which determined that significant

a of — - c I h c . a ad fe ture style word hoi e In my work , h ve from members of the Department of English of the University o- f P a a and c ennsylv ni much friendly help counsel , whi h I wish a e M a here gr t fully to acknowledge . y indebtedness is especi lly ‘ a to C a c Grifii n C a of gre t Professor l ren e hild , to suggestion o f w as and a whose the choice theme due , under whose inspir tion it has been completed . M D LL H . H JO N C EN EN A .

UN xvm sm or E YLV A 1 1 PRIL . P NNS ANIA , , 9 9

CO NTENTS

PA G E

A U REATE TER MS D EFINED

II

THE TRAD ITION OF D ICTION IN THE MEDIEVAL S CHOOL S III H ow THE TRAD ITION BECAME EN GL ISH

lour s ed Words. I . F i h 2 haucer . C . The aucer an S uccess on 3 . Ch i i

S PECIAL A S PECTS OF THE

I . Rhy me m 2. Rhyth . A ll terat on 3 . i i Translat on 4 . i trona e 5 . Pa g

IN CONCL U SIO N BIB LIOGRA PHY

AU REATE TERM S DEF INED

M o f a a a any histories liter ture , in tre ting of the l te fifteenth c r a o f Latinical a a n entu y, m ke mention the voc bul ry the a ffected by authors for the purpose of dignifying their style . ca ul a c a had ac This vo b ry in luded m ny fine words which ex t , a a as rocelle tene or ne rly ex ct , simple synonyms , p , tempest ; brous a erdumble a uberi tud e and , sh dowy ; p , l sting ; p , youth ; G re w ol so . a a b as e i ent on re t numbers of them now o solete, q p ,

o o ite i rcum ou ex ute s lendi ous a c s c nd di . b fy , f , , p O viously m ny were never used outside of the manuscripts in which they are

‘ ' 1 fl ki l a o n lo as as sab e bri b ubi us . found , , f fy,

' Such long and supposedly elegant words have been dubbed a a rm e a as o S aintsbu has ure te te s b c use , Profess r g , who m a f a c a de most requent use Of the phr se in re ent ye rs , in numerous books Of his in which the subj ect is

on a a ildin a st le . up , they re resent kind of verb l of liter _ g T he phrase may be traced BacIEThrough vari ous editors and as a o a S chi er all of writers , Ingr m , H rstm nn , pp f whom em o of Latinical o f a pl y it in the sense long words le rned fl ‘ t , used to express am gi in E d te at a c c y ga , the d wn of the fifteenth entury, we ome upon

c c sense, whi h is of ourse de am eus in late and medieval L a w as u fif tin, the word frequently thro ghout the t enth c and a a O e entury l ter,

1 hese and other l k e ords ere not s ec fi call ass ned are c efl T i w , wh p i y ig , hi y

r fif n - en u ork m h om tee th c t r s so e b un now n aut ors, ot ers b f y. w , y k h y

L d ate et am ax ton etc. y g , M h , C , 2 l S ee the bibliography be ow . 8 A UREA TE TERMS

a o or mance tongues . The applic ti n of it to words terms

are so i m ortant an a a a one . which p element of style, is n tur l The questi on ari ses as to what part these terms really played in the literary vocabulary Of the period in which they

a and a o . o t h ve been noted , lso why they were empl yed The s r o f o o and a a d a a w rd , l ng to the ver ge mo ern mind f nt stic , of

a a o has st which ex mples were quoted b ve, hitherto been mo frequently noted in the work of the C hauceri ans especially ” o a —in sol called o the th se of Scotl nd , the c urt poetry of

n a to add fiftee th century , which , most editors h sten , is not

etr at all and of ar ss po y , which , by scrupulous editing c ele

M o to r not . ss. a as , they gener lly c ntrive rep esent even verse K o an as . . It is , however, f und more widely . Such editor “ J Ingram has necessarily noted in the introduction to his texts

O f the fi fteenth - century translati ons of the D e Imi tati one CMis ti are o c r of a a , which in pr se , the o cur ence the s me unusu l

a o . sort of word . 5 0 have editors of C xt n The same sort of words is also much in evidence in a fi fteenth - century transla

' o a Pol chromc on a a ti n of the f mous y , written origin lly in L tin

Ra a a of . by lph Higden , in the e rly p rt the fourteenth century

ar a o r u u ac Simil terms h ve also been disc ve ed in n mero s pref es,

o a a t a and so . epil gues , p ss ges in the mys ery pl ys , forth The occu rrence of such terms in prose as well as in verse

to a no r r o seems h ve stirred great enthusiasm fo a compa is n . N either does the fact that the Old Versi on O f the D e Imi tatione and the translation O f Higden referred to were cer tainly made in the earlier half o f the century prevent most of those who casually use the phrase aureate terms from speaking of them as i f they are to be found only in the last years O f the century and are to be regarded as symptomatic R of a sa . On a of lan the en is nce the other h nd , sober students a a a a a o f a w ho the gu ge in the bstr ct r ther th n liter ture , note fact o f extensive lingui stic borrowing from Romance or Latin all o not r a a O f thr ugh the century , do st ess the f ct th t much

o o w as a a f or a os . this b rr wing liter ry , m de decor tive purp es A UREA TE TERMS DEFINED 9

N ow as a a a o Latinical m tter of f ct , this very s rt of words ,

c r a o 1 00 are to which , i f they o cu in something written b ut 5 , day called aureate is to be found in the literature of the

!

- o the a ra ro a o f t a mid f urteenth century, in llite tive m nces h t

a r o f t o ro C a . time . L rge numbe s hem c uld be culled f m h ucer One may dip into our literature from that time d own to the r and all a o w a to a er p esent , find l ng the y words m tch with p

l ou ed nd s lli r a ambu cmt d e t a te . a , g , fy The me ely unusu l L tin a or a a o f r ic l f m tion , which gives us Shock surp ise when we a a or a as our a a meet it, ple s nt nnoying, receding cl ssic l studies

a o o or not a a h ve left us the p wer to c mprehend it , will lw ys be

E . n a as ra s with us in nglish O ly yesterd y, it were , F nci

o o a re ured omnific cons en Th mps n se soned his verse with p , , ti ent translucenci es redilectedl and arborom d a , , p y, , while to y Co o Ma off dislustered ru ous mucid in mpt n ckenzie ers us , f , , s issate aud aci t transumin eculent tintamar onde p , y, g, f , , p moniac ere rine nd ra d B o ? a vi . ut o to , p g , g why lo k lesser f lk n Shakespeare and Milton did not write in words of o e syllable .

r a a a a not It is , the efore , cle r th t ure te terms were distin guished from our vocabulary as a whole by their Latinity or N their rarity . or can it be said that the spirit in which they were chosen is essential ly different from that p O a choice f similar words before and since . That seems to h ve been the double desire for sententiousness and ornament . The aim o f w riters then w as to be both weighty in meaning and u o an aim a a a disting ished in expressi n , which is n tur lly chieved , 1 - a ar r o . to l ge degree , th ough w rd choice

1 One Should note the f requent use of sententi ous or equivalent terms

h . in the l terature of t e t me e. i i , g , In f ew e w ord ' es sw ete and sentenci ous e as m asur a s t e o le e. H w , P i f P D ep ured rethoryk e d Ibi . ’ B ut Lydgate s w ork es are f ruytefull and sentencyous n Controv ersy betzve en a L ov er a d a l ay.

The sententious w ord w as look ed upon as a p reci ous ornament. I o A UREA TE TERMS

Is a a a a as , then , the phr se ure te terms j ustifi ble the

at a o o - of one a design ion of dicti n , or w rd choice , period re lly distinct from that of others ? Only from the point of view O f

a and a a to . ar novelty, qu ntity, ccept bility its time These ch acteristics o are o a die , h wever, pron unced enough to m ke the ti on o f the fifteenth century somewh at distinct from the ff literary diction of other ages . The di erence is fi a a a a . th n re l , but it is suf cient for purposes of sep r te study a a b w ma a Furthermore, for re sons st ted elo , it y be ssumed a a a a a c a a th t ure te terms , with these ch r cteristi s , were m rked feature of literary style from about 1 350 to I 530. a u o t a a With reg rd to novelty, it sho ld be n ted h t m ny more words than those now regarded in that light were novel in the o fifteenth century. It is a c mmon experience to readers in the byways o f literature to find words that today pass um o b o f Of condem n ticed the su j ect , when new , comment , even

a o a . a Na c e Ga n ti n , for their r rity Thus Thom s she ridi ul d his a llain o i to briel Harvey for phr se vi y by c nn vance. Words us so Simple as v apour and firmament were explained by Wil n a N liam Tyndale in his tra sl tion of the ew Testament . It is o o a C a bvi us th t when h ucer put forth , for the first time in E eternal w ha a nglish , the word , it ould ve impressed his re ders

a of as eterne a introd uc with the s me sense novelty , lso of his ‘ o an a ti n d still distinguished . Thus m ny words now familiar would have given fi fteenth- century readers the same sensation

a consuetud e occ si on div ert cle and ac und ious i th t , y , y , f g ve us n a d gave them . a E a ma A c ution is necessary at this point . very word th t y a h ve been new in the fifteenth century w as not aureate . nical o o a m a w rds like those f und in the strono y, lchemy, medi cine and other sciences of the time are not aureate when used in their exact technical sense f or technical purposes . Sh ould such words be used in gene ral discourse with extended or fig urativ e a a o or a s me ning, d rning m king sententiou the style , A UREA TE TERMS D EFIN ED I I

they o f course became aureate . In its merely technical sense

Of a or o f or o triacle w as a o s lve intment w unds , sc rcely m re

to a a treacle suited dignified style th n its modern descend nt , though for slightly different reas ons ; but since Venetian Tri a a o far w as and w as os cle c me fr m , costly, highly prized , it p sible to use the word with dignified effect as Signifying medi

a a or a a . of cine for troubled he rt mind dise sed Then , course , the word w as aureate . a to a of a With reg rd qu ntity, the proportion unusu l words employed with stylistic intent w as high in the period under E a . w as not o n to a consider tion The tendency c nfi ed ngl nd , f or a had G a Rhetori ueurs mots Fr nce her r ndes q , with their h d orés and o a as a a b . , Sc tl nd lre dy een mentioned In the a as o o a a En l tter c e , the phen men n is dmittedly due , in p rt , to g a so far as a is lish ex mple ; , however, Fr nce concerned , the a a a c w as c se seems merely p r llel , since the tenden y well under w ay in E ngland b e fore the Grandes Rhetoriqueurs began . a t as a a a c Yet even dmi ting, we must , th t ure te terms in luded many more words than those which immediately impress us a a d a o with their unusu l qu lity to y, their proporti n to the num ber o f simple terms then employed by authors should not be

o Tho- c a c nsidered overwhelming . ugh clustered thick , espe i lly in prol ogues ( the pompously worded introduction is not yet an o a a and so extinct species ) , epilogues , rotund p ss ges , forth , and though worked into the tissue of everything stylistically o a at a c nceived during the period n med , they give times only

and are o a a . tinge to the style , s metimes l cking for p ges In e are s d ed , they employed quite con ciously for the purposes

a a b . n med bove , being omitted i f the su ject is simple a to acc a at With reg rd their ept bility, we find them , their

a a o a od a a a . st rt , s ncti ned by wh t t y would be c lled uthority R a of c e and ac e ders ultur refinement cepted , even expected ,

. c r En them When , in the course of the fourteenth entu y, g

' lish began to be more extensively 1 2 A UREA TE TERMS

a a o a o f a a a ff liter ture for c urtly cl ss re ders , terms of ure te e ect,

as a to a ea . a mentioned bove , begin ; pp r Their use incre ses ,

o ra o and under enc u ging conditi ns , during the fifteenth into the

ar . a a e ly sixteenth century At th t time influenti l critics , first C R a a a W Sir John heke , then oger Asch m , l ter Thom s ilson , and a a all o a a still l ter Puttenh m , pr tested g inst the extensive

r r use of new or odd wo ds for pu po ses of style . They insisted

a o f a a that the th t the weight book should be in , its m tter ; / ‘

' o f o a ai or not far- c or words it sh uld be f mili simple , fet hed

a . as c a a newf ngled These precepts , su h , h ve gener lly per and a had o on oh sisted , h ve s me influence diction , though v iously they have not prevented either innovations in vocab i N l a o r o a o f florid t . u ry recurrent utbre ks y evertheless , they constitute a check such as w as not consci ously applied before R a a so a ma sa f or c the eviv l of Le rning, th t we y y, convenien e , a a 0 a a o f n a a th t bout I 53 , fter the de th recog ized ure te writers

a and and r o f a like H wes Skelton , the ise newer criticism “ ” aureation came at least under external discipline . Sir Thomas Elyot ( 1 490 w ho argued f or the enrichment o f English by extensive impo rtation of fine Latinical words in

B oke o the Gov ernour 0 o o his f , in I53 , Sh ws , under the gr wing o f the a e a a use a criticism g , tendency, in his l ter books , to ‘ o s mewhat simpler vocabulary. ma t a a a a r o It y, hen , be s id th t ure te te ms were th se new R a or Latinical o o a words , chiefly om nce in rigin , c ntinu lly

o r a o of r and r s ught , unde uth rity c iticism the best write s , for a and E a 0 to rich expressive style in nglish , from bout I 3 5 a 1 bout 530. While recogn izing that such a s

o w as not a to a d resp nding choice peculi r in results th t perio , one ma a n a o a y, in view of its wide oper tion a d s ncti n by critic l a a a a a distinc uthority during th t time , ssume it to h ve been

a d and as a of . tive m rk of the perio , discuss , such , the c uses it

1 S ee the art cle b E E ale r. l sted belo . i y , . H , J , i w A UREA TE TERMS DEFINED I 3

a o a a a c f or Hitherto, sever l suggesti ns h ve been dv n ed this preference on the part o f the fifteenth century f or an. aureate L i e and oems o William ca ar . vo bul y Schipper, in his f P f

D unbar G a B a o a ( in erm n , erlin , spe king m re p rtie ularl o f o a a r to a E a y Sc tl nd , sc ibes it emul tion of ngl nd , newly a a a and a ! r a est blished cl ssic l studies , clim te Ho stm nn , in his

'

- n r r E . edition of the early six teenth ce tury life o f S t. W e bu ge (

E 88 . o . T . S . , O menti ns the delight then felt in the sound Histor o E n o f a a . a cert in termin tions S intsbury , in his y f g lish rose Rh thm a a a are P y , implies th t ure te terms likewise

r o o assignable to a delight in rhythmic sound . P ofess r J hn

B r R o R 1 1 6 M . a an a mania ev iew e d n , in rticle in the for 9 , comes nearest to the truth when he treats o f how medieval c f or and a c a pre epts finding rhyme , llied study, influen ed verb l

o l coinages . These suggesti ns are a l helpful for the formation B o but . c o of Opini n , not conclusive efore pro eeding, h wever,

an a o to to independent investig ti n , it might be well consider what the age itself had to say on the point . o and c olou s a a W rds r , th t is , figures of speech , verb l or intel c a ch a le tu l , were the elements then iefly pr ised in style , or in ’ an author s rethorik e or eloquence as the terms then ’ ran. an a o use of o a a When uth r s these m ved dmir tion , his w as a mellifluous c ous l i l cet uri e ect . e; c du style g y, , , ( sele t) , ,

or aureate . to a b too _ These epithets seem not h ve een nicely

ff a o o di erenti ted ; in their general purp se they were synonym us .

o or t as a of To w rds , erms , the found tion style , they were A r at a . u e e o frequently pplied , the m st picturesque , is the one h b . to a w o now best remem ered Looking, then , Stephen H wes , at the height o f the tendency defined fully what he under R ethorike and a E lo stood by its elements , including especi lly

cus on i . e. a y , words , or diction , we find the l tter, to his mind , such as will M S I 4 A UREA TE TER

Claryfy

The dulcet e he rom the lan a e rude sp c f g g , T ellynge the tale in termes eloquent n t err x clude The barbary to gue it do h f e e , El e n ord h h are ex ed ent cty ge w s w ic p y , In at n or in En l she a ter the entente L i g y , f , he rom at k e ume Encen syng out t a y f , 1 Our langage rude to ex yle an d consume.

Thus it is Clear that to this acknowledged exemplar o f the a a a of a ure te style , his ide l diction included words th t were

and t to a a a or at choice sui ed the m tter, prefer bly r re new ,

o a or once exact and beauti ful . Th ugh they might be L tin

E a a a for nglish , his pr ctice shows th t they were gener lly the

r a our to me . This ex ctly sums up definition ; words designed achieve sententiousness and s onorous ornamentation

r a a or m o p incip lly through their being new , r re , unco m n , O i approved by the cri tical op inion of their time . This p w as Specifically embodied in the rhetorical study which o o a ca and a c been c ntinu us Since cl ssi l times , the import n e of which to our study of medieval literature is beginning at least ’ to be appreciated .

1 m a as s ! I. t e o le ure ca . P i f P , p 2 Ebert in his A llgemeine Geschichte d er Litteratur d es Mittela lters i m A bendland e ( 1 880) clearly emphasized the importance o f the study of the m edi ev al Lati n literature ; Nord en in his A ntik e Kuns tp rosa ( 1 898) traced the continuity o f the consci ous i dea o f an arti stic p rose style f rom the time of the fi rst G reek rh etorici ans up to the be gi nning of the R enai ssance in Northern lEurop e ; and late book s touching upon parti cular phases o f ’ En l sh st le lik e roll and lemon s ed t on o f u hues as r be har g i y , C C i i E p , c i c cteri i c e r f h e l In n l sh the ex sten e a st atu es O it t o these n er ted d a s. f i i i E g i , i c o f these medi ev al canons o f taste is set f orth at greatest length in ’ S ai nt sbury s History of Criticism and Literary Taste i n Europ e ( v ol. I) . he r nfluence on authors in the r t me i s str k n l ut b Ki ttred e in T i i i i i i g y p y g , the case of aucer in hau er and H o tr Ch C c is P e y . T H E TRAD ITION OF TH E S CH OOLS

' The ideal of the select vocabulary is practically as old as a a a a and a a rticul te l ngu ge , its ultim te origin indetermin te in a a e of our time , but cert in sp cts the question touch present to o a tw o pic very nearly. Amongst the Tr ub dours there were ‘ l a il o o l r c troba C us s t scur etc . and tr bar c a . s hools , the r ( , , ) the Marcabrun w as o f and The former, of which one the first a a a a and un most brilli nt exempl rs , deliber tely sought r re

. d known words in developing its style Its aims an methods , ’ a n E a e Marcabrun s a no doubt, bec me k own in ngl nd , Sinc ctive ca a a o t o reer pr ctic lly c incides wi h the reign f Henry II , through o i t a a a o wh se consort, is gener lly ssumed , troub d ur influence w as a E a a trobar Clus impl nted in ngl nd , but to wh t extent the grafted his style upo n our literary consciousness seems not

. o f o now determined For us , the chief interest the two scho ls lies in the fact that they indicate the existence o f literary dis cussion and criticism based upon the fundamental o f word C D l Elo ui o . a a on a ua D e Vu ari hoice nte , in his tre tise l ng ge g q , and a Convivio and a lso in his elsewhere , pl inly shows himself B o a the heir of these discussi ons . y the Illustri us Vulg r u a a a a a Tong e he me nt the cultiv ted di lect , especi lly of liter a o ha a ture , which he decl red to be s mething t t tr nscended

ca a not of ac of . w as lo l peculi rities , only pl e, but time It de a v eloped by conscious selection . Much of this contempor ry u ri w as a o a constr ctive c ticism prob bly never rec rded , or rem ins

1 h r rou d ours - t l a Th a . e a b S ee . . C t o e b 34 5, . H J y , T , pp i i 2 i n o l . c 1 6 ad fi . D e Vul E l . b a . g. q , I , p 1 6 A UREA TE TERMS

; E has e a o o as unknown nough be n g thered t gether, h wever, ’ ‘ a Histor o Criticism to o a w ho in S intsbury s y f , c nvince nyone a at a o o f o — o a o o gl nces it th t the pr blem w rd ch ice , m ngst thers , w as continually being considered by medieval authors . B ut i f the interesting details of the subj ect are imperfectly

o a a to a kn wn , the st nd rds which the discussions were const ntly

r - refer ed are well known and easy to get at. They were the a f or all E e f or as s me western urop , the fifteenth century well as f or a r or a t the twelfth , n mely, the het ic l precep s preserved o C a and o of a a all fr m l ssic times , like th se gr mm r, known to Wh h o ad an at o a . G a a o y educ i n to spe k Of r mm r, h wever, with

“ t o a o t a a to a o . w as view c rrectness , old r ther wh t v id It rhet oric a a n a a w as a , which , with bro der view , i dic ted wh t eleg nt or o rnamental . It should be remembered that Christianity w as not uni formly favorable to formal educati on . Some o f the early a r a ar a a F the s , educ ted men themselves , gued g inst the mobo cratic spirit which would have rej ected anything marked by old f o f a a and a a dignity or di ficult tt inment , which dduced pl us

ar o . ible guments to j usti fy its h stility . St Augustine coun tered the argument that nothing sh ould be studied i f it had heathen associati ons by insisting that anything good in itself H t h w as proper f or C hristians to use . ow far mat ers ad been pushed may be implied by his illustrati on : that it is no reas on to neglect the alphabet because Mercury w as believed to have invented it . The vari ous encycl opedias o f learning that were made later we re undertaken largely because the loss of useful learning w as threatened as much by indifference as by the r t oubled political and social conditions o f the time . Yet Augustine himself in his treatise on Christian education t a a o old r a . b nd ned much of the fo m lism He insisted , righ ly

o a or o the ara o consid en ugh , th t sense Spirit sh uld be p m unt

1 r Volum e I treats sp ecifically of the period rev i ewed he e.

