Paper 5: British Political History 1688-1886 List of Topics And

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Paper 5: British Political History 1688-1886

List of Topics and Bibliographies 2018-19

Page

Introduction to Paper 5 3

General surveys 8

Chronological topics

1. The impact of the1688 Revolution and the emergence of the Hanoverian settlement, 1688-1721 10 2. The Whig oligarchy and its opponents, 1721-60 12 3. George III and the politics of crisis, 1760-84 13 4. The younger Pitt, Fox, and the revolutionary era, 1784-1806 14 5. Lord Liverpool and Liberal Toryism 1807-27 16 6. The collapse of the ancien régime, 1827-35 17 7. The rise and fall of party in the age of Peel, 1834-50 19 8. Palmerston and mid-Victorian stability, 1848-67 21 9. Government and policy in the age of Gladstone and Disraeli, 1867-86 23 10. The parties and the people 1867-90 26

Thematic topics

11. The constitution: the roles of monarchy and parliament 28 12. The process of parliamentary reform, 1815-1886 30 13. Patriotism and national identity 32 14. Political communication and the development of a ‘public sphere’ in the eighteenth century 36 15. The powers of the state 38 16. Extra-parliamentary politics and political debate in the long eighteenth century 43 17. Chartism, class and the radical tradition, mainly after 1815 47 18. Gender and politics 51 19. Religion and politics 55 20. Scotland and Britain in the eighteenth century 58 21. Ireland, 1689-1885 60 22. Britain and Europe 65 23. Britain and Empire 69 24. Languages of politics: an overview 72

Abbreviations

AmHR = American Historical Review EcHR = Economic History Review EHR = English Historical Review HPT = History of Political Thought HJ = Historical Journal [formerly Cambridge Historical Journal] HR = Historical Research [formerly Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research] IHR = International History Review IHS = Irish Historical Studies IRSH = International Review of Social History JBS = Journal of British Studies JMH = Journal of Modern History JEcclH = Journal of Ecclesiastical History JICH = Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History JIH = Journal of Interdisciplinary History J Soc Hist = Journal of Social History LHR = Labour History Review Parl Hist = Parliamentary History PA = Parliamentary Affairs P&P= Past and Present PBA = Proceedings of the British Academy SHR = Scottish Historical Review Soc Hist = Social History TRHS = Transactions of the Royal Historical Society WHR = Welsh History Review Vict Studs = Victorian Studies

2 Introduction to Paper 5

In taking Paper 5, you will not be expected to study the whole of the 1688-1886 period. As a general guide you should aim to cover about half of it, and you may begin and end at whichever date you and your supervisor judge best, given your own particular interests. Whichever part of the period you study, you will encounter important themes which make the period a significant phase in British history. These themes are covered in the lectures, but a summary of the major ones here may be useful.

* The Revolution Settlement of 1689 established a novel system of parliamentary sovereignty, which survived more or less unscathed throughout the period and only began to be undermined in the twentieth century with the growing power of the executive, the civil service and extra-parliamentary corporations. This system undoubtedly contributed to the country’s political stability relative to her continental rivals. At the same time, the powers of the Crown, the functions of parliamentary representation, the extension of popular liberties and rights, and the role of party all remained areas of fierce debate. This meant that the narrative drama of high politics—the stories of elections, cabinet intrigues, personalities, debates, and legislation—was more than just the game it sometimes seems today, but had real outcomes and affected the lives of real people.

* It is probably with the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 that Britain was first generally recognised as a Great Power. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 established her as the Greatest Power, a position confirmed by the Treaty of Vienna in 1815. Between these dates the First British Empire was won and partly lost, and the Second British Empire established. After 1815 the country had to perform the role of the world’s policeman, while after about 1870 there was a gradual turning away from Europe to the third phase of empire. Diplomatic and imperial history are covered elsewhere in the Tripos (i.e. Papers 17, 18, and 21), but Britain’s European and world roles were also matters of intense debate in domestic politics. Moreover, they contributed to distinctive views about national identity (‘Englishness’) which are arguably crucial in understanding the appeal of some of the most charismatic political leaders and political traditions of the period.

* These two centuries also saw Britain establish itself as first the commercial market place, then the warehouse, and finally the workshop of the world, while throughout the period it acted as the world’s banker. These successive economic transformations impacted on politics as new commercial and then industrial elites arose to challenge the hegemony of the old aristocratic, monarchical, and clerical regimes. Economic developments also created the world’s first predominantly urban society, with attendant social problems (policing, housing, health, etc), all of which required political solutions and challenged traditional conceptions of the role of politics and the state. Such problems also generated – at least according to some historians – a growing sense of class consciousness and potential for social conflict, and present us with the difficulty of assessing how popular politics functioned and how political order was maintained. Finally, concern for the social order helps to explain why religious issues played an important part in politics throughout the period.

* Another salient theme arises from the political unions with Scotland (1707) and Ireland (1801), which not only created a United Kingdom state whose legitimacy was being called into serious question by 1886, when a government proposed an Irish Home Rule Bill for the first time, but also precipitated debate on issues of British identity and

3 nationality. The Irish problem, in particular, presented British politicians with a set of fundamental challenges to their dominant assumptions about property, religion, local government, and empire.

* A final theme traces the way that political life was immersed in wider intellectual and cultural contexts. Broad developments in society created new opportunities for, and new media of, political communication and association. Political tactics and goals found expression in many literary and cultural forms. The aspirations of varying groups of men were reshaped as the habits of daily economic and social life evolved through commercialization, industrialization and urbanization. Likewise, women’s political capacities, disabilities, and ambitions fluctuated in relation to their changing circumstances. Notions of political capacity and citizenship were enriched by intellectual developments. The role of religious ideas was often important in debates on these broader topics, while there was considerable controversy about the role that religious institutions should play in politics and the constitution.

The Cambridge History Faculty has always been exceptionally strong in the history of ideas, and this has naturally affected the way in which political history is understood. Concepts relating to the constitution, the role of the state, and national identity play an important part in the paper, and emphasis is placed on underlying intellectual, cultural, religious, and linguistic developments. Candidates who have already studied this period at school should find this approach both novel and refreshing, while candidates who have not studied the period before may be reassured that they will not be at any disadvantage.

In the essays you write on this paper you may well have to deal with relatively short periods, but you should always be prepared to relate your knowledge of such detailed events and processes to the wider themes of the paper.

The booklist

The importance of the period and the diversity of approaches to studying it are reflected in the vast amount of historical literature that has been published on it. The booklist aims to give you and your supervisor a sense of that variety and a chance to shape your own reading programme from within it. Needless to say, the examiners do not expect you to master more than a small proportion of the books on the list; the aim of studying the paper is to gain a sense of the dynamics of your chosen period.

In some of your other Tripos papers your main task may be to compare and evaluate other historians’ interpretations, but the study of political history allows you to use what other historians say to mark out your own path through the complicated byways of the past. The sections of the booklist aim to help you do this, but they are not a straitjacket and they are certainly not intended to privilege any particular schemes of interpretation.

The booklist is divided into 24 topics. Those in the first section follow a political chronology, while those in the second focus on the most important themes of the period. In order to study political history effectively, you will need a grasp of the political narrative covered in the first section, and so most supervisors will want you to cover at least four consecutive chronological topics (among topics 1-9, topic 10 being more thematic). Though they vary in length, it is essential to ensure that by the time of the examination you are familiar with at least 75-80 years of the period. (If you are studying the nineteenth century, you may wish, in order to achieve this,

4 to incorporate the short topic 6 into topics 5 and 7, or to do some extra reading in vacations.) It is for supervisors and candidates to work out their own preferred combination of chronological and thematic topics, since there is such a wide choice. The following advice may be useful.

It is probably a good idea to start with some broadly chronological topics in order to gain familiarity with the period and its political culture. Naturally, the distinction between chronological and thematic topics is not absolute, since the chronological topics also privilege particular themes where relevant. You should not assume that examination questions set on chronological topics will be limited to matters of cabinet and parliamentary politics. It is a particular feature of Paper 5, as it has historically been taught and examined, to emphasise the role of political ideas and policy approaches as well. Therefore it is important, when writing essays about particular governments or parties, to make use of cross-references to those thematic topics that deal with appropriate policy issues (eg foreign policy, Ireland, social policy). Use your lecture notes to help with this. Similarly, when writing on the broader thematic topics, you will need enough chronological detail to make your generalisations convincing. Your supervisor should give you guidance on how best to do this. The most important cross-references are marked at the top of each topic, together with a summary of important issues that the reading raises. This often takes the form of a string of interrogatives, designed to give you an insight into the sort of questions that might be asked.

Some of the thematic topics focus on key political issues such as the nature of the eighteenth- century state or the dynamic of nineteenth-century parliamentary reform. Others feature problems such as the place of national identity in politics, the nature of radicalism, and gender. The booklist is thus designed to illuminate all those issues that provoke most debate among historians at the moment. Candidates should note that they will usually be required to answer questions on these topics over a considerable number of years (perhaps sixty or seventy or more). Over the years, such questions have become a standard feature of the paper; please look at the most recent past papers for the best guide. Therefore, students and supervisors have a choice as to the particular period that they can study for each of the thematic topics, as long as they choose a broad one. In general, in studying this paper it is as common for students to focus on the period 1760-1846 or 1784-1867 as it is on 1688-1806 or 1807-86.

Of course on most such topics there is a limit in practice to the number of years that can be studied effectively in a week of reading, without downplaying the crucial subtleties and complexities of the political process and the political culture, and supervisors are aware of this. Candidates should see their weekly topics as the foundation of a general intellectual understanding of their chosen period, which will need to be supplemented by targeted reading after the supervisions have been completed and when revising.

Note that this document opens with a list of general works on the period, including items that relate to the general economic and social background. Most of these are not listed again under individual topics, even though they may be extremely relevant to some of them. So whenever you start on a week’s work, remember to look first at the general section.

5 The various topics in this booklist are the ones around which the examination questions will be structured. This is appropriate, since examination papers usually contain about 28 questions (including ‘either/or’ alternatives as two questions). Because of the many ways in which connections between thematic and chronological topics can be traced, questions may appear in a somewhat indirect form (see under ‘Tripos questions’ below). Candidates should understand this inter-relationship and should revise the great majority of the topics that they have studied, rather than treat them as entirely discrete topics.

Tripos questions

Before setting a Tripos question paper the examiners will consult with all those who lecture on and supervise in that paper in order to find out what subjects the undergraduates taking that paper have covered. Their aim is then to set a paper which will be fair to all candidates, while nevertheless making sure that the questions are sufficiently searching to allow the better prepared candidates to demonstrate their superiority. Questions are never designed simply to search out ignorance by requiring detailed knowledge of the more recondite aspects of a topic. Nor, in the case of political history, is there ever such a thing as ‘the right answer’. Examiners will expect you to be able to argue a case, to back it up with detailed factual examples, and to consider and counter possible objections to the case you have made. You may wish to support your arguments by references to the historiography, for while it is not necessary (on this paper) to do so simply for the sake of it, it can often be an efficient way of getting your understanding across. (And there are some topics, for example national identity, or the eighteenth-century state, which have been so defined by the historiography that substantial reference to it is more or less essential.) But you will certainly not be penalised merely for making a case which the examiner happens not to agree with. What examiners are looking for above all is an ability to conceptualise political problems effectively - for example by comparing different periods and personalities or different intellectual approaches to the subject - but in a way that appreciates the richness and subtlety of the historical material.

Most Tripos papers will contain a substantial number of thematic questions covering long periods. Naturally, the longer the period, the less comprehensive detail is expected; however simplification can easily be taken too far, since politics is necessarily a complex process at all times. Candidates will need to show both the ability to generalise and an appreciation of when generalisation is inappropriate.

Questions rooted in the chronological section may also pursue a prominent political theme across time, inviting you to relate your close knowledge of an individual or period to wider themes. These might, for example, include controversies over a particular category of policy issue, or questions about the qualities required for political leadership or the reasons for ministerial success or failure. Candidates should certainly think systematically about the relevance of political languages and traditions to their chosen timespan, and the last thematic topic, on ‘Languages of politics’ is perhaps particularly useful in supplying revision reading for this.

A favourite device of examiners is to disguise a question in the form of a proposition in quotation marks, followed by an injunction to ‘Discuss’. It is perfectly legitimate in such cases to take a middle view by showing the ways in which the proposition seems true and the ways in which it seems false. It is equally legitimate to agree wholly with the proposition or else to disagree with it wholly. However, if you decide to disagree with it, you must include

6 some recognition of why it might be true, since the examiner would not have included a proposition which he or she believed to be wholly false. It is not wise to deny an assertion without having the knowledge to appreciate why a case for it might be made. If you cannot even see what a question might be getting at, better not to answer the question.

Finally, it might be useful to turn from these generalisations to what various examiners have reported on Paper 5 in recent years. Generally speaking the examiners’ comments have displayed satisfaction with the quality of the scripts. They have remarked favourably on candidates’ grasp of the concepts dominating the literature, on the extent of their preparation (there has been almost no ‘short measure’), and on their sophistication in handling their material. Often candidates score particularly highly on broader questions which could not have been anticipated but which involve making on-the-spot comparisons and contrasts over lengthy periods. ‘Safe’ questions, by contrast, turn out to be anything but safe for those who re-heat supervision essays without sufficient thought as to the precise question being asked of them. For example, policy-oriented questions—such as those on the loss of the American colonies or the thinking behind the repeal of the Corn Laws —often receive answers which are too thin on specifics and rely too much on generalised analysis of parliamentary politics at the time. Knowing enough detail to be able to deploy it selectively as part of a fluent analysis is a key skill of the historian. Questions which require crisp definitions of particular concepts—like ‘radicalism’ or ‘Liberal Toryism’—can easily upset candidates: some scripts will ignore the requirement altogether, while others will take refuge in prepared formulations rather than using the definition as the basis for working towards answering the problem posed. Comparative questions are often done well, but a common failing is to paint on too small a canvas, making the comparison in just one or two areas rather than taking a broader view.

GENERAL SURVEYS

Note that most of these works are not listed again in this booklist, even though they will all be relevant to some of the topics addressed in the following pages. The asterisked books are basic works which students who are new to the period will find especially useful.

(a) Mainly eighteenth century

J. Cannon (ed) The Whig ascendancy: colloquies on Hanoverian England (1981) I.R. Christie Wars and revolutions: Britain 1760-1815 (1982) B. W. Hill The early parties and politics in Britain 1688-1832 (1986) G. Holmes The making of a great power 1660-1722 (1993) G. Holmes & D. Szechi An age of oligarchy 1722-1783 (1993) * J. Hoppit A land of liberty? England 1688-1727 (2000) P. Jupp Governing Britain 1688-1848: the executive, parliament, people (2006) * P. Langford A polite and commercial people: England 1727-1783 (1989) J.B. Owen The eighteenth century (1974) * F. O’Gorman The long eighteenth century 1688-1832 (1997) J.H. Plumb England in the eighteenth century, 1714-1815 (1959) W. Prest Albion ascendant: English history 1660-1815 (1998) R. Price British society 1680-1880: dynamism, containment and change (1999) W.A. Speck Stability and strife: England 1714-1760 (1977) S. Watson The reign of George III, 1760-1815 (1960) C. Wilson England’s apprenticeship 1603-1763 (1965)

(b) Mainly nineteenth century

D. Beales From Castlereagh to Gladstone 1815-1885 (1969) * M. Bentley Politics without democracy 1815-1914 (1984) * A. Briggs The age of improvement 1783-1867 (1959) D. Cannadine Victorious Century: The United Kingdom, 1800-1906 (2017) * E.J. Evans The forging of the modern state, 1783-1867 (1983) N. Gash Aristocracy and people 1815-65 (1979) E. Halévy A history of the English people in the 19th century (6 vols., 1949-52 edn) B. Harrison The transformation of British politics, 1860-1995 (1996) * B. Hilton A mad, bad, and dangerous people? England 1783-1846 (2006) T.K. Hoppen The mid-Victorian generation 1846-86 (1998) N. McCord British history 1815-1906 (1991) P. Mandler (ed.) Liberty and authority in Victorian Britain (2006) C. Matthew (ed) The short Oxford history of the British Isles: the 19th century (2000) B. Porter Freedom, empire and decline: a political history 1851-1990 (1994) B Porter Britannia’s burden: political evolution of modern Britain 1851-1990 (1994) R. Price British society 1680-1880: dynamism, containment and change (1999) M. Pugh The making of modern British politics 1867-1939 (1982) * D. Read England 1868-1914: the age of urban democracy (1979) K. Robbins The eclipse of a great power: modern Britain, 1870-1975 (1983) M. Roberts Political movements in urban England 1832-1914 (2009 W.D. Rubinstein Britain’s century: a political and social history 1815-1905 (1998)

8 G. Searle A new England? Peace and war 1886-1918 (2004) * R.T. Shannon The crisis of imperialism 1865-1915 (1974) J. Vernon Distant strangers: how Britain became modern (2014) * J. Vernon Modern Britain, 1750 to the present (2017) G.M. Young Portrait of an age: Victorian England (2nd edn., 1953)

R.J. Brown Economy and society in modern Britain 1700-1850 (1991) P.J. Cain & A.G. Hopkins British imperialism: innovation and expansion 1688-1914 (1993) M. Daunton Progress and poverty: economic and social history 1700-1850 (1995) M. Daunton State and market in Victorian Britain: war, welfare and capitalism (2008) M. Daunton Wealth and welfare: an economic and social history of Britain 1851-1951 (2007) R. Floud & P. Johnson (ed.) The Cambridge economic history of modern Britain. Volume I: Industrialisation, 1700-1860 (2004) Douglas Hay & Nicholas Rogers Eighteenth-century English society: shuttles and swords (1997 H. Perkin The origins of modern English society, 1780-1880 (1969) R. Porter British society in the eighteenth century (1982)

(d) For reference

Oxford English dictionary on historical principles (20 vols.) or Shorter Oxford English dictionary on historical principles (2 vols.) Dictionary of national biography English historical documents Vol. 10, 1714-1783, edited by D.B. Horn & M. Ransome (1969) Vol. 11, 1783-1832, edited by A. Aspinall & E.A. Smith (1959) Vol. 12, Part I, 1833-1874, edited by G.M. Young & W.D. Handcock (1956) Vol. 12, Part II, 1874-1914, edited by W.D. Handcock (1977) British electoral facts, 1885-1975, edited by F.W. S. Craig The 18th-century constitution 1688-1815: documents & commentary, ed. by E.N. Williams (1960) The 19th-century constitution 1815-1914: documents & commentary, ed. by H.J. Hanham (1969) British historical statistics, edited by B.R. Mitchell (2nd edn., 1989)

CHRONOLOGICAL TOPICS

1. The impact of the1688 Revolution and the emergence of the Hanoverian settlement, 1688-1721

The Revolution of 1688 had impacts and implications that endured for decades. We do not study its causes or progress, but we are concerned with its political legacies. What issues continued to evoke intense political dispute in the first decades of the eighteenth century? How apt is the term ‘party’ to describe the organisation of politics in this period? What developments, if any, contributed to a ‘growth of stability’? To what extent was the ‘rage of party’ grounded in social, economic, or other factors? What were the political and ideological significances of such groups as Non-Jurors, High Churchmen, Latitudinarians, and Dissenters? Who were the political victors and losers in the struggle to put a stamp on the new regime? What was the significance of the Jacobite rebellion? How do we explain the successful establishment of the Hanoverian dynasty?

See also Topic 15a on the fiscal-military state and Topic 17 on popular politics, especially the Sacheverell affair.

(a) The Glorious Revolution and its impact

R. Beddard (ed.) The Revolutions of 1688 (1991). R. Connors ‘The nature of stability in the Augustan Age’, Parl.Hist. (2009) T. Harris Revolution: the great crisis of the British monarchy, 1685-1720 (2006) T. Harris & S. Taylor (eds) The final crisis of the Stuart monarchy: the revolutions of 1688-91 in their British, Atlantic, and European contexts (2013) G. Holmes (ed.) Britain after the Glorious Revolution, 1689-1714 (1969) J. Hoppit A land of liberty? England, 1689-1727 (2000) J. Israel (ed.) The Anglo-Dutch moment: essays on the Glorious Revolution and its world impact (1991) J.R. Jones (ed) Liberty secured? Britain before and after 1688 (1992) J.P. Kenyon ‘The revolution of 1688: resistance and contract’ in N. McKendrick (ed), Historical perspectives (1974) S. Pincus 1688. The First Modern Revolution (2009). For critical reviews, see Parl. Hist. 30 (2009) and JIH 41 (2010). * J.H. Plumb The growth of political stability in England, 1675-1725 (1967) Clayton Roberts ‘The Growth of Political Stability Reconsidered’, Albion (1993) Craig Rose England in the 1690s: revolution, religion and war (1999) L.G. Schwoerer The declaration of rights 1689 (1981) L. G. Schwoerer The Revolutions of 1688-1689 (1992) W. Speck Reluctant revolutionaries: Englishmen and the revolution of 1688 (1988) K. Wilson ‘Inventing revolution: 1688 and eighteenth-century popular politics’, JBS (1989)

(b) Court and cabinet politics

R. Hatton George I: elector and king (1978) T. Claydon William III (2002)

10 J.A. Downie Robert Harley and the press (1979) O. Field The Kit-Kat Club: friends who imagined a nation (2008) E. Gregg Queen Anne (1976) * T. Harris Politics under the later Stuarts, 1660-1715 (1993) R. Hatton George I: elector and king (1978) * G. Holmes British Politics in the age of Anne (1967, revised edition 1987) For an evaluation of this book forty years on, see Parliamentary History (2009) G. Holmes Politics, religion and society in England 1679-1742 (1986) G. Holmes ‘Robert Harley and the ministerial revolution of 1710’, Parl Hist (2010) G. Holmes The trial of Dr Sacheverell (1973) G. Holmes & C. Jones ‘Trade, the Scots and the parliamentary crisis of 1713’, Parl Hist (1982) B.W. Hill Robert Harley: Speaker, secretary of state, and premier minister (1988) J.P. Kenyon Revolution principles: the politics of party, 1689-1720 (1977)

G.V. Bennett The tory crisis in church and state 1688-1730: the career of Francis Atterbury (1975) G.V. Bennett ‘English Jacobitism 1710-15: myth and reality’, TRHS (1982) J. Cannon (ed) The Whig ascendancy: colloquies on Hanoverian England (1981) I.G. Doolittle ‘Government interference in City elections, 1714-16’, HJ (1981) * T. Harris Politics under the later Stuarts: party conflict in a divided society (1993) D. Hayton (ed) The House of Commons 1690-1715 (2002) [Introduction to Volume I] D. Hayton, D. ‘Moral reform and country politics in the late seventeenth century House of Commons’, PP, 128 (1990) G. Holmes The electorate and the national will in the first age of party (1976) G. Holmes & W.A. Speck (ed.) The divided society: party conflict 1694-1716 (1967) H. Horwitz Parliament, policy and politics in the reign of William III (1977) C. Jones (ed) Party and management in parliament, 1660-1784 (1984) [essays by Hayton and Jones] C. Jones (ed) Britain in the first age of party (1987) [essays by Beckett and Speck] M. Knights ‘Politics after the Glorious Revolution’, in B. Coward (ed.), A companion to Stuart Britain (2003) M. Knights Representation and misrepresentation in later Stuart Britain: partisanship and political culture (2005) J. Plumb ‘The growth of the electorate in England from 1600-1715’, P&P, 45 (1969) W.A. Speck Tory and whig: the struggle in the constituencies 1701-15 (1970) W.A. Speck ‘The general election of 1715’, EHR (1975) D. Szechi Jacobitism and tory politics 1710-1714 (1984) R. Walcott Politics in the early eighteenth century (1956)

(d) Local politics

* G.S. De Krey A fractured society: London in the first age of party (1985) G. S. De Krey ‘Political Radicalism in London after the Glorious Revolution’, JHH (1983). P. Gauci Politics and society in Great Yarmouth, 1660-1722 (1996) P.D. Halliday Dismembering the body politic: partisan politics in England’s towns 1650-1730 (1998) B.W. Hill ‘The change of government & “loss of the City” 1710-11’, EcHR (1971) P. Jenkins The making of a ruling class: the gentry of Glamorgan (1983) (Part 2).

11 N. Landau ‘Independence, deference and voter participation; the behaviour of the electorate in early 18th-century Kent’, HJ (1979) * J. Miller Divided cities: politics and religion in English provincial towns 1660-1722 (2007)

2. The Whig oligarchy and its opponents, 1721-60

What were the key tools of governance under Walpole and Pelham? Is it justified to call Walpole the ‘first prime minister’? In what ways, if any, was the Whig regime marked by ‘stability’? What roles did patronage and repression play in governance? What was the relation between the Whig/Tory axis of ideology and politics and the Court/Country axis of ideology and politics? What were the status of Toryism and Jacobitism in this period of Whig domination? What was at stake in the competition between Walpole and Bolingbroke? To what extent did the Pelhams adopt a different approach from that of Walpole? What was the impact of war of domestic political stability? How important was the monarch as a decision-maker? In this period, extra-parliamentary activity, the development of the press, and literary and artistic energies all contributed to political life. What role did they play, and how effective were they?

See also Topic 14 on political communication, Topic 17a and b on popular politics, and Topic 21c on Jacobitism (the major external threat to the Walpolean regime).

(a) The Walpolean regime

* J. Black, ed. Britain in the age of Walpole (1984) R. Browning Political and constitutional ideas of the court whigs (1982) S. Burtt Virtue transformed (1992) ch. 6 H.T. Dickinson Walpole and the whig supremacy (1973) P.S. Fritz The English ministers and Jacobitism between 1715 and 1745 (1975) C. Jones, ed. Britain in the first age of party (1987) [Essays by Horwitz and Jones] P. Langford The Excise crisis (1975) W.A. Speck ‘Whigs and tories’ in J. Cannon, ed., The Whig ascendency (1981) * S. Targett ‘Government and ideology: Walpole’s newspaper propagandists’, HJ (1994) * S.J.C. Taylor ‘Walpole, Church of England, and Quaker Tithe bill 1736’, HJ (1985) S.J.C. Taylor ‘Whigs, tories and anticlericalism: ecclesiastical courts legislation in 1733’, Parliamentary History (2000) P. Woodfine Britannia’s glories (1998)

(b) Opposition: patriot, Jacobite and Tory

I.R. Christie ‘The Tory party, Jacobitism and the `45: a note’, HJ (1987) L. Colley In defiance of oligarchy (1982) E. Cruickshanks Political Untouchables (1979) Perry Gauci William Beckford: first prime minister of the London empire (2013) * C. Gerrard The patriot opposition to Walpole (1994) A. Hanham ‘“So few facts”: Jacobites, tories and the pretender’, Parl Hist (2000) M. Harris London newspapers in the age of Walpole (1987)

12 B. Harris A patriot press (1993) * B. Harris Politics and the nation (2002) I. Kramnick Bolingbroke and his circle (1968) N. McKendrick Historical perspectives [essays by Bennett and Skinner] P.K. Monod Jacobitism and the English people (1989) J.G.A. Pocock ‘Varieties of whiggism’, in Pocock, Virtue, commerce and history (1985) A.C. Thompson ‘Popery, politics, and private judgement in early Hanoverian Britain’, HJ (2002) * K. Wilson The sense of the people (1995)

L. Colley ‘The loyal brotherhood and the Cocoa Tree: the London organisation of the Tory Party, 1727-60’, HJ (1977) * L. Colley ‘Eighteenth-century radicalism before Wilkes’, TRHS (1981) I.G. Doolittle ‘Walpole’s City Elections Act (1725)’, EHR (1982) * N. Rogers ‘The urban opposition to Whig oligarchy, 1720-60’, in M. and J. Jacob, eds., Origins of Anglo-American radicalism (1984) N. Rogers ‘The City Elections Act (1725) reconsidered’, EHR (1985) * N. Rogers ‘Aristocratic clientage, trade and independency: popular politics in radical Westminster’, P & P (1973)

(d) Oligarchy after Walpole

J.C.D. Clark ‘The decline of party, 1740-60’, EHR (1978) J.C.D. Clark The dynamics of change (1982) R. Middleton The bells of victory (1985) J.B. Owen The rise of the Pelhams (1957) M. Peters Pitt and popularity: the patriot minister and London opposition (1980) M. Peters The elder Pitt (1998) M. Peters ‘The myth of William Pitt, great imperialist’, JICH (1993) A.C. Thompson George II (2011), chs 6-9

3. George III and the politics of crisis, 1760-84

The accession of George III has often been taken as marking a new phase in British political history. To what extent did the organisation of politics change in this period? Did party decline with a reconsolidation of the ruling class? Or did party enter a new and more vital phase with Rockingham and his followers? Did the age of political stability end? How does one explain the ministerial instability of the period after 1760? Did George III break with the political practices of his predecessors? What were the impacts of imperial policies in India and America on domestic politics? What was new, if anything, about John Wilkes and the movements that organised around him? What were the origins and contributions of Dissenting radicalism? What was the impact on domestic politics of the North American revolt and the ensuing war?

See also Topic 17c on Wilkes, Wilkites, and their successors, and Topic 24c on the imperial crisis

J. Black George III (2006) J. Brooke King George III (1972) *G.M. Ditchfield George III: an essay in monarchy (2002)

(a) The problem of political stability in the 1760s

Jeremy Black, ed., British politics and society from Walpole to Pitt, 1742-1789 (1990) * J. Brewer Party ideology and popular politics at the accession of George III (1976) J. Brooke The Chatham administration 1766-1768 (1956) Edmund Burke Thoughts on the cause of the present discontents (1770) H. Butterfield George III and the historians (1957) I.R. Christie Wilkes, Wyvill, and reform 1760-1785 (1962) * H.T. Dickinson ‘George III and parliament’, Parl Hist (2011) W.M. Elofson ‘The Rockingham Whigs and the country tradition’, Parl Hist (1989) P. Langford The first Rockingham administration, 1765-1766 (1973) P. Lawson George Grenville: a political life (1984) L.B. Namier The structure of politics at the accession of George III (1929 2nd edn 1957) F. O’Gorman The rise of party in England : the Rockingham Whigs,1760-82 (1975) R. Pares King George III and the politicians (1953) P.D.G. Thomas John Wilkes: a friend to liberty (1996) P. Woodland ‘The House of Lords, the City of London and the opposition to the cider excise’, Parl Hist (1992)

(b) The domestic impact of the American revolution

J.E. Bradley Religion, revolution and English radicalism: non-conformity in eighteenth- century politics and society (1990) J.A. Cannon The Fox-North coalition: crisis of the constitution 1782-4 (1969) I.R. Christie The end of Lord North’s ministry, 1780-1782 (1958) I.R. Christie ‘Party in politics in Lord North’s administration’, Parl Hist (1987) S. Conway The American War of Independence 1775-1783 (1995) * S. Conway The British Isles and the war of American independence (2000) W.C. Lowe ‘George III, peerage creations and politics, 1760-1784’ HJ (1992) A.S. O’Shaughnessy Chapter in Elaine Chalus and Perry Gauci (eds.), Revisiting the Polite and Commercial People (2019)

4. The younger Pitt, Fox, and the revolutionary era, 1784-1806

What was the nature of the conflict between the younger Pitt and Fox? Was the basis of Pitt’s support ideological or social or economic or a combination of these? Is there a case to be made for the rise of two-party politics in this period? Did the politics of poverty (Speenhamland) and the food supply (1801 census) betoken new forms of economic and social policy? How did the campaign against slavery and the slave trade gain political purchase? Did ‘a politics of virtue’ shape policy and reform in this period? What was the impact of the French revolution on politics and on the government’s policies? Did Pitt preside over his own ‘Terror’? What were the forms and goals of extra-parliamentary politics? How did political radicalism evolve in this period? How

14 do we explain the mobilization of popular loyalism? What was at issue between radicals and conservatives? What role did religion play in these debates? To what extent was revolution in Britain a real danger?

See also Topic 15 on reform of the state, Topic 17 on extra-parliamentary politics during the French Revolution, and Topic 24 on anti-slavery.

(a) Pitt and Fox

A. Aspinall (ed) The later correspondence of George III (1966-70) [introductions Vols. 2-3] J.A. Cannon The Fox-North coalition: crisis of the constitution 1782-4 (1969) P.J. Corfield, E.M. Green, & C. Harvey ‘Westminster man: Fox & his electorate’, Parl Hist (2001) J.W. Derry The regency crisis and the Whigs, 1788-9 (1963) J. Derry Politics in the age of Fox, Pitt and Liverpool (2001) H.T. Dickinson (ed.) Britain and the French revolution, 1789-1815 (1989) M. Duffy ‘The younger Pitt and the House of Commons’, History (1998) J. Ehrman The younger Pitt (3 vols, 1969-96) D.E. Ginter Whig organization in the general election of 1790 (1967) P. Kelly ‘Radicalism and public opinion in the 1784 general election’, HR (1972) P. Kelly ‘British parliamentary politics, 1784-6’, HJ (1974) P. Kelly ‘Pitt and the king, 1783-4’, HR (1981) S. Lee ‘George Canning and the idea of opposition, 1801-7’, History (1998) W.C. Lowe ‘George III, peerage creations and politics, 1760-1784’ HJ (1992) P. Mackesy Statesmen at war: the strategy of overthrow, 1798-9 (1974) P. Mackesy War without victory: the downfall of Pitt 1799-1802 (1984) * L.G. Mitchell Charles James Fox (1992) L.G. Mitchell Fox and the disintegration of the Whig party, 1782-1794 (1971) J. Mori ‘The political theory of Pitt the younger’, History (1998) P.K. O’Brien ‘Pitt the younger as chancellor of the exchequer’, History (1998) N.C. Phillips Yorkshire and English national politics 1783-1784 (1961) R. Reilly Pitt the younger, 1759-1806 (1978) J.J. Sack ‘The memory of Burke and the memory of Pitt’, HJ (1987) R. Thorne The House of Commons 1790-1820 (1986) [especially Vol. 1, ‘Survey’] * M. Turner Pitt the younger: a life (2003) D. Wilkinson ‘The Pitt-Portland coalition 1794 and origins of the Tory party’, History (1998) D. Wilkinson The Duke of Portland: politics and party in the age of George III (2003) R. Willis ‘Pitt’s resignation in 1801’, HR (1971)

(b) Reforming the state

G. Atkins ‘Christian heroes, providence and patriotism in wartime Britain, 1793-1815’, HJ (2015) G. Atkins ‘Religion, politics and patronage in the late Hanoverian navy, c. 1780-1820’, HR (2015) J.R. Breihan ‘William Pitt and the commission of fees 1785-1801’, HJ (1984) * A. Burns & J. Innes (ed.) Rethinking the age of reform: Britain 1780-1850 (2003) A. S. Foord ‘The waning of “the influence of the Crown”’, EHR (1947) P. Harling The waning of ‘old corruption’: economical reform 1779-1846 (1996) J. Innes ‘Politics and morals: the reformation of manners movement in later 18th century England’ in E. Hellmuth (ed.), The transformation of political culture (1990)

15 J. Norris Shelburne and reform (1963) J. Torrance ‘Social class and bureaucratic innovation: the commissioners for examining the public accounts, 1780-7’, P&P (1978)

Edmund Burke Reflections on the revolution in France (1790) * I.R. Christie Stress and stability in late eighteenth-century Britain: reflections on the avoidance of revolution (1984) J.E. Cookson The friends of peace: anti-war liberalism in England 1793-1815 (1982) C. Emsley ‘The London insurrection of 1792: fact, fiction, or fantasy?’, JBS (1978) C. Emsley ‘Pitt’s terror: prosecution for sedition during the 1790s’, Soc Hist (1981) C. Emsley ‘Repression, Terror and the rule of law in England during the decade of the French Revolution’, EHR (1985) J. Mori William Pitt and the French revolution, 1785-1795 (1997) M. Morris The British monarchy and the French revolution (1998) G. Newman ‘Anti-French propaganda and British liberal nationalism’, Vict Studs (1975) F. O’Gorman The Whig party and the French revolution (1967) Thomas Paine Rights of man (2 vols, 1791-2) M. Philp Reforming ideas in Britain: politics and language in the shadow of the French revolution, 1789-1815 (2013) T.P. Schofield ‘Conservative political thought in Britain in response to the French revolution’, HJ (1986)

5. Lord Liverpool and Liberal Toryism 1807-27

What was the legacy of the French wars on government and the party system? How far did this period see a new, purified image for government, and how far was ‘Old Corruption’ still seen as a valid description? Was there a discernible shift of power from monarch to cabinet? Did the period see the rise of a more ‘professional’ breed of politician? What difference did Peel make at the Home Office, Huskisson at the Board of Trade, and Canning at the Foreign Office? Why did fiscal and monetary policies assume such prominence? Did Whigs and so-called ‘Tories’ have coherent ideologies and provincial roots? How valid is it to distinguish between ‘liberal’ and ‘high Toryism’? In what ways and how successfully did ministers attempt to associate the government with ‘public opinion’? Why, after a period of political flux, did Liverpool’s government survive so long?

See also Topic 15 on administrative and economical reform, Topics 17 and 18 on post- Waterloo radicalism, and Topic 23 on foreign policy.

(a) General

J. Derry Politics in the age of Fox, Pitt and Liverpool (2001) P. Fraser ‘Party voting in the House of Commons 1812-27’, EHR (1983) G.I.T. Machin The Catholic question in English politics 1820-30 (1964) R. Muir Britain and the defeat of Napoleon (1996) F. O’Gorman The emergence of the two-party system 1760-1832 (1982)

16 F. O’Gorman ‘The unreformed electorate of Hanoverian England: the mid-eighteenth century to 1832’, Soc Hist (1986) F. O’Gorman ‘Party politics in the early nineteenth century 1812-1832’, EHR (1987) [and reply by P. Fraser] M. Turner Age of unease: government and reform in Britain, 1782-1832 (2000)

(b) The policies of the Liverpool government

Harriet Arbuthnot The journal of Mrs Arbuthnot 1820-32 (edited by F. Bamford & Duke of Wellington, 2 vols, 1950) W.R. Brock Lord Liverpool and liberal toryism (1941) J.E. Cookson Lord Liverpool’s administration 1815-22 (1975) J.W. Derry Castlereagh (1976) [especially Chapter 1] A. Gambles Protection and politics: conservative economic discourse 1815-1852 (1999) N. Gash Mr Secretary Peel (1961) V.A.C. Gatrell The hanging tree: execution and the English people, 1770-1868 (1994) N. Gash Lord Liverpool (1984) P. Handler ‘Forgery and the end of the “bloody code” in early nineteenth-century England’, HJ (2005) P. Harling The waning of ‘old corruption’: economical reform 1779-1846 (1996) * B. Hilton ‘The political arts of Lord Liverpool’, TRHS (1988) B. Hilton Corn, cash, commerce: the economic policies of the Tory governments 1815-30 (1977) B. Hilton ‘The gallows and Mr Peel’, in T.C.W. Blanning & D. Cannadine (ed.), History and Biography (1996) S. Lee George Canning and liberal toryism 1801-27 (2008) J.J. Sack ‘The memory of Burke and the memory of Pitt’, HJ (1987) N. Thompson Wellington after Waterloo (1986)

J.E. Cookson The friends of peace: anti-war liberalism in England, 1793-1815 (1982) W.A. Hay The whig revival, 1808-1830 (2004) P. Mandler Aristocratic government in the age of reform: whigs & liberals 1830-52 (1990) (Chapters 1 and 2) A. Mitchell The whigs in opposition 1815-1830 (1967) L.G. Mitchell The whig world 1760-1837 (2005) E.A. Smith Lord Grey, 1764-1845 (1990)

6. The collapse of the ancien régime, 1827-35

These were some of the most dramatic years in British politics in this period: why was this and what were the consequences? Why, first of all, did religion become such a disruptive force in 1827-30? Why could Catholic Emancipation no longer be resisted, and what effects did this have? Why after 47 years did the Pitt-Portland-Liverpool regime collapse in 1830? How serious was the social and political crisis of 1830-2, and how important was the pressure exerted by the political unions and other provincial middle-class organisations? Why was there so much petitioning about slavery and the poor law as well as Reform? How important

17 was evangelicalism and a widespread sense of apocalyptic anxiety? How did the new Whig ministers diagnose current social and political evils, and in what ways was their Reform Act designed to cure them? Did the Act, and the further major reforms of 1833 and 1834 (tackling slavery, the East India Company, the Irish Church, and the poor law) stabilize politics or the reverse? Why did Ireland precipitate another political crisis in 1834-5? How different was British politics in 1835 from in 1827?

See also Topic 12 on parliamentary reform, Topic 20 on religion and Topic 22 on Ireland.

(a) The religious question

T. Bartlett The fall and rise of the Irish nation: the Catholic question 1690-1830 (1992) G. Best ‘Whigs and Church establishment: the age of Grey & Holland’, History (1960) R. Brent Liberal Anglican politics: whiggery, religion and reform 1830-41 (1987) R. Brent ‘New whigs in old bottles’, Parl Hist (1992) J.C.D. Clark English Society 1688-1832 (1985, 2000) R.W. Davis ‘The tories, whigs, and Catholic emancipation, 1827-1829’, EHR (1982) R.W. Davis ‘The whigs and religious issues, 1830-5’ in R.W. Davis & R.J. Helmstadter (ed.), Religion and irreligion in Victorian society (1992) B. Hilton ‘The ripening of Robert Peel’, in M. Bentley (ed), Public and private doctrine: essays presented to Maurice Cowling (1993) K.T. Hoppen ‘An incorporating union? British politicians and Ireland 1800-1830’, EHR (2008) P. Jupp British politics on the eve of reform: Wellington’s administration (1998) G.I.T. Machin Politics and the churches in Great Britain 1832-68 (1977) G.I.T. Machin ‘Resistance to repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts’, HJ (1979) G.I.T. Machin ‘Canning, Wellington and the Catholic question’, EHR (1984) F. O’Ferrall Catholic emancipation: Daniel O’Connell and the birth of Irish democracy 1820-30 (1985) J. Wolffe The Protestant crusade in Great Britain 1829-60 (1991)

(b) The Reform Act

A. Briggs ‘Middle-class consciousness in politics 1780-1846’, P&P (1956) M. Brock The Great Reform Act (1973) J. Cannon Parliamentary reform 1640-1832 (1973) J. Hamburger James Mill and the art of revolution (1963) (Chapter 4) P. Hollis The pauper press: working-class radicalism of the 1830s (1970) P. Hollis (ed) Pressure from without in early Victorian England (1974) N. McCord ‘Some difficulties of parliamentary reform’, HJ (1967) J. Milton-Smith ‘Earl Grey’s cabinet and the origins of parliamentary reform’, HJ (1972) D.C. Moore ‘The other face of reform’, Vict Studs (1961) D.C. Moore ‘Concession or cure: a sociological interpretation of the Great Reform Act’, HJ (1966) I. Newbould Whiggery and reform 1830-41: the politics of government (1990) * J. Parry The rise and fall of Liberal government in Victorian Britain (1993), chapter 2-4 J.A. Phillips & C. Wetherell ‘Great Reform Act 1832: modernization of politics’ AmHR (1995) Philip Salmon ‘Reform should begin at home: English municipal and parliamentary reform, 1818-32’, in C. Jones, P. Salmon, and R.W. Davis (ed.), Partisan politics, principle and reform in Parliament, 1689-1880 (2005)

18 E.A. Wasson ‘The coalition of 1827 and the crisis of whig leadership’, HJ (1977)

P. Dunkley ‘The whigs and the poor law 1830-4’, JBS (1980-1) Carl Griffin The rural war: Captain Swing and the politics of protest (2012) U. Henriques Before the welfare state: social administration in industrial Britain (1979) E.J. Hobsbawm & G. Rudé Captain Swing (1969) P. Mandler ‘The making of the new poor law redivivus’, P&P (1987) [and debate with A. Brundage and D. Eastwood in P&P (1990)] M. Wiener Reconstructing the criminal: culture, law and policy in England 1830-1914 (1990)

(d) The abolition of slavery

R. Anstey ‘Parliamentary reform, Methodism, and anti-slavery politics, 1829-1833’, Slavery & Abolition (1981) D.B. Davis ‘The emergence of immediatism in British and American anti-slavery thought’, Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1962-3) N. Draper The price of emancipation: slave-ownership, compensation and British society at the end of slavery (2009) S. Drescher Abolition: a history of slavery and antislavery (2009) I. Gross ‘The abolition of negro slavery and British politics, 1832-1833’, HJ (1980)

7. The rise and fall of party in the age of Peel, 1834-50

Historians differ about how far there was a party system before 1830, and how far party was regarded as an honourable or even legitimate undertaking, but there is no doubt that the Reform crisis created new problems and frictions which altered traditional political alignments and assumptions. In the 1830s, constitutional, religious and economic issues were all extremely contentious. At the same time, aspects of the 1832 political settlement facilitated, perhaps even required, the growth of party organization in the constituencies. How, then, were parties to cope with the obstacles that they faced? How effectively did the separate groupings of Whigs, Liberals, and Radicals cohere to form a single political entity? Why did the Conservatives recover so quickly after 1832, and how far did a ‘two-party system’ operate? How far did Peel’s methods of governance differ from those of his predecessors, Liverpool, Canning, and Wellington? How did government and opposition respond to the increased political pressure from extra-parliamentary religious and economic interests? How did the economic policies designed to address the tensions between town and countryside (e.g. fiscal reform, free trade, monetary policy) impact on the nature of government? Why was the Anti-Corn Law League so successful in mobilizing middle-class opinion? Why did Peel’s government collapse so spectacularly in 1846 and why were both parties in disarray in the late 1840s?

19 See also Topic 15 on free trade, Topic 16 on the so-called ‘revolution in government’, and Topic 20 on religion.

(a) General

N. Gash Reaction and reconstruction in English politics 1832-52 (1965) M. Ledger-Lomas ‘The character of Pitt the Younger and party politics, 1830-1860’, HJ (2004) I. Newbould Whiggery and reform 1830-41: the politics of government (1990) J. Parry The rise and fall of liberal government in Victorian Britain (1993) R. Stewart Party and politics, 1830-52 (1989)

(b) Whigs, Liberals, Radicals

J. Bord Science and whig manners: science and political style 1790-1850 (2009) J. Coohill Ideas of the Liberal Party: perceptions, agendas and liberal politics in the House of Commons (2011) P. Mandler Aristocratic government in the age of reform: whigs & liberals 1830-52 (1990) L.G. Mitchell Lord Melbourne, 1779-1848 (1997) J. Parry ‘Liberalism and liberty’ in P. Mandler (ed), Liberty and authority in Victorian Britain (2006) J. Prest Lord John Russell (1972) E.A. Smith Lord Grey, 1764-1845 (1990) R. Stewart Henry Brougham, 1778-1868: the public career (1985) M. Taylor The decline of British radicalism 1847-1860 (1995) W. Thomas The philosophical radicals: studies in theory and practice 1817-41 (1979) B. Weinstein Liberalism and local government in early Victorian London (2011)

J.B. Conacher The Peelites and the party system 1846-52 (1972) M. Cragoe ‘The Great Reform Act and the modernization of British politics: the impact of Conservative associations, 1835–1841’ JBS (2008) M. Cragoe ‘Sir Robert Peel and the “moral authority” of the House of Commons, 1832–41’ EHR (2013) Benjamin Disraeli Sybil, or, the two nations (1845) A.P. Donajgrodski ‘Sir James Graham at the Home Office’, HJ (1977) D Eastwood ‘Peel and the tory party reconsidered’, History Today (1992) N. Gash Sir Robert Peel: the life of Sir Robert Peel after 1830 (1972) N. Gash ‘From the origins to Sir Robert Peel’, in R.A. Butler (ed.), The Conservatives: a history from their origins to 1965 (1977) * R.A. Gaunt Sir Robert Peel: the life and legacy (2010) B. Hilton ‘Peel: a reappraisal’, HJ (1979) A. Hawkins The forgotten prime minister: the 14th earl of Derby: Volume I: ascent, 1799-1851 (2007) T.A. Jenkins Sir Robert Peel (1999) I. Newbould ‘Peel and the Conservative party 1832-41’, EHR (1983) R. Stewart The foundations of the Conservative party 1830-1867 (1978)

(d) Ecclesiastical and religious policies

20 R. Brent Liberal Anglican politics: whiggery, religion and reform 1830-41 (1987) O. Brose Church and parliament: reshaping of the Church of England 1828-60 (1950) R. Floyd Church, chapel and party: religious dissent and political modernization in 19thC England (2008) D.A. Kerr Peel, priests and politics: Sir Robert Peel’s administration and the Roman Catholic Church in Ireland 1841-6 (1982) B. Hilton ‘Whiggery, religion, social reform: the case of Lord Morpeth’, HJ (1994) G.I.T. Machin Politics and the churches in Great Britain 1832-68 (1977) J. Wolffe The Protestant crusade in Great Britain 1829-60 (1991)

(e) Economic policies

W.O. Aydelotte ‘The country gentlemen and the repeal of the corn laws’, EHR (1967) L. Brown The Board of Trade and the free trade movement 1830-42 (1958) M. Daunton Trusting leviathan: the politics of taxation in Britain 1799-1914 (2001) S.Fairlie ‘The nineteenth-century corn law reconsidered’, EcHR (1965) D.R. Fisher ‘The sugar crisis of 1844 reconsidered’, HJ (1975) * A. Gambles ‘Rethinking protection: conservatism and corn laws 1830-52’, EHR (1998) A. Gambles Protection and politics: conservative economic discourse 1815-1852 (1999) B.Kemp ‘Reflections on the repeal of the corn laws’, Vict Studs (1962) A. Macintyre ‘Lord George Bentinck and the protectionists: a lost cause?’, TRHS (1989) N. McCord The Anti-Corn Law League 1838-1846(1958) P. Mandler Aristocratic government in the age of reform: whigs & liberals 1830-52 (1990) H. Miller ‘Popular petitioning and the Corn Laws, 1833-46’, EHR (2012) S. Morgan ‘The Anti-Corn Law League and British anti-slavery in transatlantic perspective, 1838-1846’, HJ (2009) P.A. Pickering & A. Tyrrell The people’s bread: a history of the Anti-Corn Law League (2000) C. Schonhardt-Bailey From the corn laws to free trade: interests, ideas, and institutions in historical perspective (2006)

8. Palmerston and mid-Victorian stability, 1848-67

The period between 1848 – when Britain noticeably failed to experience anything like the revolutionary upsurges on the continent – and the death of Palmerston in 1865 is usually regarded as one of quietude in domestic politics. This was not in fact true at the level of squabbles for power between groups at Westminster (there were six different governments during the 1850s, and the party system was disorganized). But several contemporaries noted that social, economic and intellectual movements seemed more important than politics, which concerned itself with relatively uncontentious issues at home, as well as a series of foreign matters. This was the period of greatest British global power, and there was a lot of celebration of British superiority, but there were also moments of panic about whether it would continue: there were invasion scares in 1852 and 1859, and grave concern about the conduct of the Crimean War in 1854-5. So the main question to be asked about this period is not about the ins and outs of ministries but a broader one: why did the control of the governing classes seem so comparatively unchallenged? Why was there so little pressure for political and constitutional reform? Why, conversely, were foreign and defence issues so important? Was Palmerston a conservative force and to what extent did his personality dominate

21 this era? What impact did the Great Exhibition and other national celebrations have on British consciousness? The 1832 Reform Act and the campaigns of the Anti-Corn Law League in the 1840s suggested great middle-class political awareness, implying the imminent triumph of commercial and industrial groups over the old aristocratic governors, but why did social change not have more impact on national politics in the 1850s and 1860s? Did middle-class radicalism ‘fail’? And what light does the rapid passage of a radical Reform Act in 1867, less than two years after Palmerston’s death, shed on these issues?

