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Forum 11.P65 Forum Politologiczne Tom 11 INP UWM Olsztyn 2010 Robert Klarecki DZIA£ALNOÆ JEZUITÓW W CESARSTWIE CHIÑSKIM* ACTIVITIES OF JESUITS IN THE EMPIRE OF CHINA Ogromny wp³yw na stosunki pomiêdzy Cesarstwem Chiñskim a papiestwem mia³y misje jezuitów. Od samego pocz¹tku swej dzia- ³alnoci misyjnej w Chinach jezuici dzia³ali pod opiek¹ portugalskie- go padroado. W³adcy Portugalii chcieli mieæ tak wielu misjonarzy jak tylko by³o to mo¿liwe. Jednak w po³owie XVI wieku Portugalia liczy³a zaledwie 1,3 mln mieszkañców i by³a jednym z najs³abiej zaludnionych pañstw Europy. Z tego te¿ wzglêdu jezuici musieli opieraæ siê g³ównie na zakonnikach innych narodowoci ni¿ portu- galska. W pocz¹tkowym okresie byli to g³ównie W³osi, wykszta³ceni w duchu w³oskiego humanizmu, otwarci na nowe kultury1. Ponadto jezuici doskonale przygotowywali siê do dzia³alnoci misyjnej. Jezu- ita Alessandro Valignano (15391606), sprawuj¹cy od sierpnia 1573 roku funkcjê Wizytatora Misji Wschodnich Towarzystwa Jezusowe- go, za³o¿y³ w Makau w 1594 roku kolegium, które mia³o krzewiæ owiatê i szkoliæ misjonarzy. Nauczanie w g³ównej mierze dotyczy³o * Autor chcia³by wyraziæ wdziêcznoæ Prof. Leonardowi £ukaszukowi, O.R. Malkowi SVD i Prof. UW dr. hab. Janowi Rowiñskiemu za cenne sugestie i uwagi przy przygotowaniu tego artyku³u. 1 Zob. N. Standaert (ed.), Handbook of Christianity in China, Volume One: 6351800, Brill Academic Publishers 2001, s. 3009. 254 Robert Klarecki jêzyków oraz kultury Chin i Japonii. Wkrótce misjonarze jezuiccy dostrzegli, i¿ ich dzia³ania na niewiele siê zdaj¹, jeli nie uzyskaj¹ pomocy wy¿szych urzêdników chiñskich. I tak planowali pozyskaæ warstwy rz¹dz¹ce w pierwszej kolejnoci. Dopiero póniej chcieli chrystianizowaæ ludnoæ, a i to z pomoc¹ warstw rz¹dz¹cych. Jezuici starali siê zatem kszta³towaæ opiniê o sobie jako o ludziach nauki. To w Chinach obowi¹zywa³y od wieków skomplikowane egzaminy na urzêdników pañstwowych, to wiedza matematyczna otwiera³a drzwi urzêdów i pa³aców, a konstelacje astronomiczne decydowa³y o powodzeniu w ¿yciu i s³u¿bie. To w Pañstwie rodka elity rz¹dz¹ce by³y wykszta³cone, a w³adcy i za ich przyk³adem urzêdnicy zabiegali o kontakty z uczonymi. W ten sposób, w kraju gdzie cenzus nauki otwiera³ drzwi zamkniête przed innymi, jezuici bardzo u³atwili sobie kontakty z wykszta³conymi Chiñczykami. Niemal natychmiast, w przeciwieñstwie do np. franciszkanów, nast¹pi³o dostosowanie pro- gramów nauczania misjonarzy w jezuickim Collegio Romano w Rzymie. Wprowadzono tam do programu nauki misjonarzy przed- mioty takie jak matematyka, fizyka, historia czy filozofia i nauki polityczne. Misjonarz jezuicki musia³ doskonale opanowaæ wiadomo- ci matematyczno-przyrodnicze i poza obowi¹zkowymi egzaminami teologicznymi, zdaæ egzaminy z matematyki, medycyny, astronomii lub innych dziedzin przydatnych w pracy misyjnej. Dopiero tak wszechstronnie wykszta³cony jezuita móg³ zostaæ wys³any do pracy w Azji. Jezuici wysy³ani do Makau zwykle mieli opanowany jeden zawód rzemielniczy lub techniczny, byli ¿eglarzami, szkutnikami, znali siê na fortyfikacjach lub budowie dzia³. Jednak w przysz³oci mia³o siê okazaæ, i¿ wrota do Cesarstwa otworzyli ci, którzy potrafili budowaæ precyzyjne zegary z mechanizmami dwiêkowymi i rucho- mymi figurkami. Jednak pierwsze starania jezuitów w dotarciu do Chin nie by³y pomylne. Trzy pierwsze próby za³o¿enia misji