I 8 A UREA TE TERMS

a ers. The teaching o f it w as frequently superfici l in the ex 1 r n f a . t a a d o as t eme S ill , thorough enlightening study it critical guide to reading and compositi on cannot be said ever ' oo to have ceased entirely . From the late sch ls of southern

Ga a to r a and to G a B a ul it p ssed I el nd then re t rit in , where m

r ro R N ot Wales it pe haps survived f m oman times . to linger o a o a B w ho ro on r ver det ils , we n tice th t ede ( w te this ve y 2 and S erv atus o of subject) , Alcuin his pupils , Lupus , Abb t F erriéres and Rabanus Mau o a a , rus , Abb t of Fuld , v rious less distinguished men in the tenth century ; then B ernard o f

C a t a of Co and a h r res , his pupil , Willi m nches , the gre t school o f r a the and r o a O le ns in twelfth thirteenth centu ies , f rm o a and r a a series , verl pping inte penetr ting , which prolonged tradition that Petrarch and his contemporaries and successors

r -fi a o w as me ely revivi ed . In very m ny f the men named there

r a o sur a genuine humanistic spi it . The tr diti n which thus

v iv ed and r E w as course ' nev er s grew in northe n urope , of , lo t ma a a o to a . a as in It ly, whence ls it continued spre d We k it y o a o to o ften h ve been fr m the fifth the f urteenth century , it yet

Fo r r t a o r o lived . du ing h t time not nly w as het rical study continuously pursued but it w as constantly being adapted to

new needs or interests . The natu re o f this latter development may be shown by

r r o r o i ro citing th ee desc ipti ns of het r c f m the fifth , thirteenth , an d early sixteenth centuries . The first is f rom that extra o ii rdinary work D e N upt s Philologiae et M ercurii by St . ’ u a a o a r a r r an Aug stine s p g n c ntempor ry , the Af ic n heto ici ,

1 S ee f r x m l h l r i 1 1 o u II ca . o e a e o n o f S a sbu M etal i c s l b . , p , J i y, g , , p R ele i uo ue Rhetorieam uam r us tenui ter audi tam aulul um g q q , q p i p i nt lli a e geb m.

2 - S ee his l ttle ork D e S chematis et Tro is and the not e s o f authors i w p , ic in hi D R r In h rm er h r e ex am les s e e et ie a. t e o he doe s not use t e t t M f , i p uoted b enerat ons of r ters on the sub e t but llustrates rom the Q y g i w i j c , i f l A n 1 . or s n 8 l. i . b e W k G les cd . Wh tak er d C o . o d o v o v . , an 43 , Bi , J i , , i , L , A l in m so Hal . THE TRADITI ON OF THE S CHOOLS 1 9

i f Mart a Ca a. e o o i nus pell At the b g nning his fifth bo k , he describes the Lady Rhetoric as tall and with a face o f brilliant

a a a ar o o f s and fem le be uty ; she ppe ed , to the fl urish trumpet

o o f o ar a her a a the n ise p pul ssemblies , helmeted , he d eng r

a ro a a a a for l nded with y l m j esty, in her h nds we pons defence — and to wound adversaries weapons that flashed lightning ; a oa w as r r a and her mple cl k embroide ed with b illi nt figures ,

r across her breast w as a bald ic set with exquisite gems . The

a o are o o a u at law f or we p ns bvi usly rg ments , success in which rhetorical training had generally been regarded as necessary i since the time o f Gorg as . The second citatio n is f rom the preface o f a book of model r a rta o o a a a at lette s by ce in P ntius Pr vinci lis , m ster the 1 2 famous school o f Orleans . It dates from abou t 59 . In

a r o as . h subst nce , the desc ipti n is follows W ile the writer w as a a r a a and a w ndering bout ove v lleys , pl ins mount ins , he

a a o f o o to met m iden , love wh m suddenly w unded him the

ar . r e a and m row He desc ib s her be uty very fully, tells , with ’ o of a o a r a a r how o s mething tr ub dou s g ll nt y, he bes ught her

a r h to as her to . s e ccept him servi , lest he die Then , looking at o her o r rt a him ver sh ulde with mi h in her eye , s id , If you h old fast w hat yo u have f ound Taking him by the right a o a o r a and h nd , She sh wed him w nde ful city with seven g tes R a a to o had . eighteen p l ces , which she , het ric , the keys The 1 h - t s e a w as o art of r . ci y , expl ined , the c mplete lette writing

Here is nothing o f the forum . So far as the description a a a at an me ns nything, it is th t Orle s, in the thirteenth cen

r o w as a as ar a or tu y, rhet ric reg rded liter y tr ining f the quite

ra t a r o o f a f r p c ic l pu p se le rning o ficial cor espondence . At a a r d as w ra a a bout the s me pe io , we kno from seve l ext nt tre t ises o r as a ar o o w as , p et y , species of liter y c mp sition, iden

’ ’ 1 A r D i ami s The hol s ct m . w e passage i s quoted in De li sle s article ; also in l D A r e I V o e e ta ca V . 6 a s t . p et S ee belo 2 . i , , , p ( p 4 w, p . 7 20 A UREA TE TERMS

ifi h t ed wi th t e same di scipline . Its formal aspect w as more

o its a a o con pr minent , pplic ti n to the written word closer, its

r cern with legal t aining and declamati on c orrespondingly less . ’ Wi th the descripti on from the Orleans master s book Ought a o a o a a a o a to be ss ci ted the third , fr m th t f mous lleg ric l poem

a a roo of a r to . by Stephen H wes , g m the ch mbe Henry VII The seventh chapter of his Pas time of Pleas ure tells how Graunde o r w as e of Rethor k e and a Re Am u receiv d y , wh t ” ho k t ry e is .

' han abov e Lo k e u w e ent a sta re T gy p w y , nto a Chambre a l lor ed I g y y g ifi , S tro ed w th floures of all oodl a re w y g y y , Where sate a lad retl ma n ed y g y g ifi , A nd her true v esture clerel ur ed y p ifi , A n v er h er he d h w r h d o a , t at as b yg t an d

. h r n h r r S e had a ga la d e o f t e lau ell g ene.

The last lines of the next stanza seem to imply that the poet 1 had not found rhetoric so fiendish as students often thought

a da a o. a o it in th t y ls After this gener l descripti n , the five parts into which the study w as traditi onally divided are all

o o i nor treated . In the midst f them is a replicati n against g

‘ aunt persones and at the end a commendation of the poet

a ra G C a and a . ic l triumvi te , ower, h ucer, Lydg te Here we see how completely rhetoric had been identified in the popular

r Its a a o o l ar of concepti on with literatu e . sep r ti n fr m the o d t legal training appears still m ore plainly upon reverting to ’ H w e a e oria or a s s tre tm nt of mem . The mem izing of a Speech w as a very necessary part of the old training f or the law o r or a has r to do con c u ts the ssembly, but ve y little with the i r ce t on o f r or a . a p het ic held by H wes He ret ins the te m , but alters its meaning.

1 More lyk er w as her habitacyon U nto a la e h h is Celestiall p c w ic ,

Than to a certayne mancion f atall . THE TRA DITION OF THE S CHOOLS 1

ra o ma ro With this gene l devel pment in mind , we y p ceed to

r r o an examinati on o f: the rheto ical p ecepts o f dicti n . The w o w a r h le subject as divided under five he ds , which rep esented the natural stages in the making o f a formal speech : concep

o a ra or and r or to ti n , pl nning, ph sing, mem izing, delive y ; ,

the a t i nv entio dis osi ti o elocutio memo give technic l erms , , p , ,

ia o r di ria and ronunc ti . w as a a c , p It unde the third he d th t

a o or to al ti on w as especially tre ted f . Acc ding the univers b r o f or a elief , this dete mined the style the speech , wh tever it

w as f or d or bad . r o r a o f , goo An inte esting c nc ete st tement ’ this belief is found in A lcuin s dialogue on the subj ect with r i C a a . C o o or not a o w ho n h lem gne nsci usly , the uth r, is

a a to ict and C o has debted p rticul rly Julius V or icer , the pupil , not a ar a of our o has the m ster, rem k , The pl n discussi n now brought us to the point at which we inqui re into the nature o f E u a a o a and loc tion, which confers gre t be uty up n the ple , ” 1 o a a o . a o o f up n the ple der, reput ti n The leg l c ntents rhet

r r o ie a e especially treated of .

t r a and all o r w as a on In his t e tise , in the the s , insistence l id 2 an r d the po we o f words to ad orn an idea. In a 3 fi r o o C r had a t a as o gu e ften qu ted , ice o s id , h t just cl thes were first used f rom necessity and then became a means o f adorn m so f o a or use o as . a ent , with such w rds met ph , etc , This ide might be conside red the central thought in all subsequent dis

cus ion the r E lo s s of matte . cuti o w as an appropriate dressing u o f the - a r o r p subj ect m tte o f y u speech or book .

for ar r had o a As the b e ules themselves , they bec me ne rly

t o e as ar as the o ro T o a s ere typ d e ly time f Cice . spe k in good

a a is as a r r a or to L tin ( th t , the l ter w ite s defined it , cc ding the

1 10m nunc nos ord o disputationis ad eloeutionis d ed ux it inq uisiti onem uae ma nam ausae ad ert v enus tatem et rhetori di ni tatem q g c f g . 2 C V ct or ss odorus d r A l n . a s o e cu etc. f i , C i , I i , i , ‘ 3 I D Orator I I 8. e e . , , 3 22 A UREA TE TERMS

- rules of grammar) ; to suit the words to the subj ect fi fine

o or the a o f or a w as too w rds f big things , pl in term nly wh t terrible to be disguised ; to avoid certain faults and to culti a a r a C o and a v te cert in vi tues , especi lly opi usness eleg nce ; these h B o a O f t e o a . were, in nutshell , the precepts rhet rici ns orr w ing from other languages w as permitted ( ue q uid uimis ! ) formation of comp ounds and wholly new words all owed ( with the same cauti on) ; and figu rative expressi on much encour

aged .

a o r t are o r and si ni fi In det il , h weve , here s me inte esting g o nd cant differences to be noted . The l ast half f the fourth a

the begi nning o f the fifth century saw a high - water mark established in rhetorical studies and’ a number o f treatises 1

o o f W a are . of are pr duced , hich sever l extant Three these of peculi ar interest in our inquiry : those o f Ga ius Cheirius

n i l i iu o ortu at anus of S u t s and o f Ga . F , p Vict r, ius Julius Victor The first of these presents perhaps the most points of in h terest. t e o o f o and a r a It is in f rm questi n nswe ; for ex mple , in treating o f dicti on it begins : E locuti o quibus partibus con

’ stat? The answer is : Quantitate v erborum et structurae quali ‘

tate. a to or ar t a our o a a With reg rd w ds , we le n h t v c bul ry

o a should be large and ch oice . We sh uld enlarge it by re ding, o r a o t a n a and rof es by bse v ti n ( h t is , by picki g up technic l p

sional o a —e o or com words) , by inn v tion ither by borr wing by o t o but t r ra — and a p si i n ; we mus est in ourselves in this , fin lly a o r a o a by the h bit f t ansl ting . We sh uld m ke it Choice by o a ar a a and mitting vulg risms , ch isms , provinci lisms , the like , and o a o by seeking w rds which , eleg nt in themselves , bec me

o so a~ m re when used in conj uncti on with others . The illustr ti on makes it plain that sound sh ould play an important part

in choice . Pl ain things should be called by plain names ; short

’ he ma be ound mo st onv en entl in H alm s olle ted Rhetores T y y f c i y C . c c ’ at m nores in that se t on o f the sev eral ork s ent tled lo ut o L i Mi , c i w i E c i . THE TRAD ITION OF THE S CHOOLS 23

a are o e b ha n . a words , it is s id , s m times etter t n lo g The l st rule implies that l ong words and learned words were then also regarded popularly as making fine style . ’ o a o o f ortunatianus s ad This , th ugh by no me ns the wh le F

its o - a . a f or vice , includes m st interesting fe tures The dvice ’ o a a o o extending one s v c bul ry is quite rth dox today . On the

o o a a a e a to o ow wh le , it c uld h rdly be s id th t d finite ttempts f ll

“ o a a such precepts w uld result in nything unusu l , unless the

fluency contingent up on a large and semi - learned vocabul ary proved a temptati on to use recondite and out - of - the - w ay allu B o or of a . ut o o si ns , words th t sort , it sh uld be n ted , this is aureateness . The second and third treatises referred to are alike in up o in l i h lding a litera as a a st a colloquial vocabulary . S u p

' — o a not c r WicIECircul at ion tius Vict r, whose tre tise , intended , begins by limiting the older definition of rhet oric as the science of spe aking well with the differentia in civil suits a a t a o dvises th t , besides their o her qu lities , words sh uld Show

ood roomin a not a ro a or a g g g; th t is , be t ken f m me n vulg r or as sa o t C sources , , they y, fr m the stree , but be hosen from ” efi books and drawn from the clear well of learning. This d ni i I li r o t on a . Ga u us at f is very illumin ting ius Victo , the end

r a a a o a o and his t e tise , dr ws distincti n between convers ti n

o a o . or are o f or a r t ry In the former, w ds ch sen the me ning

a r a f or and o a o a a r the th n the sound , c mplic ted dec r tion is l ck ing . S uch an artificial distinction shows a concepti on of liter ature bound to f oster preci osity or extravagance of words as i l i an a of . S o too oe a a a of S u ide fitness , , d s rem rk like th t p a o o and a a tius , th t big things Sh uld be put in big w rds , th t p ltry things Should not be couched in a swelling or inflated style .

a of a a The first p rt the rule is d ngerous , since the second p rt

a r t is pt to be ove looked . An author is unlikely o confess l writing paltry things . The tendency of a l this o rnamentati on by words f or its own sake . M 24 A UREA TE TER S

' Upon these late classical treatises and the earlier works t o C o e a from which they were derived ( h se of icer , esp ci lly his ’ D e Iuv euti oue and D e Oratore and a Ins titutes , Quintili n s ) , were founded the books on rhetoric in the three great com pends of liberal educati on that were in use in medieval times . B o of M a Ca a a o e esides the w rk arti nus pella lre dy menti n d , t r a Ca o s a r and he e is th t of ssiod ru Sen tor ( sixth centu y) , a o f o B o a E t th t Isid re , ishop of Seville , wh se encyclopedi c y molo i es o a a é é of a a w as g , c nt ining r sum the seven liber l rts , written early in the seventh century . It is not necessary here to dwell upon the position these works occupied in the medi a o a o o f o a e ev l scho ls , even fter the w rks Arist tle bec m , in the

r o a st a o . thirteenth centu y, the f und tion ones of educ ti n In ’ o C a a f or u respect to dicti n pell s rules , except their pict resque

o a : o a of setting, present n thing unusu l The f und tions elo quence are to speak correctly and clearly ; its pinnacles to be ” 1 o are a a to a C pious and ornate . These to be tt ined by h rd and o f Ca r and work daily practice . The drier work ssiodo us of a ca r o a a o Isidore , who pr cti lly ecopied , with s me expl n ti ns , ’ his C a c o r a hristi n prede ess r s wo k in this field , urged , especi lly, a r o so pp opriateness in style . Such words Sh uld be used ( run r as a t a and a re thei precepts) the m t er, pl ce, time, udience r : o a a a od im qui e we should not use pr f ne l ngu ge to the g ly,

r a ar nd mod est to the pu e . It is not enough to spe k cle ly a D a a as . smoothly, but wh t is s id should be eloquent well ressed a f or a w as a of up, th t is , th t wh t the glosses upon the text a ro pp pri ateness in the end generally came to . Such in brief were the rules o f dicti on with which the

th o ar c of schools started . To realize e m re Cle ly the tenden y

o a r to such principles , it would be well to n tice wh t they t ied

1 D u 1 n r lo ut o u us ero duo uas e N tiis eta III u de . p , , ( 3 ) E c i c i Cic q i o ui lane ue undamenta d uo die i t esse ast ia. undamenta at ne l f , f ig F L i q p q d ere as t a v ero sunt o ose ornate ue d ere uod non n en ic f igi c pi q ic , q i g ii

s ed laboris est.

26 A UREA TE TERMS

sults a r had a . a am art , bec use its w iter t ught St Jerome th t s e ; I pass on to the twelfth century and the fam ous school of

r so—a R a a o f a had Orleans . He e the c lled en iss nce th t century

r a a ra r w as r a o d o and its cente ; cl ssic l lite tu e e d , c mmente up n , 1 1 1 1 8 imitated . The school gave the Popes from 59 to 5 their r a r N eckham secreta ies . Alex nde wrote in the next century that nowhere else were the s ongs o f the Muses better inter preted ; the while another Alexander ( o f Villadei ) declared that Orleans w as so engrossed in literature its clerks would ’ never get to heaven i f they didn t change their tune . Its sig nificance to poets is clearly seen in that now rather famous a L e B atai lle des S e t A rts ‘ o e i llegory, p , by the tr uv re , Henr ’ d A ndéli r a R a a had , w itten when this e rly en iss nce every

' r whe e else yielded to scholasticism .