See also Topic 12 on parliamentary reform, Topic 16f on middle-class radicalism, and Topic 23 on Britain and Europe.

(a) General

J.A. Auerbach The Great Exhibition of 1851: a nation on display (1999) D. Brown & M. Taylor Palmerston Studies (2 vols., 2007) W.L. Burn The age of equipoise: a study of the mid-Victorian generation (1964) L. Goldman ‘The Social Science Association, 1857-1886: a context for mid-Victorian Liberalism’, EHR (1986) * A. Hawkins ‘“Parliamentary government” and political parties 1830-1880’, EHR (1989) H.C.G. Matthew ‘Disraeli, Gladstone and the politics of mid-Victorian budgets’, HJ (1979) Bernard Porter ‘Bureau and barrack: early Victorian attitudes towards the continent’, Victorian Studies (1984) John Tosh ‘Gentlemanly politeness and manly simplicity in Victorian England’, TRHS (2002)

(b) Party politics

J.B. Conacher The Peelites and the party system 1846-52 (1972) P. Gurowich ‘Continuation of war by other means: party & politics 1855-65’, HJ (1984) A. Hawkins Parliament, party and the art of politics in Britain, 1855-59 (1987) A. Hawkins ‘Lord Derby and Victorian Conservatism’, Parl Hist (1987) H.C.G. Matthew Gladstone 1809-1874 (1986) H. Miller Politics personified: portraiture, caricature and visual culture in Britain, c. 1830- 1880 (2015), ch. 6 J. Parry The politics of patriotism: English liberalism, national identity and Europe, 1830-1886 (2006) J. Parry The rise and fall of Liberal government in Victorian Britain (1993) J. Parry ‘Past and future in the later career of Lord John Russell’ in T.C.W. Blanning & D. Cannadine (ed.), History and Biography (1996) E.D. Steele Palmerston and Liberalism 1855-65 (1991) R. Stewart The foundations of the Conservative party 1830-1867 (1978) R. Stewart Party and politics, 1830-52 (1989) A. Taylor ‘Palmerston and Radicalism, 1847-1865’, JBS (1994)

Olive Anderson ‘The growth of Christian militarism in Victorian Britain’, English Historical Review (1971) M. Chamberlain British foreign policy in the age of Palmerston (1980) [with documents]

22 G. Hicks ‘Don Pacifico, democracy, and danger: the Protectionist party critique of British foreign policy, 1850-1852’, International History Review (2004) K. Martin The triumph of Lord Palmerston (1924, 1963) * J.P. Parry ‘The impact of Napoleon III on British politics, 1851-70’, TRHS (2001) B. Porter The refugee question in mid-Victorian politics (1980) [Introduction] D.M. Schreuder ‘Gladstone and Italian unification: the making of a Liberal?’, EHR (1970) D. Southgate The most English minister: the policies and politics of Palmerston (1966) N.W. Summerton ‘Dissenting attitudes to foreign relations, peace and war, 1840-90’, JEcclH (1977) K. Wilson (ed) British foreign secretaries and foreign policy (1987) [esp. Steele’s essay]

(d) Radicalism and public opinion

M. Chase ‘The popular movement for parliamentary reform in provincial Britain during the 1860s’, Parl. Hist (2017) S. Conway ‘The politicisation of the nineteenth-century Peace Society’, HR (1993) N. Edsall Richard Cobden: independent radical (1986) W.H. Greenleaf ‘Toulmin Smith and political tradition’, Public Administration (1975) D.A. Hamer The politics of electoral pressure: Victorian reform agitations (1977) D. Nicholls ‘Richard Cobden and the Peace Congress Movement 1848-53’, JBS (1991) J. Prest Politics in the age of Cobden (1977) D. Read Cobden and Bright (1967) D. Read Peel and the Victorians (1987) G.R. Searle Entrepreneurial politics in mid-Victorian Britain (1992) M. Taylor The decline of British radicalism 1847-1860 (1995) F.M.L. Thompson ‘Land and politics in England in the nineteenth century’, TRHS (1965) A. Tyrrell ‘Making the millennium: the peace movement’, HJ (1978) * J.R. Vincent The formation of the Liberal party 1857-68 (1966)

9. Government and policy in the age of Gladstone and Disraeli, 1867-86

How did political leaders respond to the new political situation after the 1867 Reform Act? Was it seen as a new dawn of radicalism, and how effective was the radical agenda after 1867? How far was policy influenced by extra-parliamentary pressures, particularly in the Liberal party? Or were the propertied classes still in control? Why was Gladstone’s first Government long regarded as the pinnacle of Victorian political achievement, and why is it now mainly discussed in terms of its shortcomings? How much scope was there for domestic policy differences between the parties? Did Gladstone succeed in imposing a new agenda on the Liberals or Disraeli on the Conservatives? What explains each man’s political journey, and were they as ideologically opposed as they have sometimes been presented? Was the Liberal party a ‘faddist’ party by the 1880s, or still seen as the natural party of government? Another dramatic recasting of the electoral system in 1884-5 was followed by an Irish crisis rather than a radicalization of British politics. Why were religious, Irish, and foreign policy issues so important in this period, when the new electorate might be expected to have had different concerns? Was Gladstone’s decision to advocate Home Rule in the winter of 1885-6 a natural progression for him?

23 See also Topic 20 on religion and Topic 22 on Ireland. Topic 10 on the parties and the people complements this topic by focusing on the impact of politics on voters.

(a) Liberalism

O. Anderson ‘Gladstone and the abolition of compulsory church rates’, JEcclH (1974) D. Bebbington & R. Swift (ed.) Gladstone centenary essays (2000) D.W. Bebbington The mind of Gladstone: religion, Homer, and politics (2004) D.W. Bebbington The nonconformist conscience: chapel and politics 1870-1914 (1982) M. Bentley The climax of liberal politics (1987) E. Biagini Liberty, retrenchment and reform: popular liberalism 1860-80 (1992) * E. Biagini Gladstone (2000) E.J. Feuchtwanger Gladstone (1975) William Gladstone Midlothian speeches 1879-80, ed M.R. D. Foot (1971) L. Goldman Science, reform, and politics: the Social Science Association 1857-86 (2002) L. Goldman ‘The Social Science Association, 1857-1886: a context for mid-Victorian Liberalism’, EHR (1986) L. Goldman ‘The defection of the middle class: the Endowed Schools Act, the liberal party, and the 1874 election’ in P. Ghosh & L. Goldman, Politics and culture in Victorian Britain (2006) D.A. Hamer Liberal politics in the age of Gladstone and Rosebery (1972) D.A. Hamer (ed) The radical programme 1885 (1971 edn) C. Harvie The lights of liberalism: university liberals and the challenge of democracy 1860-86 ((1976) R.J. Helmstadter ‘The nonconformist conscience’ in P.T. Marsh (ed), The conscience of the Victorian state (1979) B. Hilton ‘Utilitarian or neo-Foxite whig: Robert Lowe as chancellor of the exchequer’ in E. Green and D. Tanner (ed.), The Strange Survival of Liberal England (2007) R. Jay Joseph Chamberlain: a political biography (1981) T.A. Jenkins Gladstone, whiggery and the liberal party 1874-86 (1988) G.I.T. Machin ‘Gladstone and nonconformity in the 1860s’, HJ (1974) P. Marsh Joseph Chamberlain: entrepreneur in politics (1994) H.C.G. Matthew ‘Rhetoric and politics’ in P.J. Waller (ed), Politics and social change in modern Britain (1987) *H.C.G. Matthew Gladstone 1875-1898 (1995) H. Miller Politics personified: portraiture, caricature and visual culture in Britain, c. 1830-1880 (2015), ch. 7 *J. Parry The rise and fall of liberal government in Victorian Britain (1993) ch. 10-11 J. Parry The politics of patriotism: English liberalism, national identity and Europe, 1830-1886 (2006) J. Parry ‘The decline of institutional reform in nineteenth-century Britain’, in D. Feldman and J. Lawrence (ed.), Structures and transformations in modern British history (2011) J. Parry ‘Religion and the collapse of Gladstone’s first government, 1870-4’, HJ (1982) A. Ramm ‘The parliamentary context of Gladstone’s first government’, EHR (1984) M.J.D. Roberts ‘Gladstonian Liberalism and environment protection, 1865–76’, EHR (2013) J. Roach ‘Liberalism and the Victorian intelligentsia’, HJ (1957-8) R. Quinault ‘Joseph Chamberlain: a reassessment’ in T.R. Gourvish & A. O’Day (ed.), Later Victorian Britain (1988) R. Quinault et al. William Gladstone: new studies and perspectives (2012)

24 R.T. Shannon Gladstone: heroic minister 1865-1898 (1999) R. Shannon ‘Peel, Gladstone and party’, Parl Hist (1999). J.R. Vincent The formation of the liberal party 1857-68 (1966) A. Warren ‘Forster, Liberals, new directions in Irish policy 1880-2’, Parl Hist (1987) M. Winstanley Gladstone and the Liberal party (1990)

(b) Conservatism

R. Blake Disraeli (1966) B. Coleman Conservatism and the conservative party in 19th-century Britain (1988) H. Cunningham ‘The Conservative party and patriotism’ in R. Colls & P. Dodd (ed.), Englishness: politics and culture (1986) E. Feuchtwanger Disraeli, democracy and the tory party: conservative leadership and organisation (1968) R.F. Foster Lord Randolph Churchill: a political life (1981) P. Ghosh ‘Disraelian Conservatism: a financial approach’, EHR (1984) P. Ghosh ‘Style and substance in Disraeli’s social reform’ in P. Waller, ed., Politics and social change in modern Britain (1987), pp. 59-81. *J. Parry ‘Disraeli and England’, HJ (2000) J. Parry Benjamin Disraeli (2007) R. Quinault ‘The fourth party and Conservative opposition to Bradlaugh’, EHR (1976) R. Quinault ‘Churchill and tory democracy’, HJ (1979) R. Shannon The age of Disraeli 1867-81 (1992) R. Shannon The age of Salisbury, 1881-1902 (1996) P. Smith Disraelian conservatism and social reform (1967) * P. Smith Disraeli: a brief life (1996) P. Smith ‘Disraeli’s politics’, TRHS (1987) J.R. Vincent Disraeli (1990) A. Warren ‘Disraeli, the Conservatives, and the government of Ireland’, Parl Hist (1999)

M. Cruickshank Church and state in English education 1870 to the present day (1944) D. Grube ‘Religion, power and parliament: Rothschild and Bradlaugh revisited’, History (2007) G.I.T. Machin Politics and the churches in Great Britain 1869-1921 (1987) J. Murphy Church, state and schools in Britain 1800-1970 (1971)

(d) The move towards Home Rule, to early 1886

E.F. Biagini British democracy and Irish nationalism 1878-1906 (2007) A.B. Cooke & J.R. Vincent The governing passion: cabinet government and party politics in Britain 1885-6 (1974) L.P. Curtis Coercion and conciliation in Ireland: conservative unionism 1880-92 (1963) * J. Loughlin Gladstone, home rule and the Irish question 1882-93 (1986) W.C. Lubenow Parliamentary politics and the home rule crisis: the British House of Commons in 1886 (1988) A. Warren ‘Lord Salisbury and Ireland: principles, ambitions, and strategies’, Parl Hist (2007) A. Warren ‘Gladstone, land, social reconstruction in Ireland 1881-7’, Parl Hist (1983)

25 10. The parties and the people 1867-90

The 1867 and 1884-5 Reform Acts gave party organisers the task of communicating to a much larger electorate, while in the 1880s landed power seemed under threat for various reasons. This topic complements Topic 9 by focusing on politics in this period at the grass roots. How far had politics become a uniform, national process by 1880, by 1885, by the late 1880s? How did each party seek to build support among potential voters? How far did they rely on ideological appeals and how far on social activities, deference, or class consciousness? What were the differences between popular Liberalism and popular Conservatism, and why did the Conservatives come to be at less of a disadvantage than before in appealing to electors? When did the Conservative party revival become significant and how much difference did the split of 1886 make to its fortunes? How important were patriotism and social reform to the Conservative image? Was religion a positive or a negative element in the appeal of either party? How far had power relations within each party changed by the late 1880s and how far were the propertied classes still in control of them?

Note: This topic extends slightly beyond the formal end-date of the paper, in order to embrace the immediate effects of the Reform Acts of 1884-5 and the party splits of 1886 on party political organization. It makes most sense to include the revival of the Conservative party to the late 1880s within this topic, but to stop before imperialism reached its height in the 1890s. Please note that there are no longer any starred questions on the Paper 5 examination paper and therefore candidates taking Paper 6 as well as this paper will not be debarred from tackling a question on this (or any other) topic on this paper. However they will be in danger of being penalised if they repeat similar material in any of their answers on the two papers.

(a) General studies of voting patterns and of party organisation and discipline

H. Berrington ‘Partisanship and dissidence in the 19th-c House of Commons’, PA (1968) N. Blewett ‘The franchise in the United Kingdom, 1885-1918’, P&P (1965) M. Brodie The politics of the poor: the East End of London (2004) [Chapter 2] D. Cannadine The decline and fall of the British aristocracy (1990), pp.25-54 G. W. Cox The efficient secret: the cabinet and the development of political parties in Victorian England (1987) J. Davis ‘Slums and the vote, 1867-1890’, Historical Research (1991) J. Davis & D. Tanner ‘The borough franchise after 1867’, Historical Research (1996) J.P.D. Dunbabin ‘Electoral reforms and their outcome in the United Kingdom, 1865-1900’ in T. Gourvish & A. O’Day (ed.), Later Victorian Britain (1988) * J.A. Garrard ‘Parties, members and voters after 1867: a local study’, HJ (1977) H.J. Hanham Elections and party management in the age of Gladstone and Disraeli (1978) *A. Hawkins Victorian political culture (2015), ch. 8-9 P. Joyce Work, society and politics: the culture of the factory in later Victorian England (1980) P. Joyce ‘The factory politics of Lancashire in the later 19th century’, HJ (1975) * J. Lawrence ‘The dynamics of urban politics, 1870-1918’ in J. Lawrence & M. Taylor (ed.), Party, state and society (1997) J. Lawrence Electing our masters: the hustings in British politics from Hogarth to Blair (2009)

26 J. Lawrence Speaking for the people: party, language & popular politics 1867-1914 (1998) T. Lloyd The general election of 1880 (1968) T.J. Nossiter Influence, opinion and political idioms in reformed England: case studies from the North-east 1832-1874 (1975) (Chapters 10-12) C. O’Leary The elimination of corrupt practices in British elections, 1868-1911 (1962) H. Pelling Popular politics and society in late Victorian Britain (1967) [Chapters 1, 6] K. Rix ‘By-elections and the modernisation of party organisation, 1867-1914’ in P. Readman and T. Otte, By-elections in British politics, 1832-1914 (2013) J. Vincent Pollbooks: how Victorians voted (1967) [pp. 43-50]

(b) Broadly on Liberalism

D.W. Bebbington The nonconformist conscience: chapel and politics 1870-1914 (1982) E. Biagini Liberty, retrenchment and reform: popular liberalism 1860-80 (1992) E. Biagini & A. Reid (ed.) Currents of radicalism: popular radicalism, organised labour and party politics in Britain 1850-1914 (1991) L. Blaxill ‘Electioneering, the Third Reform Act, and political change in the 1880s’ Parl Hist (2011) L. Blaxill ‘Joseph Chamberlain and the Third Reform Act: a reassessment of the “Unauthorized Programme” of 1885’, JBS (2015). P.F. Clarke Lancashire and the new liberalism (1971) J. Davis ‘Radical clubs and London politics, 1870-1900’ in D. Feldman & G. Stedman Jones (ed), Metropolis –London: histories and representations since 1800 (1989). P. Griffiths ‘The caucus and the liberal party in 1886’, History (1976) D.A. Hamer The politics of electoral pressure: Victorian reform agitations (1977) J. Munson The nonconformists: in search of a lost culture (1991) J.R. Vincent The formation of the liberal party (1966)

F. Coetzee ‘Villa toryism reconsidered: Croydon’, Parl Hist (Special Issue 1997) F. Coetzee For party or country: nationalism and popular conservatism (1990) J. Cornford ‘The transformation of the Conservative party in the late nineteenth century’, Vict Studs (1963-4) E.H.H. Green The crisis of conservatism (1994) [Chapters 3-4] R.L. Greenall ‘Popular conservatism in Salford, 1868-86’, Northern History (1974) * J. Lawrence ‘Class and gender in the making of urban Toryism’, EHR (1993) B. Porter The absent-minded imperialists: empire, society, and culture in Britain (2004) R. Price ‘Society, status and jingoism: lower-middle-class patriotism 1870-1900’ in G. Crossick (ed), The lower middle class in Britain (1977) M. Pugh The Tories and the people, 1880-1935 (1985) M. Roberts ‘“Villa Toryism” and popular Conservatism in Leeds, 1885-1902’, HJ (2006) J.R. Vincent ‘The effect of the second reform act in Lancashire’, HJ (1968)

27 THEMATIC TOPICS

11. The constitution: the roles of monarchy and Parliament

The British revered their constitution but they often disagreed about its nature and operation. How did the British perceive their constitution in the long eighteenth century? What roles did ideas of liberty, balance, and law play? How did the actual balance of power evolve over the century between Crown and Parliament and among monarch, ministers, bureaucracy, Lords, and Commons? To what extent was the regime participatory? In what senses, if any, was the regime ‘representative’? Where and when was the Hanoverian electorate an effective influence on politics? What was left of monarchal power in the post-1688 political world? How did monarchal power evolve over the course of the long eighteenth century? What were the functions of the royal court in the post-1688 regime? How far did the constitutional changes of 1828- 32, and their successors, alter the influence of monarchy? In what sense was eighteenth- or nineteenth-century Britain a ‘crowned republic’?

See topic 12 for reform of parliament in the nineteenth century

(a) The constitution, 1688-1815

J.V. Beckett The aristocracy in England 1660-1914 (1986), part III C. Brooks ‘Public finance and political stability: the administration of the Land Tax, 1688- 1720’, HJ (1974) J. Cannon Aristocratic century: the peerage of eighteenth-century England (1984), chs 4, 6 J.C.D. Clark English society 1688-1832 (1985, 2000) H.T. Dickinson ‘The eighteenth-century debate on the sovereignty of Parliament’, TRHS (1976) J.A.W. Gunn ‘Influence, parties and the constitution: changing attitudes, 1783-1832’, HJ (1974) G. Holmes ‘The electorate and the national will in the first age of party’, in G. Holmes, Politics, religion and society in England 1679-1742 (1986) J. Hoppit ‘Patterns of parliamentary legislation 1660-1800’, HJ (1996) C. Jones (ed.) A pillar of the constitution: the House of Lords in politics 1640-1784 (1989) C. Jones (ed.) A short history of Parliament (2009), ch 13, 14 and 22 B. Kemp King and Commons, 1660-1832 (1957) P. Langford Public life and the propertied Englishman 1689-1798 (1991) * P. Langford ‘Property and virtual representation in 18th-century England’, HJ (1988) M. McCahill Order and equipoise: the peerage and the House of Lords, 1783-1806 (1978) M. McCahill ‘Peers, Patronage, and the Industrial Revolution, 1760-1800’, JBS (1976) J.M. Norris ‘Samuel Garbett and the early development of industrial lobbying in Great Britain’, EcHR, 10 (1958) * F. O’Gorman Voters, patrons, and parties: the unreformed electoral system of Hanoverian England 1734-1832 (1989) F. O’Gorman ‘Campaign rituals and ceremonies: the social meaning of elections’, P&P (1992) F. O’Gorman ‘The unreformed electorate of Hanoverian England: the mid-eighteenth century to 1832’, Soc Hist (1986) J.A. Phillips ‘Popular politics in unreformed England’, JMH (1980) J.A. Phillips Electoral behaviour in unreformed England 1761-1802 (1986) J.A. Phillips ‘Participatory politics in Hanoverian England’, Soc Hist (1991)

28 Eric Robinson ‘Matthew Boulton and the Art of Parliamentary Lobbying’, HJ (1964)

(b) The monarchy, to 1830

J. Beattie The English court in the reign of George I (1967) R. Bucholz The Augustan court: Queen Anne and the decline of court culture (1993) * L. Colley ‘The apotheosis of George III: loyalty, royalty and the British nation 1760-1820’, P&P (1984) A.S. Foord ‘The waning of the influence of the crown’, EHR (1947) R. Hatton George I: elector and king (1978) B.W. Hill ‘Executive monarchy and the challenge of parties, 1689-1832’, HJ (1970) M. Morris The British monarchy and the French Revolution (1998) C.C. Orr Queenship in Britain 1660-1837: royal patronage, court culture and dynastic politics (2002) R. Pares King George III and the politicians (1953) [especially the last chapter] E.A. Reitan ‘The civil list in eighteenth-century British politics: parliamentary supremacy versus the independence of the crown’, HJ (1966) E.A. Reitan ‘From revenue to civil list, 1689-1832’, HJ (1970) H. Smith ‘The idea of a Protestant monarchy in Britain 1714–1760’, P&P (2004) * H. Smith Georgian monarchy: politics and culture 1714-1760 (2006) H. Smith & S. Taylor ‘Hephaestion and Alexander’: Lord Hervey, Frederick, Prince of Wales, and the Royal Favourite in England in the 1730s’, EHR (2009) A.C. Thompson George II, king and elector (2011) A.C. Thompson ‘Early 18th-century Britain as a confessional state’, in H. Scott & B. Simms (ed.), Cultures of power in Europe in the long eighteenth century (2007)

W.L. Arnstein ‘Queen Victoria opens parliament: the disinvention of tradition’, HJ (1990) D. Cannadine ‘The last Hanoverian sovereign? The Victorian monarchy’ in A.L. Beier, D. Cannadine and J.M. Rosenheim (ed.), The first modern society (1989) D. Cannadine ‘The context, performance and meaning of ritual: the British monarchy and the invention of tradition, c.1820-1977’ in E. Hobsbawm & T. Ranger (ed.), The invention of tradition (1983) [and see Arnstein above] J. Cannon ‘The survival of the British monarchy’, TRHS (1986) * David Craig ‘The crowned republic? Monarchy and anti-monarchy in Britain,1760-1901’, HJ (2003) N. Gossman ‘Republicanism in nineteenth-century England’, IRHS (1980) F. Hardie The political influence of the British monarchy, 1868-1952 (1970) * A. Olechnowicz (ed.) The monarchy and the British nation 1780 to the present (2007) F.K. Prochaska Royal bounty: the making of a welfare monarchy (1995) * F.K. Prochaska The republic of Britain, 1776-2000 (2000) E. Royle Radicals, secularists & republicans: popular freethought 1866-1915 (1980) A. Taylor ‘Down with the Crown’: British anti-monarchism (1999) D. Thompson Queen Victoria: gender and power (1990)

12. The process of parliamentary reform, 1815-1886

During the nineteenth century the British political system was substantially democratized. The number of people entitled to vote in national elections greatly increased, and the relationship between the House of Commons and the electorate was transformed by changes in the distribution of seats in parliament. How should we account for these changes, and what were their effects? Was the political elite generally in charge of the process, or was it swept along by social and political forces outside parliament? Should the three major Reform Acts of 1832, 1867 and 1884-5 be seen as reluctant concessions to prevent more radical measures, or were the leading reformers keen and able to apply coherent approaches and defined principles of representation? Can we legitimately talk of an English constitutional tradition, or of whig or radical ideas of the constitution? Why was Reform so much more politically significant at some times than others, and why did different reformers place differing emphases on the franchise and distribution provisions of Reform Bills? What were the relative consequences of the three Acts on the distribution of social and political power? What was the impact of reform on the powers of the monarch, and on the relative importance of the Lords and Commons? Was Britain still in essence run by a small propertied class in 1886?

See also Topic 10 on popular politics after 1867, Topic 11 on the monarchy, Topic 16 on urban politics, Topic 17 on discussions about reform in the 18th century, Topic 18 on Chartism and Topic 19e on the debate about women’s suffrage.