w Cesarstwie Chiñ- skim, podjête jeszcze zanim Alessandro Valignano utworzy³ kole- gium jezuickie w Makau, zakoñczy³y siê niepowodzeniem. Jezuici Dzia³alnoæ jezuitów w Cesarstwie Chiñskim 255 nie znali bowiem jêzyka chiñskiego, a niewielu z nich pos³ugiwa³o siê podstawowymi zwrotami. Kontakty utrudnia³a tak¿e polityka wszechobecnej w³adzy cesarskiej, której przedstawiciele niechêtni byli kontaktom obcokrajowców z miejscow¹ ludnoci¹. Dodatkowo urzêdnicy cesarscy wymagali sprawozdañ z ka¿dego spotkania pod- w³adnych z misjonarzami. Nastêpnie czêæ tych sprawozdañ przeka- zywana by³a do naczelników miast, gubernatorów a nawet wicekró- lów2. I to w³anie urzêdnicy cesarscy decydowali o mo¿liwociach chrystianizacji, a zainteresowanie samej ludnoci by³o tu bez zna- czenia3. Punktem zwrotnym w historii dzia³alnoci misjonarskiej jezu- itów, a co za tym idzie równie¿ w historii kontaktów chiñsko-papie- skich sta³o siê przybycie w 1583 roku do miasta Zhaoqing w prowin- cji Guangdong w pobli¿u Kantonu, gdzie mieci³a siê siedziba wice- króla po³udniowych prowincji Guangdong i Guangxi, dwóch jezu- itów z Makau. Byli to Michele Ruggieri (15431607) i Matteo Ricci (15521610). Po kilku nieudanych próbach, ostatecznie zostali za- proszeni we wrzeniu 1583 roku przez prefekta Zhaoqing. Ricci po- zosta³ w miecie przez piêæ lat przygotowuj¹c siê do pracy misyjnej w Chinach. Chcia³ zdobyæ szacunek uczonych chiñskich oraz dygni- tarzy dworu cesarskiego i aby to osi¹gn¹æ wybra³ dwa sposoby. Po pierwsze zapozna³ siê z klasyczn¹ nauk¹ Konfucjusza. W ten sposób, tocz¹c uczone dysputy, móg³ odwo³ywaæ siê do chiñskiej literatury tradycyjnej. Po drugie, Ricci przekazywa³ elicie chiñskiej wiadomo- ci o naukowych osi¹gniêciach Zachodu, chc¹c w ten sposób zaimpo- nowaæ Chiñczykom. Celem Ricciego by³o przekonanie Chiñczyków, i¿ przybysze z Zachodu nie s¹ barbarzyñcami. Czyni³ to poprzez przedstawianie zachodnich osi¹gniêæ astronomicznych, in¿ynieryj- 2 Wicekról to angielskie t³umaczenie tytu³u Zongdu, czyli Generalny Nad- zorca Protektor. T³umaczone te¿ jako Gubernator Generalny. Wicekról zarz¹dza³ du¿ymi jednostkami administracyjnymi (zwykle 23 prowincje), podlegaj¹c bez- porednio dworowi cesarskiemu. 3 Zob. E. Kajdañski, Micha³ Boym, Ambasador Pañstwa rodka, Ksi¹¿ka i Wiedza Warszawa 1999, s. 3435. 256 Robert Klarecki nych oraz matematycznych. Ruggieri i Ricci byli doskona³ymi mate- matykami i astronomami. I w³anie to przyczyni³o siê do tego, i¿ gocili oni u siebie wicekróla Guangdong i mandarynów. Przedmio- tem, który otworzy³ drogê Ricicemu i Ruggieriemu do gubernatora Guangdongu i do wicekróla prowincji po³udniowych okaza³ siê pryz- mat, nieznany wówczas w Chinach, a w Europie szeroko rozpo- wszechniony. Ruggieri, znaj¹c siê na optyce, rozszczepi³ w nim wia- t³o s³oneczne. Chiñczycy myleli, i¿ têcza ukazana na cianach re- zydencji misjonarzy to fragment nieba, o którym ci¹gle mówili jezu- ici. W tej sytuacji nie mo¿e zatem dziwiæ fakt, i¿ wkrótce na terenie cesarstwa rozpowszechni³a siê informacja o uczonych z Zachodu, którzy pokazywali na cianach swej rezydencji widok nieba, mieli nieznane w Chinach urz¹dzenia oraz potrafili przewidywaæ zaæmie- nia S³oñca i Ksiê¿yca, a czynili to dok³adniej ni¿ miejscowi uczeni. Nic zatem dziwnego, i¿ informacje te w koñcu zaciekawi³y samego cesarza Wanli (15721620). Tymczasem w roku 1588 Alessandro Valignano wys³a³ do Euro- py ojca Ruggieri, aby bardziej zainteresowaæ Kuriê Rzymsk¹ misja- mi dalekowschodnimi. Valignani prosi³ papie¿a, aby ten zapropono- wa³ cesarzowi przyjêcie papieskich pos³ów. W licie skierowanym do genera³a Zakonu Jezuitów Valignano argumentowa³, ¿e w Cesar- stwie Chiñskim, gdzie cesarz skupia w swych rêkach ca³¹ w³adzê, tylko cesarz mo¿e udzieliæ pozwolenia na swobodn¹ dzia³alnoæ mi- sjonarzom. Valignano postulowa³ wys³anie do cesarstwa 4 pos³ów (W³ochów lub Portugalczyków, ale nie Kastylijczyków), którzy winni posiadaæ papieskie listy uwierzytelniaj¹ce napisane po chiñsku. Ruggieri dostarczy³ do Rzymu takie listy przet³umaczone ju¿ przez Ricciego. Pos³owie papiescy winni tak¿e posiadaæ kosztowne prezen- ty. Niestety, plany poselstwa papieskiego nie zosta³y zrealizowane, czêciowo ze wzglêdu na fakt, i¿ po mierci papie¿a Sykstusa V w roku 1590 nast¹pi³y 4 pontyfikaty w ci¹gu zaledwie 2 lat4. Sam 4 Urban VII (1590), Grzegorz XIV (15901591), Innocenty IX (1591) i Kle- mens VIII (15921605). Dzia³alnoæ jezuitów w Cesarstwie Chiñskim 257 Ruggieri nie powróci³ ju¿ do Chin. Jednak Valignano wielokrotnie wraca³ do tego planu, do czasu a¿ Ricci dotar³ do Pekinu. W 1589 roku Valignano zwróci³ siê tak¿e do genera³a jezuitów o pozwolenie przyjêcia do zakonu Chiñczyków. Rzym zdecydowa³ jednak, i¿ ze wzglêdu na krótki okres ich nawracania, nie mog¹ oni zostawaæ kap³anami. Tak wiêc w roku 1610 na terenie Cesarstwa dzia³a³o 8 jezuitów europejskich oraz 8 chiñskich5. W latach 15891601 Ricci wiele podró¿owa³, zak³adaj¹c misje chrzecijañskie w kilku miastach rodkowych Chin. W 1595 roku przeniós³ siê do Nanchang, gdzie zawar³ dwie wyj¹tkowo cenne znajomoci z krewnymi cesarza Zhu Duojie ksiêciem Jianan oraz z ksiêciem Lean. Znajomoæ z ksiêciem Jianan przerodzi³a siê w prawdziw¹ przyjañ i jemu w³anie Ricci zadedykowa³ traktat De amicitia (O przyjani). Sytuacja w Nanchang by³a tymczasem na tyle sprzyjaj¹ca, i¿ Ricci skierowa³ probê o pomoc finansow¹ i oso- bow¹ w za³o¿eniu bazy misyjnej do nastêpcy Valignano na stanowi- sku szefa misji w Chinach, ojca Duarte de Sande (15471599), re- zyduj¹cego w Makau6. W roku 1595 Ricci odwiedzi³ Nankin. wia- dom jednak tego, i¿ do swobodnego nauczania potrzebne mu jest zezwolenie cesarskie, rozpocz¹³ starania, aby dostaæ siê do Pekinu. Wspiera³ go w tych staraniach ojciec Valignano, który przesta³ ju¿ liczyæ na wys³anie poselstwa papieskiego do Chin. Jezuici musieli zatem sami przej¹æ inicjatywê. W tym te¿ celu w sierpniu 1597 roku Matteo Ricci zosta³ Prze³o¿onym Misji w Chinach. Ricci wy- korzysta³ tak¿e znajomoæ z ministrem Rytua³ów Wang Zhongmin- giem i w jego towarzystwie uda³ siê do Pekinu po raz pierwszy w 1598 roku, aby spotkaæ siê z cesarzem. Jednak nie uda³o mu siê to. Ostatecznie 18 maja 1600 roku opuci³ Nanchang i przeniós³ siê do Pekinu, gdzie uzyska³ cesarsk¹ zgodê na osiedlenie7. Ricci znany 5 Zob. G. Andreotti, Jezuita w Chinach, Matteo Ricci z Italii do Pekinu, Wydawnictwo WAM, Kraków 2004, s. 4142. 6 Ibidem. 7 Zob. The Catholic Encyclopedia, Robert Appleton Company, New York 19071914. Wydanie internetowe http://www.newadvent.org/cathen 258 Robert Klarecki jest Chiñczykom pod imieniem Li Madou (Li Ma-teu), które przyj¹³ w 1601 roku, tu¿ po tym jak cesarz Wanli przyj¹³ w prezencie od niego europejski zegar. Wszystkie dzia³ania Ricciego i jego towarzy- szy zwróci³y uwagê wielu chiñskich uczonych a tak¿e wysoko posta- wionych urzêdników.
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