‘ t oo as a ab a a e a o At his sch l , I st ted ove , there w s v ry f m us

- faculty of letter writing which rivaled th ose o f Italy . The importance of this art during the Middle Ages has been very well set forth by N oel Valois in a Latin thesis D e A rte S cri bendi E is tolas a ud Gallicos M edii A evi eta e at p p , , submitt d t o r 1 o C ar the Universi y f Pa i s in 880 . This little b ok le ly shows how the old rhetorical traditi ons of diction were trans mi e a o tt d to l ter times . Since m st letters were at least semi

t w as a . a public , their s yle c refully developed Unusu l words an r r m lic d res ounding ph ases were much s ought afte . The si p

n r ity ow commended in a letter w as then enti ely l acking . The old rhetorical idea that important communicati ons to pe ople o f importance sh ould be c ouched in m agnificent style

' 1 w as pushed to its limit . The letter of Johannes Oc to is no r tou o me e r d e f rce .

a a r a r of a a There is , perh ps , gre te d nge underestim ting th n of overestimating the importance of the influence which this

o a rt had M a o c o o ro epist l ry a . ny c lle ti ns f letters f m this

1 S ee Wi lson A rte o Rhetori ue book III. , f q , THE TRADITION OF THE S CHOOLS 27

h a period Show hbw th oroughly t e rules had been le rned . Such a a a the t r o f a t r o style s th t seen in interes ing lette s W l e , Abb t

D erv a to o - r a o al of y in Fr nce , his fell w count ym n , J hn of S is

an a . a bury , is excellent ex mple In its llusiveness , its excessive

o f a or and o o a a use lleg y , the p mp us bstr ctions in which it

a o a a o . a o are b unds , it is ure te dicti n itsel f Interesting ls the a r r o f Lo sin a B o o f Nor letters , e rlier in time , of He be t g , ish p — o f a wich , including letters dvice to students , bits of criticism ,

n n or and numerous stylistic refere ces . At least o e w d is con sciously coined by their author to express in neat and dignified fashi on a pressing idea : libidincolas ( slaves to lust) on the

a a o o f v entri ol a . to o a n l gy c as ( sl ves the belly) . Such f rm tion of or a a a a and a o o new w ds , n tur l in l ngu ge , s ncti ned by rhet ric , 1 is common . ’ M o o not n o o f o a D a a re ver , it is u w rthy n te th t nte s te cher ,

B o a o o f art and w as — runett L tini , wr te this , well versed in it , as no doubt the poet w as too . Chaucer w as familiar with it .

or a or are not o o a F m l letters , bills , unc mm n midst the poetry o f and a on the fifteenth century , during th t time books the subj ect of formal correspondence figure amongst the scanty ! possessi ons o f Oxford students which have been recorded N O ' educated man w as unacquainted with this flowery

or ra of . style , with p ise it

At the same time that this art of letter- writing became a

a a as has a o a a a science , ppe red , ls been s id , sever l tre tises on h t e art o f o r . a of a a p et y These m de use the s me gener l rules , especi ally as to dicti on . O f them the m ost fam ous is the N ova oetria at P , itself in verse , written the beginning of the thir

’ 1 E In r l r . . teste r R ll r 2 20 1 2 u osse s ette s o s S e es nos. o g , G L , i , 5, 9 , , 3 , cc sev eral rare or new o rds : a ratulati o dulcifluus re ocillatus ulcimen w gg , , f , f u m nd en a su or t o h r t u a n t lis ta i . ese ords o ur in lette s r tten to , f y , pp T w cc w i a st l st c r end and t o the Re ents o f Ox ord h ch ma e use o f mu h y i i f i — g f , w i k c figurativ e langu age a habit not so obv i ous in some o f his other epi stles.

2 ' A e n h r r 8. E . S av a Old l s a es 2 . b . g , E g i Li i , p 7 28 A UREA TE TERMS

f 1 teenth r E a Ge Vinsauf . centu y by the nglishm n , o frey de

o ur a and a use This w rk , with its p ple p tches dvice touching the of ura had r a C a r and rich fig tive diction, been e d by h uce ,

at w as not of —in though he gibes it , he insensible its merits

M or o w and their place . any auth s f the fifteenth century kne praised the work and its author : it harmonized with their

B k nh m n ersifiers a . a o e a a d v t ste Hoccleve , Lydg te , , other ,

a are on . o some nonymous , the list Indeed , his col urs pur h r o purate o f ret o yk e are of a s rt to be remembered . Thus it is clear that ideas of decorative diction did not

ro a or a a a a . g w f int f il with cl ssic l ntiquity They persisted , ’ 2 D t and am a tro . o a w as bec e , i f nything , s nger ec r ed style o and a w as su c nsidered fine style , in select words especi lly p o as posed to lie the power to adorn . This particular th ught w given wide currency by the letter- writing art and the study of r ifi i v e s cat on in the twelfth century and later . The rules them selves are well known and were illustrated by examples spec iall e re- r y designed as models of ornateness . Th y were enfo ced a a ca ra r a as by re ding of the cl ssi l lite tu e most in f vor, such ’

Ma a and ca a . Ovid , rti l Sene ( despite Quintili n s censure) Of the~ constantl a C r a r The perfervid style y re d hu ch F the s , and a a B oe a th t of the dmired thius , written under the s me

a o had a f “ o tr diti ns , the s me e fect This is the ground fr m “ ” which the aureate style o f the fifteenth century w as

r nou ished .

1 N ova oetr a 1 1 if The o en n adv e i s : ons der sense rst P i , . 743 . p i g ic C i fi , r fi n LRi h h n r h t on o m l . r c h u i h o e b r d f ast Obse v e t ess. t o g t s o d y ic ic i ; let not the nfluent al matron o blush n for h ame in ra ed o n etc. i i g i g S gg g w ,

. Verb r us ns re mentem 745 i p i i pi , E t d emam faci em 60 D v es honor etur sen tent a divi te v erbo 7 . i i ; N ru a m tro o n au er anno e be t a na p te s in p p e p .

2 r ll n r i u u s x v nd th reasons there du t n t h h e . x a e . o t o c o o s Cf C , I i E p , p iii , v gi en. How T H E TRADITION B ECAM E EN GL IS H

I F L U R H D W RDS . O IS E O

There is no lack of evidence that the theories of diction

h o a j ust discussed ad an applicati n in gener l literature . In

a o a a est blishing this point , we sh uld remember th t the mediev l r a a o a . liter ture in L tin is an ganic p rt of the whole Indeed , E a o a of o except in ngl nd , it is the nly liter ture n te in , western E o and E a a ur pe before the eleventh century, in ngl nd the e rly a a a a a b t a a vern cul r liter ture owes it gre t de t , bo h in tr nsl tion

and a o . a in inspir ti n Furthermore , lthough , from the twelfth

a a a a r a century onw rd , the vern cul r liter tu e everywhere ssumed a o a a and not a incre sing imp rt nce , L tin , for le rned purposes a o w as a a ra o l ne , powerful force , with living t diti n , until well — on and a a . in the seventeenth , indeed , is sc rcely de d now All this Latin writing w as consci ously influeri ced by the

r school ideas of style . One of the ea liest extant Latin com

o o an . E a Ed dius a m o a o p siti ns by nglishm n , , conte p r ry bi g h ra er . a o to W a p of St Wilfrid , the p stle the est S xons , begins ’ with an apology for the slenderness o f the author s under

a and o . a o ar st nding el quence Aldhelm , ne rly c ntempor y with E i a and ddins , is distingu shed for his rhetoric l ingenuity B o . a precious dicti n ede is more restr ined , but shows no

s . a and le s interest in style He pr ised Aldhelm , wrote on the

. v . su . a a a subj ect ( p ) Alcuin, little l ter, c rried letters to the Co a C a a . ntinent , lecturing, in heightened style , to h rlem gne W a a B illib ld , his contempor ry , writing the li fe of St . oni a a a f ce , pretends distinct sensitiveness to diction . He spe ks 29 30 A UREA TE TERMS

o f nar a o o f an a a ele an ti lively r ti n , eleg tly llusive phr sing ( g v erborum amba e and a ow n n g ) , deprec tes his pi ched style in h l l writing of such a subj ect as only era ds shou d hand le. Yet

r r his work c omes up to his ideals p etty well . Afte the time

of r a o ar o f r o a these b illi nt sch l s , in spite the so r wful l ments ” r and of G a ar a a of Alf ed Aelfric the r mm i n , L tin never

r ro ceased either to be read or written . The tenth centu y p duced one distinctly aureate stylist whose name has sur

i e — o a A ethelw erd o o o v v d the hist ri n , l ng n ted for his sh wy

c a r r o a r r di tion , but th t the e we e thers is pl in f om the eference ’ ’ in Malmesbury s preface to a writer o f A ethelstan s rei gn . in ( v . f . )

In Anglo- N orman times the Latin literature of England

- r n h o a . w as ve y brillia t . Letter writing as been menti ned bove Geoffrey o f M onmouth influenced the literature Of the whole

. o a a west The line of genuine hist ri ns , beginning with Willi m o f Ma ’ o a a o and lmesbury , deserves m re th n p ssing menti n, not

Giraldu Cam rensi a att a . s b s for their m er lone , John of S lis

G off Vinsauf a a a bury , e rey de ( lre dy mentioned ) , Alex nder

Neckham a Ma Ro B a — to a , W lter p , ger con n me only the a —ma a as o r o gre test y be cl imed u s , th ugh their genius is Phi o a o o a . lobibl n a a lm st cosmop lit n The , in pr ise of liter ture , ’ IChaucer s o d R a B written during b yhoo by ich rd de ury, who w as o ra a or a kn wn to Pet rch , w k unique in mediev l times , is

r o of n E the p oducti n a nglishman . all a a and In the writers n med , intim te references to style t o are o o : o o f . E dicti n be f und in s me them , frequently ven

R B a o not ar scientists like oger c n , prim ily interested in the

a o f belles - lettres r ide l , still , like Huxley in recent times , we e f a h T r ium o f . is O e t not indi ferent to the cl ims style In pus , for a C inst nce , sent by request to Pope lement IV , he wrote Knowledge with out eloquence is a sharp sword in a hand powerless to wield it the obj ects of a public speaker or HOW THE TRADITION B ECAME EN GLIS H 3 1

r are : to set or a w iter three f th the truth , to ple se , to influence ;

and to o r or o : these bjects th ee styles c resp nd the simple , the

M r o to set or ' a . medium , the gr nd y chief pu p se is f th the

and o a o to r r on o truth , theref re , cc rding w ite s el quence ( I ex ” 1 r t o r p ess myself) in the simple style wi h ut ve bal panoply . Curi ously apposite to our subj ect now is a reference in the

or ar n o f a o as of twelfth e ly thi rtee th century life H r ld , l t the

a o a r all S x n kings , wo k which , rej ecting rudeness of

to see in an a Speech wished its theme expressed eleg nt style , f or a had a artificers a liter ture lso its fine , goldsmiths , br ss 2 r r r M l o and a . o f al w ke s, c rve s ost interesting , in view of the

a o of our to E a a r r limit ti n subj ect ngl nd , is efe ence in the ’ second chapter o f the first book o f William o f Malmesbury s Gesta R e u A n or g m gl um. In speaking of Aldhelm as first abbot o f the C eltic - founded monastery which in his ow n time

a o d r a a o f his own genius d rne , he em rked , h lf in defence Ald

a ar a o a o a . helm , th t v ious n tions devel p n ti n l styles The ten 3 E t o o deney of the nglish is o express themselves p mp usly . o a to r a Hist ry , ccording numerous p ef ces , justified itself to the a r be mediev l mind by its useful mo al examples . And

a o f o a as a w as a as c use its imp rt nce liter ture , it llowed . rhet

1 O us ert um ca Roll 1 S a ent a s ne elo uentia est p , . ( s 5 . p T i p I , p i i i q ladi uS actutus i n manu aral ti ci cum en m tr a s nt o era oratoris g p y i i i p , u t v eritatem a eriat ut delectat u t flectat tres s t l orresp ond ent p , , , y i c , hum l s m ed o r s rand s non ntend o ri nci ali ter n s v eri tatem i i , i c i , g i i p p i i aperire et id eo sec und um auc tores eloq uentiae humili s tylo si ne v erborum ’ haleris . A ll th s i s S t A u ust ne s tea h n D e D o tr na hr s t ana IV . p i . g i c i g, c i C i i , ’ 1 —20 n l m r 6 a u tel r r o . . d t a e o s O at 7 , i y Cic ( )

2 ee el hroni ue A n lo- N ormand e l II re r nted S s s v o . Mich , C q g , p i in l i f h ax n o et u l t n : v e A n lo- a ons v . x v o o t e C to S ci y p b ica i o s Li s of g S x . The at n runs thus : s en tentiam S i vi debi tur reserv entes ele antiori L i ( ) g , ut d na m est s t lo ex licandam nee en m d esunt lar i ente D om no coetui ig , i p ; i , g i , i r B e o u m eri issim su ssor s sanct tatis v est ae esele lis O liab se ra t i eee e . , , Hy p

3 D eni ue Graeci nv olu te R oman circ ums eete all s lend de A n li q i , i p , G i p i , g om atiee dictare solent p p . A A E R S 3 2 URE T TE M

1 a as r a a and r . orie decl red w p oper, ple sing imp essive style M M ri o f a . a any w ters history bused this privilege lmesbury, a o a a to himsel f pr fessed stylist , m kes m ny references the style f con o f o not a a t o a o . a o a thers , lw ys ppr ve Thus, in spe king h l 2 temporary Latin history o f the great king A et e stan ( c . 9 4 ) he says it w as just what C icero defined as bombast in dicti on .

r P ha A ethelw ard . He rema ks ( raef . ) t t ( who died c in

‘ ar a r o and far- ra se ching fte s unding fetched ph ses , ship w recked his i ntenti on oi making a good connected Latin his

o out of old a r o a t ry sc tte ed chr nicles , a t sk which , i f divine 3

a or o ro to o . f v smiled up n him , he himself p mised perf rm

no o o w as a r as Yet d ubt such dicti n dmi ed by some in its time , i as t certainly would have been later . Malmesbury himsel f w in o a a a o f a . quite c p ble gr ndiloquence Lesser men , writing l c l

o a o and a a o o a m n stic chr nicles h giogr phies , Sh w , like pr vinci l

o r o of a a as in rep rte s , much m re the l tter qu lity when , is not ll 1 a a an r at a . frequently the c se , they m ke y stylistic p etense That choice or exalted dicti on w as one of the principal

a o f ta o fe tures this style i s quite distinctly s ted , in the f urteenth

Ranulfus w ho a r a century, by Higden , , in the ex lted p ef ce of

ol chronicon a inter caeteros ac ses ui his P y , sks why q p edalium v erborum efilatoi‘ es nostri non crunt laudi

1 S ee E admer R hard o f ren ester the lores Historiae the ulo um , ic Ci c , F , E gi is or e h m n n n r n ers nal reasons H ia et . t T e l n e o ta te est o t e c c. ast a d s , , c i i i g p o f the auth or f or w riting hi story that throw a v iv i d light on certain h f n l p ases o mo asti c if e. ’ eo di cendi genere q uod sufi ultum rex facundiae R omanae Tullius in i 1 2 h ru . 6 . m A n lo m l b . ca r etoricis a ellat. S ee esta R e u pp G g g , II, p , 3 3 The Latin o f the p assage about A ethelw ard runs as f ollow s : Haec i ta olliceor si conatui nostro d v nas av or arriseri t et me raeter sco ulos p i i f , p p confragosi sermonis ev ex erit ad quos E lw ardus d um tinnula et emendicata v er a enatur mi ra ili im e it b v s e b ter p g . ‘ A v ery goo d ex ample will be found in that p art o f the E versham hron le h h w as r tten b ‘ r or D om n es e all in the rolo us C ic w ic w i y P i i ic, p ci y P g i r d that to the l e o f in the atron sa nt o f the house . It s a ue if n , p i g

i m h l f h el th entur . elo uen e s not heret al . e rst a o t e t q c ic Ti , fi f w f c y

A UR A TE R S 34 E TE M ever that it be fl ori shed From a sentence accompanying 1 the first of the se tw o references it is plain that the f riars derived their style in sermonizing f rom the precepts of rhet orie ; the latter reference is obvi ously to a Sort o f euphemism used to gl ose over an ugly fact . Can we know more particularly the nature o f fl ourished words Flourishing o f words might refer to any bom

or a ra a o r or s bastic ex gge ted phr sing, but fl u ished w d were r o o apparently words o f a certain kind . They we e bvi usly

r o or a o or or o a p etenti us w ds , unusu l w rds , w ds finer, ften , th n

r thei r critics deemed necessa y .

a r can a ta a . Their n tu e , I believe , be scer ined ex ctly Until

o r a E a well within the f urteenth centu y , the n tive nglish voc b

- ulary w as still quite distinct f rom the French Latin . This w as particularly true o f religi ous diction . The early thir teenth - r E a on Vi ces and Virtues con centu y nglish tre tise the ,

orar t B rut and Ormulum has o temp y wi h the the , , i f p ssible ,

- r or o h v ed fewer than they o f Latin de ived w ds . F rms like e sennes f or cardinal sins mihte f or v irtue sw nk f or labour , , y

toil or w ork di erne f or secret and so o a a ( ) , , f rth , indic te

r n v ocabulary nearly as pu e as a y purist could desi re .

Genesis and E x odus a o o f The , written b ut the middle the a s me century,

W th londes s e he and ordes smale i p c w , contains about half a hundred different Romance terms .

are f or r a r a a and so These the g e te p rt technic l , in no sense

not a bisso or crisme Of o stylistic ; few indeed , like p , such l ng standi ng in English that no one would ever give a thought to

o n or or an a . their f reig igin , think them in y sense unusu l It is inte resting to note how the word bigamy ( bigame) is o of or a r a to gl ssed in the text itself this w k ( p rtly, pe h ps , pre vent confusion with English game)

v - On en leis tale t e w ifin . g , wi g

1 E . . l 26 E . T . D e ffi i o as tora e . v . S O . S . O c . P , , 74 , p , 445 H W HE RAD ON B A N S O T T ITI EC ME E GLI H 35

O f Ro a to Such glossing m nce terms , even those soon destined

com a a w as o o a . ard on w as be e f mili r, c mm n much l ter P ex a a r t a r a pl ined , in its technic l sense , in w i ing, fte it must h ve

a ar ear as or iv eness and o t been f mili to the , f g , , in the f urteen h

r inobedi ence as unbux omness . centu y , ’ Robert M annyng s ow n bungling attempt to explain manual which in his French original is clearly described as a t oo a can carr a b hand l n lit le b k th t be ied in the h nd , y y g, ’ and D an M so a to a A enbi te itchel s title , str nge modern e rs , y o Inw t f or R emorse o Consci ence a re u f y f , show the s me p g r nance to Romance te rms . The voc abula y o f the latter work

o - is studiously English . It contains words like b c house f or librar v or- s eche f or rolo ue oure o oste f or oor o y, p p g , p f g p f

s iri t and so . p , forth Just when this tendency to restrict themselves to native roots or compounds ceased to control the dicti on of popular

o — it r out o o religi us writers neve died entirely, th ugh it sh uld — it f not be confused with mere simplicity is di ficult to say. A ncren Riw le f or a The , written l dies of gentle birth , who

r o to a as a a o we e supp sed know L tin , is cited e rliest uth rity in

E f or a of r r r nglish number new wo ds de ived f om French , or

ren h- om ort d eli h li uor C a o : e. . c t etc. F L tin s urces g , f , g , q , A ’ t a Ham ole s o a a a cen ury l ter, p dicti n , in simil r c se , is cle rly

i r Latinized . In works certainly h s a e to be noted the earliest

r r r oc . o f a accusour com su viving cu rences m ny fine wo ds like , unc ti on cons train cr stalline diseas e rui tless p , , y , f ,

lori incorri ible mortali t rotestati on re rehend sub g fy, g , y, p , p , tlet h lifi etc. etc. as a a Wic tes y, , It been s id th t , like the , he ra a o an E and delibe tely v ided str ge nglish , by his own o o a and o and as confessi n , s ught the e siest comm nest , such ” 1 is most like the Latin It would seem that the exalted

1 ohn St ou hton Our n l sh ble i ts ranslat ons and ranslators J g , E g i Bi , T i T , 8 r r n n r n N o e e e e i v e . S b ers n d . . . i . s c i , , p 3 f c g 36 A UREA TE TERMS

’ Ham ole s c and mood in which p compositions were onceived , a o f a and E a d his f cility expression in both L tin nglish , c use him to take the words nearest him . Something also bonae sonori tatis in them corresponded to his favorite mood of

t m llifl o mystic exaltation . The epi het e u us w as appli ed by commentators more appropri ately to his work than to that of s ome others .

m of o race levation tem tati on etc So e his w rds , like g , , p , represent an irresistible dri ft towards the use o f famili ar “ ecclesiastically technical terms of Latin ( or French - Latin) n form in preference to English . Wiclif a d those w ho labored

or a a a B an with him , fter him , in tr nsl ting the ible , Show accentuation of the tendency to use such familiar words rather a a o than to m ke strange n tive c mpounds .