(a) The 1832 Reform Act

*D. Beales ‘The electorate before 1832’, Parl Hist (1992) A. Briggs ‘The parliamentary reform movement in three cities’, HJ (1952) A. Briggs ‘Thomas Attwood and the economic background of the Birmingham Political Union’, HJ (1948) [these 3 articles reprinted in Collected Essays of Asa Briggs, Vol.I (1985)] A. Briggs ‘Middle-class consciousness in politics 1780-1846’, P&P (1956) M. Brock The Great Reform Act (1973) J. Cannon Parliamentary reform 1640-1832 (1973) V.A.C. Gatrell ‘Incorporation and the pursuit of liberal hegemony in Manchester 1790-1839’ in D. Fraser (ed), Municipal reform and the industrial city (1982) Carl Griffin The rural war: Captain Swing and the politics of protest (2012) A.D. Kriegel ‘Liberty and whiggery in early nineteenth-century England’, JMH (1980) N.D. LoPatin Political unions, popular politics and the great Reform Act of 1832 (1999) N. McCord ‘Some difficulties of parliamentary reform’, HJ (1967) J. Milton-Smith ‘Earl Grey’s cabinet and the origins of parliamentary reform’, HJ (1972) D.C. Moore ‘The other face of reform’, Vict Studs (1961) D.C. Moore ‘Concession or cure: a sociological interpretation of the great reform act’, HJ (1966) I. Newbould Whiggery and Reform 1830-41: the politics of government (1990) [Chapters 2-4] *J. Parry The rise and fall of Liberal government in Victorian Britain (1993), ch. 3 J.A. Phillips The Great Reform Bill in the boroughs: electoral behaviour 1818-41 (1992) J.A. Phillips & C. Wetherell ‘Great Reform Act 1832: modernization of politics’, AmHR (1995)

30 P. Salmon Electoral reform at work: local politics & national parties, 1832-41 (2002) P. Salmon ‘Local politics and partisanship: the electoral impact of municipal reform, 1835’, Parl Hist (2000) P. Salmon ‘Political modernization 1832-41’, Parliaments, Estates, Representation (2003) *P. Salmon ‘The English Reform legislation, 1830-32’ in D. Fisher, ed., The History of Parliament: the House of Commons, 1820-32 (2009), vol. 1. *R. Saunders ‘God and the Great Reform Act: preaching against reform: 1831-2’ JBS (2014) E.A. Wasson ‘The spirit of Reform, 1832 and 1867’, Albion (1980) D.G. Wright ‘A radical borough: parliamentary politics in Bradford, 1832-1841’, Northern History (1969)

(b) Reform after 1832

M. Chase ‘The popular movement for parliamentary reform in provincial Britain during the 1860s’, Parl. Hist (2017) M. Cowling 1867, Disraeli, Gladstone and revolution: the passing of the second Reform Act (1967) * J.P.D. Dunbabin ‘Electoral reforms and their outcome in the United Kingdom, 1865-1900’ in T. Gourvish & A. O’Day (ed.), Later Victorian Britain (1988) J. Garrard ‘Parties, members and voters after 1867’ in T. Gourvish & A. O’Day, Later Victorian Britain (1988) B. Griffin The politics of gender in Victorian Britain (2012), chs. 7-9. B. Griffin ‘Women’s suffrage’ in D. Craig and J. Thompson, eds., Languages of politics (2013) C. Hall, K McClelland & J. Rendall Defining the Victorian nation: class, race, gender and the Reform Act of 1867 (2000) H.J. Hanham (ed) Dod’s electoral facts from 1832 to 1853 (1972 edn) [Introduction] R. Harrison Before the socialists: studies in labour and politics 1861-81 (1965) *A. Hawkins Victorian political culture (2015), ch. 4, 5 and 7 W.A. Hayes The background and passage of the Third Reform Act (1982) P. Hollis (ed) Pressure from without in early Victorian England (1974) [especially chapters by Harrison, Thompson, Martin, and Anderson] K.T. Hoppen ‘The franchise in England and Ireland 1832-85’, History (1985) C.C. O’Leary The elimination of corrupt practices in British elections, 1868-1911 (1962) J. Parry The rise and fall of Liberal government in Victorian Britain (1993) [Chapters 9, 12] K. Rix ‘Whatever passed in parliament ought to be communicated to the public’: reporting the proceedings of the reformed Commons, 1833–50’ Parl Hist (2014) M. Roberts ‘Resisting “arithmocracy”: Parliament, community, and the Third Reform Act’, JBS (2011) J. Roper Democracy and its critics (1989) R. Saunders ‘Lord John Russell and parliamentary reform, 1848-1867’, EHR (2005) *R. Saunders ‘The politics of reform & making of the 2nd Reform Act 1848-67’, HJ (2007) R. Saunders Democracy and the vote in British politics, 1848-1867 (2011) R. Saunders (ed) Shooting Niagara – and After?’ The Second Reform Act and its World [Parliamentary History special edition] (2017) F.B. Smith The making of the Second Reform Bill (1966) * J.K. Walton The Second Reform Act (1987)

31 (c) Parliament and the constitution after 1832

Walter Bagehot The English constitution (1867, ed Crossman), Physics and politics (1872) H. Berrington ‘Partisanship & dissidence in the 19th-century House of Commons’, PA (1968) * D. Cannadine The decline and fall of the British aristocracy (1990), pp.25-54 H.J. Hanham (ed) The 19th-century constitution 1815-1914: documents & commentary (1969) *A. Hawkins Victorian political culture (2015), ch. 8 G.H.L. Le May The Victorian constitution: conventions, usages and contingencies (1979) B. Kinzer The ballot question in nineteenth-century English politics (1982) J.P. Mackintosh The British cabinet (1962) John Stuart Mill On liberty (1859) *J. Parry ‘The decline of institutional reform in nineteenth-century Britain’, in D. Feldman & J. Lawrence (eds.), Structures and transformations in modern British history (2011) M. Pinto-Duschinsky British political finance, 1830-1980 (1981) R. Saunders ‘Democracy’, in Languages of politics in nineteenth-century Britain, ed. D. Craig & J. Thompson (2013) E.A. Smith The House of Lords in British politics and society 1815-1911 (1992) J. Vernon Politics and the people, 1815-1867 (1993)

13. Patriotism and national identity

The notion of ‘national identity’ should not be taken for granted, since it has been and still is the subject of debates among historians and social scientists. Therefore, it is important to understand how complex and contested this notion was. Did new ideas about the nation which emerged in the eighteenth century consolidate or weaken traditional political hierarchies? Did conceptions of the nation depend on locality, religious belief, class or gender? How did the political construction of the British state after 1688 impact on the way people in England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland defined themselves and their relations to others? To what extent was Britishness a euphemism for Anglicization? What were the political consequences of warfare on British identities? What were the meanings of patriotism in the eighteenth century, and how did they shift over time?

With the defeat of Napoleon, Britain found itself in a different geopolitical situation. To what extent did notions of national identity in the nineteenth century build on eighteenth-century traditions? Did Napoleon’s defeat, British constitutional stability, and the spread of free trade lead to a specifically liberal conception of national identity? In what ways were notions of national identity politically contested? What lay behind the ‘medieval’ and ‘Tudorbethan’ enthusiasms of the second quarter of the nineteenth century, and why was there so much interest in the nation’s Anglo-Saxon inheritance? How nationalist was nineteenth-century Liberalism? When, why, and how far did the association between radical politics and patriotism wane? How far and why did a specific Welsh and Scottish nationalism emerge in the second half of the nineteenth century? To what extent did the spread of constitutional regimes and the emergence of imperial rivalry across Europe affect the sense of Britain’s political uniqueness?

32 See also Topic 16b on the domestic impact of war, Topic 20 on religion, empire and national identity, Topic 21 on eighteenth-century Scotland, Topic 22 on Ireland, and Topic 23 on British attitudes to Europe.

(a) Some general works

B. Anderson Imagined communities: reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism (1991) *R. Brubaker and F. Cooper, ‘Beyond Identity’, Theory and Society 29 (2000) L. Colley ‘Britishness and otherness’, JBS (1992) * H. Cunningham ‘The language of patriotism’, in R. Samuel (ed.), Patriotism: the making and unmaking of British national identity, volume 1 (1989) J. Hutchinson & A.D. Smith (ed.), Nationalism (1994) E. Hobsbawm & T. Ranger (ed.), The invention of tradition (1983) E. Hobsbawm Nations and nationalism since 1780: programme, myth, reality (1990) P. Mandler ‘What is “national identity”?: definitions and applications in modern British historiography’, Modern Intellectual History (2006)

(b) Mainly eighteenth century (1700-1815)

J.C.D. Clark ‘Protestantism, nationalism, and national identity, 1660-1832’, HJ (2000) T. Claydon & I. McBride (ed.) Protestantism and national identity: Britain and Ireland. c. 1650-c. 1850 (1998) J. Coffey ‘“Tremble, Britannia!”: fear, providence and the abolition of the slave trade, 1758-1807’, EHR (2012) *L. Colley Britons: forging the nation 1707-1837 (1992) *L. Colley ‘Whose nation? Class and national consciousness 1750-1830’, P&P (1986) S. Conway ‘War and national identity in the mid-eighteenth-century British Isles’, EHR (2001) R. Eagles Francophilia in English society, 1748-1815 (New York, 2000) D. Eastwood ‘Robert Southey and the meanings of patriotism’, JBS (1992) * D. Eastwood ‘Patriotism and the English state in the 1790s’, in M. Philp (ed.), The French revolution and British popular politics (1991) B. Harris ‘Patriotic commerce and national revival : the Free British Fishery Society and British politics, c. 1749-58’, EHR (1999) B. Harris ‘Scotland’s herring fisheries and the prosperity of the nation, c. 1660-1760’, SHR (2000) D. Hayton ‘Anglo-Irish attitudes: changing perceptions of national identity among the Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland c1690-1750’, Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture (1987) C. Haydon Anti-Catholicism in eighteenth-century England (1993) C. Hill ‘The Norman yoke’, in J. Saville (ed), Democracy and the labour movement (1954); also in C. Hill, Puritanism and revolution (1969) T.L Hunt Defining John Bull: caricature, politics and national identity in late Georgian England (2003) D. Jarrett ‘The myth of patriotism in eighteenth-century politics’, in J.S. Bromley & E.H. Kossmann (ed.), Britain and the Netherlands (1975) G. Jordan & N. Rogers ‘Admirals as heroes: patriotism and liberty in Hanoverian England’, JBS (1989) C. Kidd British identities before nationalism: ethnicity and identity in the Atlantic world, 1600-1800 (1999)

33 * C. Kidd ‘North Britishness and the nature of eighteenth-century British patriotisms’, HJ (1996) H. Kohn ‘The genesis and character of English nationalism’, Journal of the History of Ideas (1940) P. Langford Englishness identified: manners and character, 1650-1850 (2000) R. Morieux ‘Diplomacy from below and belonging: fishermen and cross-Channel relations in the eighteenth century’, P&P (2009) *R. Morieux The Channel: England, France and the construction of a maritime border in the eighteenth century (2016) *A. Murdoch British history 1660-1832: national identity and local culture (1998) *G. Newman The rise of English nationalism: a cultural history 1740-1830 (1987) C. Petley ‘“Devoted islands: and “The madman Wilberforce”: British proslavery patriotism during the age of abolition’, JICH (2011) M. Pittock Inventing and resisting Britain : cultural identities in Britain and Ireland 1685- 1789 (1997) R. Romani National character and public spirit in Britain and France 1750-1914 (2002) S. Semmel Napoleon and the British (2004) S. Semmel ‘Radicals, loyalists, and the Royal Jubilee of 1809’, JBS (2007) W. Stafford ‘Religion and the doctrine of nationalism in England at the time of the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars’, Studies in Church History, (1992) M. Viroli For love of country: an essay on patriotism and nationalism (1995) * K. Wilson The sense of the people: politics, culture and imperialism in England, 1715-85 (1995)

R. Colls & P. Dodd Englishness: politics and culture 1880-1920 (1986) R. Colls Identity of England (2002) H. Cunningham The challenge of democracy: Britain 1832-1918 (2001) [Chapter 8: ‘Empire and nation: The British and their identities’] J.H. Grainger Patriotisms: Britain 1900-1939 (1986) [esp chs 1, 2, 4, 10-12] A. Hastings The construction of nationhood: ethnicity, religion, and nationalism (1997) [ch 2] R. Horsman ‘Origins of racial anglo-saxonism in Great Britain before 1850’, Journal of the History of Ideas 37 (1976) R. Koebner & H.D. Schmidt Imperialism: the story and significance of a political word, 1840-1960 (1964) P. Mandler The English national character (2006) P. Mandler ‘ “Race” and “nation” in mid-Victorian thought’ in S. Collini et al (ed.), History, religion, and culture: British intellectual history 1750-1950 (2000) J.P. Parry The politics of patriotism: English liberalism, national identity and Europe (2006) J.P. Parry ‘The impact of Napoleon III on British politics, 1851-1880’, TRHS (2001) J. Parry ‘Patriotism’, in Languages of politics in nineteenth-century Britain, ed. D. Craig & J. Thompson (2013) B. Porter The absent-minded imperialists: empire, society, and culture in Britain (2004) * B. Porter ‘Bureau and barrack: early Victorian attitudes towards the continent’, Vict Studs (1984) B. Porter ‘Empire and British national identity, 1815-1914’, in H. Brocklehurst & R. Phillips (ed.), History, nationhood, and the question of Britain (2004)

34 P. Readman Land and nation in England: patriotism, national identity, and the politics of land, 1880-1914 (2008) P. Readman ‘The Liberal party and patriotism in early twentieth-century Britain’, 20th Century British History (2001) R. Samuel, ed. Patriotism: the making and unmaking of British national identity (3 vols, 1989) * M. Taylor ‘John Bull and the iconography of public opinion in England c.1712-1929’, P&P (1992) P. Thane ‘The British imperial state and construction of national identities’ in B. Melman (ed.), Borderlines: gender and identities in war and peace, 1870- 1930 (1998) J. Vernon ‘Englishness: the narration of a nation’, JBS (1997) P. Ward Red flag and union jack: Englishness, patriotism, and the British left, 1881- 1924 (1998) [ch 6] P. Ward ‘Nationalism and national identity in British politics, c. 1880s to 1914’ in R. Phillips & H. Brocklehurst (ed.), History, identity, and the question of Britain (2004) P. Ward Britishness since 1870 (2004) B. Worden ‘The Victorians and Oliver Cromwell’, in S. Collini et al (ed.), History, religion, and culture: British intellectual history 1750-1950 (2000)

(d) Religion, politics and nationalism in Scotland and Wales, 1830-86

D.W. Bebbington ‘Religion and national feeling in nineteenth-century Wales and Scotland’ in S. Mews (ed), Religion and national identity (1992) S.J. Brown Thomas Chalmers and the Godly Commonwealth (1982) M. Cragoe ‘Welsh electioneering and the purpose of parliament: “from radicalism to nationalism” reconsidered’, Parl Hist [special issue: ‘Parliament and Locality’] (1998) G. Day & R. Suggett ‘Conceptions of Wales and Welshness: aspects of nationalism in nineteenth- century Wales’ in G. Rees, et al (ed.), Political action and social identity: class, locality and ideology (1985) T.M. Devine The Scottish nation, 1700-2000 (1999) C.J. Dewey ‘Celtic agrarian legislation and the Celtic revival: historicist implications of Gladstone’s Irish and Scottish Land Acts 1870-1886’, P&P (1974) A.L. Drummond & J Bulloch The Church in Victorian Scotland, 1843-1874 (1975) A.L. Drummond & J Bulloch The Church in late Victorian Scotland, 1874-1900 (1978) M. Fry (ed) Scotland in the age of the disruption (1993) W.B. George ‘Welsh disestablishment and Welsh nationalism’, Journal of the Historical Society of the Church in Wales (1969) C. Harvie ‘Nineteenth-century Scotland: political unionism and cultural nationalism, 1843-1906’ in R.G. Asch (ed), Three nations — a common history? England, Scotland, Ireland and British history, c. 1600-1920 (1993) M. Hechter Internal colonialism: the Celtic fringe in British national development 1536- 1966 (1975) C. Kidd ‘Race, empire, and the limits of nineteenth-century Scottish nationhood’, HJ (2003) J.M. MacKenzie ‘Empire and national identities: the case of Scotland’, TRHS (1998)

35 R. Mitchison ‘Nineteenth-century Scottish nationalism’ in Mitchison (ed), The roots of nationalism: studies in Northern Europe (1980) K.O. Morgan ‘Welsh Nationalism: The Historical Background’, Journal of Contemporary History (1971) R.J. Morris & G. Morton ‘The Remaking of Scotland, 1850-1920’ in M. Lynch (ed), Scotland 1850- 1979: society, politics, and the Union (1993) R.J. Morris & G. Morton ‘Civil society, governance and nation, 1832-1914’ in R.A. Houston & W. Knox (ed), The new Penguin history of scotland (2001) M. Pittock Scottish nationality (2001) G.A. Williams When Was Wales? (1985)

14. Political communication and the development of a ‘public sphere’ in the eighteenth century

Eighteenth-century Britain inherited from the seventeenth century traditions and habits of public debate in oral and printed forms. However, after the lapse of the Licensing Act in 1695, the press expanded rapidly first in London and then in the provinces. Moreover, the commercialisation of leisure and culture introduced new settings for association and communication. How did the expansion of the press affect the political culture? To what extent did the development of the press contribute to an appetite and demand for information? What kinds of controls did authorities seek to impose on public discussion in oral or printed forms? To what extent did governance become more public and transparent in the eighteenth century? The ‘public sphere’ has been adduced as a way to characterize this domain of oral and written communication. What habits and institutions contributed to the development of the public sphere? What was the changing status of ‘public opinion’ in the eighteenth century? While newspapers and pamphlets conveyed political ideas and attitudes most directly, other forms of representation were channels of political conviction and contestation. How did verse, fiction, historical writing, theatrical performances, contribute to and/or reflect the political narratives and themes explored elsewhere in Paper 5? How were ideas about culture itself (often articulated in terms of ‘politeness’ or ‘civilization’) politicized in the eighteenth century?

See also Topic 25 for ways in which the press and other communicative forms articulated key ideas and convictions.

(a) Notions of ‘the public sphere’

H. Barker & S. Burrows (ed.) Press, politics and the public sphere in Europe and North America 1760- 1820 (2002) [Introduction and Chapter 4] * T. Blanning The culture of power and the power of culture (2002) [Introdn, Chapters 4, 5, 7] T. Claydon ‘The sermon, the “public sphere” and the political culture of late seventeenth- century England’, in L.A Ferrell & P.E. McCullough (ed.), The English sermon revised (2000) B. Cowan ‘Mr Spectator and the Coffeehouse Public Sphere’, Eighteenth-Century Studies (2004) B. Cowan ‘Geoffrey Holmes and the public sphere’, Parl Hist (2009) M. Harris ‘Parliament in the public sphere: a view of serial coverage at the turn of the

36 seventeenth century’, Parl Hist (2007) Peter Lake & Steven Pincus (ed.) The politics of the public sphere in early modern England (2007) [Chapters 1, 9, 11]

(b) The press, literature and politics in the eighteenth century

* H. Barker Newspapers, politics, and public opinion in late eighteenth-century England (1998) H. Barker Newspapers, politics and English society 1695-1855 (2000) J. Black The English press in the eighteenth century (1991) J. Black ‘The press and politics in the eighteenth century’, Media History (2002) G. Boyce, J. Curran & P. Wingate Newspaper history from the seventeenth century to the present day (1978) [Chapters 1, 3, 6, 7] J. E. Bradley Popular politics and the American Revolution in England (1986) J. Brewer Party ideology and popular politics at the accession of George III (1976) J. Cardwell Arts and arms: literature, politics and patriotism during the Seven Years War (2004) J. Caudle ‘Preaching in Parliament: patronage, publicity and politics in Britain, 1701-60’, in L.A Ferrell & P.E. McCullough (ed.), The English sermon revised (2000) G.A. Cranfield The development of the English provincial newspaper, 1700-60 (1962) G.A. Cranfield ‘The London Evening Post 1727-44: a study in the development of the political press’, HJ (1963) J.A. Downie Robert Harley and the press (1979) C. Gerrard The patriot opposition to Walpole: politics, poetry, and national myth, 1725-1742 (1994) B.A. Goldgar Walpole and the wits: the relation of politics to literature 1722-42 (1976) M. Goldie & G. Kemp (ed.) Censorship and the press, 1580-1720: Volume IV, 1696-1720 (2009) J.A.W. Gunn Beyond liberty and property: the process of self-recognition in eighteenth-century political thought (1983) B. Harris A patriot press: national politics and the London press in the 1740s (1993) * B. Harris Politics and the rise of the press: Britain and France 1620-1800 (1996) M. Harris London newspapers in the age of Walpole: a study in the origins of the modern English press (1987) E. Hellmuth ‘The palladium of all other English liberties: reflections on the liberty of the press in England during the 1760s and 1770s’, in E. Hellmuth (ed.), The transformation of political culture: England and Germany in the late eighteenth century (1990) P.B.J. Hyland ‘Liberty and libel: Government and the press during the succession crisis in Britain 1712-16’, EHR (1986) L.E. Klein Shaftesbury and the culture of politeness (1994) M. Knights Representation and misrepresentation in later Stuart Britain: partisanship and political culture (2005) J. Loftis The politics of Augustan drama (1963) G. Newman The rise of English nationalism: a cultural history 1740-1830 (1987) K. Schweizer & J. Black (ed.) Politics and the press in Hanoverian Britain (1989) W.A. Speck Literature and society in eighteenth-century England (1998) S. Targett ‘Government & ideology: Walpole’s newspaper propagandists’, HJ (1994) A. Williams Poetry and the creation of a whig literary culture 1681-1714 (2005) K. Wilson The sense of the people: politics, culture and imperialism in England, 1715-85 (1995)

38 15. The powers of the state

This topic looks at the transformation of the state across the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, although students will not be expected to cover the whole period. One major theme is government finance and the legitimacy of the fiscal system. Unlike France, Prussia or Spain, the eighteenth-century British state managed to raise increasing resources for war without becoming absolutist: how can this be explained? Why did the size and shape of the state become so politically contentious in the late eighteenth century? How did war impact on domestic policies and on state-building? Is the ‘fiscal-military state’ a useful term? What drove the movement for ‘economical reform’? After 1815, some historians have seen the ‘fiscal-military state’ give way gradually to the ‘Gladstonian minimal state’. Is this a reasonable generalization and how disinterested was the mid-nineteenth-century state? Is there an ideological connection between this process and the movement towards free trade? Was this an internal reform driven by a bureaucratic and intellectual elite, or the result of external pressures from financial interest groups? A second theme is the evolution of the relation between central and local government. Was there a drive towards centralization, a redistribution of power to the localities, or a mixture of the two? How were policies of the central state implemented locally? How autonomous were local politics from national politics? A third theme is the power of the state to tackle social problems. The social policies of the 1830s, together with local government reform, the appointment of public commissions, the vogue for statistical inquiry, and the provision for inspection of private businesses, are sometimes regarded as amounting to a ‘revolution in government’. How far did the development of social policy (in areas such as poor law, policing, public health, industrial regulation, and education) constitute a national response to the challenges posed by hectic urbanization, rural over-population, and the ‘Condition of England’ question generally? What role was played in policy formation at central and local level by ideas and ideologies (e.g. utilitarianism, evangelicalism, individualism, collectivism)? After this burst of activity, did assumptions about the power of the state alter again before the end of the period? NB. Paper 10 is also concerned with social policy in this period, though it focuses more on the impact and effects of social policy, whereas Paper 5 is primarily interested in the political pressures that led the state to act, the political ideas that lay behind action and the perceived limits to the role of either central or local authority. See also Topic 7e on economic policy disputes 1834-46.

