JCBPS; Section B; November 2020 –January 2021, Vol. 11, No. 1; 125-136, E- ISSN: 2249 –1929 [DOI: 10.24214/jcbps.B.11.1.12536.]

Journal of Chemical, Biological and Physical Sciences

An International Peer Review E-3 Journal of Sciences Available online atwww.jcbsc.org Section B: Biological Sciences

CODEN (USA): JCBPAT Research Article

Management of pests and diseases of nuts (Anacardium occidentale L.) in production areas

Rachidatou Sikirou1 Léopold Simplice Gnancadja-André 2, Dénis E. Tonon Houndahouan1,2, Aristide C. Adomou2, Valérien Zinsou3

1Laboratoire de la Défense des Cultures (LDC), Centre de Recherches Agricoles d‟Agonkanmey, Institut National des Recherches Agricoles du Bénin (INRAB), 01 BP 884 Cotonou, Bénin. 2Laboratoire de Physiologie Végétale et de Stress Environnementaux, Département de Biologie Végétale, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université d‟Abomey-Calavi (UAC), Bénin. 3Faculté d‟Agronomie, Université de Parakou (UP), BP 123 Parakou, Bénin.

Received: 11 December 2020; Revised: 24 December 2020; Accepted: 03 January 2021

Abstract: The cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale L.) is a growing cash crop. Its nuts represent an export opportunity for and an attractive economic alternative for producing countries. However, several abiotic and biotic factors compromise its productivity. ‟ pests such as Mecocorynus loripes, terebrans, Helopeltis spp., Pseudotherapus wayi, Pseudococcus longispinus, Anoplocnemis curvipes are the most harmful to cashew plantation. Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides followed by bacterial blight due to Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. anacardii and powdery mildew caused by Oidium anacardii are the main damaging diseases. The pestalotiosis insited by Pestalotia heterocornis and rust caused by Cryptosporiopsis spp. are minor. Control methods are mainly based on the use of pesticides, cultural practices, resistant varieties and biological control. The insects pest control methods considered include mechanical management and cultural, chemical and resistance assessment approaches. Despite the reported economic damage caused to producers by cashew pests and diseases, there is little up-to-date critical information on their current status and management in Africa. Therefore, this review article examines 125 JCBPS; Section B; November 2020 –January 2021, Vol. 11, No. 1; 125-136. [DOI:10.24214/jcbps.B.11.1.12536.]

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the status of the major cashew nut pests and diseases and their management methods. This information will be essential for farmers to make significant improvements in cashew nut production in Africa. Keywords: Cashew nuts, pests, control methods, diseases, Africa

1. INTRODUCTION

The cashew tree (Anacardium occidentale L.) is native of Brazilian coast [1]. Originaly, planted to protect the ecosystem, heavily affected by deforestation, the cashew tree is nowadays cultivated for its fruits nuts and tree. It importance is currently increasing among the agricultural export products and represents a major socio-economic interest for the world [2]. Regarding its given this potential, the cashew sector has now shown a spectacular development in most tropical production regions of the world. However, the majority of production is concentrated in the following four major regions of the world: Southeast Asia, Brazil, East Africa and West Africa [3]. Globally, cashew plantations cover an area of 5,972,724 ha with an annual production of 5,932,507 tons of cashew nuts [4]. In Africa, 1,825,984 tons of cashew nuts were annually harvested from area of 3,646,846 ha [4]. A large part of the produced nuts is intended for exported and the rest is subjected to local processing. The cashew apple is also partially processed into fruit juice, food alcohol and vinegar [5,6]. Thus, cashew cultivation constitutes an interesting alternative for the economy of producing countries [5,7]. Nutritionally, cashew kernels are rich in protein, vitamins B, D, K and C and mono-unsaturated fatty acids. It contains a lot of mineral elements such as magnesium, copper, phosphorus, zinc, calcium, iron and selenium [3]. Therapeutically, the bark and apple of the cashew tree are used in traditional medicine for the treatment of bronchitis, cough, diabetes, diuretics, intestinal colic, syphilis, ulcers and urinary diseases [8]. Despite the multiple services provided by cashew plants, related to nutritional, economic, environmental and social, they are subject to several biotic and abiotic constraints which greatly reduce the yield. Over the last ten years, cashew yield has decreased [9]. In most of producing countries in Africa, the yield varies between 3 kg and 67 kg / tree [5] compared to 10 to 15 kg/tree in other countries of the world such as India, Vietnam, Brazil and Tanzania, the yield varied between 10 to 15 kg/tree [5]. The low productivity of the cashew tree in most producing countries reduces the income of producers and jeopardizes the investments made during the establishment and monitoring of cashew plantations [10]. This low yield does not benefit farmers who lose their investments. However, the low productivity of the cashew tree are related to several factors including poor soil fertility, unsuitable agro-ecological conditions, poor technical itineraryroutes, poor quality of plant material, inadequate spacing between plants, poor plantations maintenance and diseases and pest attacks [2,11]. Pest attacks due to insect pests and especially diseases are the most damaging ones. Thus, this review aims at taking stock of the main pests and diseases related to cashew nut production and their management measures in Africa. 2. Cashew production conditions and needs: The establishment of a cashew plantation requires some conditions related to the agro ecological and environment. The cashew tree preferably grows at an altitudes below 1000 mm, in areas with a hot tropical climate, with alternating dry and wet seasons [12]. It tolerate periods of heat and drought. Forty degree (40 ° C) is ideal, but not above 45 ° C). Temperatures