B ut not entirely . I f the archaic verse Psalter is really ’ Ham ole s o a a p w rk , it shows th t when not writing in dis tinctl a a a a y individu l vein , or to cert in individu ls , H mpole o imitated the earlier usage . H rstmann points out s ome errors in this work which indicate that its auth or w as not entirely — familiar with older English diction . The Purvey Wiclif

ra a o B a as t nsl ti n of the ible , especi lly first conceived , used such — r o as a ain bu in f or redem ti on a ain- risin exp essi ns g y g p , g g for

resurrecti on borou htow n f or cit comelin f or stran er etc. , g y, g g , Pecock o a R e ressor In the next century, , in his unf rtun te p ,

ir o a o a to old o o . S o a S cc si n lly yielded the n ti n , l ter, did John W a o o a HC S Cheke in his tr nslati n f Scriptural pass ges . T Human ists then began to generalize the notion by emphasizing the precept that our words sh ould be proper to the tongue in

a o a o o o which we spe k , th ugh they conceded th t b rr wed w rds

D n r r S O- a might be naturalized . ryden a d othe s o f ou c lled w classicists theoriz ed about the point . The last century sa in ” William B arnes and others a distinct movement to reduce E o t E to o a o r . o a nglish c mplete S x n impu ity xcept , h wever,

a has a a a . few enthusi sts , the movement m de no strong ppe l HOW THE TRADI TION BECA ME EN GLIS H 37

o a a a ra c are ra or In c ntr st to the e rlier, these l ter p cti es spo dic , a a o f o o at purely academic. The e rlier h bit cho sing nly n ive

o w as as a to o a an ff w rds , pplied p pul r religious writing, e ort to comply with a then powerful living taste and need .

o as ma and or In other f rms of writing, such ro nce hist y,

w as a o a . a there not quite the s me c nserv tism In these , m ny things were called by their Romance names because they could B t ff r tw o have no other . ut a first the di e ence between the

o a a w as r a . v c bul ries strongly felt the e lso Thus , in the rhymed C r i o f R a o h on cle obert of Gloucester ( c . work wh se oca ar as a o has a e r Ro a v bul y wh le p ceptible m nce tinge , in the familiar passage calling attention to the bilingual condition o f

E t as o o r o a o nglish socie y s mething inc ng u us , the uth r uses the “ ” - as to a term high men , i f illustr te his point , though he

r nobles and nobla and a r o knew the te ms y , used the l tte s me

r a o a no Ro ten times in his book . The enti e pass ge c nt ins a m nce word . It is clear then that in a normal English vocabulary any new or a Ro a a , unexpected , unexpl ined m nce terms would h ve

r o lourishe or a o been ve y n ticeable . F d w ds ordin rily w uld

a a R a or a - h ve been such less usu l om nce L tin derived words , o o ses ui edalia v erba the a of ften l ng words , q p , ntithesis londes speche and wordes smale It is no contradicti on of

o a w ho o this conclusi n th t Wiclif , c ndemned flourished

o R r im lf o w rds used many omance w o ds h se . Th se he em ployed were chiefly technical or such as had become current in

ow n and or a a a . his time , did not , theref e , ttr ct much ttention “ ” Thus the flourished words o f the f ou rteenth centu ry

r we e the forerunners of the aureate terms of the fifteenth . ’ C a a r and Furthermore , Wiclif s l use th t they b ingen in his

a on of a to a at ttributi rhetoric l intention the fri rs , imply th

at a w as an a a with them , le st , rhetoric ctive c use in the devel O men o a p t of an stentati ous L tinized voc abulary. A UREA TE TERMS

R 2 . C H AU CE

o w as a r re All this development , h wever, in sense me ely p

C a r w ho a r the a a . w as limin ry It h uce , , cco ding to univers l

O o o f a e a a a oc a a . pini n his g , re lly g ve us stylistic v bul ry At

t o a o r r ar t t but a a firs , his inn v ti ns we e eg ded wi h no hing dmir

o a o a a o a o o of ti n , but l ter the curi us ide r se th t his intr ducti n

Ro ha a a o o mance terms d corrupted the l ngu ge . This n ti n w as t and t ma be - b a o w ho persisten ly held , s ill y , y m ny pe ple labor under the mistaken impression that no language should

o ro ro a o r an or f or has or b r w f m n the y w d which it itself ,

o o a a . D o f C a c uld p ssibly m ke , synonym efenders h ucer then attempted to prove that he w as no more addicted to using R M o a o r . . a m nce terms than were his c ntempo aries G. P rsh many years ago summed up the case thus it is by no means the prop orti on o f f oreign w ords which distinguishes his poems

r c from the common lite ary dialect of the time . It is the sele

o of o a ar and r of r a ti n his v c bul y , the structu e his pe iods th t i ' ” 1 ar h s as ow n . a w as m k style his Since th t written , the pub lication o f the N ew E nglish D icti onary has made it possible ’ t C a r v ocabulat r o to est h uce s y f om the p int of view of style ,

or o at a . selecti n , with gre er ex ctness ’ Vhile the a ua of C a a ra E studying l ng ge h ucer s gre t t gedy , ' Troilus and Crise d e a o to a y , which he ckn wledges h ve been 2 r a or to of art w as w itten cc ding the rules , I struck by the number o f words am ongst th ose which might be considered ’ o and a or C a r n vel impressive in their us ge now in h uce s time ,

a b a E o oo u o f th t eg n with the letter . Up n l king up the n mber words beginning with that letter which the N ew E nglish D ic tionar r or as o E or to 1 00 y ec ds introduced int nglish pri 4 , I

1 e tures on the n l sh an ua e VII S r bners 1 86 . L c E g i L g g , ( c i , 7 , p ’ h h ll e V l ne S ee his final c arge to i s book : S ubgit be to a e poesey ( . i H W RAD N A N O THE T ITIO BEC ME E GLIS H 39

1 o a a a of a o one and f und th t lmost h lf them , b ut hundred ten ,

r f or r C a r a we e either used the fi st time by h uce , or given new a a hir a r to a r pplic tion by fl If , cco ding Ske t , new wo ds in English pri or to 1 400 are especi ally to be looked f or unde r the

r C and E O a w as C a lette s J , V , P , , , it is bvious how l rge h u ’

o r o . or a f or Troilus cer s c nt ibuti n A m e gener l test , chiefly

and Crise d e and B oece a . y the , yielded simil r results Of one r and t c or S as em hund ed fif y sele ted w ds , eventy were cited tirel C a r a a y new with h uce , while score of the rem inder were by him used for the first time in new or extended figurative ? D r R i m ll o a of . e s ue er t senses The investig tion , referred

o a o r o a a a . o bel w , reve ls s me inte esting c mp r tive f cts Of w rds used by Lydgate which are recorded as having been previ ously

o one a are Mann n used by nly uthor, three found in y g, eight

a - fiv e T rev isa r - one G and in H mpole , thirty in , thi ty in ower, a o hu - i r bout ne nd red and fifty n ne in Chauce . These figures a not a a C au o indic te , simply th t Lydg te found h cer m re inter

to r a a C a had an a o a a . esting e d , but th t h ucer unusu l v c bul ry The Chaucer Dic ti onary will presently Show the exact degree

1 For ex m l : n o n o nv v erb e le ual a e elate e v el p ( v erb) , e v e ( ) , p , e , p , i, y icyc q e uat on e uator e u noc t al e u nox erect err erratik es hau e es q i , q , q i i , q i , , , , c f , e ial es al s s a sh st a on t rnal terne etern t ex alta c p e p re e t bl e m t e e , e , p , i , i , i , i i , i y, on x am n n e n x han n un ex us t on t e ( noun ) ex c e d ex ep t o e e ( o ) , a , i , i i g , , c i , c g c i ex e ute ex e ut on ex ecutri ce ex em t ex er e ex er tat on ex st c , c i , , p c , ci i , i en e ex ert ex ress ex tend and so orth all rst uses some o f c , p , p , f , fi , , h ourse te n al . c , c ic ’ The l st n ludes : abusioun a d ent a c ordable accusac on adius t i i c , cci , c , y , , a v rs v r n al ene a m a es am a le amenuse ar ument as re d e e ad e te e b b , , , p , , c , i , g , i g aud en e bestialite ombust on e t coun ter ese curaci oun d e et i c , , c , c j c , p , , f “ done out d e usi oun del a d elic ate d eterm ne d sav enture f , ic cy, , i , i , disfi ure d s one diss ev eraunce d ss m ule dis turne erv entl ortunate g , i p , , i i , , f y, f , o rnaunc e m r al l thar mansuete mart al m oleste mortal v e p e e , , , , g , i i , gy , i n ture ales tr l al able arod e art at on erdurab l t erturbe p a p a p p , p , p p , p y p , i , , i ici i i i , r ur a on rv r etas l t ro n u t recon ort red ress refi ure p e t b t p e e t, p p , p p , , , g , i , i , i i q i y f rev ok e sentement suas on and som e al read l sted abov e under E . , , i , y i h f h r noted in v erse o curred mostl th n the l ne T ose o t e w o ds c y wi i i , n rh m ot as y es. 4 0 A UREA TE TERMS

’ o f C a c n a ac to h u er s in ov tion , but the f ts just cited some ex tent anticipate the general nature of its revelati on in this par i l r t cu a . Thus we have fi rm ground to stand upon in j udging what ’ Chaucer s ow n near contemporaries said o f his language . It is not necessary tom en set 1 forth elsewhere : the Chorus of universal praise that echoed ’ t o c r a Cha r a hr ugh the entu y fter uce s de th , the century pre eminently o f aureate diction . John Lydgate early called the style gay an epithet f requenm m sec m m— ” 1 Gi l- i e mad us a . a M ( . c refully M ) . L ter, Ro a r S a o f bert mongst othe s , spoke pecific lly the

delie r o Troil Crise e n a D un u f us and d , a d g ~ te mis y Willi m “ bar summed up the common opini on of the golden rose Of ’ rethors and his style when he characterized Chaucer s as fresch anamalit termis celicall There can be no doubt ’ a C a o a as a r a o a th t h ucer s success rs reg rded him g e t rhet rici n , and in so d oing be stowed upon him the highest praise in their power. o For that term meant to t hem all that artist implies t day . They recognized that which the greatest modern critics so well ’ n : r a i sist upon C haucer s artistry . They unde stood th t he

a a a o no an worked within gre t tr diti n , yet they were by me s

a . a blind to the independence th t he achieved within it Tr ined , a all o f a o a o ne rly them , in the tr diti n of the ncient scho ls, they — ’ naturally applied their time honored precepts to Chaucer s

r us and r or d wo k , yet they were men , like , we e stirred move to a a o G a dmir ti n by much the same things as we . ranted th t

r a to o s a a thei feelings were simil r ur , the l ngu ge they used in expressing them is not so essentially different that we can a a s fely ssume that they were bad judges .

1 S ur eon v e entur es o hau er r t sm and A llusi on. p g , Fi C i f C c C i ici

UR A TE T R S 42 A E E M

a o to a a a a In dditi n these p ss ges , I would c ll ttention to de Vin ’ sauf s striking lines advising that a speak er b e represented in a or ow n o as t cor st y by his w rds j ust he u ters them , which i s ’ roborative o f Chaucer s ow n theory so forcefully expressed

The Canterbur Tales rolo ue 2 o in y ( P g , 7 5 Pr verbs , are so o a Troilus a which n tice ble in the , especi lly in the conver a o of a a are a s N ova oetria and s ti n P nd rus , much pr i ed in the P

a a a . a simil r mediev l tre tises Altogether, it would seem th t C a had not a Vinsauf a a h ucer re d de in ttentively, nor in de risiv e spirit .

On o a hi s a the c ntr ry, interest in such critic l discussions h seems to have been keen . Profess or Lowes as traced the

a o r to a a a f m us refe ence ch nge in l ngu ge , which occurs in the

Tr il I'I 22—2 beginning of the second book of o us ( .

Ye k no w e ek that in f orm of Sp eech i s change W th n a thousand eer and ordes tho i i y , w hat hadd en r s now onder n e and straun e T p i , w ic g U s th nk et hem and it the s ak e hem S O i h ; y y p .

’ 2 to D ant Conv ivi o and o of a a e s , very likely ther his critic l dict h r r a ad thei place in the lite ary discussions o f his age . Th t he should have used in this w ay the gathered wisdom of past

a and ow n o i - o a a and ges his in f rm ng his style , is m re n tur l quite as admirable as that he should have done what s ome pe ople think geniuses do : spun it enti rely from his ow n vitals like a Spider . We may note also his direct references to rhetoric in his

a o The Cant ur Tale o r f erb s . o most m ture w rk , y F u the most a are o o f C a signific nt put int the mouths the lerk , the Fr nklin , ’ ’ n N r a d . C ac the Squire , the uns Priest The lerk s refe ence ,

1 C N ova oetr a 1 266- 6 f. P i , 7

En alium fl orem personae : quando loq uenti '

S ermo coa tatur redolent ue lo uela lo uentem . p , q q q

i 1 6 . 1 0. S ee od ern h lolo v ol . x v 1 M P i gy , ( 9 p 7 H OW THE TRA DITION BECA ME EN GLIS H 43

or to N ew E D o a o a r c ding the nglish icti n ry, is pr b bly the fi st free use in English of the term rhetori c as synonymous with

C r a of a as one literary style . The le k spe ks Petr rch

whos rethorik e sw ete ll r Enlumnyd al Ytai e of po et i e.

’ The Squire cannot do j ustice to his heroine s charms ; it would

need a rhetorician with all the colors of his art to d o that .

ra a a man a a a . The F nklin, pl in , is simil rly h ndic pped The ’ N uns Priest gibed at D e Vinsauf . The last reference has been ’ supposed to express Chaucer s pers onal opini on of the N ov a

Poe ria o t . a This view , in consider ti n of the evidence cited

a o a . b ar b ve , is sc rcely j ustified The gi e is necess y to the tone

of r and to ara o f r — as the sto y , suited the ch cter the P iest j ust

the other references are to those who make them . K t a a o Chaucer and Professor it redge , in his dmir ble b ok ’ H is oetr has a so a C a r use o a P y, m de pl in h uce s of his rhet ric l knowledge in the st ructure o f all his w ork that it is unneces ar to a on s y pursue the general subj ect further . I sh ll pass to

a a a o f o - C o and o a the p rticul r m tter w rd h ice , n te to wh t extent that w as accordant to the principles of rhetorical art as then

interpreted . N othing could be m ore obvious than that C haucer chose his

words according to thei r fitness . Especially is this true o f the ’ high s tyle The M an of L aw s Tale and the Troilus are out as tw o o f or o singled his w ks c nceived in a lofty spirit ,

and r o a ar a a a thei dicti n , p rticul ly in the l tter, is ppropri tely

dignified . The effect of the former upon a typical intelligent a o a a and o man udit r of the time , pl in d wnright , is represented

o f a B a at the conclusion o f in the words H rry iley , the host , the story

r Thi s w as a th i fty tale f or the nones. I se w el that ye lerned men in lore C an moc e ood b C oddes di nite ! 1 h g , y g

1 ' 1 - Tales, B 1 65 1 1 68 9 . 44 A UREA TE TERMS

Even more to the point f or a study of dicti on is the eff ect of D ’ c o a . M o o the o t r s t le uch m ved , mine host inv kes a blessing on and on and the teller, the utensils , even on the terms of his art , until he feels himself a little incoherent

S e de nat w el k an nat s ek e in terme ? y I , I p

Too ra a a a - f nk to be s tiric l , he recovers himself by a h lf j est about the card ynac le he has so nearly incurred that he must a l m l a triac e vi z . o f o ste and o n a e h ve , y c r y Thus the a o f a a str in sentiment is rel xed , but in the me ntime , fine words have inspired imitation . Yet Chaucer had no special theory that one kind of word is

r or better than anothe . He believed m e in the Spirit than in

and at a his a a . the letter, times deliber tely simplified l ngu ge

1 2 1 8 of of Troilus f or a In line the fourth book the , inst nce , on o Chaucer first used the i nfi nitive c f rte. At this point he ’ w as a B c a Filostrato and o following his origin l , o c ccio s , fr m

a o . a a a a th t to k the word L ter, perh ps c relessly, he ch nged

r H d C a c r and r ma to to lad . a the wo d g h u e , not , p esu bly , some c i a f or irresponsible s ribe w th a pench nt fine words , written ”‘ M 8 of a . s. The auri comous Phebus found in V . H rl 3943? it would have represented an interesting heightening of the a d a style in the rhetorical prologue to a book . The ccepte re d

- ing is gold ( y) tressed supplying the participial prefix y. o Auri comous is metrically exact . It is interesting to n te ’ further Chaucer s careful habit in the B oece of translating a a and a liter lly the highly figur tive meters , then expl ining them — in simple language the thi rd of the second book is a good

1 v ales 28 et se . . T , C 7 q

2 h - onta ns m lar cur ous read n s such as laur ( i ) erus T e same MS . c i Si i i i g , g

f r our r- row ned o l e c ( V . H OW HE RAD N A T T ITIO BEC ME EN GLIS H 4 5

T example . This is like his trick in the ales o f describing night a and c poetic lly, oncluding,

1 h s is as mu he to se e as it w as n ht . T i c y , yg

? Yet at other times he wrote thus without any gloss Ob i l v ous w as a of . y, he m ster of his rules , not they him o be to a o so C a It w uld interesting tr ce , i f p ssible, me of h u ’ f to a a cer s ef ective words to their source , scert in which , i f an a a or one y, h ve distinct origin in rhet ic , but when remem bers how difficult it is to recall where or how he learned most o f o a a his own w rds , even the most unusu l , he will prob bly de ’ Spair o f tracing C haucer favorites eterni ty and eterne ma 5 E , which he y be introduced into nglish , o B C a he learned d ubtless from oethius . ert in others first used E c G ffr Vinsauf a : by him in nglish oc ur in eo ey de , not bly abusi oun N ova oetria a , which occurs in the P sever l times

o ex ert and de usion an o close t gether ; p , f , uncommon w rd , which occur in one o f the two passages of the Latin poem with which there can be no question that Chaucer w as famil iar mansue e C ; t (first used by him to describe riseyde) , h ce occurs in a passage telling how to describe a woman . C au w as a a a a and not f mili r with such p ss ges , unlikely with thi ff r a ik h one. a e r t t very Ag in , the highly e ective epithet ( erratik sterres ) at the end o f Troilus is borrowed lite ’ B a a o cac . from oc cio In like m nner, the source of m ny ther of or be a or o of his w ds might tr ced surmised , but the rigin o r m ost must remain undisc ve ed . It is suffi cient to observe how many genuinely fresh and T a C a . o new terms h ucer used his contempor ries , this fresh B and ness w as naturally more obvious than to us . y example

’ 1 - rankl n s ale 1 01 6 1 8. F i T , F

’ 2 - e erchant s ale E 1 etc. . g. M T , 795 99 ,

3 ro lu 81 2 i s v . 1 . T , R S 46 A UREA TE TE M even by precept they observed him to have chosen his words

a and a a o a . with c re , in the truest sense , to h ve d rned his m tter

o not a a a a It c uld h ve esc ped their ttention th t his new words , so a o o ro o h ppily used , were chiefly b rr wed f m c urtly French

t o t a a or learned Latin . All his acc rded with the li er ry st nd

ar a b o . S o a and a a u ds t ught y rhet ric gre t s fe g ide , therefore , they never hesitated to follow as they could .