(a) The post-1688 state

G.E. Aylmer ‘From office-holding to civil service: the genesis of modern bureaucracy’, TRHS (1980) G.E. Aylmer ‘The peculiarities of the English state’, Journal of Historical Sociology (1990) M. Braddick ‘State formation and social change in early modern England’, Soc. Hist. 16 (1991) *J. Brewer The sinews of power: war, money and the English state, 1688-1783 (1989) J. Brewer & E. Hellmuth (ed.) Rethinking Leviathan: the eighteenth-century state in Britain and Germany (1999)

39 J.C.D. Clark Revolution and rebellion: state and society in England in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (1986) P.G.M. Dickson The financial revolution in England: a study of the development of public credit 1688-1756 (1967) T. Ertman ‘The Sinews of Power and European state-building theory’, in L. Stone (ed.), An imperial state at war (1994) T. Ertman ‘Explaining variation in early modern state structure: the cases of England and the German territorial states’, in J. Brewer and E. Hellmuth (ed.), Rethinking Leviathan: : the eighteenth-century state in Britain and Germany (1999) *G. Holmes Augustan England: professions, state, and society, 1680-1730 (1982), pt 3 J. Hoppit ‘Reformed and unreformed Britain, 1689-1801’, in W. Doyle (ed.), The Oxford history of the ancien regime (2011) Julian Hoppit Britain's Political Economies. Parliament and Economic Life, 1660-1800 (2017) J. Innes ‘Legislation and public participation, 1760-1830’, David Lemmings (ed.), The British and their laws in the eighteenth century (2005). J. Innes Chapter 13, in Elaine Chalus and Perry Gauci (eds.), Revisiting the Polite and Commercial People (2019) D.W. Jones War and economy in the age of William III and Marlborough (1988) D. W. Jones ‘Defending the Revolution: the economics, politics, and finance of England’s war effort, 1688-1712’, in D. Hoak and M. Feingold, eds., The world of William and Mary (1996) P. Jupp Governing of Britain 1688-1848: the executive, parliament, people (2006) D. Lemmings Law and Government in England during the Long Eighteenth Century: From Consent to Command (2011) P.K. O’Brien ‘The political economy of British taxation, 1660-1815’, EcHR (1988) L. Stone (ed.) An imperial state at war: Britain from 1689 to 1815 (1994)

(b) Local governance in the eighteenth century

D.T. Andrew ‘Aldermen and the big bourgeoisie of London reconsidered’, Soc Hist (1981) D. Eastwood Governing rural England: tradition and transformation in local government, 1780-1840 (1994) *D. Eastwood Government and community in the English provinces, 1700-1870 (1997) L. Glassey Politics and the appointment of justices of the peace, 1675-1720 (1979 L. Glassey ‘Local government’, in C. Jones (ed.), Britain in the first age of party, 1680-1750 (1987) M. Goldie ‘The unacknowledged republic: officeholding in early modern England’, in T. Harris, ed., The Politics of the excluded, 1500-1850 (2001). P. Griffiths, A. Fox, S. Hindle (ed.) The experience of authority in early modern England (1996) P. Halliday Dismembering the body politic: partisan politics in England’s towns 1650-1730 (1998) T. Harris (ed.) The politics of the excluded, c.1500-1850 (2001) T. Hayter The army and the crowd in mid-Georgian England (1978) *J. Innes ‘The local acts of a national Parliament: Parliament’s role in sanctioning local action in eighteenth-century Britain’, Parl Hist (1998) J.R. Kent ‘The centre and the localities: state formation and parish government in England, c.1640-1740’, HJ (1995)

40 N. Landau The justices of the peace, 1679-1760 (1984) P. Langford Public life and the propertied Englishman 1689-1798 (1991) J.M. Rosenheim The emergence of a ruling order: English landed society, 1650-1750 (1998), ch. 5 K. Wrightson ‘Two concepts of order: justices, constables and jurymen in seventeenth- century England’, in J. Brewer and J. Styles, eds., An ungovernable people? (1980)

D. Andrew Philanthropy and police: London charity in the eighteenth century (1989) J.M. Beattie Crime and the courts 1660-1800 (1986) V.A.C. Gatrell The hanging tree: execution and the English people, 1770-1868 (1994) D. Green Pauper capital: London and the poor law 1790-1870 (2010) D. Hay ‘Property, authority and the criminal law’ in D. Hay et al eds, Albion’s fatal tree: crime and society in eighteenth-century England (1975) [cf. Langbein P&P (1983)] B. Hilton The age of atonement: the influence of evangelicalism on social and economic thought ca. 1785-1865 (1988) M. Ignatieff A just measure of pain: the penitentiary in the Industrial Revolution (1978) * J. Innes ‘Parliament and the shaping of eighteenth-century English social policy,’ TRHS (1990), or reprinted in Inferior politics: social problems and social policies in eighteenth-century Britain (2009) J. Innes ‘The distinctiveness of the English poor laws, 1750-1850’, in D. Winch and P. K. O’Brien, The political economy of British historical experience, 1688-1914 (2002), pp. 381-407. J.R. Poynter Society and pauperism: English ideas on poor relief 1795-1834 (1969) P. Slack The English poor law 1531-1782 (1991)

(d) The domestic impact of war, 1688-1815

G. Atkins ‘Christian heroes, providence and patriotism in wartime Britain, 1793- 1815’, HJ (2015) J. Brewer The sinews of power: war, money and the English state, 1688-1783 (1989) L. Colley Britons: forging the nation 1707-1837 (1992), ch. 7 *S. Conway War, state and society in mid-eighteenth-century Britain and Ireland (2006) S. Conway The British Isles and the war of American independence (2000) J.E. Cookson The British armed nation, 1793-1815 (1987) J.E. Cookson The friends of peace: anti-war liberalism in England 1793-1815 (1982) J.E. Cookson ‘The English volunteer movement of the French wars’, HJ (1989) C. Emsley British society and the French wars, 1793-1815 (1979) A. Gee The British volunteer movement 1794-1814 (2003) J. Innes ‘The domestic face of the military-fiscal state’ in her Inferior politics: social problems and social policies in eighteenth-century Britain (2009) T. Jenks Naval engagements: patriotism, cultural politics, and the Royal Navy, 1793– 1815 (2006) R. Morieux ‘French prisoners of war, conflicts of honour and social inversions in England, 1744-1783’, HJ (2013) R. Morieux The Society of Prisoners: Anglo-French Wars and Incarceration (2019)

41 M. Philp Resisting Napoleon: the British response to the threat of invasion, 1797– 1815 (2006) J. Robertson The Scottish Enlightenment and the militia issue (1985) N. Rogers Mayhem: post-war crime and violence in Britain, 1748-53 (2013) L. Stone, ed. An imperial state at war: Britain from 1689 to 1815 (1993) J.R. Western The English militia in the eighteenth century: the story of a political issue, 1660-1802 (1965)

(e) Administrative and economical reform 1780-1870

T.C.W. Blanning & P. Wende (ed.) Reform in Britain and Germany 1750-1850 (1999) R.A. Chapman & J.R. Greenaway The dynamics of administrative reform (1980) S.G. Checkland British public policy 1776-1939 (1983) J.E. Crowley ‘Neo-mercantilism and The Wealth of Nations: British Commercial Policy after the American Revolution”, HJ (1990) R. Davis ‘The rise of protection in England, 1689-1786’, EcHR 19 (1966) D. Eastwood ‘“Amplifying the province of the legislature”: the flow of information and the English state in the early nineteenth century’, HR (1989) M. Daunton Trusting leviathan: the politics of taxation in Britain 1799-1914 (2001) *P. Harling & P. Mandler ‘From “fiscal-military” to laissez-faire state, 1760-1850’, JBS (1993) P. Harling ‘Rethinking “old corruption”’, P&P (1995) P. Harling The waning of “old corruption”: the politics of economical reform 1779- 1846 (1996) *P. Harling ‘Parliament, the state, and “old corruption”: conceptualizing reform, c. 1790-1832’ in A. Burns & J. Innes (ed.), Rethinking the age of reform: Britain 1780-1850 (2003) *J. Innes ‘Forms of government growth, 1780-1830’, in D. Feldman & J. Lawrence (ed.), Structures and transformations in modern British history (2011) H. Parris Constitutional bureaucracy: the development of British central administration since the eighteenth century (1969) *J. Parry ‘The decline of institutional reform in nineteenth-century Britain’, in D. Feldman & J. Lawrence (eds.), Structures and transformations in modern British history (2011) W.D. Rubinstein ‘The end of “old corruption” in Britain 1780-1860’, P&P (1983) J. Thompson ‘Good government’, in Languages of politics in nineteenth-century Britain, ed. D. Craig & J. Thompson (2013)

(f) The free trade debate

W.J. Ashworth Customs and excise: trade, production, consumption 1640-1845 (2003) L. Brown The Board of Trade and the free trade movement 1830-42 (1958) A. Gambles Protection and politics: conservative economic discourse 1815-1852 (1999) A. Gambles ‘Free trade and state formation: the political economy of fisheries policy in Britain and the United Kingdom ca. 1780-1850’, JBS (2000) P. Gurney Wanting and having: popular politics and liberal consumerism in England, 1830-70 (2014) B. Hilton Corn, cash, commerce: the economic policies of the Tory governments 1815-30 (1977) * A. Howe Free trade and liberal England 1846-1946 (1997) A. Howe ‘Popular political economy’, in Languages of politics in nineteenth-century

42 Britain, ed. D. Craig & J. Thompson (2013) A. Howe ‘Free trade and its enemies’ in M. Hewitt, ed. The Victorian world (2012) B. Semmel The rise of free trade imperialism: classical political economy, the empire of free trade, and imperialism 1750-1850 (1970) R.F. Teichgraeber III ‘“Less abused than I had reasons to expect”: the reception of the Wealth of Nations in Britain, 1776-90’, HJ (1987) D. Winch Riches and poverty: an intellectual history of political economy in Britain, 1750-1834 (1996) D. Winch ‘The Burke-Smith problem and late eighteenth-century political and economic thought’, HJ (1985) D. Winch ‘Science and the legislator: Adam Smith and after’, Economic Journal (1983).

(g) Local government and urban politics in the nineteenth century

D. Fraser Urban politics in Victorian England: politics in Victorian cities (1976) J. Garrard Leadership and power in Victorian industrial cities 1830-80 (1983) S. Gunn The public culture of the Victorian middle class: ritual and authority in the English industrial city 1840-1914 (2000) * E.P. Hennock ‘Central-local government relations in England: an outline, 1800-1950’, Urban History Yearbook (1982) E.P. Hennock Fit and proper persons: 19th-century urban government (1973) M. Hewitt The emergence of stability in the industrial city: Manchester 1832-67 (1996) T. Hunt Building Jerusalem: the rise and fall of the Victorian City (2004) A.J. Kidd ‘The middle class in nineteenth-century Manchester’ in A.K. Kidd & K.W. Roberts (ed.), City, class and culture (1985) R.J. Morris (ed) Class, power and social structure in nineteenth-century towns (1981) R.J. Morris ‘Voluntary societies and British urban elites, 1780-1850’, HJ (1983) W.D. Rubinstein ‘Wealth, elites and the class structure’, P&P (1977)

(h) Social policies in the nineteenth century

P. Bartrip ‘British government inspection 1832-75’, HJ (1982) P. Bartrip ‘State intervention: fact or fiction?’, JBS (1983) D. Beales ‘Peel, Russell and reform’, HJ (1974) A. Brundage The making of the new poor law 1832-39 (1978) A. Brundage England’s ‘Prussian minister’: Edwin Chadwick and the politics of government growth, 1832-1854 (1988) M.A. Crowther The workhouse system 1834-1929: an English social institution (1981) P. Dunkley ‘The whigs and the poor law 1830-4’, JBS (1980-1) C. Emsley Policing and its context 1750-1870 (1983) E.J. Evans (ed) Social policy 1830-1914: individualism, collectivism and the origins of the welfare state (1978) [documents] D. Fraser (ed) The new poor law in the nineteenth century (1976) D. Fraser The evolution of the welfare state (1984 edn) V.A.C. Gatrell The hanging tree: execution and the English people, 1770-1868 (1994) L. Goldman Science, reform, and politics: the Social Science Association 1857-86 (2002) R. Gray The factory question and industrial England 1830-1860 (1996) J.R. Greenaway Drink and British politics since 1830: a study in policy-making (2003)

43 P. Harling The modern British state (2001) * U. Henriques Before the welfare state: social administration in industrial Britain (1979) B. Hilton The age of atonement: the influence of evangelicalism on social and economic thought ca. 1785-1865 (1988) [Chapters 3 and 4] M. Ignatieff A just measure of pain: the penitentiary in the Industrial Revolution (1978) P. Johnson ‘Class law in Victorian England’, P&P (1993) R. Johnson ‘Educational policy and social control’, P&P (1970) G. Stedman Jones Outcast London (1972) P. Jupp Governing of Britain 1688-1848: the executive, parliament, people (2006) B. Keith-Lucas British local government in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (1977) R.J. Lambert Sir John Simon 1816-1904 and English social administration (1963) O. Macdonagh Early Victorian government (1977) O. Macdonagh ‘The nineteenth-century revolution in government’, HJ (1958) [and see critique by J. Hart, P&P (1965)] P. Mandler ‘The making of the new poor law redivivus’, P&P (1987) [and debate with A. Brundage and D. Eastwood in P&P (1990)] J. Murphy Church, state and schools in Britain 1800-1970 (1971) D.G. Paz The politics of working-class education in Britain 1830-50 (1980) M. Poovey Making a social body: British cultural formation 1830-1914 (1995) M.E. Rose The relief of poverty 1834-1914 (1986) M.E. Rose ‘The crisis of poor relief in England, 1860-1880’ in W.J. Mommsen (ed), The emergence of the welfare state in Britain and Germany (1981) S. Shave Pauper policies: poor law practice in England, 1780-1850 (2017) F.B. Smith The people’s health 1830-1910 (1979) G. Sutherland (ed) Studies in the growth of nineteenth-century government (1972) J.R. Walkowitz Prostitution and Victorian society: women, class and the state (1981) * M. Wiener Reconstructing the criminal: culture, law and policy in England 1830-1914 (1990)

16. Extra-parliamentary politics and political debate in the long eighteenth century

Popular politics was sometimes oppositional and sometimes not; popular protest was sometimes political but not always. How did riots evolve in their goals and organisation between the Sacheverell affair in 1709-10 and the Gordon riots of 1780? How did ‘the moral economy’ regulate public disorder in food riots and other kinds of riot? How did local elites respond to varying kinds of public disorder? How did the penal code function socially and politically? To what extent did industrial and agrarian disputes represent a form of incipient ‘class’ violence? How do we explain the link between artisan politics and ‘urban Toryism’ ca.1730-1760? What was the changing role of religion (defensive Anglicanism, Methodism, Dissent) in relation to protest? How did popular politics and protest evolve from Wilkes through Wyvill to the agitations of the 1790s and early 1800s? How did the ambitions of ‘radicals’ and ‘reformers’ evolve over this period? Was there a coherent ideological platform of radicalism? Can an intellectual continuity be identified between the early eighteenth- century Country ideology and late eighteenth-century radicalism? Did the 1790s break with an English tradition of radicalism to import French revolutionary principles, or did different strands of radicalism coexist during this period? How do we explain the importance of particular groups, such as dissenters, in the dissemination of radicalism? What did the battle of ideas between loyalists and radicals, during the

44 1790s, hinge on?

Those studying a period such as 1770-1850 should take reading from Topic 18 on Chartism as well as this list.

See also Topic 12 on parliamentary reform, Topic 19 on women and popular politics, and Topic 25 on languages of politics.

(a) The crowd in the eighteenth century

B. Bushaway By rite: custom, ceremony and community in England 1700-1880 (1982) H.T. Dickinson Politics of the people in eighteenth-century Britain (1994) I. Gilmour Riots, risings & revolution: governance & violence in 18th-c England (1992) E.F. Genovese ‘The many faces of moral economy’, P&P (1973) D. Hay et al (ed) Albion’s fatal tree (1975) [essay by Hay; cf Langbein P&P (1983)] P. King ‘Edward Thompson’s contribution to eighteenth-century studies: the patrician- plebeian model re-examined’, Soc Hist (1996) * N. Rogers Crowds, culture, and politics in Georgian Britain (1998) G. Rudé ‘The London “mob” in the eighteenth century’, HJ (1959) R.B. Shoemaker The London mob: violence and disorder in eighteenth-century England (2004) * J. Stevenson Popular disturbances in England, 1700-1870 (1979; 2nd edition, 1992) E.P. Thompson ‘The moral economy of the English crowd in the 18th century’, P&P (1971) E.P. Thompson ‘Patrician society, plebeian culture’, J Soc Hist (1974) E.P. Thompson ‘Eighteenth-century English society: class struggle without class’, Soc Hist (1978) E.P. Thompson Customs in common (1991) C. Tilly Popular contention in Great Britain 1758-1834 (1995) J. Walter Crowds and popular politics in early modern England (2006)

(b) Extra-parliamentary politics before Wilkes

L. Colley ‘Eighteenth-century radicalism before Wilkes’, TRHS (1981) J.L. Fitts ‘Newcastle’s mob’, Albion (1973) G. Holmes The trial of Dr Sacheverell (1973) G. Holmes ‘The Sacheverell riots: the Church and the crowd in early eighteenth-century London’, in G. Holmes, Politics, religion and society in England 1679-1742 (1986) A. McInnes ‘The Revolution and the People’, in G. Holmes, Britain after the Glorious Revolution 1689-1714 (1969) [chap. 3] N. Rogers Whigs and cities: popular politics in the age of Walpole & Pitt (1989). R.B. Shoemaker ‘The London “mob” in the early eighteenth century’, JBS (1987) K. Wilson ‘Empire, trade and popular politics in mid-Hanoverian Britain: the case of Admiral Vernon’, P&P (1988) K. Wilson ‘Inventing revolution: 1688 and eighteenth-century popular politics’, JBS (1989)

*K. Wilson The sense of the people: politics, culture and imperialism in England, 1715-85 (1995)

45 (c) From Wilkes to 1789

E.C. Black The association: extra-parliamentary political organisation 1769-93 (1963) * J. Brewer Party ideology and popular politics at the accession of George III (1976) J. Brewer ‘The Number 45: a Wilkesite political symbol’, in S.B. Baxter (ed.), England’s rise to greatness, 1660-1763 (1983) J. Brewer ‘Theatre and counter-theatre in Georgian politics’, History Today (1983) J. Brewer ‘Commercialisation and politics’, in N. McKendrick et al., The birth of a consumer society (1982) J. Brewer ‘The Wilkites and the law’, in J. Brewer & J. Styles (ed.), An ungovernable people (1980) V. Cromwell ‘Presbyterian moral economy: the covenanting tradition of popular protest in Scotland 1780-1815’, SHR (2010) C. Haydon ‘The Gordon riots in the English provinces’, HR (1990) I. Haywood & J. Seed (ed.) The Gordon riots: politics, culture and insurrection in late eighteenth- century Britain (2012) K. J. Logue Popular disturbances in Scotland 1780-1820 (1979) J. Money ‘Taverns, coffee houses and clubs’, HJ (1971) J. Money Experience & identity: Birmingham & the west midlands 1760-1800 (1977) J. Money ‘The masonic moment; or, ritual, replica, and credit: John Wilkes, the macaroni parson, and the making of the middle-class mind’, JBS (1993) Steve Poole The politics of regicide in England 1760-1850 (2000) N. Rogers ‘Crowd and people in the Gordon riots’, in E. Hellmuth (ed), The transformation of political culture (1990) E. Royle & J. Walvin English radicals and reformers 1760-1848 (1982) G. Rudé Wilkes and liberty: a social study of 1768 to 1774 (1962) W.J. Shelton English hunger and public disorder: social conflict in the 1760s (1973) P.D.G. Thomas John Wilkes: a friend to liberty (1996) C. Tilly Popular contention in Great Britain 1758-1834 (1995) W. Weber ‘The 1784 Handel commemoration as political ritual’, JBS (1989) D.E. Williams ‘Morals, markets and the English crowd in 1766’, P&P (1984) *K. Wilson The sense of the people: politics, culture and imperialism in England, 1715-85 (1995)

(d) Extra-parliamentary politics in the Revolutionary era

J. Barrell The spirit of despotism: invasions of privacy in the 1790s (2006) J. Bohstedt Riots and community politics in England & Wales 1790-1810 (1983) J. Bohstedt ‘Gender, household and community politics: women in English riots 1790- 1810’, P&P (1988) L. Colley ‘The apotheosis of George III: loyalty, royalty and the British nation 1760- 1820’, P&P (1984) J.E. Cookson ‘The English volunteer movement of the French wars’, HJ (1989) * H.T. Dickinson Britain and the French revolution 1789-1815 (1989) R. Dozier For king, constitution, and country: the English loyalists and the French revolution (1983) M. Elliott Partners in revolution: the United Irishmen and France (1982) C. Emsley British society and the French wars, 1793-1815 (1979) C. Emsley ‘The military and popular disorder in England, 1790-1801’, Journal for the Society for Army Historical Research (1983)

46 J.A. Epstein Radical expression: political language, ritual, and symbol in England, 1790- 1850 (1994) J. Fulcher ‘The loyalist response to the Queen Caroline agitation’, JBS 1995 A. Gee The British volunteer movement 1794-1814 (2003) D.E. Ginter ‘The Loyalist Association movement of 1792-3’, HJ (1966) J. Graham The Nation, the Law and the King, Reform Politics in England, 1789-1799 (2000). M. Harrison Crowds and history: mass phenomena in English towns, 1790-1835 (1988) Ian McCalman ‘New Jerusalems: Prophecy, Dissent and Radical Culture in England, 1786- 1830’, in Knud Haakonssen ed., Enlightenment and Religion (2006) R. Mc William Popular Politics in nineteenth century England. (1998), special. chap. 5. A. Mitchell ‘The Association movement of 1792-9’, HJ (1961) K. Navickas Loyalism and radicalism in Lancashire 1798-1815 (2009) K. Navickas ‘“That sash will hang you”: political clothing and adornment in England, 1780- 1840,‘ JBS (2010) K. Navickas Protest and the Politics of Space and Place, 1789-1848 (2015) F. O’Gorman ‘The Paine burnings of 1792-1793’, P&P (2006) J.R. Oldfield Popular politics and British anti-slavery: the mobilisation of public opinion against the slave trade, 1787-1807 (1995) S.H. Palmer Police and protest in England and Ireland, 1780-1850 (1988) * M. Philp (ed) The French revolution and British popular politics (1991) I. Prothero Artisans and politics in early nineteenth-century London: John Gast and his times (1979) R. Reid The Peterloo massacre (1989) E. Royle Revolutionary Britannia? Reflections on the threat of revolution in Britain, 1789-1848 (2000) M.I. Thomis The Luddites: machine-breaking in regency England (1970) E.P. Thompson The making of the English working class (1963; revised edn 1968 with replies to his critics) C. Tilly Popular contention in Great Britain 1758-1834 (1995) J. Walvin ‘The rise of British popular sentiment for abolition, 1787-1832’, in C. Bolt and S. Drescher (ed.), Anti-slavery, religion, and reform: essays in memory of Roger Anstey (1980) R. Wells Insurrection: the British experience 1795-1803 (1983) R. Wells Wretched faces: famine in wartime England 1763-1803 (1988) D. Worrall Radical culture: discourse, resistance and surveillance, 1790-1820 (1992)

(e) The war of political ideas in the Revolutionary era

J. Belchem ‘Republicanism, popular constitutionalism and the radical platform in early nineteenth-century England’, Soc Hist (1981) J. Belchem ‘Orator Hunt’: Henry Hunt and English working-class radicalism (1985) J. Belchem and J. Epstein ‘The 19th-century gentleman leader revisited’, Soc Hist (1997) J. Brewer Party ideology and popular politics at the accession of George III (1976) M. Chase ‘From millennium to anniversary: the concept of jubilee in late eighteenth- and nineteenth-century England’, P&P (1990) * G. Claeys ‘The French revolution debate and British political thought’, HPT (1990) G. Claeys The politics of English Jacobinism (1995) G. Claeys Thomas Paine: Social and Political Thought (1989). H.T. Dickinson British radicalism and the French revolution (1985)

47 J.R.Dinwiddy Radicalism and reform in Britain, 1780-1850 (1992) J.R. Dinwiddy ‘Sir Francis Burdett and Burdettite radicalism’, History (1980) J. R. Dinwiddy ‘English radicals and the French revolution, 1800-1850’, in J.R. Dinwiddy Radicalism and reform in Britain, 1780-1850 (1992) F.K. Donnelly and J.L. Baxter ‘Sheffield and the English revolutionary Tradition, 1791-1820’, International Review of Social History (1975) A. Goodwin The friends of liberty: the English democratic movement in the age of the French revolution (1979) E. Hellmuth (ed.) The transformation of political culture (1990) [essays by Dickinson, Dinwiddy, Fitzpatrick] R.J. Hole Pulpits, politics and public order in England: 1760-1832 (1989) J.A. Hone For the cause of truth: radicalism in London 1796-1821 (1982) J. Keane Tom Paine: A Political Life (1995). N.C. Miller ‘John Cartwright and radical parliamentary reform, 1808-1819’, EHR (1968) D. Miles Francis Place 1771-1854: the life of a remarkable radical (1988)cf G. Newman ‘Anti-French propaganda and British liberal nationalism’, Vict Studs (1975) L. Nattrass William Cobbett: The Politics of Style (1995). T. Parssinnen ‘Association, convention and anti-parliament in British radical politics, 1771- 1848’, EHR (1973) M. Philp ‘Vulgar conservatism, 1792-3’, EHR (1995) M. Philp Reforming ideas in Britain: politics and language in the shadow of the French revolution, 1789-1815 (2013) E. Royle & J. Walvin English radicals and reformers 1760-1848 (1982) M.A. Rutz ‘The politicizing of evangelical dissent’, Parl Hist (2001) T.P. Schofield ‘Conservative political thought in Britain in response to the French revolution’, HJ (1986) S. Semmel ‘British radicals and ‘legitimacy’: Napoleon in the mirror of history’, P&P (2000). O. Smith The politics of language, 1791-1819 (1984) W. Stafford Socialism, radicalism, and nostalgia: social criticism in Britain, 1775-1830 (1987). D.A. Wilson Paine and Cobbett: The transatlantic connection (1988).

17. Chartism, class and the radical tradition, mainly after 1815

This topic focuses on Chartism but, like much recent historiography, seeks to set it within broader historical processes since the French revolution. Popular radical activity had entered a new and apparently more dangerous phase after 1792, especially as many English Jacobins had underground links with Continental and Irish revolutionaries. Historians have long debated the questions as to how close Britain came to revolution in the first half of the nineteenth century, how far a consciousness of being ‘working class’ superseded the older plebeian culture, and whether activities based on the work place (such as trade unionism) displaced protests arising out of attachment to the traditional ‘moral economy’ (e.g. food riots). Actual outbreaks of violence were few and mainly confined to periods of acute depression and hunger (e.g. 1794-6, 1799-1801, 1816-20, 1830-3, 1837-43, 1847-8). What looked like an impending climacteric—the battle of Peterloo and Caroline riots of 1819-20—turned out to be the prelude to several years of relative radical passivity. However a period of more continuous agitation set in from 1830 and included rural and industrial unrest,

48 pressure exerted by the Political Unions during the ‘reform’ crisis, the Anti- Poor Law movement, the war of the unstamped press, millenarian movements such as Owenism and Utopianism, and then from 1837 onwards Chartism. The latter was a protean movement which is notoriously difficult to define. You will need to consider its occupational and geographical basis; its leadership, language, and visual culture; its day-to-day role in helping the lower orders of society to participate in local politics as well as in cultural and sociable activities. A number of questions remain highly controversial. For example, what was the link between the pre-Reform radical tradition and Chartism? What impact did the 1832 Reform Act have on it? Why did a movement whose basic inspiration stemmed from social and economic hardship concentrate so exclusively on achieving political reforms, notably an extension of the franchise? How significant was the distinction between ‘moral force’ and ‘physical force’? Was Chartism simply a backward-looking movement whose aim was to protect declining sections of the community? Was the apparent failure of Chartism due mainly to government repression or to government concession? What was the Chartists’ legacy for later radical movements? How far did a radical tradition link Chartism with later forms of popular liberalism?