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Management… Rachidatou Sikirou et al. that promote good plant growth are between 20 and 36 °C. The cashew tree is sensitive to intense cold and large temperature variations [10]. Its needs a rainfall of between 600 and 1500 mm per year in a single season of 4 to 6 months. It needs a dry period of 5 to 7 months favouring good fruiting and best conservation of the cashew nut. Depending on the ecological zone, the influence of rainfall is perceptible on cashew yield [13,14]. The cashew tree adapts to various types of soil. It does not require a rich soil but prefers light, sandy, deep, well-drained soils with 25% clay [15]. Soil with pH values vary between 4.5 and 6.5 is favorable for cashew plant [16]. 2.1. Importance of cashew 2.1.1. The value chain of the cashew tree: Cashew is a useful plant. All its parts including wood, fruit, almond, or its shell liquid (Cashew Nut Shell Liquid) (CNSL) are exploitable. The use are many depending on the part of the plant. 2.1.2. Agri-food use: The cashew nut almond, a viable additional protein resource and microelement, is mainly consumed after processing in the form of "snack" or "appetizer" in the same way as peanuts [17,18]. It can be eaten alone, salted, or in assortment with other dried fruits [10]. It is traditionally consumed in this way in Europe and the United States which are the primary selling sources of cashew. It is also add to several products from chocolate or confectionery industries (chocolate candies, honey, etc.). For biscuits, pastry and yoghurt preparation, cashew nuts can be used as powder, granular or entire form. They can also be transformed into butter [10]. The fatty acids contained in cashew nut are of great dietary importance for the control of bad cholesterol [3]. In addition to the nut, cashew apple is edible. It has great antiscorbutic properties due to its vitamin C content which is about 5 times higher than that of an orange [17,19]. Sweet and fragrant juice, vinegar, wine or alcohol come from cashew apple processing [10,13]. The cashew nut alcohol is very appreciated in Brazil and in West African countries, especially in Guinea Bissau where it is consumed as cashew wine [10]. 2.1.3. Industrial use: Cashew Nut Shell Liquid is used in the manufacture of brakes and clutch‟s friction elements. This substance is also used as an insulating and waterproof material in aviation or as an input for paints, varnishes and plastics industry. In Asia, it is used for the manufacture of indelible ink [10,13,20], 2014). Cashew balm is also used as a bio-insecticide [20] against crop pests such as caterpillars. (Helicoverpa armigera, Earias spp., Diparopsis watersi, Spodoptera littoralis, Pectinophora gossypiella, Thaumatotibia leucotreta) in cotton [21], coleopteran (Collosobruchus maculatus) in cowpea stock [22]. Cashew nut oil is also obtained from cashew nut which is mainly used in pharmacology and cosmetics [19]. 2.1.4. Cosmetic use: Cashew oil, obtained by pressing cashew nuts, is combined with other components for the manufacture of cosmetic products. Cashew oil has a high content in vitamins E and unsaturated fatty acids which particularly protect the skin against its drying up. It can be used in the composition of hands balms, massage oils, sun care and lips or the hair treatment as well [10]. 2.2. Main insect pests of cashew nuts Numerous insect pests are harmful to cashew production. Insect pests are common to many cashew producing areas. They including stem bores Mecocorynus loripes (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) (Figure 1a) and Apate terebrans (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae) (Figure 1b) and sap-sucking bugs such as Helopeltis spp. (Hemiptera: Miridae) (Figure 1c), Pseudotherapus wayi Brown (Hemiptera: Coreidae) (Figure 1d), Anoplocnemis curvipes (Hemiptera: Coreidae) (Figure 1e) and Pseudococcus longispinus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) (Figure 1f).