T H E H U R U 3 . C A CE IAN S CCESSION

’ The eff ect of C haucer s example is Clearly visible in the work o f his younger contemporaries and immediate succes

o o a o L d s ors . F rem st m ng them is his professed disciple y a o a a a o ro has g te . The v c bul ry of th t m st p lific writer been

D r Rei mueller Mun painstakingly checked up by . Georg s of all ich with interesting results . The intention w as to list the words from French or Latin which Lydgate first used in

E o . a o a of o nglish The result is t t l ver eight hundred w rds ,

‘ the larger number of which are truly new borrow ings or f or E a o . o ar r m ti ns S me , while not discovered e lie in nglish books ,

are t a ra o of o a a use. qui e n tu l devel pments w rds lre dy in One , at a r o — e ntermail to a le st, seems in e r r , which I believe be mere variant of entermele Yet whatever a a are a a o f llow nces m de , the tot l number genuinely new words

o a . are empl yed by Lydg te is distinctly impressive They ,

o o ra r and a o . m re ver, gene lly st iking pp site

a o at a o o In dditi n , Lydg e culled m ny ch ice w rds from his

r Tr isa a r . o a o ev lite ry predecesso s Words first n ted in H mp le , , G n D R i m ll a d o r. e s ue er o out are u ower, thers , p ints , fo nd next B . ut a ar as ta a o r a in him in p rticul , s ted b ve , he d ew l vishly

a of C a a o upon the tre sury h ucer, especi lly up n the stylistic

That this w as consci ous borrowing and not mere absorp ’ o a a a L d ate s an ti n, ppe rs most cert inly from y g fr k confession HOW THE TRADITION BECA ME EN GLIS H 47

Tro B ook at of ho C a . w he used h ucer When , in the y , he

to r C s a w as at a r n of tempted desc ibe res id , he n ur lly emi ded ’ C a r r a ra and a o a e h uce s g e t t gedy, he ckn wledges th t he n eds ’ ra a must c ve his m ster s help ,

A nd sek e hi s bok e t at i s le t beh n de , h f y , S om oodl ord- S there n f or to f n de g y w i y , To sette among the croki d lyny s rude Wh h do r te as b m l tude ic I w i ; y Si i i , The rub stan t o ro al of renoun y , s y , Withinn a I n o f co our or latoun 1 e y g p .

M ore specific still as an indicati on of what be regarded as ’ admirable in his master s dicti on and s ought to perpetuate is a a a ra a Pil rima e o the Li e o M an p ss ge in his t nsl ted g g f f f , in a the course of which occu rs a hym n to the Virgin . Ch ucer

had a a - o A B C and a tr nsl ted this , the well kn wn , Lydg te ,

a o a a o a fter duly n ting the f ct , nn unces th t

ff or memo re off that oete y p , th al hi s rethor k es s ete Wy y w , That w as the ff yrste in any age h at amendede our lan a e T g g , here ore as - I am boun d o f d ett e T f , , In th s book w l h m sette y I y y , And ymp en thi s OryS On A ff ter hi s tran slat on i , r d term ne My pu p os to e y , That yt shal enlumyne h s l t l book ‘Rud o f mak n T y y y , y g, f h r n 2 With som e claus e o ys w yty g. — Now the dicti on o f this poem is distinctly aureate not

M able u uee o o a . erc ue e n excessively, but still n tice bly y Q , Q f

mis ericorde so noble o a araile o God rom his , f pp , wh m f 2 ancille o d l the w orld f ,

1 6 t e c. . e s . L . , II 4 77 q

2 in 1 - l es 8 . c. L . , 97 73 4 T R 4g A UREA TE E MS

1 — and gov erneresse of hev ene all these words and many ’

a C a a a d c o . besides like them , m ke h ucer s tr nsl tion istin tly ch ice Poems in honor of the Virgi n were traditionally to be beauti hed How C a o a so far as r . h ucer bserved the tr dition , wo d

C o r a . a C a a w a hoice is c nce ned , is cle r It is lso le r in wh t y ” a a Cha amendede a a Lydg te supposed th t ucer our l ngu ge , and how a subj ect might be enlumyned 1 a e a a a a O f Lydg te , who b c me gre t exempl r in his turn , it

- is unnecessary to speak further. The general t e enforcement ’ Of rhetorical p recept through Chaucer s example need not be

ra a ffi a . t ced in detail . A few ex mples will su ce in illustr tion a of B a a C a One is the imit tion oethius , prob bly b sed upon h u ’ ’ a a a o a U sk o ow n cer s tr nsl tion , m de by Th m s in the p et s life h — T a o L o t e s o a est ment v e. o a time, c lled f An ther is the imit

o of ra - o a A mor us and ti n the Troilus , in the t gi comic r m nce , y

l o M - fi h M e C e as a fteent . p , by John eth m , in the mid century ’ a o f a th m s use proems to the incipient books , mythologic l ref erences o a a o Go li ttle book , digressi ns , di logue , postr phes , his , , and o a are all as of l ng commend tory ending, suggestive their

as o bo o as source obvi usly rr wed incidents , such the first meet h ing of the two principal characters in church . It as become ‘ a commonplace o f literary comment to remark upon the imi tation o f C a r and o a a h uce , his verse his dicti n , by the ure te a r a o and Dun Scottish poets , especi lly the fi st J mes , Henrys n ,

r It no ba . is t such a comm onplace to remark that their new r words a e part of the imitation .

1 rst use f these ord n l h Fi o w s in E g i s . 2 'He w as early grouped with Gower and C haucer into a k i nd of poeti c ’ um r r l r B h r A hb s Primi er tr v ate obab st b ok en am . V et eo e s i i , p y fi y . G g y

' ’

o s o h n n .E E T 6 E 1 w e A ommenda t s a o . S . . S Ha s s ete . p f i ci , . , 7 , p . 3 ; C t on o hau er ow er and d ate ast me o leasure etc. o er i f C c , G , Ly g , P i f P , G w h l h le rest in d t on w as a ounted e . b the r nter e rt e ette t e a cc ( . g y p i B ) c ic i ; hi s Engli sh w as p robably nearer the colloqui al av erage o f his time. Thi s ' ur h h r l r w l is f t er p roof t at C hauce s v ocabu a y as se ect .

S PECIAL AS PECTS OF T H E TRADITION

I J R H Y M E

The general situation indicated by the foregoing account o f the absorpti on of the rhetorical t raditi on into English w as

- of maintained and re enforced by certain special causes . One

r these w as the necessities c reated by the requi ements of rhyme .

It is quite obvious to anyone reading in the literature o- f the fifteenth century that a large proporti on of the rhymes are Ro a o and o a a a o are m nce w rds , not nly th t , but m ny in dditi n od d o or a a c ar t r o in , ch ice , ure te It is ne ess y, he ef re , to

’ qui re to what extent the exigencies of rhyme aided in develop r ing the diction we a e considering . Since the influence of Chaucer w as so great upon fifteenth

r a o b v a on of ra a centu y liter ture , s me o ser ti his p ctice is m ni f O - o estly in order . A study f the first ninety eight lines f the Troi a s o lus reve ls some interesting facts . The e lines c mprise o a a Of e of are the first f urteen st nz s the po m , eight which ex

’ i i l - os tor s x a a . a a l tw o p y, n rr tive They cont in in seventy dif ferent Ro a and o f a o a m nce words , , exclusive mere rel ti n l

o one and o - one a e w rds , hundred f rty n tive words , besid s

r f Ro a o - are prope names . O the m nce w rds thirty seven

- are rhymes , thirty two occur within the line , three in both

Rom n - o o . a a tw o t positi ns The tot l of ce rhymes is forty , w fi' E a . ft are being repe ted Of the other rhymes , y nglish , thirty eight diff erent words being used : the remaining six are proper

a r of Ro a or o n mes . The numbe m nce w ds in the exposit ry — o o - fiv e - m a re on porti n is f rty , including twenty nine rhy es p p 50 S PECIA L AS PECTS OF THE TRA DITION 5 1

a o . Of r one o o a der te proporti n these wo ds , nly is inc ntest bly

C a a —ex ert One beni ni t m h uceri n p ( line other, g y ( rhy e , r a d c a o is pe h ps here first use by him , but it o curs lm st

r f o simultaneously in Wi clif and elsewhe e . A ew w rds ( auc tori te 6 eneral l 86 sorte 6 are , line 5, rhyme ; g y, line ; , line 7 ) d a a or a s use , pp rently , in senses new slightly ch nged from tho e hitherto devel oped . The general effect o f the diction he re and elsewhere in this indubitably stylistic poem is that o f s omething elegant s/ r though not precious . All the w ords a e used with such ease n ro a a d p priety as to give the re der distinct pleasure . In addi

t r a o f o and con tion , he e is distinct sense n velty freshness n v eyed by most of them . Only o e or two in this passage are new - e a o rva a a minted , but , esp ci lly to c nse tive re ders , m ny m ore would have seemed almost neologisms at that time . E ndi te 6 r m and ins trument 1 0 ( line , hy e) ( line , rhyme)

r would have been o f this s ort . It is of inte est to note that C a ar ra a h ucer v ies the word p y, used here sever l times , by the a biddeth a not so a ra w as old n tive , indic ting much th t p y trite , as a a s an a o w as o o th t , h ving till ex ct syn nym , it less c mm n place then than now . B ut what has this to do with rhyme ? It will be noticed that the Romance words Show a tendency to turn up f re

r . a quently in the hyme Within this sp ce , however, no very r r r r-h m e n r m a e wo d oc curs as a y ; o e hy e only may be new .

one r ex ert o The wo d , p , which , j udged by its entire n velty and a as a r o to choiceness , might be reg rded cont ibuti n the

a at oca ar o f a . ure e v bul y l ter times , occurs within the line In the course o f the enti re first book there are about nine such

: r t c new words th ee of hem o cur first within the line , six under

r M not o the hyme . ere newness , of course , did c nstitute

ins trum t a a . o en ure teness Other w rds , like , though not new, were not so common then and their choiceness w as empha sized by their positi on under the rhyme . A E R S 52 A URE T TE M

The facts thus evidenced are fairly representative of Chau

’ r r and o or are ce s usage . His new wo ds his ch ice w ds dis tributed through the texture o f his verse ; they are not con m a a o f a fined to the rhy e . The s me f ct i s true his immedi te

s or a a r o o not succe s s ; their l ngu ge is p etty h mogene us , divis — ible into aureate rhyme words and simple line words . In

’ L d ate s M inor oems out o f —fiv e y g P , some sixty words which f or their unusualness or rarity would und oubtedly be called

a r a r r a are r u e te by the c itics , fewe th n thirty exclusively hym 1 ’ M etham s A mor ous o a in o . g w rds Likewise in John y r m nce , the aureate terms in the first tw o hundred lines are distributed

a o a . are a a with re s n ble uni formity There , within th t sp ce , but t o arresting rhymes : divulgate ( line and fabrified ( line ' No teworthy also f or aureate terms within rather than ’ at the B ook o C ourtes e ca Cax ton s end of the lines is the f y , lled ,

which is Cited below . the o on a a r m r a As fifteenth century w re , ure te hy es inc e sed in — number partly because authors developed less ease and flexi bility in their phrasing ; they m ore frequently stuck upon

- . a at so o w as a rhyme Yet even H wes , first sight rhyme b und ,

f or one o a not incurably so . He never minute th ught th t the

1 Amon these of ords noted rst in d ate e ht ere non rh me g , w fi Ly g , ig w y , viz adv ert se a all n aureat celi cal r ums e t inv eterat at se . y , pp y g, , , ci c p c , , p y , h m ommutable d om n oun i ndurat od ble e x fi r v iz . p rot c tr : v e e, , , , i , y c , y y i Th r r n w a m u h the same amon st other ords paucasci oun. e p opo ti o s c g w o urr n on e in the oem s un der observ at on h le sev eral o urred in cc i g c p i , w i cc I n S u h observ at on i s o f ourse far rom onclus v e . t both os t o s. p i i c i , c , f c i would be d esi rable to trace the w ords e nti rely th rough Lydgate ( not many are 51ra ka ol ava and also throu h the r o r i nal the are no t r mar £ y / ) g i ig , i f y p i y A r r k n l e f the ex a t h ron olo o f the sev eral with him. g eate ow edg o c c gy work s of Lydgate and other authors than w e now possess would be n f ar as an ne cessary f or d rawing sci entifically accurate conclusi o s. S o y thin a roa h n them could now be made it w as nd ated that h le a g pp c i g , i ic w i l arge numbe r of the w ords w ere originally or p redomi nantly rhyme w ord s the total o f such w as less than forty p er cent : while almost as many w ere

origi nally p rose or line word s. S PECIA L A S PECTS OF THE TRADITION 53

dulcet or aureate speech w as a matter simply of rhyme . The very passage in which he defined aureate terms is finely 1 f or o ra or to r o . a as homogene us And lmost i f c nt st , efute an o a a a o a a a y wrong noti n bout ure teness , he foll wed th t st nz a o r and of by n the in which the rhymes exclusively, much the ” are as a E as an rest , good homely S xon nglish could y

where be found . A n interesting investigation o f this phase o f the subj ect o f

! 2 ha o M B h h a r a s a . a w o as u e te diction been m de by J hn erd n , taken the late fourteenth or early fifteenth century treatise on

o t o f N o a T bin s and ar f or find p e ics ic l us y u , comp ed its rules 3 ing difficult rhymes with an annotated rhetorical Epi taffe on a o f a D o f B o a of the de th uke edford , c mposed ne r the end the m ’ one N o a S erte D a co . fifteenth century by ich l s , the uke s f l ner o so B a s out for a a tw o o f a Pr fes r erd n point , inst nce , th t series of five rhymes ( abuse and ex cuse ) are used in this poe m in senses slightly diffe rent f rom those recorded earlier in the N E n l ona a za o a ew g ish Dicti ry . Opposite the st n c nt ining

r n o C olor Introd i o w as a o a ucc . these hymes set rign l n te , ) This note Professor B erdan explains as referring to the method o f finding rhyme described by Tibino ( to use his

ie n r T o r o Italian name) as al ne dictionis i t oduc io. w o the n tes are explained as proving a conscious applicati on of tw o other ” - i Tib no . o rhyme rules described by Thus , c ncludes Pro ” f o B ess r a w as a a a a . erd n, formed the ure te voc bul ry This conclusi on can only properly refer to the general influ

of o o a and not to ence rhet ric t uched on in the rticle , simply the influence of the rhyming manuals which are more partie l o ular a . I a o a y tre ted of n the three illustr tions ch sen , I c nn t believe that S merte himsel f meant to indicate by his notes his

1 leasure 1 1 v su . as t me o . P i f P , ; p ’ o n R e i w l su . R ma v e c . ic , . p 1’ ’ D c S kelton A en d x v ol . oston v . e s y pp i , II ( B , 54 A UREA TE TERMS

I rhyme choices . Though the examples quoted may be suscep ff a ca o a o tible of di erent cl ssifi ti n , the re l principle inv lved is

s or u o o o a one which , consciou ly nc nsci usly, is c nst ntly being l o emp oyed . Auth rs continually increased thei r vocabulary

nd a o o a f r a Of . thus , by no me ns nly the s ke rhyme

o t t o rh ma o as a a or f os In sh r , h ugh yme y be reck ned f ct in

a r a w as n ot a a a . tering u e teness , it prim ry c use The very ’ o o f Tibino s concludin x hortation o a t ne ge pr ves th t . I urge you to remembe r fai thfully these said meth ods f or finding rimes : f or they are themselves not only valuable f or finding

a o to the or am a o of n rimes , but ls n ent ti n writing a d by them ” 2 a t o . a to sa o of the u h rs induce subtility Th t is y, l ve fine r wo d itself is fundamental .

l Th e rhym es themselv es do not answ er v ery w ell to the formulas f or rh m e- findin u osedl nd at d A bus and ex use ere not borro ed y g S pp y i ic e . e c w w ord s in troducti o but ord's al read lon u sed in n l sh ev en in w , ( ) w y g E g i , i f h l e r E n o r n m l s lig t y diff ent senses. c mb ed ( a oth er ex a p e) w as not a new o ned ord fictio but l k e se a o rd used in a sense sl htl d f erent c i w , ( ) i wi w ig y if rom rev ousl e r d h erm fi o m h h u l r r o de usa e. s t cti t t e a o f p i y c g T i , , ig wi q reater ro r et be a l ed t th e th rd ex am le enalt did not the g p p i y pp i o i p , p y , d ur in r ll h m n r h n l h or o a t a t e sa e se se earl e . C t e s w cc p c ic y i ( f . E g i “ ’ Imi tati hr st l n E I i x E . O d V ers o T . . x x . s here o . S . t e C i i, i i , , p ii ) n plained as tra sumpti o . oreov er in those t mes the term C olor h h i s atta hed to all these M i , w ic c ex am les re erred rath er to the eel n that suff used a assa e its eff e t p , f f i g p g , c , — nd not merely to the v erbal t rick s p roducing that eff ect certai nly not to ’ h m l El h r in hi oem merte note f o or h h r e ru es. se e e s S s s o l y w p C , w ic a ear atta hed to assa es rather th an to ords n d ate th s und er pp c p g w , i ic i n f h rm The three n w in uest on eem t m n ate standi g o t e te . o q i s o e to i dic in the ase o f Fi cti o an im a ned s tuat on ntrodu n the oem in the c , g i i i ci g p ;

ase O f In troducti o a ara hrase o f a ell - kn o n ex am le in eo f re c , p p w w p G f y d e Vinsauf o f lam ent for a hero —his lanta enet or broom - cod N ov a P g , ( oetr a 08 ff S i as est a us o D eu m and in th e ase o f rans P i , 4 . f cc , c T s um tio the trans er O f an act on e e n to hounds and al ons w ho p f i , w pi g, f c , S u h or n r ex ten on f mean d o not l terall s eak n ossess it . c o s o , i y p i g, p c f i g i ing as S met te sh ows in the case o f the words commented up on i s a r h h e ular henomenon o f lan ua e noted o f ourse b t e r etor c ans. g p g g , , c , y i i

2 ’ B rd translat on c . e an s . i , I S PECIA L A S PECTS OF THE TRAD ITION 55

B a a a e esides, it must , of course , be remembered th t ure ten ss

o fi to . a c a a o o is not c n ned verse It is distin t tr it ls f prose . ’ M a C a w o ny of h ucer s new ords were introduced int his prose , and a a r a o w o ai l to a sever l u e te pr se rks , pl n y intended be ure ate a a a o as the fi fteenth- c r , h ve lre dy been menti ned , such entu y V translati on o f the P olychronic on and the English versions of h the Imitatio C risti .