Though this is presented as a separate topic for the sake of clarity, the general rule applying to thematic topics applies here, that a good chronological coverage is required. Exam questions on Chartism will frequently require some knowledge of popular political debate before 1815. Therefore it is essential also to read some of the works in Topic 17d and 17e on popular politics and ideas in the Revolutionary era. See also topic 12 on the Reform crisis of 1829-32.

(a) General

J. Belchem ‘Manchester, Peterloo and the radical challenge’, Manchester Region History Review (1989) J.R. Dinwiddy Radicalism and reform in Britain, 1780-1850 (1992) J. Fulcher ‘The loyalist response to the Queen Caroline agitation’, JBS 1995 E. Griffin ‘The making of the Chartists: popular politics and working-class autobiography in early Victorian Britain’ EHR (2014) J.F.C. Harrison Robert Owen and the Owenites: the quest for a new moral world (1969) E. Hellmuth (ed) The transformation of political culture (1990) [essays by Dickinson, Dinwiddy, Fitzpatrick] N.D. LoPatin Political unions, popular politics and the great Reform Act of 1832 (1999) K. Navikas Protest and the politics of space and place, 1789-1848 (2015) T. Parssinnen ‘Association, convention and anti-parliament in British radical politics, 1771- 1848’, EHR (1973) R. Poole ‘French Revolution or Peasants’ Revolt: petitioners and rebels in England from the Blanketeers to the Chartists’, LHR (2009) E. Royle Revolutionary Britannia? Reflections on the threat of revolution in Britain, 1789- 1848 (2000) E. Royle & J. Walvin English radicals and reformers 1760-1848 (1982) M. Roberts Political movements in urban England (2009) J. Stevenson Popular disturbances in England, 1700-1870 (1979; 2nd edition, 1992) C. Tilly Popular contention in Great Britain 1758-1834 (1995)

(b) Chartism

G.M. Young & W.D. Handcock (ed.) The People’s Charter (1842), English historical documents, Vol. 12, Part 1, pp. 442-51 O. Ashton, R. Fyson, & S. Roberts (ed.) The chartist legacy (1999) A. Briggs (ed) Chartist studies (1959) [Chapters 1 and 9] J. Belchem ‘Beyond chartist studies: class, community and party’ in D. Fraser (ed), Cities, class and communication (1990) J. Belchem ‘Radical language, meaning and identity in the age of the Chartists’, Journal of Victorian Culture (2005) * M. Chase Chartism: a new history (2007) M. Chase The Chartists: perspectives and legacies (2016) A. Clark ‘The rhetoric of chartist domesticity: gender, language and class in the 1830s and 1840s’, JBS (1992) N.C. Edsall The anti-poor law movement 1834-44 (1971) * J. Epstein The lion of freedom: O’Connor and the chartist movement 1832-42 (1982) J. Epstein & D. Thompson (ed.) The chartist experience: studies in working-class radicalism and culture, 1830-60 (1982) J. Gibson ‘Natural right and the intellectual context of early Chartist thought’, HWJ (2017) J. Gibson ‘The Chartists and the constitution: revisiting British popular constitutionalism’, JBS (2017) D. Goodway London Chartism 1838-1848 (1982) P. Gurney ‘The democratic idiom: languages of democracy in the Chartist movement’, JMH (2014) R. Hall ‘The politics of everyday life and Chartism, 1832-1840’ LHR (2009) B. Harrison & P. Hollis ‘Chartism, liberalism and the life of Robert Lowery’, EHR (1967) D. Jones Chartism and the chartists (1975) F.C. Mather Public order in the age of the chartists (1959) A. Messner ‘Land, leadership, culture, and emigration: some problems in chartist historiography’, HJ (1999) M. Philp, J. Innes & ‘The rise of democratic discourse in the reform era: Britain in the 1830s and Robert Saunders 1840s’, in Mark Philp and Joanna Innes, eds., Re-imagining democracy in the age of revolutions (2013) P. Pickering Chartism and the chartists in Manchester and Salford (1995) P. Pickering ‘Class without words: symbolic communication in Chartism’, P&P (1986) P. Pickering ‘And your petitioners &c: Chartist petitioning in popular politics 1838-4’, EHR (2001) I. Prothero ‘William Benbow and the concept of the “general strike”’ P&P (1974) E. Royle Chartism (3rd edition, 1996) T. Scriven Popular virtue: continuity and change in radical moral politics, 1820-70 (2017) *R. Saunders ‘Chartism from above: British elites and the interpretation of Chartism’ History (2008) J. Saville 1848: the British state and the chartist movement (1987) D. Stack ‘William Lovett and the National Association for the Political and Social Improvement of the People’, HJ (1999) * G. Stedman Jones ‘Rethinking Chartism’ in Stedman Jones, Languages of class (1983) [also in J. Epstein & D. Thompson (ed.), The chartist experience, (1972)] Robert Sykes ‘Physical force Chartism: the cotton district and the Chartist crisis of 1839’, IRSH (1985)

50 * M. Taylor ‘Rethinking the chartists: searching for synthesis’, HJ (1996) M. Taylor ‘The Six Points, Chartism and the reform of parliament’ in O. Ashton, R. Fyson, & S. Roberts (ed.) The Chartist legacy (1999). M. Taylor Ernest Jones, Chartism, and the romance of politics (2003) D. Thompson The chartists (1984) [Chapters 1, 5, 6, 10, 13] E. Yeo ‘Christianity in Chartist struggle: 1838–1842’, P&P (1981)

J. Foster Class struggle in the industrial revolution: early industrial capitalism in three English towns (1974) [reviewed by Musson, Soc Hist (1976)] D. Gadian ‘Radicalism and liberalism in Oldham: a study of conflict, continuity and change in popular politics, 1830-52’, Soc Hist (1996) P. Joyce Visions of the people (1991) N. Kirk ‘In defence of class: a critique of recent revisionist writing upon the nineteenth- century English working class’, IRHS (1987) K. Navickas ‘What happened to class? New histories of labour and collective action in Britain’, Soc Hist (2011) E.P. Thompson The making of the English working class (1963, revised edn 1968 with replies to his critics) M. Winstanley ‘Oldham radicalism: the origins of popular Liberalism 1832-52’, HJ (1993) D.G. Wright Popular radicalism: the working-class experience 1780-1880 (1988)

(d) Radicalism after 1848

O. Anderson A liberal state at war (1967), ch. 3. D.W. Bebbington The nonconformist conscience: chapel and politics 1870-1914 (1982) E. Biagini Liberty, retrenchment and reform: popular liberalism 1860-80 (1992) E. Biagini & A. Reid (ed.) Currents of radicalism: popular radicalism, organised labour and party politics in Britain 1850-1914 (1991) L. Blaxill ‘Joseph Chamberlain and the Third Reform Act: a reassessment of the “Unauthorized Programme” of 1885’, JBS (2015). J. Davis ‘Radical clubs and London politics, 1870-1900’ in D. Feldman & G. Stedman Jones (ed), Metropolis –London: histories and representations since 1800 (1989). M. Finn After Chartism: class and nation in radical politics 1848-1874 (1993) D.A. Hamer The politics of electoral pressure: Victorian reform agitations (1977) P. Hollis (ed) Pressure from without in early Victorian England (1974). A. Howe Free trade and liberal England 1846-1946 (1997) A. Howe ‘Popular political economy’, in Languages of politics in nineteenth-century Britain, ed. D. Craig & J. Thompson (2013) T. Larsen Friends of religious equality: nonconformist politics (1999) R. McWilliam Popular politics in nineteenth-century England (1998) R. McWilliam The Tichborne claimant: a Victorian sensation (2007) J. Owen Labour and the caucus: working-class radicalism and organised liberalism in England, 1868-88 (2014) J. Parry ‘The decline of institutional reform in nineteenth-century Britain’, in D. Feldman & J. Lawrence (eds.), Structures and transformations in modern British history (2011) A. J. Reid ‘Politics and economics in the formation of the British working class’, Social History 3 (1978), pp. 347-61.

51 G.R. Searle Entrepreneurial politics in mid-Victorian Britain (1992) A. Taylor ‘Palmerston and Radicalism, 1847-1865’, JBS (1994) M. Taylor The decline of British radicalism 1847-1860 (1995)

18. Gender and politics

Though Westminster politics seemed essentially an arena of male activity, women were participants in the political culture in noticeable ways. What were the respective roles of men and women at different social levels? Did these significantly change in the course of the eighteenth century? What credit, if any, should we assign to the notion of ‘a gendered separation of public and private spheres’? Aside from the actual political activities of men and women, gender identities were harnessed within political discourse through a vocabulary of virtue (etymologically descended from the Latin word for ‘man’): manliness, effeminacy, domesticity, and so forth. How did concepts, such as masculinity, femininity, and effeminacy, function in political discourse? How did the gendering of political discourse shape notions of national and political identity, citizenship, and political rights? Did the convention of ‘separate spheres’ strengthen in the first half of the nineteenth century, as part of the political backlash against the French Revolution? Or could it be said that evangelicalism gave them a major role as shapers of morality in public as well as private spheres? How far and why did women emerge as significant figures in local pressure group politics in the 1825-50 period (e.g. anti-slavery, pacifism, the Anti-Corn Law League)? And why, as the century wore on, was the exclusion of women from formal political mechanisms directly challenged by a series of organised campaigns, which succeeded in transforming the social, legal, and political status of women? These campaigns not only led to greater direct involvement by women in politics, but also drew attention to the ways in which the political system was underpinned by, and privileged, particular sets of ideas about masculinity and femininity. How did ideas about masculinity shape debates about citizenship? What arguments were used to justify and to challenge women’s exclusion from the public sphere? What difference did the growth of party and the growth of the state make to women’s participation in politics? Why did women find it easier to involve themselves in certain aspects of political life than others? To what extent did the social composition and organisational structure of ‘feminist’ campaigns resemble other popular political movements?

(a) Women and politics: mainly eighteenth century

D. Andrew ‘Popular culture and public debate: London 1780’, HJ (1996) H. Barker & E. Chalus (ed.) Gender in 18th-century: roles, representation, responsibilities (1997) * H. Barker & E. Chalus (ed.) Women’s History: Britain, 1700-1850. An introduction (2005) J. Bohstedt ‘Gender, household and community politics: women in English riots 1790-1810’, P&P (1988) A. Campbell Women and enlightenment in eighteenth-century Britain (2009) E. Chalus Elite women in English political life c.1754-1790 (2005) E. Chalus ‘Invited in the political way: women, social politics and political society in 18th century England’ HJ (2000) E. Chalus Chapter 12 in Elaine Chalus and Perry Gauci (eds.), Revisiting the Polite

52 and Commercial People (2019) L. Colley Britons: forging the nation 1707-1837 (1992) [ch 6] K. Gleadle and S. Richardson (ed.) Women in British politics, 1760-1860: the power of the petticoat (2000) [essays by Chalus, Richardson, Morgan, Cragoe] L. Gordon Mary Wollstonecraft: a new genus (2005) M. Hunt The middling sort: commerce, gender, and the family in England 1680- 1780 [introduction and ch 8] C.C. Orr (ed.) Queenship in Britain 1660-1837: royal patronage, court culture and dynastic politics (2002) J. Rendall The origins of modern feminism: women in Britain, France and the United States 1780-1860 (1985) K.M. Rogers Feminism in eighteenth-century England (1982) H.L. Smith Women writers and the early modern British political tradition (1998) A. Stott Hannah More: the first Victorian (2003) R.B. Shoemaker Gender in English society 1650-1850: emergence of separate spheres? (1998) S. Staves Married women’s separate property in England, 1660-1833 (1990) I. Tague Women of quality: accepting and contesting ideals of femininity in England, 1690-1760 (2002) S. Tillyard Aristocrats: Caroline, Emily, Louisa and Sarah Lennox 1740-1832 (1994) A. Vickery ‘Golden age to separate spheres? a review of the categories and chronology of English women’s history’, HJ (1993) * A. Vickery (ed) Women, privilege, and power: British politics 1750 to the present (2001) [essays by Vickery, Chalus, Lewis, Gleadle]

(b) The gendering of politics: mainly eighteenth century

Julia Banister ‘The court martial of Admiral John Byng: politeness and the military man in the mid-eighteenth century’, in Heather Ellis and Jessica Meyer (ed.), Masculinity and the other: historical perspectives (2009) G.J. Barker-Benfield The culture of sensibility: sex and society in 18th-century Britain (1992) P. Carter Men and the emergence of polite society, Britain 1660-1800 (2001) A. Clark ‘The Chevalier d’Eon and Wilkes: masculinity and politics in the eighteenth century’, Eighteenth-Century Studies (1998) A. Clark Scandal: the sexual politics of the British constitution (2004) M. Cohen Fashioning masculinity: national identity and language in the eighteenth century (1996) M. Cohen & T. Hitchcock (ed.) English masculinities, 1660-1800 (1999) Brian Cowan ‘What was masculine about the public sphere? Gender and the coffeehouse milieu in post-Restoration England’, History Workshop Journal (2001) E. Eger (ed) Women, writing and the public sphere 1700-1830 (2001) H. Guest Small change: women, learning, patriotism 1750-1810 K. Harvey ‘The history of masculinity, circa 1650-1800’, JBS (2008) L.E. Klein ‘Gender and the public/private distinction in the eighteenth century: some questions about evidence and analytical procedure’, Eighteenth-Century Studies (1995) P. Langford ‘Politics and manners from Sir Robert Walpole to Sir Robert Peel’, Proceedings of the British Academy 94 (1997), pp. 103-25. * J.S. Lewis Sacred to female patriotism: gender, class and politics in late Georgian Britain (2003)

53 * M. McCormack The independent man: citizenship and gender politics in Georgian England (2005) M. McCormack (ed.) Public men: masculinity and politics in modern Britain (2007) M. McCormack ‘The new militia: war, politics and gender in 1750s Britain’, Gender and History (2007) S. Moore ‘“A nation of harlequins”? Politics and masculinity in mid-eighteenth- century England’, JBS (2010) R.B. Shoemaker ‘Male honour and the decline of public violence in eighteenth-century London’, Soc Hist (2001) R. Weil Political passions: gender, the family and political argument in England 1680-1714 (1999) K. Wilson The island race: Englishness, empire and gender in the eighteenth century (2003)

J. Bush Women against the vote: female anti-suffragism in Britain (2007) L. Davidoff & C. Hall Family fortunes: men and women of the middle class, 1780-1850 (1987) K. Gleadle and S. Richardson (ed.) Women in British politics, 1760-1860: the power of the petticoat (2000) [essays by Chalus, Richardson, Morgan, Cragoe] * K. Gleadle ‘Revisiting Family Fortunes: reflections on the twentieth anniversary of the publication of L. Davidoff & C. Hall’s Family Fortunes’, Women’s History Review (2007), pp. 773-782. * K. Gleadle Borderline citizens: women, gender and political culture in Britain, 1815- 1867(2009) P. Hollis Ladies elect: women in local government (1988) J. Lewis Women and social action in Victorian and Edwardian England (1991) M. Luddy ‘Women and politics in nineteenth century Ireland’ in M.G. Valiulis and M. O’Dowd (ed.), Women and Irish history (1997) C. Midgley Women against slavery: the British campaigns, 1780-1870 (1992) F.K. Prochaska Women and philanthropy in nineteenth-century England (1980) M. Pugh The Tories and the people (1985) K.D. Reynolds Aristocratic women and political society in Victorian Britain (1998) S. Richardson The political worlds of women: gender and politics in nineteenth century Britain (2013) H. Rogers Women and the people: authority, authorship and the radical tradition in nineteenth-century England (2000) B. Taylor Eve and the New Jerusalem: socialism and feminism in the nineteenth century (1983) P. Thane ‘Women and the poor law in Victorian and Edwardian England’, History Workshop (1978) * A. Vickery ‘Golden age to separate spheres?: a review of the categories and chronology of English women’s history’, HJ (1993) A. Vickery (ed) Women, privilege and power: British politics 1750 to the present (2001) [essays by Vickery, Gleadle, Mandler] D. Wahrman ‘Middle-class domesticity goes public: gender, class and politics from Queen Caroline to Queen Victoria’, JBS (1993)

(d) The gendering of politics; mainly nineteenth century

G. Atkins ‘Christian heroes, providence and patriotism in wartime Britain, 1793- 1815’, HJ (2015) M. Bentley ‘Gladstone’s heir’, EHR (1992). L. Carter ‘British masculinities on trial in the Queen Caroline affair’, Gender & History (2008) A. Clark The struggle for the breeches: gender and the making of the British working class (1995) A. Clark ‘Gender, class and the nation: franchise reform in England, 1832-1928’ in J. Vernon, ed., Re-reading the constitution (1996) [pp. 62-88] A. Davin ‘Imperialism and motherhood’, History Workshop (1978) J. Fulcher ‘The loyalist response to the Queen Caroline agitations’ JBS (1995) K. Gleadle ‘Masculinity, age and life cycle in the age of reform’ Parl. Hist. (2017) L. Goldman (ed) The blind Victorian: Henry Fawcett and British liberalism (1989) (chapters by Hilton and Collini] * B. Griffin The politics of gender in Victorian Britain: masculinity, political culture, and the struggle for women’s rights (2012) B. Griffin ‘Masculinities and parliamentary culture in modern Britain’, in Sean Brady, Christopher Fletcher, Rachel Moss and Lucy Riall, eds., The Palgrave Handbook of Masculinity and Political Culture in Europe (2018). B. Griffin ‘Women’s suffrage’, in Languages of politics in nineteenth-century Britain, ed. D. Craig & J. Thompson (2013) B. Griffin ‘Class, gender and Liberalism in parliament, 1868-1882: the case of the Married Women’s Property Acts’, HJ (2003) T.L. Hunt ‘Morality and monarchy in the Queen Caroline affair’, Albion (1991) P. Langford ‘Politics and manners from Sir Robert Walpole to Sir Robert Peel’, Proceedings of the British Academy 94 (1997), pp. 103-25. T.W. Laqueur ‘The Queen Caroline affair: politics and art in the reign of George IV’, JMH (1982) * J. Lawrence ‘Class and gender in the making of urban toryism, 1880-1914’, EHR (1993) K. McClelland ‘England’s greatness, the working man’ in C. Hall, K. McClelland, and J. Rendall (ed.), Defining the Victorian nation: class, race, gender and the British Reform Act of 1867 (2000) M. McCormack (ed.) Public men: masculinity and politics in modern Britain (Basingstoke, 2007). J. Vernon Politics and the people (1993) [Chapter 6] S.C. Williams ‘Gender’, in T. Larsen and M. Ledger-Lomas, The Oxford History of Protestant Dissenting traditions, vol.3, the 19th Century (2017)

(e) Nineteenth-century feminist movements

* B. Caine English feminism, 1780-1980 (1997) B. Caine Victorian feminists (1993) K. Gleadle The early feminists: radical Unitarians and the emergence of the women’s rights movement 1831-1851 (1995) B. Griffin ‘Women’s suffrage’, in Languages of politics in nineteenth-century Britain, ed. D. Craig & J. Thompson (2013) B. Harrison Separate spheres: the opposition to women’s suffrage in Britain (1978) B. Harrison ‘Women’s suffrage at Westminster, 1866-1928’ in M. Bentley and J. Stevenson (ed.), High and low politics in modern Britain (1983)

55 * S. Holton Suffrage days: stories from the women’s suffrage movement (1996). P. Levine Victorian feminism (1987) J. Lewis (ed.) Before the vote was won: arguments for and against women’s suffrage (1987) P. McHugh Prostitution and Victorian social reform (1980) M. Pugh The march of the women (2000) J. Rendall The origins of modern feminism: women in Britain, France and the United States 1780-1860 (1985) J. Rendall ‘The citizenship of women and the Reform Act of 1867’ in C. Hall, K. McClelland, & J. Rendall, Defining the Victorian nation: class, race, gender, and the Reform Act of 1867 (2000) J. Rendall ‘John Stuart Mill, liberal politics, and the movements for women’s suffrage, 1865-1873’ in A. Vickery, ed. Women, privilege and power (2001) M.L. Shanley Feminism, marriage and the law in Victorian England 1850-1895 (1989) A. Summers ‘The constitution violated: the female body and the female subject in the campaigns of Josephine Butler’, History Workshop Journal (1999) G. Sutherland ‘The movement for the higher education of women’ in P.J. Waller (ed), Politics and social change in modern Britain, ed. (1987) J. Walkowitz Prostitution and Victorian society: women, class and the state (1981)

19. Religion and politics

In the last thirty years the relationship between religion, politics and society in the long eighteenth century has been the subject of fierce historiographical debate. How far did the events of 1688-9 redefine the relationship between Church and state? What were the political implications of the institutional development and intellectual definition of ‘dissent’? Some historians have described Britain as an ancien regime, characterised by divine right monarchy, a paternalist aristocracy, a deferential peasantry, and an authoritative Church, raising the question: did eighteenth-century Britain have a ‘confessional state’? Others have emphasised modern and modernizing features: an innovative and more ‘secular’ spirit, rapid commercialization and increasing consumption, more participatory and collaborative dimensions to social, cultural, and political life. Either way, most would now agree that political ideas of whatever stamp were usually articulated within wider religious and theological frameworks. These debates in turn pose questions about the status and state of the established churches. For while the churches were, for the most part, allied with national and local social and political structures, the expansion of religious dissent (old and new), the growth of heterodoxy and the explosion of Methodist numbers raised new intellectual and practical challenges. Imperial expansion provides further dimensions: how did religion – Protestantism especially, and Anglicanism in particular – shape how people thought about Britain’s place in the world? To what extent did British people participate in wider confessional allegiances and rivalries cutting across national boundaries? The ‘established’ status of the Church of England was resented by many Nonconformists, and this became a matter of controversy once Nonconformists’ right to sit in parliament was formally clarified by the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts in 1828. Nonconformists then took up a variety of demands, on disestablishment, Church rates, civil rights, and the control of educational provision. These disputes became very contentious politically, not least because there was a close connection between religious affiliation and voting behaviour. What was really at issue between Nonconformists and Churchmen in these disputes? What did Nonconformists want to achieve, and did they achieve it? How important was anti-Catholicism in Victorian

56 politics, and what impact did it have on disputes between Protestants? By the end of the century, was there more in common between Churchmen and Nonconformists than separated them? NB. Although Paper 10 covers similar ground and similar reading, it is concerned more with religious belief and religious practice and how they affected and were affected by social, cultural and intellectual change. In dealing with the interaction between religion and politics, Paper 5 is concerned more with institutions, ideology and legislative change.

(a) A confessional state?

E. Baigent & J. E. Bradley ‘The social sources of late eighteenth-century English radicalism: Bristol in the 1770s and 1780s’, EHR (2010) J.E. Bradley Religion, revolution and English radicalism: non-conformity in eighteenth-century politics and society (1990) J. Bradley ‘The religious origins of radical politics in England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1662- 1800’ in James E. Bradley and Dale Van Kley, eds., Religion and politics in Enlightenment Europe (2001) J. Champion The pillars of priestcraft shaken (1992) * J.C.D. Clark ‘Great Britain and Ireland’ in S. J. Brown and T. Tackett, Cambridge History of Christianity vol. 7 (2006) * J.C.D. Clark English Society 1688-1832 (1985) The second edition of this book (2000) elaborates on and differs from but does not supersede the first, which it is necessary to read in order to understand the lively debate on Clark’s ideas. Contributions to this debate include: J. Innes & J. Clark in Past & Present (1987); symposia in Albion (1989), British Journal of 18th-Century Studies (1992); G.S. Rousseau in Age of Johnson (1989); R.W. Davis in Parliamentary History (1990). Jeremy Gregory & Jeffrey S. Chamberlain, The national Church in local perspective (2003) K. Haakonssen (ed) Enlightenment and religion: rational dissent in 18th-C Britain (1996), esp chs 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 C. Holmes Politics, religion, and society in England, 1679-1742 (1986) J. Spurr ‘The Church of England, comprehension, and the Toleration Act of 1689’, EHR (1989) * A.C. Thompson ‘Early 18th-century Britain as a confessional state’, in H. Scott & B. Simms (ed.), Cultures of power in Europe in the long eighteenth century (2007) J. Walsh, C. Haydon, S. Taylor (ed.) The Church of England c.1689-c.1833 (1993), esp. ‘Introduction’ N. Yates Eighteenth-century Britain: religion and politics, 1714-1815 (2008)

(b) Religion, empire and ‘national identity’

G.A. Bremner Imperial gothic: religious architecture and High Anglican culture in the British Empire, 1840-1870 (2013) T. Claydon Europe and the Making of England 1660-1760 (2007) T Claydon & I McBride (ed.) Protestantism and national identity: Britain and Ireland, c.1650-c.1850 (1998), esp. ‘Introduction’ but see also chapters for case studies * L. Colley Britons: forging the nation 1707-1837 (1992), esp. ch 1 G. Glickman The English Catholic community 1688-1745 (2009) J. Gregory ‘The making of a Protestant nation’, in Nicholas Tyacke (ed) England’s long reformation 1500-1800 (1998) C. Haydon Anti-Catholicism in eighteenth-century England (1993) C. Kidd British identities before nationalism; ethnicity and nationhood in the Atlantic world, 1600-1800 (1999)

57 H. McLeod Class and religion in the late Victorian city (1974) G. Parsons & J. Wolffe (ed.) Religion in Victorian Britain (5 vols., 1988-97) R. Strong Anglicanism and the British Empire, 1700-1850 (2007) M. Wheeler The old enemies: Catholic and Protestant in nineteenth-century English culture (2006) J. Wolffe God and greater Britain: religion and national life 1843-1945 (1994) * J. Wolffe ‘Anglicanism, Presbyterianism and the religious identities of the United Kingdom’ in S. Gilley, ed. Cambridge History of Christianity vol. 8 (2005)

D.W. Bebbington Evangelicalism in modern Britain, from the 1730s to the 1980s (1989) S.J. Brown Providence and empire: religion, society and politics in the United Kingdom, 1815-1914 (2008) S.J. Brown The national churches of England, Ireland, and Scotland 1801-46 (2001) R.A. Burns ‘English “church reform” revisited, 1780-1840’, in Arthur Burns & Joanna Innes (eds), Rethinking the age of reform: Britain, 1780-1850 (2003) J. Gregory (ed.) The Oxford History of Anglicanism, Volume II Establishment and Empire, 1662- 1829 (2017) O. Chadwick The Victorian church (2 vols, 1966-70) C. Dewey The Passing of Barchester (1991) J. Hardwick ‘Vestry politics and the emergence of a reform ‘public’ in Calcutta, 1813–36’, HR (2011) R.J. Helmstadter & B. Lightman Victorian faith in crisis: essays on continuity and change in nineteenth-century religious belief (1990) * B. Hilton The age of atonement: the influence of evangelicalism on social and economic thought 1795-1865 (1988) W. Hinde Catholic emancipation: a shake to men’s minds (1992) D. Hempton Methodism and politics in English society 1750-1850 (1984) D. Hempton Methodism: empire of the spirit (2005) R.J. Hole Pulpits, politics and public order in England: 1760-1832 (1989) C.D.A. Leighton ‘Antichrist’s revolution: Some Anglican apocalypticists in the age of the French wars’, Journal of Religious History, 24 (2000), pp. 125-42 G.I.T. Machin Politics and the churches in Great Britain 1832-68 (1977) D. Madden ‘The religious politics of prophecy: or, Richard Brothers’s Revealed Knowledge confuted’, History of European Ideas (2008) I. McCalman Prophets, revolutionaries and pornographers in London, 1795-1840 (1988) M. Rutz ‘The politicizing of evangelical dissent, 1811-1813,’ Parl Hist (2001) S. Skinner Tractarians and the condition of England: social thought of the Oxford movement (2004) *S. Skinner ‘Religion’ in David Craig and James Thompson, eds., Languages of politics in nineteenth-century Britain (2013) *R. Strong (ed.) The Oxford History of Anglicanism, Volume III Partisan Anglicanism and its Global Expansion 1829-c.1914 (2017), ch. 5.