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Stem borers cause significant economic losses to cashew growers. Agboton et al.[23] characterized M. loripes and A. terebrans as the dangerous pest for cashew production in . The insect M. loripes causes the streaming of gum-resin after drilling cashew trees and branches which fall down during a slightly gust of wind [24]. The damage caused by A. terebrans are characterized by the presence of numerous galleries oriented from the bottom to the top; the discharge of sawdust at the foot of the trees is the signs of plant attack and the presence of the borer inside of the gallery [24]. His damage includes taps of the trunks and branches of living trees and shrubs which involve the stopping of the sap flow and the weakening the branches and trees, which fall down at the slightest gust of wind and dry [25]. The presence of A. terebrans was reported in most countries of sub-Saharan Africa in and in Central and South America [26]. In addition to stem borers and sap-sucking bugs, the merid bugs Elopeltis schoutedeni and Elopeltis anacardii, are also reported as important pests in cashew plantations causing yield losses of 78% [27]. They damage is characterized on leaves by necrotic lesions along the main veins and on flower petioles and peduncles and gum oozing [28,29].These damage come from the biting and sucking sap on young leaves tissues and growing flowers and fruits [28]. Insects such as Pseudotheraptus devastans, Diplognata gagates, Logria sp., Mylabris bifasciata and Pachnoda marginella are considered as minor pests of cashew tree [23]. Tonon Houndahouan[30] reported Thrips as economical important insect pests in cashew nursery. They are the most common and damaging pests of cashew seedling in the nursery. According to Navik et al.[31], Zote et al.[32] and Singh and Mukherjee[33] , Haplothrips ceylonicus (Figure 1g), Scirtothrips dorsalis(Figure 1h), Selenothrips rubrocinctus (Figure 1i), Haplothrips williamsi (Figure 1j), Holopothrips fulvus (Figure 1k), Rhynchothrips raoensis (Figure 1l) and Franklieniella schultzei (Figure 1m) are the most common species of Thrips. Holopothrips fulvus was reported in Brazil on dwarf cashew crops [34]. They damage is recognizable by the gradual change in color of the initially green veins to brown-black by feeding on the leaves. The leaves turn silvery on the underside and later turn yellow [30]. In plantation, they cause abortion and deformation of the fruits. This affects tree's production and depreciates the quality of the nuts [31,33,34,].

Fig.1a: M. loripes Fig.1b: A. Terebrans Fig.1c: Helopeltis spp. Source: Agboton et al.[23] Source: Agboton et al.[23] Source: Siswanto et al.[35]

Fig.1d: P. wayi Fig.1e: A. curvipes Fig.1f: P. longispinus Source: Schoeman et al.[36] Source: Agboton et al.[23] Source: Agboton et al.[23]

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Fig.1g: H. ceylonicus Fig.1h: S. dorsalis Fig.1i: S. rubrocinctus Source: Schoeman et al.[36] Source: Agboton et al.[23] Source: Agboton et al.[23]

Fig.1j: Haplothrips illiamsi Fig.1k: H. fulvus Fig.1l: R. raoensis Fig.1m: F. schultzei Source: Navik et al.[31]. Source: Lima et al.[34] Source: Zote et al.[32] Source: Singh and Mukherjee[33]

Figure 1: The main cashew insect pests 2.3. Diseases of cashew trees: Anthracnose, bacterial blight, pestalotiosis, powdery mildew and rust are the main reported diseases from cashew fields. Anthracnose (Figure 2a) caused by the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is the most economically important disease of the cashew. It is reported from many tropical producing countries [37-39]. Symptoms are characterized by the wilting of young leaves at earlier stage of growing and yellowing spots on old leaves which developing in necrosis on a part or total leaf. Necrosis appears also on the stem and young nuts. Attacked fruit dry out and remain suspended on the tree. Many studies showed that anthracnose causes significant damage in nurseries [30] and heavy yield losses in cashew plantations under favourable conditions [2,30,37]. According to the work of Uaciquete[2], more than 70% of yield losses were recorded in cashew plantations in . In Uganda, Kiwuso et al.[39] reported a yield loss varying between 40 and 56% in plantations. In Brazil, losses in the order of 40% were recorded [40]. According to the work of Tonon Houndahouan[30] , a yield loss of 72% due to anthracnose was estimated with cashew growers in forest zone in Benin. This result corroborate that of Uaciquete[2] who showed that the anthracnose disease development is favoured by high air humidity of 95-100% and a temperature between 22 - 28°C during the flowering and fruiting. Other important disease is bacterial blight (Figure 2b) caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. anacardii. previously called X. campestris pv. mangiferae indicae [41]. Cashew bacterial blight is recognized by angular, dark to black and oily spots on the leaves with many along the veins. The spots enlarge as the infection progresses. Spots are also observed on the petioles of leaves, on the main vein one the branches and young immature nuts. Heavily attacked plants are defoliated and shown branches with cankers X. axonopodis pv. anacardii is a serious threat in cashew nurseries. It can cause yield losses ranging from 50 to 80% in untreated orchards [42]. Severe attack reduces nut quality and market value [41].