2 . R H YTH M

ma a o a r a w as o It y be noted th t , in pr se , u e teness f stered by

or a a r- desire f rhythm . In the m nu ls of lette writing already

ed to w as e r o ha o c o referr , it oft n ec mmended t t w rds be h sen out of consideration solely f or their decorative and eupho “ ” 1 nious a sola ornatus et bona e sonori tatis causa qu lity,

c of o r had t n The subj e t pr se hythm , which been ex e sively dis s in a a w as and ai a cus ed cl ssic l times, revived , cert n rules l id down whi ch unfortunate secretaries were Supposed to follow

n id o o a a co c . a in eleg nt L tin rrespo den e For their , l ng res und “ ra o as v estrae robitatis ing periph ses were devel ped , such p ? agnoscat discretio meaning lis ten A study of the rhyth ” 3 mic periods of Johannes Oc to will sh ow that they are constructed in consonance with such principles . An interest 1 ing bona fide instan ce o f rhythmic inscription has been noted on a cha e a B a E a a o p l ne r th , ngl nd , d ting fr m the fifteenth century : Thys chapill fl oryschyd wi th f orm osyte Spectabyll ” nd a in Pri or C antlow had edyfyd . In these a simil r stances th e fine words are valued for their ri ch rhythmic sound as well as f or thei r o ther qual ities .

1 Pr sa N ume rosae . 1 etc lar outes o e . C k, F , p 3 ,

’ — he i v e creden e or 1 0 0 . t 1 Val o . C . 8 i t s . Clar o . c . k, p , pp 3 5 ; i , pp 7 f g c ,

i h f ur er od . aud en e etc . n t e oets o o i c , , p p i ‘ W lson c . i , I.

‘ r she N ew n l sh D t onar under flou d . E g i ic i y , i 55 A UREA TE TERMS

o a e o set f or Into this s mewh t vexed qu sti n , the limits the

r p esent work do not permit me to go very deeply . A few

r examples may be quoted to epresent the general contention . ’ 1 L a r n D i on 1 22 I a Thus from ydg te s S e pe t of ivis ( c. 4 ) t ke the following : Late every man prudently advertemthe mutabilite and the sodein change o f this fals world and late the wise gouv ernours consideren in her bertes the contagious ” a a and a a D o d m ges the import ble b rmes o f ivision . The p ly n syllables make a fine rolli g peri od . Phrases in the same

o unstancheoble and reed Couetise i rrecu erable w rk , like g y , p hor mes chi e and remordial caus e are at o a r a and , f p , nce u e te

rhythmic. ’ The fi fteenth - century translation o f Higden s Polychron 2 i on o o o a n c goes further. Phrases like c nc rp r te here linem e tall and wttend en e the in tricaci on inex tricable o this labour J y, g f

resente are o - r p , rhythmic, not nly in their word o der but in

- their word choice . ’ a a the Imitati o Christi Cax ton s a The tr nsl tion of , pref ces

and a a o and o o or ma a tr nsl ti ns , ther pr se w ks y be further ex m in ed . o o with this point in mind Since , however, Pr fess r Saintsbury in his His tory of E nglish Prose R hythm has gone o a o f I sa or very fully int this spect the subject , need y no m e

about it here .

LL R 3 . A ITE ATION

m a to a a d o so I f rhy e be considered help ure te icti n , must

r n ra a allite ation . The exte sive allite tive liter ture of the four v teenth and early fiftee nth century observed the principle of a a o a a En had o f or lliter ti n to higher degree th n Old glish d ne , whereas in ancient times the number of alliterati ons in the

- ar a o four stress line v ied norm lly fr m three to two, in the

‘ ’ M r k en fin d t n l Un v ers t ress 1 1 1 . v . N aoC ac s e e o a e H . . i i , Y i i y P , 9 ” h 1 o . v . t e ed in the Rolls S er es v ol . lx i t. r l . i , , p , P

MS 58 A UREA TE TER

ar a s a r a . y c u e in producing u e te diction It simply suggested , E a a to an . a o f like rhyme , me ns end ven in the c se the works a o f or o a a of b ve cited , this is true , the first c nt ins in m ny its a o t C a most aureate pass ges w rds unknown o Higden . omp red ’ to T rev isa s a a o o a m a , the tr nsl ti n is po r, bridged in so e pl ces , B o a a ot and not a a a . ut b in ccur te in hers , lw ys cle r it is und u t r The edl a a . o a f or a y u e te fl rid pref ce , inst nce , though shorter

a r a o a o - a a a th n its o igin l , c nt ins s me thirty six notice bly ure te

- a . t are a phr ses O f these , twenty hree direct copies of the L tin , f or a commix ti on contex t ex em lars o acci ones ex mple , , , p f s ectable a s ectabilinm acti onum ex em lar ia divine p ( L tin , p p ) , miseraci on etc B ut ta o f , . the very respec ble number thirteen ’ are an ato own a v ia : enhanns ede and ex al the tr sl r s dditions , tede a attollendi melliflnous —a a o ( L tin , ) , ( three times f v rite

o a a o res lend ence a slaw e sonle and a w rd with the tr nsl t r) , p , sli er memor ornate elo uence ino i nable a eti te adv er pp y, q , pp pp , ten e obnubilons and clow d now ble and laureate oete callede g , y, p H omerns a H omerianos hav e indi naci on ai th ( L tin , , g , f r on b or and c edulit c trari ous . of c y, The list dire tly rowed 1 o A a w rds in the Imitatio translati on is m ore impressive . l rge

of o a a to number, however, these w rds were lre dy known liter a as abi ecte abusi on ex cusaci on and so are ture ( , , , not

o act of a a . a Ca o s lely inspired by the f tr nsl tion Fin lly, in xt n ,

rrow d o o a the bo e w rd is frequently c upled with nother, some

a and a o a times n tive simple , sometimes not , so th t it w uld p

a as i f oo or o not f or a pe r he t k w ds ver simply their own s ke , but to provide th ose rich d oublets which mark his ow n and ot E her nglish attempts at a l o fty style . w as a m o f a e a a It the gener l custo the g , when tr nsl ting, not to a i a t ke over the word itself . This s readily app rent in ’ an a tr slati on before Chaucer s time . It is gener lly true of ’ C a ow n a R omaunt o the R ose h ucer s work . Th t part of the f

’ 1 - i x x n . m E E . 6 E . . x x S ee n r e t on . . S S . a s d . I g i i , T , 3 , pp S A A S F RA D PECI L PECTS O THE T ITION 59

a a a o to o tr nsl tion which is usu lly c nceded be his , sh ws very f ew a r a a a a as the tr nsfe s ; the l ngu ge is comp r tively simple , in o i B oe h a a o ta rig nal . His t ius tr nsl tion c n ins terms both rare and E o f a r a ff o o new in nglish , u e te e ect , derived fr m the rig na o a at o s one as a e i l , but the wh le tr nsl i n impres es h ving b en

a a a o - o m de in simple , idiom tic dicti n , well ch sen, suggesting,

as o o r a a . has a a is m st pr pe , r ther speech th n writing As lre dy

’ ar e Troilus o a B a been rem k d , the c nt ins but few of occ ccio s

or o am o few are one or tw o w ds , th ugh ng those very striking In B A . r r . C a a f r a . o a terms the p ised by Lydg te its u e teness , comparison of the first two stanzas with the original shows o r a : lori ous vir in ad v ersar nly th ee duplic ted terms g , g , y; per a a so socour: no a a so a a h ps l by me ns unusu l , th t it would p ’ pear that Chaucer s fine words in that piece are largely o f his

a he ~ rather a a a own seeking, especi lly since p r phr sed the poem

an a a . a th tr nsl ted it Wh t most impresses me , however, is the fact that even when words are transferred literally from an H a a a a to a . ad origin l , it is by no me ns lw ys the s me position a a a a or a o ure te terms been lw ys , even l rgely, s ught deliber a m a a n a a im tely fro tr nsl tio , they would h ve been tr nsferred

- a as ma ca fi fteenth . medi tely, in so ny ses in the century Higden

ma a a C a not a o a It y be s id th t h ucer is g od ex mple , since he w as o a o s a and pr fessedly nxi us to render the ense prim rily, o not to ad orn his versi ons . Without arguing this questi n a a i a of o not g in , I w ll simply point to the us ge thers , to Tre

a t a a a o o a vis , whose le ter bout tr nsl ti n is m st interesting re ding , or to a a r to o o o n tr nsl to s like him , but th se pr fessedly c ncer ed a as as a u a o bout style well bout sense , even tho gh deprec t ry of ’ ff F o a a o ow n o . r c a their e rts ex mple , Hoc leve s tr nsl ti ns , where

a n a to t o as I h ve bee ble check hem up more c mpletely, in the case of his Le tter to Cupid and in his rendering o f Gesta R o

monorum o do not w a c a s . C st ries , sho m ny dire t tr n fers hris ’ ’ a E istre an Dieu d A mours o f or tine de Pis n s p , the m del the o ma a r a a o o at f rmer , y be less u e te th n s me of her other w rks ; 60 A UREA TE TERM S an a c rba bt to f or th e y r te , Ho cleve is not, ve lly, much inde ed it 1 dignified language his letter contains . The language of both the Latin and the E nglish Gesta is fairly simple and concise ; these qualities are not closely imitated by Hoccleve in his ren ’

i o f o o f ereslaus s or a o f onothas. der ng the st ry J wi fe , th t J a za or o his ran a In them , the st n f m ch sen by him for t sl tion

a a to and a o f n tur lly tempted him verbosity, his m nner yield ’ ing reminds one o f Malmesbury s sayi ng that to an English man style means pomp . It might be supposed that so great a translator as Lydgate o man to a a w uld be the best ex mine on this score , especi lly in of o o o at unfor view his f ndness for n vel w rds , but present , tunatel a a y, m ny of his most import nt sources , while known , n f do ot exist in easily accessible editions . His known habit o

a an d a n c a ac o f a ua p dding, the f irly u i form h r ter his l ng ge ,

a o a a riori t a as t r ra a o m ke it seem pr b ble , p , h t wi h othe s t nsl ti n a of o s w simply g ve him a store w rds to use as he a fit . The Reismueller a tw o instances given by Dr. s presumptive evi dence that translation furnished him directly with a large pro po rtion of his new words are far f rom conclusive in a stylistic o i nd a . are dond ne an o f a rel ti n They , instrument torture , bum r c R i mu lle bard a an c D r. e s e r , piece of o dn ce , both o urring , has a a a a i a a scert ined , in the p ss ge of his orig n l which Lydg te

w as a a at a . B ut o are c a o tr nsl ting th t point b th te hnic l w rds .

s a and a to re u ed in their ex ct sense , therefore h rdly subject E mark stylistically . They were most likely current in nglish ; t at an a a a E c hey seem y r te d pted to nglish speech ( Fren h , d on il ri ma e daine bombarde . o , ) Furtherm re , when in the P g g of the Life of Man he wrote

which that clerky s in sentence alle w ant n or caren e C y g, c , h Of original ryg tw y snesse.

1 1 E . 6 . S E S . m d in E . S ee the om ar son not v er a uratel a e . c p i , y cc y , T , ,

- A n x te r h E i r i in S o des . e s an 2 9 8. The ull tex t of t e st e s c. pp . 43 4 f p T F , ’ - rk l 1 2 f uthor o s. vo . . o its a s ii , pp 7 w S PECIA L A S PECTS OF THE TRA D ITION 6 1

' the te rm carence may most likely be explained as induced by and o art as a ra a o a o rhyme nly p ly t nsl ti n , yet I c nn t help feel ing that it w as als o a satisfacti on to the author to introduce a

or o f its s a and a as a o w d this kind , with chol rly ex ct soci ti ns ,

dond ne or o r o o a i b mbard . int his verse, m re so th n The e is this essential diff erence : that there were no other words f or

ma r a o carence w as an a a the te i l bj ects , but eleg nt equiv lent

f or a E w ant n . a to pl in nglish y g Incident lly, it is interesting note how the fifteenth century in thus explaining an English

r by a Latin term reversed the p actice o f the fourteenth .

r o h a o o Au eate dicti n ad m de c nsiderable pr gress .

r ar to a a o o o a rac With eg d tr nsl ti n , my c nclusi n is , th t the p

o f as o a o out tice it , the rhet rici ns themselves p inted , simply r a a increased the vocabulary in a gene al w ay. Tr nsl tion of a highly col ored piece of literature might involve an attempt to r r d a not a a fi fteenth ep o uce its be uties , but ( witness lw ys the

' o r r century Higden) by simple b dily t ansfe of its words . Their reading and trans lati on together gave translators rich stores of words upon which they could readily draw when the stylistic a a impulse seized them . Therefore I reckon transl tion s a

to a a or as distinct help the ure te style , sometimes providing an o a as r a o nor a impulse t w rds it , but neithe s le even prin i c pal cause .

P R G 5 . AT ONA E

A fifth cause of aureate diction remains to be discussed . It

n . is patronage . This term is o e somewhat loosely used It is o ftenest limited to that habit o f subsidizing auth ors which is m ost familiarly illustrated by reference to early eighteenth

ma o o n en a . a a a century pr ctice It y ls , h wever, me n simply couraging interest in letters on the part o f those superior in

a o to an a r or t o o a o f o or st ti n utho , with wi h ut d n tives m ney a al a a o a no honors . Prob bly even in the p miest d ys of p tr n ge man a r r w ea or a o ever received soci l p efe ment , lth , incre sed p si 62 A UREA TE TERMS

a l tion simply because he could write . I f th t were a l he could

do and r a w as r . a r , his services we e w nted , he hi ed His liter tu e ,

r o r or howeve , i f it pr ved inte esting useful , might further

o m had not r d a o rec m end him , i f it int o uced him , to the ttenti n

r a and so to r ad of the g e t, indirectly contribute his wo ldly m a ma a a C a vance ent . The l tter y h ve been the c se with h ucer ; h t e forme r is m ore common .

o o a of fi fteenth- ra Hitherto, this c nc mit nt century lite ture has no a n o o a been by me ns u n ticed , though s mewh t imperfectly

a on o a estimated . An interest in liter ture the part f the Pl n tagenet and especially of the Lancastri an kings has often ’ a L d ate s o ra and or a been rem rked ; y g bi g phers edit s , especi lly c o o f Tem le o Glas a S hick , in his editi n the p f , h ve listed his patrons and commissions ; but there have been few thorough studies o f the s ubj ect f or this period such as that made by

M N o f o a and S c . Profess r S muel oore for rfolk u folk , ’ ro o M i a r a a to In P fess r oore s opin on , this p t on ge c me little in h t e a e a e . end , bec use it produc d no new liter ry typ s He brings

rw ar a a e of o o f al lit fo d g in, howev r, the question the utburst erativ e a r M a a a su liter tu e in the West idl nds century e rlier, g gesting that it may have been due to similar encouraging

t i r n condi ions . There s much in the efi ed and courtly character o f a r t th t literatu e o support the suggesti on .

o o or - a a These c nditi ns of whole semi p tron ge , I believe , ex ercised a marked i nfluence on the diction of the fi fteenth ’ li tterateurs M r a r a century . oo e s rticles prove that pat on ge aff c not a al B r o o f r e ted only Lydg te , but so u gh , b th whom we e a a and B ok enham w ho a w as o ure te , , knew wh t style , th ugh he had a an ms . l a a to h rdly y hi elf Hu bert , who deni es p tron ge

C a a o to - oc on the on o f h ucer, ll ws it H cleve , testim y their 2 s . Not to a s e o ver es cite other ex mple , lik those of J hn

1 Pu 4 See b od . an A sso 1 1 2 1 c . . M L g. , 9 3

6 n . o . cit. i . P 4, p f S PECIA L A S PECTS OF THE TRADITION 63

M t a or am A tk nson 1n E a i a e h m Willi y ngl nd , we m ght note th t 1 the a r at ot O i i o f Gr or u e e Sc tish poets , in the p n on eg y Smith , ’ were influenced i n their w ork by James IV 5 patronage of art r C r a and r . ran lette s In F ce,du ing the century , h istine de Pis n, a C a an d the Grand es R hetori ueurs o Al in h rtier, q , whose dicti n ff a as a are r all is in e ect the s me th t which we conside ing, were

n ar o f a rona . a a a oo w as be efici ies p t ge The f ct , then , th t b k to a a r o f o a as p ss , presum bly, unde the eye pe ple educ ted well as or a r or a ra o the writer, better th n he , in the het ic l t diti n . w as quite as much a reason f or the frequent apol ogies by authors f or the imperfecti on s of their works as w as natural fi n or a c a o or a o a a . rti i l m desty, co venti n d ting from cl ssic times a o a o a of an This custom l ne is cle r, th ugh neg tive , evidence existing critical taste . M ore interesting are s ome o f the di rect references to a cultivated public and its critical attitude .

a a on o a ara o f a e are V lu ble testim y to the f rm l ch cter the g , it r a n s numerous t e tises on courtesy a d etiquette . All of these enj oined care in speech and delivery as part o f the reverent ’ L ’ a o . as d ate s S tans be ring due ne s superior At times , in y g uer ad M ensom are t c o o lan P , they hemselves uched in ch ice ’

ua . B ut of o a Cax ton s g ge the most interesting them is pr b bly , a o a a which , in dditi n to the usu l precepts, eleg ntly expressed ,

o a a o o o f one and c nt ins l ng digressi n , hundred nineteen lines

( stanz as 4 5- 6 1 ) in praise of literature and especially o f “ Go C a and a o r o f our wer, h ucer, Hoccleve , Lydg te , f unde s ” i a a a re o a e . n l ngu ge . These st nzas a el quently phr s d Their ’ a a ma - tent is to urge re ding, th t one s mind y be well stored with matter and the means o f adequately expressing it . The class o f noble and cle rkly reade rs by and f or whom the ra o o f w as a a e a o t diti n letters chiefly m int in d , were ccust med to n be approached a d addressed with formal dignity . This is

1 e i h fi r in the er ods o Th rans ti on r od c . t e teent centu e . T i P i ( , f h y) , P i f

‘

r ur r S e . u o an t r t e s e . E p e Li e a e S ie . p 49 A E E M 64 A URE T T R S

1 i especially plain in the epistolary traditi on . L vely examples n r as of this are to be found in Chaucer. The you g squi e w a familiar with the manners of court . He knew how a mess ge to o o not a e a a king sh uld sound , th ugh he might h ve b en ble to o and w how o a c mpose one himself , he kne it sh uld be re d 2 a Troilu r r al oud . The negative ex mple in s is even mo e inte

o a of o a a esting . T w rds the end the sec nd book , P nd rus gives the l ovelorn youth good advice with regard to the letter he is 3 r a a o C to send to C iseyde . The p ss ge is a fine example f hau ’ a o cer s ideas of literary fitness . This particul r letter is n t to be

i nel h . a 1 02 d g i c e endited S o re ds the accepted versi on o f line 4 .