(d) Nonconformity in the nineteenth century

G. Alderman The Jewish community in British politics (1983) O. Anderson ‘Gladstone and the abolition of compulsory church rates’, JEcclH (1974)

58 D.W. Bebbington The nonconformist conscience: chapel and politics 1870-1914 (1982) *E. Biagini ‘Politics and social reform in Britain and Ireland’, in T. Larsen and M.Ledger- Lomas, The Oxford History of Protestant Dissenting traditions, vol. 3, the 19th Century (Oxford, 2017) C. Binfield So down to prayers: studies in English nonconformity 1780-1920 (1977) O. Brose Church and parliament: reshaping of the Church of England 1828-60 (1950) R.J. Helmstadter ‘The nonconformist conscience’ in P.T. Marsh, The conscience of the Victorian state (1979) D.A. Johnson The changing shape of English nonconformity, 1825-1925 (1999) M.D. Johnson The dissolution of Dissent 1850-1918 (1987) T. Larsen Friends of religious equality: nonconformist politics (1999) T. Larsen and The Oxford History of Protestant Dissenting traditions, vol. 3, the 19th Century M. Ledger-Lomas (Oxford, 2017) G.I.T. Machin Politics and the Churches in Great Britain 1869-1921 (1987) J.E.B. Munson The nonconformists: in search of a lost culture (1991) E.R. Norman Anti-Catholicism in Victorian England (1968) J. Parry ‘The disciplining of the religious conscience in nineteenth-century British politics’, in I. Katznelson and G. Stedman Jones (eds), Religion and the political imagination (2010) J. Seed ‘Theologies of power: Unitarianism and the social relations of religious discourse 1800-50’ in R.J. Morris (ed), Class, power and social structure (1986) S. Thorne Congregational missions and the making of an imperial culture in nineteenth- century England (1999) M.R. Watts The dissenters. Volume 2: the expansion of evangelical nonconformity (1995) D. Young F.D. Maurice and Unitarianism (1992)

20. Scotland and Britain in the eighteenth century

One extended outcome of the 1688 Revolution was the Act of Union (1707). What were the political and constitutional causes and consequences of this legislation? What were the peculiarities of Scottish governance in the eighteenth century? And how did the Scots contribute to British governance? In what senses can Scotland be deemed a ‘client state’? What was the fate of Scottish national identity in the new Great Britain? How did political tensions between highland and lowland Scotland play themselves out? Which regions, social groups, and religious denominations supported Jacobitism, and which opposed it? Did Jacobitism create a civil war in Scotland? What was the role of Jacobitism in Scottish politics and political culture? Was the Scottish Enlightenment a response to the absorption of Scotland into Britain, and in what ways? Why did Scots ‘buy into’ empire to such a disproportionate extent?

For Scotland in the nineteenth century, see Topic 13d.

(a) Historiographical and general treatments of British history

B. Bradshaw & J. Morrill (ed.) The British problem 1534-1707: state formation in the Atlantic archipelago (1996), essays by Goldie on Scotland and Smyth on Ireland J.C.D. Clark ‘The Strange Death of British History? Reflections on Anglo-American Scholarship’, HJ (1997)

59 A. Grant & K.J. Stringer (ed.) Uniting the kingdom? the making of British history (1995) D. Hayton ‘Constitutional experiments and political expediency 1689-1725’, in S.G. Ellis and S. Barber (ed.), Conquest and union: fashioning a British state 1485-1725 (1995) J. Hoppit (ed.) Parliaments, nations and identities in Britain and Ireland 1660-1850 (2003) Allan Macinnes Union and empire: the making of the United Kingdom in 1707 (2007) J.G.A. Pocock ‘The limits and divisions of British history: in search of an unknown subject’, AmHR (1982) J.G.A. Pocock The discovery of islands : essays in British history (2005) J. Wormald ‘The creation of Britain: multiple kingdoms or core and colonies?’, TRHS (1992)

(b) Scottish history and Anglo-Scottish relations

D. Allan Scotland in the eighteenth century: union and enlightenment (2001) T.M. Devine & R. Mitchison (ed.) People and society in Scotland: vol. 1, 1760-1830 (1988) T.M. Devine & J.R. Young (ed.) Eighteenth-century Scotland: new perspectives (1998) W. Ferguson Scotland: 1689 to the present (Edinburgh History of Scotland, 4) (1978) W. Ferguson Scotland’s relations with England: a survey to 1707 (1977), chs 9-14 M. Fry The Dundas despotism (1992) B. Harris ‘The Anglo-Scottish Treaty of Union, 1707 in 2007: defending the revolution, defeating the Jacobites’, JBS (2010) J. Hoppit Britain’s political economies: parliament and economic life, 1660-1800 (2017) R.A. Houston Scottish society 1500-1800 (1969) B.P. Lenman Integration and enlightenment: Scotland 1746-1832 (1981) B.P. Lenman ‘A client society: Scotland between the ‘15 and the ‘45’, in J. Black (ed.), Britain in the age of Walpole (1984) B. Levack The formation of the British state (1987) K.J. Logue Popular disturbances in Scotland (1979) A. Murdoch The people above: politics and administration in mid-eighteenth-century Scotland (1980) T.I. Rae The Union of 1707 (1974) N.T. Phillipson & R. Mitchison Scotland in the age of improvement (1970) Alasdair Raffe ‘1707, 2007 and the Unionist turn in Scottish history’, HJ (2010) J.C. Robertson ‘Union, state and empire: the Britain of 1707 in its European setting,’ in L. Stone (ed.), An imperial state at war: Britain from 1688 to 1815 (1994) J.S. Shaw The management of Scottish society 1707-1764 (1983) J.S. Shaw The political history of eighteenth-century Scotland (1999) T.C. Smout A history of the Scottish people (1969) T.C. Smout (ed.) Anglo-Scottish relations from 1603 to 1900 (2005). D. Szechi & D. Hayton ‘John Bull’s other kingdoms: the English government of Scotland and Ireland’, in C. Jones (ed.), Britain in the first age of party (1987) C.A. Whatley Scottish society 1707-1830: beyond Jacobitism, towards industrialisation (2000), esp ch 3 C.A. Whatley The Scots and the Union (2006)

E. Cruickshanks & J. Black (ed.) The Jacobite challenge (1988)

60 E. Cruickshanks (ed.) Ideology and conspiracy: aspects of Jacobitism, 1689-1759 (1990) C. Kidd ‘The ideological significance of Scottish Jacobite Latinity’ in J. Black & J. Gregory (ed.), Culture, politics, and society in Britain 1660-1800 (1991) B.P. Lenman The Jacobite risings in Britain, 1689-1746 (1980) B.P. Lenman The Jacobite clans of the Great Glen (1984) B.P. Lenman The Jacobite cause (1986) A. Macinnes ‘Jacobitism in Scotland: episodic cause or national movement?’, SHR (2007) F.J. McLynn France and the Jacobite rising of 1745 (1981) F.J. McLynn ‘Issues and motives in the Jacobite rising of 1745’, The Eighteenth Century: Theory and Interpretation (1982) F.J. McLynn The Jacobite army in England: the final campaign (1983) P.K. Monod Jacobitism and the English people 1688-1788 (1989) M.G.H. Pittock The myth of the Jacobite clans (1995) W.A. Speck The Butcher: the duke of Cumberland and the suppression of the 45 (1981) M. Steele ‘Anti-Jacobite pamphleteering 1701-20’, SHR (1981) D. Szechi The Jacobites: Britain and Europe 1688-1788 (1994)

(d) Culture and ideology

M. Ash The strange death of Scottish history (1980) C. Beveridge & R. Turnbull The eclipse of Scottish culture (1989) D. Daiches The paradox of Scottish culture: the 18th-century experience (1964) J. Dwyer Virtuous discourse (1987) B. Harris The Scottish People and the French Revolution (2008) H. Kearney The British Isles: a history of four nations (1989) C. Kidd Subverting Scotland’s past: creation of Anglo-British identity (1993) C. Kidd ‘Conditional Britons: the Scots covenanting tradition and the eighteenth century British state’, EHR (2002) F. Lyall Of presbyters and kings: church and state in the law of Scotland (1980) A. Mackillop ‘Political culture of the Scottish highlands: Culloden to Waterloo’, HJ (2003) R. Mitchison ‘Patriotism and national identity: 18th-c Scotland’, Historical Studies (1978) G. Pentland ‘“We speak for the ready”: images of Scots in political prints, 1707-1832’, SHR (2011) N.T. Phillipson ‘The Scottish enlightenment’, in R. Porter & M. Teich (ed.), The enlightenment in national context (1981) M.G.H. Pittock The invention of Scotland: Stuart myth and Scottish identity (1991) M.G.H. Pittock Poetry and Jacobite politics in 18th-century Britain and Ireland (1994) J. Rendall The origins of the Scottish enlightenment (1978) K. Simpson The protean Scot: the crisis of identity in 18th-century Scottish literature (1988) C. A. Whatley ‘How tame were the Scottish lowlanders during the eighteenth century’, in T.M. Devine (ed.), Conflict and stability in Scottish society 1700-1850 (1990)

21. Ireland, 1689-1885

The Revolution of 1688 was relatively ‘bloodless’ in Britain, but this was not true in Ireland where William III had to fight a war. What was the Williamite settlement in Ireland? What were the forms of social and political collaboration, competition and conflict between Irish and English and between Protestant and Catholic? Was Ireland a British colony? What was the character of Anglo-Irish identity in the eighteenth century?

61 What was the impact on Ireland of British imperial policy and engagements in the second half of the eighteenth century? What were the sources of Irish resentment with British rule, and how did these intensify into forms of open conflict? How effective was the system known as ‘Undertaking’? What was the significance of ‘Grattan’s parliament’? What was the impact of the French revolution on Ireland? Why did the relatively ecumenical nationalist movement of 1790 become so embittered by sectarian strife thereafter? What led to the 1798 rebellion and the Act of Union (1801)? It took a quarter of a century after the Act of Union before a significant Irish reform movement developed. However the successful campaign for Catholic emancipation in the mid-1820s created a new dynamic between Irish MPs and the Westminster parliament. How serious was the threat to the Union as a result? What did O’Connellism achieve and why did it not achieve more? Was the effect of the 1832 Reform Act to create a vibrant system of electoral politics centred on the parish pump rather than on national demands? How closely did Young Ireland correspond to Continental romantic nationalism, and why was there conflict between its leaders and O’Connell? Why did the Famine not lead to more forceful expressions of Irish discontent? Was it nonetheless a turning-point in the long- term fortunes of the Union? What were the effects of urbanization, increasing literacy, and relative prosperity on Irish politics after 1850, and why did Fenianism emerge? Why did Ireland become a major theme in British politics in the mid-1860s and why did the reforms of 1869-70 encourage rather than satisfy Irish political pressure? Did Irish Roman Catholic priests inspire the nationalist movement, or were they forced to keep up with it? Why was land such a sensitive political issue? What were the differences between Parnell and earlier Irish leaders? Was the Union unsustainable on the eve of the Home Rule crisis of 1885-6? How far did British politicians and officials understand Irish problems? Were even their most radical proposals in fact shaped by British rather than Irish ideas and conceptions? [Gladstone’s general motives for taking up Home Rule in December 1885 can be studied here or in topic 9, but we cannot consider the political impact of the 1885-6 crisis in Paper 5.]

(a) Historiographical debates

T. Bartlett et al. (ed.) The 1798 Rebellion: a Bicentennial Perspective (2003) D.G. Boyce & A. O’Day (ed.) The making of modern Irish history: revisionism and the revisionist controversy (1996) T.C. Barnard ‘Farewell to Old Ireland’, HJ (1993) T.C. Barnard ‘The gentrification of eighteenth-century Ireland’, Eighteenth-Century Ireland (1997) R. Foster ‘History and the Irish Question’, in Paddy and Mr Punch: connections in English and Irish history (1993) M.Hechter Internal colonialism: the Celtic fringe in British national development (1975) I. McBride ‘Reclaiming the rebellion: 1798 in 1998’, IHS (1999)

(b) General histories; mainly eighteenth century

J. Bardon A history of Ulster (1992) T. Bartlett & D.W. Hayton (ed.) Penal era and golden age, 1690-1800 (1979) T. Bartlett Ireland: a history (2010) J.C. Beckett The making of modern Ireland, 1603-1923 (1966)

62 D. G. Boyce & A. O’Day (ed.) The making of modern Irish history (1996) S.J. Connolly Divided kingdom: Ireland 1630-1800 (2008) S.J. Connolly Religion, law and power: making of Protestant Ireland 1660-1760 (1992) D. Dickson New foundations: Ireland 1660-1800 (1990) R.F. Foster Modern Ireland 1600-1972 (1988) D.W. Hayton Ireland after the glorious revolution 1692-1715 (1976) I. McBride Eighteenth-century Ireland: the isle of slaves (2010) R.B. McDowell Ireland in the age of imperialism and revolution, 1760-1800 (1979) T.W. Moody & W.E. Vaughan (ed.) A new history of Ireland, Vol 4: 1691-1800 (1986)

P. Bew Ireland: the politics of enmity 1789-2006 (2007) D.G. Boyce Nineteenth-century Ireland: the search for stability (1990) D.G. Boyce (ed) The revolution in Ireland 1879-1923 (1988) D.G. Boyce Nationalism in Ireland (1982; 2nd edn, 1991) S.J. Connolly Religion and society in nineteenth-century Ireland (1985) V. Crossman Local government in nineteenth-century Ireland (1994) * K.T. Hoppen Ireland since 1800: conflict and conformity (1989) K.T. Hoppen Elections, politics, and society in Ireland 1832-85 (1984) K. T. Hoppen Governing Hibernia: British politicians and Ireland, 1800-1920 (2016) A. Jackson Ireland, 1798-1998 (1999) * A. Jackson Home rule: an Irish history 1800-2000 (2004) J. Lee The modernisation of Irish society 1848-1918 (1973) F.S.L. Lyons Ireland since the famine (revised edn. 1973) F.S.L. Lyons Culture and anarchy in Ireland 1890-1939 (1982) O. Macdonagh States of mind: a study of Anglo-Irish conflict 1780-1980 (1982) T. McDonough (ed.) Was Ireland a colony? economics, politics and culture in Nineteenth-Century Ireland (Dublin, 2005) R.B. McDowell Public opinion and government policy in Ireland, 1801-46 (1952) G. O’Tuathaigh Ireland before the famine 1798-1848 (1972) W.E. Vaughan (ed) A new history of Ireland: Vol. 5: Ireland under the union, I, 1800-70 (1989) W.E. Vaughan (ed) A new history of Ireland: 5: Ireland under the union, II, 1870-1921 (1996)

(d) Politics before 1780

T. Barnard Improving Ireland: projectors, prophets and profiteers 1641-1786 (2008) R.E. Burns Irish parliamentary politics in the 18th century, 1700-60 (2 vols, 1990) D.W. Hayton ‘Walpole and Ireland’, in J. Black (ed.), Britain in the age of Walpole (1984) D.W. Hayton (ed.) ‘The Irish parliament in the 18th century: the long apprenticeship’, Parl Hist (2001), special volume D.W. Hayton Ruling Ireland 1685-1742: politics, politicians and parties (2004) F.G. James Ireland in the empire, 1688-1770 (1973) C.I. McGrath The making of the eighteenth-century Irish constitution: government, Parliament and the revenue 1692-1714 (2000) G. O’Brien (ed.) Parliament, politics and people: eighteenth-century Irish history (1989) J.G. Simms War and politics in Ireland 1649-1730 (1986) D. Szechi & D. Hayton ‘John Bull’s other kingdoms: the English government of Scotland and Ireland’, in C. Jones (ed.), Britain in the first age of party (1987)

63 (e) Religion and national identity in the eighteenth century

T.C. Barnard A New Anatomy of Ireland: the Irish Protestants, 1649-1770 (2003) T.C. Barnard Improving Ireland: projectors, prophets and profiteers 1641-1786 (2008) P. Brooke Ulster Presbyterianism: the historical perspective (1987) T. Claydon & I. McBride (ed.) Protestantism and national identity: Britain and Ireland, c.1650- c.1850 (1998) L. Cullen ‘Catholics under the penal laws’, Eighteenth-Century Ireland (1986) D.W. Hayton ‘Anglo-Irish attitudes: changing perceptions of national identity among the Protestant Ascendancy, 1690-1750’, Studies in 18th-Century Culture (1987) J.R. Hill ‘Popery and Protestantism, civil and religious liberty: the disputed lessons of Irish history 1690-1812’, P&P (1988) J.R. Hill From patriots to Unionists: Dublin civic politics and Irish Protestant patriotism 1660-1840 (1997) P. Higgins A nation of politicians: gender, patriotism and political culture in late eighteenth-century Ireland (2010) M. MacCurtain & M. O’Dowd (ed.) Women in early modern Ireland (1991) I. McBride Scripture politics: Ulster Presbyterianism and Irish radicalism in the late eighteenth century (1998) J. McMinn ‘A weary patriot: Swift and the formation of Anglo-Irish identity’, Eighteenth- Century Ireland (1987) D.W. Miller ‘Presbyterianism and “modernisation” in Ulster’, P&P (1978) T.P. Power & K. Whelan (ed.) Endurance and emergence: Catholics in Ireland in the 18th-century (1990)

(f) Revolution and Union, 1780-1815

T. Bartlett The fall and rise of the Irish nation: Catholic question 1690-1830 (1992) T. Bartlett ‘An end to moral economy: Irish militia disturbances of 1793’, P&P (1983) G.C. Bolton The passing of the Irish Act of Union (1966) M. Brown et al. (ed.) The Irish Act of Union: bicentennial essays (2003) N. Curtin ‘The transformation of the United Irishmen into a mass-based organisation 1794-96’, IHS (1984) N. Curtin The United Irishmen: popular politics in Ulster and Dublin 1791-1798 (1994) D. Dickson & H. Gough (ed.) Ireland and the French revolution (1990) D. Dickson et al. (ed.) The United Irishmen (1993) M. Elliott Partners in revolution: the United Irishmen and France (1982) M. Elliott Wolfe Tone: prophet of Irish independence (1989) P.M. Geoghegan The Irish Act of Union (2001) P. Jupp & E. Magennis (ed.) Crowds in Ireland, c. 1720-1920 (2000) J. Kelly ‘The origins of the Act of Union, 1650-1800’, IHS (1987) J. Kelly Prelude to Union: Anglo-Irish politics in the 1780s (1992) D. Mansergh Grattan’s failure: parliamentary opposition and the people in Ireland, 1777- 1800(2005) P. Mirala Freemasonry in Ulster, 1783-1813 (2008) G. O’Brien Anglo-Irish politics in the age of Grattan and Pitt (1987) G. O’Brien ‘Illusion and reality in late 18th-century politics’, Eighteenth-Century Ireland (1988)

64 T. Pakenham The year of liberty (1982) J. Smyth The men of no property: Irish radicals and popular politics in the late eighteenth century (1992) A.T.Q. Stewart A deeper silence: the hidden roots of the United Irish movement (1993)

(g) The O’Connell era

T. Bartlett The fall and rise of the Irish nation: the Catholic question 1690-1830 (1992) J. Bew The glory of being Britons: civic unionism in 19th-century Belfast (2008) D. Bowen The Protestant crusade in Ireland 1800-70 (1978) D. Hempton & M. Hill Evangelical Protestantism in Ulster society 1740-1890 (1992) K.T. Hoppen ‘An incorporating union? British politicians and Ireland 1800-1830’, EHR (2008) B. Jenkins Era of emancipation: British government of Ireland 1812-30 (1988) D.A. Kerr Peel, priests and politics: Sir Robert Peel’s administration and the Roman Catholic Church in Ireland 1841-6 (1982) D.A. Kerr ‘A nation of beggars?’: priests, people, and politics 1846-1852 (1994) K.B. Nowlan The politics of repeal: a study of the relations between Britain and Ireland 1841- 50 (1965) M.R. O’Connell (ed) Daniel O’Connell: political pioneer (1991) O. MacDonagh Daniel O’Connell 1775-1847 (2 vols., 1988-9) O. MacDonagh The emancipist: Daniel O’Connell 1830-47 (1989) A. Macintyre The liberator: Daniel O’Connell and the Irish party 1830-47 (1965) F. O’Ferrall Daniel O’Connell (1981) F. O’Ferrall Catholic emancipation: Daniel O’Connell and the birth of Irish democracy 1820-30 (1985) H. Senior Orangeism in Ireland and Britain 1795-1836 (1966)

(h) The politics of the famine

R. Davis The Young Ireland movement (1987) J.S. Donnelly ‘The great famine: its interpreters, old and new’, History Ireland (1993) P Gray Famine, land & politics: British government & Irish society 1843-1850 (1999) C. O Grada The great Irish famine (1989) C. Poirteir (ed) The great Irish famine (1995) C. Woodham-Smith The great hunger: Ireland 1845-1849 (1962)

(i) Nationalism and politics after the famine

P. Bew Land and the national question in Ireland, 1858-82 (1978) P. Bew C.S. Parnell (1980) D.G. Boyce & A. O’Day (ed.) Parnell in perspective (1991) E.F. Biagini British democracy and Irish nationalism 1878-1906 (2007) D.G. Boyce Nationalism in Ireland (1982; 2nd edn, 1991) R.V. Comerford The Fenians in context (1985) R.F. Foster Charles Stewart Parnell: the man and his family (1979) T. Garvin The evolution of Irish nationalist politics (1981) T. Garvin Nationalist revolutionaries in Ireland, 1858-1928 (1987) M. Kelly ‘Irish nationalist opinion and the British Empire in the 1850s and 1860s’, P&P (2009)

65 M. Kelly ‘Irish nationalism and the disciplining of dissent’, in F.McGarry & J.McConnel, The Black Hand of Irish Republicanism: Fenianism in modern Ireland (2009) M. Kelly ‘Irish nationalism’, in Languages of politics in nineteenth-century Britain, ed. D. Craig & J. Thompson (2013) T.W. Moody Davitt and Irish revolution, 1846-82 (1981) B. O’Cathaoir John Blake Dillon, Young Irelander (1990) A. O’Day The English face of Irish nationalism: Parnellite politics 1880-6 (1977) C.H.E. Philpin (ed) Nationalism and popular protest in Ireland (1987) C. Reid ‘An Experiment in Constructive Unionism’: Isaac Butt, Home Rule and Federalist Political Thought during the 1870s’, EHR (2014) C. Townshend Political violence in Ireland since 1848 (1983) D. Thornley Isaac Butt and home rule (1964)

22. Britain and Europe

As her political, military and economic power grew through the eighteenth century, Britain naturally had extensive dealings with Europe, through wars, diplomacy and trade. The determinants of foreign policy included concerns with religion, dynasty, commerce, empire, security, and balance of power. How did these factors shape attitudes to different European powers and situations? What role did foreign policy play in party politics? Who had influence over foreign policy? Was it the privileged arena of a few aristocratic ministers (and their royal boss) or did wider ‘interests’ have a role in shaping policy? How were particular policies received and interpreted by society at large? How far did victory – such as in the Seven Years’ War – and catastrophe – like the loss of America - lead to a reconstruction of foreign policy and of perception of Britain’s standing on the continent? Did the course of foreign relations and policy shape a British national identity? More broadly, was there a coherent British discourse about Europe? In fact, was Europe viewed differently in England, in Scotland and in Ireland? How did the prolonged experience of war with revolutionary and Napoleonic France, and then Britain’s nineteenth-century status as an ‘island refuge’ for dissidents from continental regimes, help to define British conceptions of nationhood and subjecthood? What part did Britain play in the peace of 1815 and what did she gain by it, both in Europe and beyond? What were now the diplomatic, ideological and commercial objectives of successive foreign secretaries? Why did the integrity of the Ottoman Empire emerge as an important British interest, and why did Britain enter the Crimean War, only to change her policy in the East in the 1870s? How did a country that boasted of its liberalism seek to maintain the balance of power in the west until 1848, cope with the unstable international politics of the 1850s and 1860s, and react to German and Italian unification? On what occasions did the course of domestic politics turn on issues in foreign and imperial policy? In what ways did revival of the fear of invasion after 1850 affect strategic priorities? How far did popular attitudes to foreign intervention, and constitutional movements abroad influence policy?