B ut collation o f the Troilus Mss. reveals five other readings dyneliche ne mystiliche ( questi oned by Pollard as a corrup o o f de nousliche clerkissl cler al clerkl ti n y ) ; y, g y, y ( supposed r Roo o a of scriv enl ne cra til by P ofessor t , pr b bly in view the y f y ’

1 026 to o o and a all . a in line , be c pyists err rs ) ; p p y The l st

' v ariant is a one un ccounted for, but thinks instinctively of the papal secretaries chosen from the graduates of the famous

r l an oo and a Cancel aria. O le s sch l , the whole tr dition of the In such a process of constant revi sion o f thetext as that so R not b a vividly described by Professor oot , it is impossi le th t one or two of these variants may represent tentative choices ‘

C a . an a a to by h ucer himself At y r te they present , t ken a s a o o a a and gether, lmo t little epit me of the epist l ry tr dition ,

a r the qu rte s in which one might expect to find it flou rishing . H owever suitable f or argument or royal or papal communica o a w as too o a a ti ns , such style rn te to seem sincere in genuine

1 e e d n f h h r a e S th s uss o o t . o m t v e t s o b . ansc e T e i c i i pic y M B H h , F i

’ r o n s am r- 1 2 e d o l h l ar ette w r ters é c h la 0 . P i f E g i F i i L i , P i , 9 “ - 1 N t h k h l ! ales 88 0 . o e t e o e about t e e h st e T , F 9 j h ig y ‘ ro us l n 1 2 - 0 Th ll llu tr te hat l . es 0 et s e . e assa e e s a s a T i , II , i 3 5 q p g w i w h f resh mind Chaucer broug t to bear on rhetoric . ‘ ' S ee The ex tual rad t on o hau er s ro lus haucer S o et v ol . T T i i f C c T i , C ci y,

ser 1 . 99 , ies

66 A UREA TE TERMS

a a ra a a . h ve been overr ted , but his interest in lite ture seems f ct The gi ft of books detailed by Froissart is the best proof of

r a ea to as this , even if thei binding only pp led the king much 1 ’ o Ed a III as it did to their author. All f w rd s children were ’ h h a r well educated . Jo n of Gaunt as been called Ch uce s

to his a o a a patron . The extent which p tr n ge wh tever it ’ ‘ w as w as a a o f C a o and oflices , c use h ucer s receiving pensi ns 2 ma a t a a not o y h ve been overes im ted , but this f ct does dispr ve 3 ' n an . a a a r a interest in letters His desce d nts , the L nc st i n kings , were noted f or lite rary corhmissions. Thei r court imitated m w as a of them . Henry VI fro the beginning in the h nds the

for to w o o . and r clerks them rk their will up n His uncle egent , of G o r w as a o for r Humphrey l uceste , f m us his inte est in books

n r o o f r com a d libra ies . The m ther Hen y VII not only gave 4 o a a or and w as o missi ns , but herself ess yed uth ship, the bj ect 5 o f dedicati ons Authors working under these conditions s ought to make

o o a e or a r a . a their dicti n ch ice , le rn d , u e te A striking ex mple ’ L d te L e en o S t M ar are a s d . t a i s y g g f g , for inst nce , written by M a a a . c or a o or speci l request of L dy rch Subj e t p tr n , both r a o a a l coure togethe , shed , in this inst nce , s me ure te y into

’ 1 hron l o n lan r n n n h n D n ter tex t es d a e a d S a a . x x u s s C ic f E g , F c p i , c p ( , ’ “ v er man s brar 22 and I had' tak en are to orm a . E y Li y , pp 5 c f , collecti on ( the k i ng) opened it n l k n i m H u h t h v e n leased a d oo ed to t th u h leasure . e o t o a bee i wi c p g p ,

’ f or it w as hand somel r tten and llum nated and bo und in r m son y w i i i , c i ” B v elv t &c H di ed n ev ral l e re n r l ud . e e . e to s e a s ad a ts a o , pp i p c , i g p s des th s there are the line s later su re ssed in the rolo ue o f the i i , , pp , p g on ess o A mautis and an entr on the ssues R oll under 1 80 f or ur C f i , y I 3 p chase oi book s.

2 ’ S ee . R. ulbert hau r ff a Un f h h e s e s O l e v . o ca o t s J H , C c ici Lif ( i C i g i ) , P 1 1 2 ant u Co. . 6 a b . B . , 9 , p 4

r vi f H ul r i u s o S ee e e o be o t. r P M o an A s 28 t c b oo e b d c. w , p. , y M , . . L g. ,

1 8 - 1 pp . 9 93 ‘ i hr Im tatio st o cit. Her ork i s m ldl aureate. C i i, p. w i y “ B n h r E n la a d n and la t n E E T 8 E S . ax ton c e . S . C , y g y , . . , 5 S PECIA L A S PECTS OF THE TRA DITION 67

1 D . a . a a his pen In like m nner, his poem to St enis , s id to h ve

at o f been written the request the French king, is gilded , like

- L e end ec a a a a at i . the g , with sp i l he viness , p rticul rly the beg n V 2

and . a o are a ning end Aure te t uches , indeed , l cking in few Monk o f B are o o pieces written by the ury , but these m st n tice able in poe ms of his actual ly inscribed to people of dignity and o or a a r to c ndition , in sense dedic ted to thei subj ect , the 3 ’ M h m r ar o o f a as . o et a s a a ist cracy He ven , it were J hn u e te ro a A mor ous and Cleo as w as a m nce , y p , composed in elev ted style becau se of dedication to Sir M iles Stapleton and hi s

be C o a . a a L dy Other inst nces might cited , but in xt n they ma all e a to A ene dos y be found summ d up in the pref ce the y ,

r a a w o a o not whe e he distinctly s id th t he uld dmit s me , the

o and a s o ra a a m st , clerkly le rned term int the t nsl tion bec use

w as . o the book intended for gentlemen In so d ing, he simply

o f llowed an immemori al tradition .

1 ff . E E . T 1 0 E. . . 1 o s S . S nor em . . Mi P , , 7 , pp 73 ‘ it b d . 1 2 . I i , pp . 7 ’ he seric ord as and the S t A nne : nor oems . 1 ti . and ee t . S Mi i , Mi P , pp 7

- h . 1 2 d . 1 0 if also t e Te D eum b . 2 3 ; , i i , pp 4 IN CON CL U SION

All this evidence goes to show that the rhetori cal traditi ons pl anted amongst the English with the establishment o f the y first Christian schools encouraged a select or precious Latinity

“ o both by precept and example . Str ng in great scholars or B Ma S al r clerks like Aldhelm , ede , lmesbury, John of isbu y. and Vinsauf a and o de , reflected in the letters , tre tises , hist ries

o f as ff as ZEthelw erd Losin a M on men di erent Alcuin, , de g ,

o Ro B a and G am l o of m uth , ger con rosseteste ( to n e on y s me

the — all of affa or a s more prominent men irs v ried intere ts) ,

w as o a u to all w ho or a it kn wn , however v g ely, wrote re d This traditi on expressed itself not only in figures or colors

a a a a con ( verb l or intellectu l ) , which h ve not been specific lly sidered a a ff to a here , but in gener l e ort be refined , eleg nt or

- stately in word choice itself . o a a at o a l1terature Th ugh ssoci ted first nly with L tin , this traditi on necessarily exercised an infl uence on the minds of

Englishmen which presently shows in vernacular composition . With the renewed cultivation o f literature in the native tongue t and a far during the thir eenth e rly fourteenth century, in so ’ as w as for a o a E w as it intended pl in pe ple s re ding , nglish kept o r and un studiously pure in dicti n , pictu esque , but simple

elaborate . This point is clearly proved by reference to the

o o f a a o or to o a o t o f w rk L y m n O rm , the p pul r religi us wri ing

and a to a o f Ro Mann n and D an the times , especi lly th t bert y g B M itchel . ut when the work w as intended f or educated or

! a r o a aft a courtly re ders , hetoric enj ined th t it be er higher 68 IN CON CL US ION 69

a and r te The stylistic pretence is present, choice words ,

r o a a ra a 0 out. such as we e m re f mili r to t ined e rs , cr p This is as A ncren Riw le as visible in as early a work the , but the E r a r numbe r of educated readers of nglish inc e sed du ing the J o tu so f urteenth cen ry did the tendency, until , upon coming to C a all r a a ab haucer, we find th t his fi st dmirers s id out the

n r o f o f a gaiety a d f eshness his diction is , in view his innov

o ra r . C a a a a w as ti ns , lite lly t ue h ucer used the l ngu ge th t easiest and most natural to him and most suitable to his pur N o a one a a o o o w as e t poses . theory th t p rticul r s rt f w rd b t er t a an o a r e and of h n y ther h mpe ed him , but his exp rience sense fitness introduced an extraordinary number o f new and choice

E a a o f words into nglish liter ture , l rge numbers them being

- Romance or Romance Latin in immediate origin . This ex a a o a a mple , strengthening the ide ls they were c ntinu lly t ught , o o t o a o L d enc uraged his imitat rs o make similar inn v ti ns . y a w as r a c and a g te fo emost in t king this ourse , his ex mple be ’ o r fif came fully as potent as Chaucer s . In the c u se of the t n h r ee t century such inno vation became inc easingly deliberate . a the o a not Tow rds cl se of the century it culmin ted , however ,

a a a o o f a a a a a in sudden pe k , but in s rt t blel nd gr du lly p h roac ed . rm a a a p It te in ted in the f ce of Hum nism , or we m ay say assumed a new form . The seventeenth century wit ’ s/ nessed a a as Cok eram s its resurgence in such m nu ls Henry , which would have been as welcome and well - thumbed a book ’ in most fi fteenth- century writing- rooms as a Roget s Thesaurus

is said to be in newspaper offices today . to r an o Fully unde st d the phen menon , we should remember

E r that nglish wo ds also were regarded as potentially choice . The whole matter cannot be entirely presented until the sty listic use o f English and dialectal words has also been inv es ti ated o o f a a a and e g , questi ns person l t ste ex mined , vidence

m as as . presu ptive well evidence direct considered These ,

a om a as ar however, h ve for the m ent been reg rded second y 70 A UREA TE TERMS issues and attention has been here called chiefly to direct evidence of word - choice consci ously made under the influence of rhetorical precept .

The rhetorical traditi on thus touched upon w as very broad .

C a o f its a as its a a ert in spects , such pplic tion to rhyme , rhythm , a ra a a o and a is o a llite tion , tr nsl ti n , wh t s mewh t loosely termed

a o a a o a a o . of p tr n ge , h ve been m re p rticul rly dwelt up n All these habits were powerful in devel oping the diction some

ar s a fo times reg ded a peculi r the fifteenth century .

a a a t a r a and a o Its peculi rity is more pp rent h n e l , due lm st

o to a a ra o . a a a no wh lly bre k in t diti n S ve by few schol rs , author o f the fifteenth- century aureate sch ool has been read a R or since the l tter part of the sixteenth century . ightly

ro o a o and a a o f a a w ngly, p pul r kn wledge re ding, s ve few gre t Cha o a o a r outlying figures like ucer, d es not usu lly g b ck furthe ’ than to Shakespeare s contemporaries . The literary tradition f ormed anew in the sixteenth century has changed in some but h as o . a of respects , it been c ntinuous Th t the fifteenth

r so f ar as a centu y, it still exists , does so less by direct surviv l than by perpetuati on o f part of it in the work o f later men

h r r a M o w o a e still read . We e the Shakespeare n and ilt nic 1 vocabularies to become as unfamiliar as the Lydgatian and l o a as a a Skeltonic , they wou d present m re oddities th n , m tter

of a to a at r a r do . f ct, even m ny cultiv ed e de s , they In consequence of such a break in traditi on many words of the aureate vocabulary that had not a wide currency became

o r Nor o o o . bsolete enti ely . w as this true of wh le w rds nly

f o f a has r e a ff O ten the root word su viv d , but with di erent

as ab us e a of abus i on or habitati on r ending, inste d , in p efer

h bi tac l r o to a e. t ab ect are now ence O her wo ds , like j , f und fif only in specialized senses . E ven the orthography of the

’ “ ” 1 hou h L d ate s v o abular has been alled modern in contra T g y g c y c , '

k m as E E T S . ntrod . d st n t n aucer s. v . S c e le o l . . o to . i i c i Ch hic , T p f G , , I IN CON CL US ION 7 1 teenth use f or i and c f or century; its doublings , its of y , the

o of t - ci0n now - tion a a a t a soft s und ( in , ) , pl ys p r in lien

izing its words from modern consci ousness . o a roa o w one ma a a the Fr m b der p int of vie , y, fter re ding in l a of a a e as iter ture the period , disreg rd circumst nces like thes

o . a o o a o of little m ment In n ther respect , h wever, the tr diti n has been more eff ectually broken . Obsolete meanings may be

o a o a o are or . a rec vered , but feeling, ss ci ti n , m e elusive The f ct ”

a a . is , our ide s of fitness h ve been modified In the fifteenth c a o f a o to u a om entury , sense fitness led uth rs c ltiv te the p

pous and the grandi ose . Limitati on of subj ect to abstract

or ot o a and to a a themes , those rem e fr m d ily life , r ther select

a a w a all o . o udience , inclined them th t y the m re In m dern ’ ’ as a a and C a are o times , in Sh kespe re s in h ucer s , we m re sen

i i M n or s t v e to common human interests . ore a d m e we neglect

o a a and m a o . e f rm l m nners , with the form l dicti n H nce , to an impartial observer it w ould appear that though they pro

to a tw o ar o fessed uphold the s me principle , the liter y m des ,

o and are a a to a o r. urs theirs , mutu lly str nge e ch the In that principle of fitness is to be found the real explana

o of a a o . ostered f or r ti n ure te dicti n F centu ies in the schools , oo R it t k on m ore and more the col or o f its environment . ecip rocally it influenced the succeeding generations of clerks w ho w a t a to used it until they, imbued ith . it , tr nsmit ed their t ste

t o and o o a had h se princes , gentlemen thers wh se educ tion they ’ r r in cha ge . It is a st iking instance o f inbreeding s producing a speci al type of mentality and expression . S o l ong as the edu

cational a a a a a o w as system rem ined the s me , the ure te tr diti n

o b und to retain its particular tinge .

Such w as the why o f aureateness . It w as part o f the

sl owly- developed and carefully- guarded sense o f prOprietv to and a a . w as cherished by the clerkly educ ted cl sses It , so

‘ !

a a o a o o a to a k . spe k , p rt of the prer g tive bel nging in th se d ys r n a o a and ff disa Like m ny other prer g tives , grown old sti , it p 72 A UREA TE TERMS

r a o f pea ed before the arrogant onsl ught fresh popul ar ideas . had a a a e but It its p r llels , of course , in l ter tim s , these were o a n never quite the same . It is m re e sily to be con ected with

what went before than with what came after. “ i i M h 1 a a s ca . en ad be Its ultim te c use , then , psycholog l it

cause they wanted it. The aureate school w as expressive as

o no an well as impressive . It c uld t so insist on fitness d con t a d a n or fuse h t notion with o dity, foreign deriv tio , rhyme , a w as w a wh tever. A word chosen ; it as written ; it w s accept a able to those who considered themselves trained j udges . Th t w a at s a as aureate diction . It imed etting forth its m tter

a to a a a o . a worthily, ccording gre t tr diti n I f indeed it f iled and a e w as a a w as bad a ce s d , it not bec use its ide l , but bec use men got out of touch and out of sympathy with the fifteenth c n r L e tu y.

74 BIB LIOGRA PHY

E . . A n n lish arner ondon 1 0 1 2 v ols . G E g G , L , 9 3 ( )

' lm . e n n 1 C Rh or at ores 86 . . a t es e H H , , L i i Mi , L ipzig, 3

K. K l H n 1 l mmat 8 v s. e . ra at e o i , , G ici L i i , L ipzig, 57 , 7

. L r P His toric Poetarum Poematum edii A ev i lle 1 21 e se . e t a . L y , , M , H , 7

A . Pa o r s 1 1 . ne trol iae u sus om letu ar s 8 on. M Mig , , y C C p , P i , 4

' . i in Ma. ar G. rattat ed ev ali di R tm a at a lan 1 8 . M i , , I T i M i ic L , Mi , 99 m r l cR n m r l de t u r . e at e e o e s t to o ba do etc and s a e . ( M i . I i L , , p y)

S . er et . P . P cy S oci y R um r ani ru r n Rolls. er B itt ca m M cdii A ev i S criptores : Ch onicles a d M e m orials o reat r ta n and reland d ur n the ddle A es London f G B i i I i g Mi g , , 1 8 57 on. A An nn 1 S . . T S o é té des e e ex t F r nc i r . . s es a a ses a s 8 on . F ci ci T , P i , 7 5 T S o t s ex t et n ur h nd n n S . . d S t S oc b a o do . . c i h T i y , E i g L

—WORK A N D U H OR B . S A T S — NOTE The following li st i s bound ultim ately to dev elop i nto a catalogue f m e l l r r A resent i n lud es onl those author hose o di ev a ite atu e. t p t i c y s w work s w ere fully rev i ew ed in ex pectati on o f more di rect or obv ious l t re er n e . D u l m v n r n s y i stic f e c s o bt ess so e ha e bee fo gotte .

A l n In li a us de su s,

A n i a i nu l h t cl ud a s R ls 2 h m r 1 2. o t . ed . o as W t 8 , L ; , 59, p , T ig , 7 P an u a R l D e l ct N turae olls t 2. rans lated b D. . D ou as , , 59 , p T y M g , l n h 6 a ud i l l 1 8 . e S t es n s v o . 0 Y i E g i , 3 , 9 Alcu n i ,

D is u a i Rhe - 0 n r l n A We t t o d tori a 2 e e a ccou t . . st e c . a p , H , pp 5 5 55 ; g , F , A l u n and the Ris e o the hr s t an S hools S r bners 1 8 2 c i f C i i c , c i , 9 ; n l P lum Un ve r t 1 0 etters a a ed R a e o b a s . L yz , B . g , C i i i y, 9 9

A ldhelm,

W rk W ll m f almesbur sta Pontificum o s 8 l e etc. b a o e , M . 9 ; if , , y i i M y, G , R olls 2 ook V . , 5 , B nd r n n i E ‘ T 1 E k t 1 8 x E . . 8 A le a a d D i d mus . S S . ed . S ea . e , . . , 3 , , 7 A shb eor e y , G g ,

m E E r n 1 8 . T . . E . d . ateso oe s . 6 e S . S a P , . , 7 , M y B , 99 A u n S t. ust e g i , D D o n hr n e tri a s t a a . . c C i i , M 3 a on Ro er B c , g ,

m R l 1 r er 1 8 . u er u ls e . . e O s t etc . o d p T i , , , 5, J C. B w , 59 ede B , nd n 1 A l Wh k r n C . o o m l W rk 2 v ls ed . t te o s o . . es a e a d o o e . C p , , J Gi , i , L , l 6 n i ns he m etr l re t e n that n ures D e 1 V o . a d 8 . o t t a t a s a o 43 c ic i fig ,

- 0 6 1 8. i r i Th . 6 o la ter l i in H . S chemat bus et T s . e t a so s p , pp 7 h B ur . B g , ,

E . v su t . i E E T . 66 . S . b r s n . S . oem to d ate S er ee e c . P Ly g , , , ,

Lydgate inf . BIBLIOGRA PHY 75

runetto Lat n B i i ,

Il esoretto ur n 1 0. T , T i , 75 h i I oro l 1 8 d C ab lle. l es o o na 8 e . . a T , B g , 7 , P ll u a e a art an s . C p , M i M F

u o o M r urn Ko rank r - n- n D e N tiis Phi l l iae et e c ed . o t o ai p g , pp , F f M , 1 836 ;