See particularly Topic 13 on patriotism and national identity, which deals with overlapping themes.

(a) Britain’s relations with Europe

66 Dom. A. Bellenger ‘Fearless resting place: the exiled French clergy in Great Britain, 1789-1815’, in K. Carpenter and P. Mansel (ed.), The French émigrés in Europe and the struggle against Revolution, 1789-1814 (1999) * J. Black Convergence or divergence: Britain and the continent (1994) * J. Black Natural and necessary enemies: Anglo-French relations in the eighteenth century (1986) J.S. Bromley ‘Britain and Europe in the eighteenth century’, History (1981) S. Burrows French exile journalism and European politics 1792-1814 (2000) K. Carpenter Refugees of the French Revolution: émigrés in London, 1789-1802 (1999) T. Claydon Europe and the making of England 1660-1760 (2007) * L. Colley Britons: forging the nation 1707-1837 (1992) S. Conway ‘Continental connections: Britain and Europe in the eighteenth century’, History (2005) S. Conway Britain, Ireland and Continental Europe in the eighteenth century: similarities, connections and identities (2011) F. Crouzet ‘The second hundred years’ war: some reflections’, French History (1996) J.R Dinwiddy ‘The use of the Crown’s power of deportation under the Aliens Act, 1793-1826’, in J.R. Dinwiddy, Radicalism and reform in Britain, 1780-1850 (1992) David Feldman Englishmen and Jews (1994) J.A. Garrard The English and immigration 1880-1910 (1971) Clive Holmes John Bull’s island: immigration and British society 1871-1971 (1988) C. Holmes Anti-semitism in British society 1876-1939 (1979) D.J. Jeremy ‘Damming the flood: British government efforts to check the outflow of technicians and machinery, 1780-1830’, Business History Review, 51 (1977) E. V. Macleod A war of ideas: British attitudes to the wars against revolutionary France, 1792- 1802 (1998) R. Morieux ‘Diplomacy from below and belonging. Fishermen and cross-Channel relations in the eighteenth century’, P&P (2009) *R. Morieux The Channel: England, France and the construction of a maritime border in the eighteenth century (2016) M. Peters ‘Early Hanoverian consciousness: empire or Europe?’, EHR (2007) M. Philp Resisting Napoleon: The British response to the threat of invasion, 1797– 1815 (2006). Bernard Porter The refugee question in mid-Victorian politics (1980) Bernard Porter Plots and paranoia: a history of political espionage in Britain 1790-1988 (1989) Bernard Porter ‘The Freiheit prosecutions 1881-2’, HJ (1980) H.M. Scott ‘The second “hundred years war”, 1689-1815’, HJ (1992) F.B. Smith ‘British post-office espionage in 1844’, Historical Studies (1970) C. Smout ‘The Culture of migration: Scots as Europeans 1500-1800’, History Workshop Journal (1995) E. Sparrow ‘The Alien Office, 1792-1806’, HJ (1990) Daniel Statt ‘The City of London and the controversy over immigration, 1660-1722’, HJ, (1990) *Daniel Statt Foreigners and Englishmen: the controversy over immigration and population, 1660-1760 (1995)

67 (b) Foreign policy: 1688-1815

i. General works

D.A. Baugh ‘Great Britain’s “blue-water” policy, 1689-1815’, IHR (1988) J. Black A system of ambition: British foreign policy 1660-1793 (1991) J. Black Parliament and foreign policy in the eighteenth century (2004) J. Black (ed) Knights errant and true Englishmen: foreign policy 1600- 1800 (1989) [essays by Blanning & Haase, Scott] J. Black ‘British foreign policy in the eighteenth century’, JBS (1987) J. Black ‘Britain’s foreign alliances in the 18th century’, Albion (1988) J. Black Debating foreign policy in eighteenth-century Britain (2011) D. French The British way in warfare 1688-2000 (1990) P. Langford Modern British foreign policy: the 18th century, 1688-1815 (1976) * D. McKay & H.M. Scott The rise of the great powers (1983) [chs 2, 4, 6] W. Mulligan & B. Simms (eds) The primacy of foreign policy in British history 1660-2000 (2010) [esp articles by A. Thompson and B. Simms] M. Peters ‘Early Hanoverian consciousness: empire or Europe?’, EHR (2007) N. Rodger The command of the ocean: a naval history of Britain 1649-1815 (2004) * H.M. Scott The birth of the great power system 1740-1815 (2005) B. Simms & T. Riotte (ed.) The Hanoverian dimension in British history, 1714-1837 (2007) B. Simms Three victories and a defeat: rise and fall of the first British empire, 1714-83 (2007)

ii. From the War of the Spanish Succession to the Seven Years’ War

F. Anderson Crucible of war: the seven years’ war and the fate of the empire (2000) M.S. Anderson The War of the Austrian Succession (1995) D. Baugh The Global Seven Years War 1754-1763 (2011). D.C. Coleman ‘Politics and economics in the age of Anne : the case of the Anglo-French trade treaty of 1713”, in Id. et A.H. John, eds., Trade, government and economy in pre- industrial England (1976). G.C. Gibbs ‘Parliament and foreign policy in the age of Stanhope and Walpole’, EHR (1962) G.C. Gibbs ‘The revolution in foreign policy’, in G. Holmes (ed.), Britain after the glorious revolution (1969) G.C. Gibbs ‘English attitudes to Hanover and the Hanoverian succession in the first half of the eighteenth century’, in A.M. Birke and K. Kluxen (ed.), England and Hanover (1986) W. Mediger ‘Great Britain, Hanover and the rise of Prussia’, in R. Hatton and M.S. Anderson, (ed.), Studies in diplomatic history: essays in memory of David Bayne Horn (1970) R. Middleton The bells of victory: the Pitt-Newcastle ministry and the seven years’ war (1985) K.W. Schweizer England, Prussia and the seven years’ war (1989) F.A.J. Szabo The Seven Years War in Europe (2008) A.C. Thompson Britain, Hanover and the Protestant interest 1688-1756 (2006)

iii. From the Peace of Paris to the Congress of Vienna See also the following topic on the British Empire.

T.C.W. Blanning ‘ “That horrid Electorate” or “Ma patrie germanique”? George III, Hanover and Fürstenbund of 1785’, HJ (1977) T.C.W. Blanning The origins of the French revolutionary wars (1986) [chs 4 and 5]

68 Witt Bowden ‘The English Manufacturers and the Commercial Treaty of 1786 with France’, AHR (1919). M. Duffy Soldiers, sugar and seapower: the British expeditions to the West Indies and the war against revolutionary France (1987) J. Ehrman The British government and commercial negotiations with Europe 1783– 1793 (1962) M. Roberts Splendid isolation 1763-1780 (1970) H.M. Scott British foreign policy in the age of the American revolution (1990) P. Schroeder The Transformation of European Politics, 1763-1848 (1994). S. Semmel Napoleon and the British (2004) B. Simms ‘Britain and Napoleon’, HJ (1998)

i. General works

C.J. Bartlett (ed) Britain pre-eminent: studies of Britain’s world influence in the nineteenth century (1969) C.J. Bartlett ‘Britain and the European balance 1815-48’ in A. Sked (ed), Europe’s balance of power 1815-48 (1979) K. Bourne (ed) The foreign policy of Victorian England 1830-1902 (1970) S.J. Brown Providence and empire: religion, society and politics in the United Kingdom, 1815-1914 (2008) * M. Chamberlain Pax Britannica? British foreign policy 1789-1914 (1988) P. Hayes Modern British foreign policy: the nineteenth century 1814-80 (1975) C.H.D. Howard Britain and the casus belli 1822-1902: a study of Britain’s international position from Canning to Salisbury (1974) A.H. Imlah Economic elements in the pax Britannica (1958) * P. Kennedy The realities behind diplomacy: background influences in British external policy 1865-1980 (1981) P. Kennedy The rise and fall of British naval mastery (1976) W. Mulligan & B. Simms (eds) The primacy of foreign policy in British history 1660-2000 (2010) [esp. articles by A. Howe, D. Bell, T. Otte, P. Readman] T.G. Otte The Foreign Office mind: the making of British foreign policy, 1865-1914 (2011) J. Parry The politics of patriotism: English liberalism, national identity and Europe, 1830-1886 (2006) D.C.M. Platt Finance, trade and politics in British foreign policy, 1815-1914 (1968) B. Porter Britain, Europe and the world 1850-1986: delusions of grandeur (1987) K.M. Wilson (ed) British foreign secretaries and foreign policy 1854-1914 (1987)

ii. Studies of specific regions and periods

D.E.D. Beales England and Italy 1859-60 (1961) K. Bourne Palmerston: the early years 1784-1841 (1982) M. Chamberlain British foreign policy in the age of Palmerston (1980) [with documents] G. Clayton Britain and the Eastern question from Missolonghi to Gallipoli (1971) G.B. Henderson Crimean war diplomacy and other essays (1947) P. Kennedy The rise of the Anglo-German antagonism 1860-1914 (1980) R.T. Shannon Gladstone and the Bulgarian agitation (1963)

69 D. Southgate ‘The most English minister’: policies and politics of Palmerston (1966) M. Swartz The politics of foreign policy in the age of Gladstone and Disraeli (1985) A.J.P. Taylor The trouble-makers: dissent over foreign policy 1792-1939 (1957) M. Taylor ‘The 1848 revolutions and the British empire’, P&P (2000) H.W.V. Temperley The foreign policy of Canning 1822-27 (1925) C.K. Webster The foreign policy of Castlereagh 1815-22 (2 vols., 1947 edn) C.K. Webster The foreign policy of Palmerston 1830-41: Britain, the liberal movement and the eastern question (2 vols., 1951)

70 23. Britain and Empire

The ‘new imperial history’ which has developed in the last thirty years has modified the understanding of the relations between Britain and its Empire in the eighteenth century. New questions have been raised about the long-established distinction between the first and the second British Empires. What was the nature of the political and constitutional relationship between Britain and its colonies? What were the repercussions of imperial conquest on British identities? Was the relationship of Scotland and Ireland to the British Empire different from England’s and, if so, how? What was the significance of the loss of the American colonies in 1783, in the short term and in the long term? How did the relationship between Britain and its American colonies compare with its relationship with its Indian colonies? Has the role of Empire on political debates in the metropolis been exaggerated? How prominent was the consciousness of imperial issues among British men and women? How did the prolonged debates about slavery affect attitudes to empire? To what extent was British foreign and military policy, in the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries, shaped by imperial as distinct from European considerations? Do you agree with those historians who argue that Britain acquired its second (nineteenth-century) empire in a ‘fit of absence of mind’? Or with those who believe that British public culture was defined (at whatever level of consciousness) by the country’s imperial role? How powerful were the anti-imperial elements in public life? Why did ‘imperialism’ become a controversial question after 1874, and why did empire apparently feature so rarely in political debate before then? Why did Britain occupy Egypt in 1882 and what were the implications of this for her diplomatic freedom of manoeuvre?

NB. Papers 21 (Empires and World History) and 22 (American history) deal with the acquisition, retention, and internal governance of overseas territories. Paper 5 deals with imperial problems primarily as they had an impact on British politics and culture.

(a) The eighteenth century

AmHR Forum ‘The New British History in Atlantic Perspective’, AmHR (1999) [articles by D. Armitage, Ned C. Landsman, Eliga H. Gould] D. Armitage ed. Theories of empire, 1450-1800 (1998) D. Armitage & M. Braddick (ed.) The British Atlantic world (2002) P.J. Cain & A.G. Hopkins British imperialism: innovation and expansion 1688-1914 (1993) N. Canny & A. Pagden (ed.) Colonial identity in the Atlantic world 1500-1800 (1987) N. Canny Kingdom and colony: Ireland in the Atlantic world 1560-1800 (1988) M. Daunton & R. Halpern (ed.) Empire and others: British encounters with indigenous peoples 1600-1830 (1999) L. Colley Britons: forging the nation 1707-1837 (1992) L. Colley Captives: Britain, empire and the world 1600-1850 (2002) T. Devine Scotland’s empire 1600-1815 (2003) N. Harding Hanover and the British empire 1700-1837 (2007) V.T. Harlow The founding of the second British empire 1763-1793 (2 vols, 1952-64) S. Howe Ireland and empire: colonial legacies in Irish history and culture (2002) B. Lenman Britain’s colonial wars 1688-1783 (2001) *P.J. Marshall (ed.) The Oxford history of the British Empire. Vol 2: the eighteenth century (1998) P.J. Marshall ‘The first and second British empires: a question of demarcation’, History (1964) P.J. Marshall The impeachment of Warren Hastings (1965)

71 P.J. Marshall Problems of empire: Britain and India, 1757-1813 (1968) P.J. Marshall ‘A free though conquering people’: eighteenth-century Britain and its empire (2003) P.J. Marshall The making and unmaking of empires: Britain, India and America c. 1750-1783 (2005) P.J. Marshall chapter in Elaine Chalus and Perry Gauci (eds.), Revisiting the Polite and Commercial People (2019) M. Ogborn Global live: Britain and the world 1550-1800 (2008) F. Shyllon Black people in Britain 1555-1833 (1977) * K. Wilson The sense of the people: politics, culture and imperialism in England, 1715-85 (1995)

(b) From the War of the Spanish Succession (1702) to the War of the American Independence (1776)

J.L. Bullion ‘British ministers and American resistance to the Stamp Act, October-December 1765’, William & Mary Quarterly (1992) I.R. Christie & B.W. Labaree Empire or independence, 1760-1776: a British-American dialogue on the coming of the American revolution (1976) *B. Harris ‘“American idols”: empire, war and the middling ranks in mid-eighteenth-century Britain’, P&P (1996) P. Mapp ‘British culture and the changing character of mid-eighteenth-century British empire’, in W.R. Hofstra (ed.), Cultures in conflict: the Seven Years’ War in North America (2007) S. Pincus ‘Addison’s Empire: Whig Conceptions of Empire in the Early Eighteenth Century’, Parl. Hist. (2012) P.D.G. Thomas British politics and the Stamp Act crisis, 1763-7 (1975) P.D.G. Thomas The Townshend duties crisis: American revolution, 1767-1773 (1987) P.D.G. Thomas Tea party to independence: the American revolution, 1773-1776 (1991) P.D.G. Thomas Revolution in America: Britain and the colonies, 1763-1776 (1992) N. Tracy Navies, deterrence, and American independence: Britain and sea power in the 1760s and 1770s (1988)

C.A. Bayly Imperial meridian: the British empire and the world 1780-1830 (1989) C.A. Bayly The birth of the modern world 1780-1914: global connections and comparisons (2004) C. Bonwick English radicals and the American revolution (1977) H.V. Bowen ‘British conceptions of global empire, 1756-83’, JICH (1988) J.E. Bradley Religion, revolution and English radicalism: non-conformity in eighteenth- century politics and society (1990) J.E. Bradley Popular politics and the American revolution in England (1986) J. Brewer Party ideology and popular politics at the accession of George III (1976) S. Conway The American War of Independence 1775-1783 (1995) S. Conway The British Isles and the war of American independence (2000) J.W. Derry English politics and the American revolution (1976) H.T. Dickinson (ed.) Britain and the American Revolution (1998) B. Donoughue British politics and the American revolution: 1773-1775 (1964)

72 D.K. Fieldhouse ‘British imperialism in the late eighteenth century’, in K. Robinson & F. Madden (ed.), Essays in imperial government (1963) E.H. Gould ‘American independence and Britain’s counter-revolution’, P&P (1997) E.H. Gould The persistence of empire: British political culture in the age of the American revolution (2000) P. Langford ‘Old Whigs, old Tories and the American revolution,’ JICH (1980) P. Lawson Imperial challenge: Quebec & Britain in the American revolution (1989) P.J. Marshall ‘Empire and authority in the later eighteenth century’, JICH (1987) D. McKay ‘Direction and purpose in British imperial policy 1783-6’, HJ (1974) V. Morley Irish opinion and the American Revolution (2003) A.S. O’Shaughnessy Chapter 10, in Elaine Chalus and Perry Gauci (eds.), Revisiting the Polite and Commercial People (2019) J.J. Sainsbury Disaffected patriots: London supporters of revolutionary America (1987) P.D.G. Thomas ‘George III and the American revolution’, History (1985)

(d) Religion, empire and the anti-slavery movement

R. Anstey The Atlantic slave trade and British abolition 1760-1810 (1975) C.L. Brown Moral capital: foundations of British abolitionism (2006) S. Drescher ‘Whose abolition? popular pressure and the ending of the British slave trade’, P&P (1994) T. Glasson Mastering Christianity: missionary Anglicanism and slavery in the Atlantic world (2011) C. Hall Macaulay and son: architects of imperial Britain (2012) R. Huzzey Freedom burning: anti-slavery and empire in Victorian Britain (2012) T.C. Holt ‘Explaining abolition’, J Soc Hist (1990) R. Strong Anglicanism and the British Empire, c. 1700-1850 (2007), esp chs 2 & 3 Michael Taylor ‘Conservative political economy and the problem of colonial slavery, 1823–1833’ HJ (2014)

(e) The nineteenth century

C.A. Bayly Imperial meridian: the British empire and the world 1780-1830 (1989) J. Belich Replenishing the earth: the settler revolution and the rise of the Anglo-World, 1783-1939 (2011) D. Bell ‘Empire and international relations in Victorian political thought’, HJ (2006) D. Bell Reordering the world: essays on liberalism and empire (2016), ch. 2-4. P.J. Cain Economic foundations of British overseas expansion 1815-1914 (1980) P.J. Cain & A.G. Hopkins British imperialism: innovation and expansion 1688-1914 (1993) L. Colley Captives: Britain, empire and the world 1600-1850 (2002) J. Darwin The empire project: the rise and fall of the British world-system 1830-1970 (2009) C.C. Eldridge England’s mission: the imperial idea in the age of Gladstone & Disraeli (1973) J. Gallagher & R. Robinson ‘The imperialism of free trade’, EcHR (1953) [and replies by MacDonagh, EcHR (1961) and Platt, EcHR (1968)] C. Hall Civilising subjects: metropole and colony in the English imagination, 1830-1867 (2002) R. Hyam Britain’s imperial century 1815-1914 (1976) R. Koebner & H.D. Schmidt Imperialism: the story and significance of a political word (1964) A. Middleton ‘The Second Reform Act and the politics of empire’ Parl. Hist. (2017)

73 P. O’Brien ‘Costs and benefits of British expansion’, P&P (1988) [and comment by P. Kennedy P&P (1989)] P. Padfield Maritime power and the struggle for freedom: naval campaigns that shaped the modern world 1788-1851 (2003) A.N. Porter (ed) The Oxford history of the British empire: Vol 3 The nineteenth century (1999) A.N. Porter Religion versus empire? British Protestant missionaries and overseas expansion, 1700-1914 (2004) B. Porter The absent-minded imperialists: empire, society and culture in Britain (2004) B. Porter The lion’s share: a short history of British imperialism 1850-1983 (1984) Bill Schwarz The white man’s world (Oxford, 2011), pp. 53-191. *M. Taylor ‘Imperium et Libertas? Rethinking the radical critique of imperialism during the nineteenth century’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History (1991). *M. Taylor ‘The 1848 revolutions and the British empire’, P&P (2000) M. Taylor Empress: Queen Victoria and India (2018) A.S. Thompson Imperial Britain: the empire in British politics (2000) A.S. Thompson The empire strikes back: the impact of imperialism on Britain from the mid- nineteenth century (2005) J. Wilson ‘The silence of empire: imperialism and India’, in Languages of politics in nineteenth-century Britain, ed. D. Craig & J. Thompson (2013) K.M. Wilson Imperialism and nationalism in the middle east 1882-1982 (1983) [especially Wilson’s essay on ‘Constantinople or Cairo?’]

24. Languages of politics: an overview

Language is part of the political process. Politicians and citizens use language to explain their ambitions, legitimate their enterprises, identify their opponents and define opposing viewpoints. Of course, some thinkers and writers are interested in answering abstract questions about the nature of politics and society and developing comprehensive arguments: such arguments are studied in the political thought papers of the Tripos. The political history papers look at how language is used in everyday political life, both in formal institutions, such as Parliament, and in the wider public sphere, as in the press and public speeches. As noted for the constitutional topics, ideas about the ‘balanced’ or ‘mixed’ constitution (with its components, monarchy, aristocracy, democracy) or alternatives to it (the idea of a republic) were vigorously debated. Key terms of political allegiance and recruitment have complex meanings: Whig and Tory, Court and Country, conservative, radical and liberal. It is common for Tripos papers to ask questions which require a sense of the coherence or otherwise of such party or factional or group identities, and how they changed over time. Were there definite traditions of thought and principle (perhaps sometimes separate from or transcending party)? To what extent were political actors constrained by them? Other terms were also central to political discussion, such as liberty, corruption, independence, character, and patriotism - though politicians who used them often did not mean the same things by them. It is helpful to think about the usage and meaning of such concepts whenever one encounters them.

This topic can be studied on its own, or you can use some of the books to enrich and enhance your understanding of the topics in the chronological section of the list, and to make connections between them and trace continuities across time.

Some of these key terms could be related to larger frameworks of religious understanding:

74 see Topic 20 on religion and politics. Some were gendered: see Topic 19. The word ‘patriotism’ had a particularly complex evolution: see also Topic 13 on national identity.

R. Browning Political and constitutional ideas of the Court Whigs (1982) J. Burrow Whigs and liberals: continuity and change in English political thought (1988) S. Burtt Virtue transformed: political argument in Britain, 1688-1740 (1992) J.C.D. Clark The language of liberty 1660-1832: political discourse and social dynamics in the Anglo-American world (1993) Stefan Collini ‘The idea of “character” in Victorian political thought’, TRHS (1985) S. Collini, R. Whatmore, & B Young (ed.) Economy, polity, and society 1750-1950 (2000) S. Collini, R. Whatmore, & B Young (ed.) History, religion, and culture 1750-1950 (2000) S. J. Connolly(ed. ) Political ideas in eighteenth-century Ireland (2000) David Craig ‘The crowned republic? Monarchy and anti-monarchy in Britain,1760-1901’, HJ (2003) D. Craig & J. Thompson Languages of politics in nineteenth-century Britain (2013) H. Cunningham ‘The language of patriotism’ in R. Samuel (ed), Patriotism: the making and unmaking of British national identity (1989: Vol. 1) H.T. Dickinson Liberty and property: political ideology in 18th-century Britain (1977) M. Goldie & R. Wokler (ed.) The Cambridge history of 18th-century political thought (2006) M. Goldsmith Private vices, public benefits: Bernard Mandeville’s social and political thought (1985) A. Goodrich ‘Understanding a language of ‘aristocracy’’, HJ (2013) N. Gossman ‘Republicanism in nineteenth-century England’, IRSH (1980) E.H. Gould ‘To strengthen the king’s hands: dynastic legitimacy, militia reform and ideas of national unity in England 1745-1760’, HJ (1991) J.A.W. Gunn Beyond liberty and property (1983) R. Hamowy ‘Cato’s Letters, John Locke, and the republican paradigm’, HPT (1990) B. Hilton The age of atonement: the influence of evangelicalism on social and economic thought 1795-1865 (1988) Istvan Hont, Jealousy of Trade (2005), introduction J.P. Kenyon Revolution principles: the politics of party 1689-1720 (1977) L.E. Klein Shaftesbury and the culture of politeness (1994) I. Kramnick Bolingbroke and his circle: the politics of nostalgia (1968) I. Kramnick Republicanism and bourgeois radicalism (1990) A.D. Kriegel ‘Liberty and whiggery in early nineteenth-century England’, JMH (1980) M. Ledger-Lomas ‘The character of Pitt the Younger and party politics, 1830-1860’, HJ (2004) P. Mandler Aristocratic government in the age of reform: whigs & liberals 1830-52 (1990) P. Mandler (ed.) Liberty and authority in Victorian Britain (2006) P.N. Miller Defining the common good: empire, religion, philosophy in the eighteenth century (1994) N. Phillipson & Q. Skinner (ed.) Political discourse in early modern Britain (1993) J.G.A. Pocock The Machiavellian moment: Florentine political thought and the Atlantic republican tradition (1975) J.G.A. Pocock ‘Varieties of whiggism’ in Pocock, Virtue, commerce, and history (1985) J.G.A. Pocock Virtue, commerce, and history (1985) J.G.A. Pocock (ed.) The varieties of British political thought 1500-1800 (1993), part III F.K. Prochaska The republic of Britain, 1776-2000 (2000)

75 C. Robbins The eighteenth-century commonwealthman: studies in the transmission, development and circumstance of English liberal thought 1660-1780 (1959) J.J. Sack From Jacobite to Conservative: reaction and orthodoxy in Britain c1760- 1832 (1993) J. Sekora Luxury: the concept in western thought, Eden to Smollett (1977) R.J. Smith The gothic bequest: medieval institutions in British thought, 1688-1863 (1987) D. Spadafora The idea of progress in eighteenth-century Britain (1990) D. Wahrman Imagining the middle class: political representation of class 1780-1840 (1995)