- i . 1 2. D e A rte Rhe tor ca H . , , pp 45 49 ass od orus Senator C i , ' Work s enev a 16 6 , G , 5 ;

h - 0 D e R etorica H . . , , pp 495 5 4 ; r la h m k n 1 etters t ans ted o as od n o don 886 . L ( ) , T H g i , L , ax ton W ll am C , i i , E E T 1 o E . ll urn l A d s . . d n 0 S . S e u d v al ene . . e 8 y , , 57 , . C y a F i , 9 ; l n r B la n har d n nd E lant n E E . E . L . K l e 1 0 S . 8 ed . e c a e . T . S 8 y g y , , 5 . , , 9 ; oo u E r ll 1 k o r es E E T . 868 d . u n v a C t e S . S . e . . . . ; B f y , , 3 , F J F i ,

har h re i m r E E . T 6 E . t F r . C les e t S e u b s . S . ed S . . e r a . S . G ( ) , , 3 . , J H Herrta e 1 880 g , ;

f Al n r E E urn ll 1 ur a r E . . v a i l a C T . . S 888 o a t e . . S C i h i , , 54 F i , ,

l n 1 1 od ro B o o n E E . E N e o l e T 6 . . . v 8 S S . ed . o G f y f y , . . 4 , M C i , 93 ;

r l u ll 1 - 2 2 nd es rd E . I 2 . e a e a o o a G. . . P f c Epi g , P , , , pp 3 4 au er Ch c , uoted rom Globe ~ E di ti on edu ollard 1 0 and com ared t Q f , , P , 9 7, p wi h re r n f C S . ts o MS S . . p i r st ne de san Ch i i Pi ,

A . S . T F . 1 l R 886 v o s e d . . o . . , , 3 , M y i cero C , D e Inv enti one ueller— r eder ch e 1 8 0 , M F i i , L ipzig, 9 ; D e Oratore b d , i i ;

Orator b d . , i i n en s le e s etc. C , , E E T 1 . R r r 1 . . . S . O . S e a d M r 86 . d o s , , ich i , 4

ox e L . C , , h A rt r or x th mmen e b . . T e e or C a te o Rh th k e e t co t ed. f f y , T , wi , y F I

C a enter Un v ers t o f h a o S tud es No 1 8 . rp , i i y C ic g i , . 5, 99 ursor und ‘ C M i ,

- E . E T . . r 1 1 S ed R . or . S . 8 8 O . s . . , 57 , M i , 74 93 e D ant ,

‘ D u r lo u o r n l A ll mbri d e 18 0. e V l a i t a s ated b G . o e a g E q i , y . . F H w , C g , 9 D escham s usta he p , E c ,

1 1 - l . . r u A T F . 8 8 1 M nt l re. S . v o s cd a s de S a a . . , 7 , , , q i i Hi i Dom n c ri or i i ( P ) ,

' i I D n R l E . W . f E w i . l 2 m r n le cd e o c etc o s v es a o c . Lif g , , 9 ( h Ch i ) , ,

a ra 1 86 . M c y , 3 76 BIBLIOGRAPHY

D onatus, A r r ammat K . IV s a v ol . G ic , , . Dou las sho Gav ai n g , ( Bi p ) , l 6 1 2 A eneid . v C . o . 8 , B , 4, 9 ; P o on lic our . . l . 1 Kin o e C v cd . n c r o 7, . . a f H , B , , J G ,

Wm. Dunbar, , T oems S cd . hn m l 1 0 S . o S a l P , . . , , J , 9 3 . m Ead er,

' istoria Rolls 8 1 ed M art n Rule 1 88 H , , . i , 4 Earl n lish L ric s y E g y , mber and S d w ck Lon n 1 1 1 a s do . Ch i g i , , 9 berhard E ,

r L . ff . ab nthus . k I m boo V . on rh n v erse Ma L y i , , pp 795 ; , ( y i g ) , ,

- 2 pp 453 56 . ddi ns E ,

e o f S t W l r d . 16 1 8 2 i C S o . d l 1 a. c . G es 8 . Li f . i f i , , , pp 9 77 , , , 54 lm r r r f r r e o o ante bu . E , P i C y

- tters Ca. S . cd . R A ns ru er 1 21 2 e 8 6 . o . t t . L , , 5, , h , 4 , pp 3 33 u hues E p , W ll . n m n ew rk 1 16 . Ed . ro a d le o s N o , M. C H . C , Y , 9 F r n i n h iriu o tu at a us . C e s , C ,

A r R ori r 1 - 1 t het ” H . es cae b . 8 . Li i L , , pp 34 enes s and x od us G i E ,

E « r E. . T S . . . r 1 . O S cd R. o s 86 . , 7 . , , M i , 5 eoff re de Vinsauf G y , N o o r L ff 8 . va et ia . P , . , pp 55 Geo f re of onmouth f y M , i or r ann . A l . Hist iae R e um B i t ae ( at n tex t c d . . es, Ca. So g L i ) , , J Gi , ’ 1 1 8 . ransl v er m an s brar . , 44 T , E y Li y esta R oma norum G , En l i E E d n n 1 l . E T . . h d . r d en o do 8 8 so . S . S s e S . a a ( g i ) , F M , L , 3 ; . , 33 , r 1 cd . 5 . . . H e rta e 87 . , J H g , 9

a n O s e rle erl n 1 8 1 . t . e t ( L i ) , H y , B i , 7 G ral das C amb rensi s i ,

~W rk s Roll 21 r o s ( 8 cd . . S . e er , , , J B w , o er ohn G w , J , n ess o A n l i ma tis E T 1 E . . . . u o E. . . S . 8 S ed G a a a C f , , , , C . M c y, R r Grossteste, obe t,

t R ll 2 r R L u r et ers o s cd . en a d L , 5, ( , H y . ,

’ ‘

u A our . 1 1 2 has teo d m C k 8 . a. S o cd . . oo e C , , 5, , M C , 5 am ole Ri cha rd Rolle o f and other m st s H p , , y ic , ’ in orstmann s tw o v olum es orksh re Wr ters ondon 1 8 - 6 H Y i i , L , 95 n l h r r ( Library o f Early E g i s W ite s) . n e lu n h The Prick e of Co sci nce not inc ded i t i s. A BIBLIOGR PHY 77

a es S te hen H w , p , r h m ast m l asu 1 . S . 8 cd o r h e o e e as W t 1 8 . P i f P , P. , , , T ig , 45 enr son Robert H y , , m T . m e S . S v l cd . . S h 1 o s . o . . t 06 . P , , 55 ( 3 , G G i , 9 erbert de Losin a H g ,

- e r C S o. . 1 1 0 . tte s a. L , , 5, pp 7 den R Hig , ,

R ll 1 « ol hron on o s ed . C . ab n ton onta ns P yc ic , , 4 ( 9 , B i g , C i ’ the or nal at n T revisa s translat on and t at of the anon mous igi L i , i , h y

- fifteenth century clerk .

oc lev e T . H c , ,

o ms .E E T 6 1 E . . nor e S . S e rn . d . . u v ll 1 . . . a 8 2. Mi P , , , , F J F i , 9 ' n r n E R e eme t o s E . . T . e S 2 E . . g f , . 7 . S , ed . . urn v all 1 8 . P i c , , F J F i , 97 Imitatio hr st C i i,

Tw o fi fteenth - en ur r n l n E t t a s a o . E T t s . . 6 E . y , . S 3 . S ed . . K. c i , , , J

n ram 1 8 . I g , 9 3 ’

n ul h s hron le etc. I g p C ic , , h translat on T R e 1 8 o n b . l . B , i y H . i y, 54 s dore of S ev lle I i i ,

i r R - H t eat e n he r i . s s o to i s n H . 0 22. i ic , pp 5 7 5

.S nd r r haut in ee u e e . B , f tinerarium R e s R ard I gi ic i ,

“

R lls 8 c . Wm u 1 . o , 3 , d , . S t bbs, 864 f S cotland ames . o J I , ir - 1 K n uha T . l 1 W 1 1 S o e . . W. Sk e t s S . v d a i gi Q , . , . , , , 9 . ohn d e Garlandia J ,

- reati r Ma. 0 2. se on v e se . T , , pp 4 7 45 o n o f S al sbur J h i y, Po i li r us T . W 2 l x r 1 b v . o c at c cd . . eb o s O d 0 . , , C. C , , f , 9 9 h O er n a e . A . le x r 1 . v l n n e a Om d . s O o d 848 ( o . co ta s t p i , , J Gi , f , 5 i

Metalogicus ) . an lan d W ll am L g , i i ,

E . o n E T . 28 . k t 1 8 8 ers l w ma . S O . S cd . S ea Pi P , . . , , , , 7 a amon L y ,

ir n n n 1 . u . M ad e o do v ols r t ed S . d 8 B , , F , L , 47 , 3

e endar arl S auth- n l sh L g y, E y E g i ,

E T 8 . . r m nn 1 . O S cd o st a 88 . E. . S . , 7 . , , H , 7 i v es o A n lo S ax ons L f g , ' E 1 h m S . 1 6 . l s n A l l C a. o d s e 85 . onta s l v es of ldas d e , , , , J Gi , 4 C i i Gi , ede on a e W l r d the a ochr hal stor of arold od n B , B i f c , i f i , p yp y H G wi ’

s n urv v l of ast n s 8 etc. o s s i a H i g ( pp . 3 d ate ohn Ly g , J ,

E E . r n 1 1 1 . T 10 . N M ck e nor oems E . S S cd acC a Mi P , . 7 , H . . , 9 78 BIBLIOGRA PHY

l r ma e o the e o Man transl rom rench f D e uilevill . o e Pi g i g f Lif f , ( f F g ) ,

- E E T . r E. . u n v all n 1 1 . . S . S ed a d Lo cock 8 0 . , 77 , , F i , 99 9 4.

E . E e o n n u E . T . E e er 1 1 R as n e s al t . 8 0 a d S S . S . S . i y , . , 4 , i p , 9 e Ph ofi r s E E T E S ecr th Old e il os . . 66 . S . es o e e . . S . cd R l f , , , , . S tee e, 1 894

S er ent o D v s on cd . . N . MacCrack en ale Un v ers t ress p f i i i , , H , Y i i y P , 1 9 1 1 . E E T 1 E S . 08 r m n 1 1 1 or o e e . A S t h b s . . . S . c d . . d an . y f T , , , , E , 9

E . E T . 60 E 1 em e las S . h 1 l o . . , . S . cd . S ck 89 . T p f G , , , J c i , E ;E T oo S . E. S . cd . nr r n 1 ro k . . . 0 e e e 6 . T y B , , 97 , , H y B g , 9 alor homas M y, T , ’ mm r ton ed . cd . b O . S o e L n n 1 8 Cax s o do 8 . ( ) , y H . , , 9 Mann n Robert o f runne y g, , B ,

n nn E E T 1 1 . . dl n S . S . S d . . r ll 1 1 Ha e . . O e u n v 9 . a 0 . y g y , , , , F J F i , 9 Walter Map, , m 1 u m . N u riali u cd . R a es Ox ord 1 D e s . gi C , , M J , f , 9 4 ; o h ma Wr ht on on 1 1 at n ems cd . o s d 8 L i P , , T ig , L , 4 ;

A 1 - 1 2 mm n n D N u i n . . . 2 . co e t o e s M 8 . gi P. L , 3 , pp 3

Marcabrun, l 1 W r . D e eanne ou use . o k s cd . o 0 , , J . M. L j , T , 9 9 att e of ar s M h w P i ,

R L 1 R ll r d . rd 1 o s a ts c . ua 8 , 57 ( 7 p ) , , H . , 74. etham ohn M , J ,

W k E 2 . r E . . T . . 1 . n r 1 6 or s S O S . cd a d a 1 , , 3 , , H i C ig, 9 .

nor oems o the Vernon M s . Mi P f ,

E E . T . . r m nn 1 2 . 8 c s 8 S . O S d . o t a . . , 9 . , , C H , 9 t hel Dan Mi c , , A en t n E E R r T . r 0 S ed . . s b e o I w t . . . o y i f y , . , , M i , orte A rtha re M , E E T c . E r k . 8 O S . d . S . o . , . , , . B c , Old n l sh om l es E g i H i i ,

E T . R rr 1 S . 2 O . s 868 E. . . S cd o . , 9 . , , . M i , r .O sbe t of l ara C ,

- m r I . 10 21 1 . e er nd o t n I . o tt s a e o e Ca. S . L , p H y , , 5, pp 9 The earl P ,

E E . T 1 . R h r rr 1 . S . O . S c d . d s 86 . a o , , , ic M i , 4 P k ' ecoc , R. ,

R e ressor Rolls 1 2 arts cd . ab n t on p , , 9 , p , , C. B i g , aetae a t n A evi arol n P L i i C i i,

Ed E D u emmler erl n 1 881 . , . , B i , r sc an P i i ,

- Institutionum Grammaticarum br K Vol . Li i , , . II III u nt l an Q i i i ,

- . W t son. ns t tutes o Orator ohn transl . S . a I i f y, B , J BIBLIOGRA PHY 79

R nu t r aba s Mau us,

- W rk 1 0 1 1 2. o s M . , , 7

Robert o f lou ester G c , h 1 Wr t 88 . R ll 86 2 r . W A o s a ts cd . , ( p ) , , . ig , 7 S erv atus u us L p , ’ etters bl othe ue de l Ecole de s autes Etudes S en es h lo L , Bi i q H ci c , P i

r l . lo i ues et sto ues v o . g q , Hi iq , 77 Sk elton ohn , J , P l e n D e n 1 6 m . bas d o osto oe s v o s ed. 8 , 3 , yc , B , 4 S ul iti us V ctor p i ,

i 1 - n u i one ratoriae H . . 2 I st t t s O , , pp 3 3 35 .

T rev isa ohn o f , J ,

den . Th l u r n l v . sub e d a o ue abo t t a s at on i s also in ollard Hig i g i P ,

1 - E . 1 G I. 20 2 0. . , , pp . 3 T binus N olaus y , ic ,

r h me M 6 - eat se on r a. . 8 . T i y , , pp 4 7 4 7 Usk homas , T , ’ estament o ov e in S k eat s The Works o eoff re haucer T f L , f G y C , O x r 1 o d 8 v l . f , 94, o 7 . Venantius ortunatus F ,

n R me 1 . O era Om a etc. o 86 p i , , , 7 V es and V rtues ic i ,

'

h u 1 . E E T . . . lt a en 888 S 8 O . S cd . o s . . . , 9 , , F H ,

V ctor . Iulius i , C ,

- A r R e or 8. s h t i ca H . . , , pp 373 44 W lter f D r a o e vy ,

t er . r 1 0 e S o ed . . ess te 8 . t s Ca. C L , , 9 , M i , 5 Wars o A ex an r f l d e ,

E E T . E 1 W W . k t . . . . c . 886 . S , 47 S , d , . . S ea , . Wicliff ohn , J , n s o E T . . . A 1 l l r s E . w W k . S O . S cd . tt e 880 so h . a a E g i , . , 74 , , F M h , ; select ons b homas A rno ld O x ord v ols ( i ) y T , f , 3 .

r W l n 1 1 1 1 at n Works c S o et Lo don 882 . L i , y if ci y , , , 9 '

o n . k r l n l s tle to the R ma s e d E . . u e a e S tud es in s Epi , , C T c , Y i E g i h 49 ( 4 9 14 )

‘ ’ h l - 1 urv e s a ter on rans at on i s in ollard E G . 1 . P y C p T i P , . , I , pp . 93 99 W lliam of almesbur i M y , e R um n orum R ll 2 r m s 0 W ubbs 1 88 . ta e A l o s a ts ed . S t G g g , , 9 , ( p ) , , . , 7 n ' E m l 1 es Po ifi m 2 . u id cd N . S A t n . ta t c b . a o 0 G , I , 5 , , . . H i , 87 W ll am o F alerne i i f , E f 1 . W W k a . E T S 1 E . S . cd . . S e t 6 . 8 . . , , , . , 7 W ll bald i i ,

6 1 - 1 e of on ace Ca S o. 1 . . Li f B i f , , , pp 57 97 go B IB LIOGRAPH Y

W lson homas i , T ,

h 1 . A r r 1 r or u . Ox o d 0 ud r A te o R et i e 8 ed cd . . a o f q , ( 5 5 ) , G M i , f , 9 9 ( T and S tuart brar Li y) .

S PE L A R LE R E . III. CIA TIC S , T EATIS S , ETC

A B B REVIATION S

S . C hau er S oc et . C . c i y

.M enchner B eitrae e z ur Roman s hen und n l schen h lolo e . . u M B g i c E g i P i gi , e 1 8 0 to ( L ipzig, 9 N ern an ua e N otes 1 886 ate lt m r M. . od to d a o e. L. M L g g , , B i

- h l l 1 0 Un r . . . Moclern o o , 9 3 to date, v e s t o f h a o ress M P _ P i gy i i y C ic g P A ubl at ons of the od ern an ua e A o at on 1 88 : . . . ss P. M L P ic i M L g g ci i , l m r to date a t o e. , B i R R m n R lumb Un v ers t r 1 0 R. o a ev e o a ess to date . . ic i w ( C i i i y P , 9 9 )

ale sho ohn B , Bi p J , R i . le r n nd ex B annia ri torum e . d a ateso r t e S c d . oo an I p , , L P M y B ,

Ox ord 1 02. f , 9

B elloe s A ne dotes o terature and S car e ooks ondon 1 81 , c f Li c B , L , 4.

M . erdan . B , J , The Influence of the M ediev al L atin Rhetorics on the English Wr iters

h e R 1 1 6 - 1 o l R s an e R . 288 t e ar na s . . f E y i c , , 7 , ( 9 ) pp . 3 3 rehaut E B , , A n n lo ed ast o the D ark A es : sidore o S ev lle olumb a E cyc p i f g I f i , C i

Un v ers t 1 1 2. i i y , 9 r nk E K ten B i , B . . . ,

hau ers S ra h und Versk unst Le 1 88 . C c p c , ipzig, 4 h m r E a be s . K. C , , S ome A s ec ts o ed eval r c in arl n l sh r cs ondon p f M i Ly i E y E g i Ly i , L ,

1 1 1 - 6 2 2 . 9 , pp . 59 9 Cha r to . y , H . J , The roubad ours ambr d e 1 1 2 ambr d e anuals o f Sc ence T , C i g , 9 ( C i g M i an tera ure d Li t ) .

h ld . G . C i , C ,

o hu sm B . 1 h l n u 8 . n a d . I Ly y E p i , M , 7 , 94

lark . C , J , brar es i n the d v al and R ena ssan r od mbr d e 1 e e e e a 8 . Li i M i i c P i , C i g , 94

lark e A C . C , . , Fontes Prosae N umerosae and the Cursus in Medieval and Vulgar

at n Ox ord 1 10. L i , f , 9

M . umm n s . C i g , H , ’ / The Ind ebtedness of Chaucer s Works to the Italian li orks of

o a o n nnat 1 1 6. B cc cci , Ci ci i , 9

3 2 B IBLIOGRAPH Y

P S c ne der . . h i , J , The Pros e S tyle of R ichard Rolle of Hamp ole w ith S p ecial Reference k 1 to Its u hu st enden ies ohn o ns Un vers t T es s 06. E p i ic T c , J H p i i i y h i , 9 g m S . t G . i h , G , The rans tion eri od er ods o uro ean i terature New or T i P ( P i f E p L , Y k,

S m th son A i , G . T n h n r urce f t l re . he Old gl sh istia pi . ( S o s o s e cons de d ) . E i C E c y i

- P . 1 n l M l. l 1 1 0 U v C a od. ub vo . 0 00 . i . . Phi , . , pp 3 3 4 , 9

E . S ur eon . p g , C . F , H ndre e h r r m an A us on . v e u d ar s o auce r t s d ll . S . se Fi Y f C C i ici i , C ,

2 28 . , v ol . S tou hton o n g , J h , n l h l I ns a on n r Our s b e ts ra l t a d Translato s S cr bners n d . E g i Bi , T i , i , . ll A Ti ey . A . , t ra ur h r n R n ssan m r 1 i e t e o t e e ch e a ce a b d e 88 . L f F i , C i g , 5

Valo s N . i , , D e A rte S cribendi Epis tolas ap ud Gallicos M edi a A evi S criptores

Rhetoresv e ar s 1 880. , P i ,