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Pestalotiosis (Figure 2c) caused by Pestalotia heterocornis is a fungal disease widespread in cashew plantations in Africa. The disease is known by the presence of numerous lesions on the mature leaves. These lesions are reddish on the upper surface and whitish on the lower surface of the leaves [28,43]. Humidity of 80 to 100% and a temperature varying between 26 and 28 °C favour the disease developpement [44]. Leaf and nut rust (Figure 2d) is another fungal disease of cashew caused by Cryptosporiopsis spp. The disease causes angular lesions with a dark reddish-brown border. The lesions subsequently enlarge and coalesce to form a plaque, causing rusting and then defoliation. Old lesions on infected leaves show a paper-thin appearance and a silver or grey color. The fungus turns young nuts in black leading to significant yield losses. Old infected nuts have a dark appearance with small holes. Tar stains are frequently observed on apples [45,46]. Powdery mildew of cashew trees (Figure 2e) caused by the fungus Oïdium anacardii Noack [28] is also a threat to cashew trees. The fungus prevents young leaves from ripening and covers cashew trees with a whitish and mealy veil. In case of severe attacks, it deforms the young leaves, curls up and dried out the old ones prematurely. The flowers fall off [47]. Yield losses reach 70% in plantations under high severity condition [48].

Fig.2: Anthracnose; Fig.2b: bacterial blight; Fig.2c: pestalotiosis; Source: Tonon Houndahouan [30] Source: Afouda et al.[11] Source: Wonni et al.[49]

Fig.2d: Rust ; Fig.2e: powdery mildew; Source: Wonni et al.[49] Source: Wonni et al.[49]

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2.4. Management of cashew pests: The management of biological risks guarantees food and income security. The stem borer management methods are essentially mechanical and limited to cultural control. The insect and its weevils are collected from infested plants parts and destroyed [50]. To control stem borers Akessé et al.[51] reported the capture and the killing of the adults bores during outbreak periods. These control methods appear to be ineffective and there is an increase in the spread of stem borers in cashew plantations. Contrary to the stem borer, chemical control is more efficient for controlling bedbug. According to Manimaran et al.[52], the application of Chlorpyriphos and Thiacloprid based insecticides is more effective to control these bugs. The control method for thrips remains essentially chemical. It is achieved through the use of chemical insecticides containing Dichloro DiphenylTrichloroethan (DDT), Cypermethrin and Aluminium Phosphide [32, 33]. 2.5. Cashew disease management: The damage caused by diseases in cashew plantations required effective means of control to improve cashew productivity. To reduce yield losses due to anthracnose, chemical control remains the rapid and short time and more available means to control pests. Fungicides containing Trifloxystrobin, Hexaconazole, Mancozeb, Triadimenol or Penconazole and that contains both Chlorothalonil and Carbendazim have been reported very effective against cashew anthracnose [2,53]. Other synthetic fungicides based on Cymoxanil, Manacozeb, Tebuconazole, Copper Difenaconazole, Benlate and Thiabendazole are efficient in controlling fungal and bacterial diseases [44,45,54,55]. Besides chemical control of cashew diseases, the effect of biological agents and botanical extracts are also explored. Soro et al.[56] reported the essential oils extracted from Cymbopogon nardus and Ocimum gratissimum as efficient in the management of C. gloeosporioides. The genus Trichoderma plays an important role in the control of anthracnose caused by C. gloeosporioides [57]. Tonon Houndahouan[30] showed that strains of T. harzianum and T. pseudokoningii were effective in controlling cashew anthracnose disease. The application of the fungus Ampelomyces quisqualis reduced significantly the pressure of Oidium anacardii in cashew plantations [47]. Selection of resistant genes were also experimented by scientist. This control method remains the most economical and environment respectful control approach method. Thus, in Côte d'Ivoire, Soro and N'Da[58] has selected cashew varieties resistant to anthracnose disease of cashew. In Tanzania, tolerant/resistant cashew varieties to anthracnose were reported by Masawe et al. [59]. These varieties have been commercialized and made available to farmers as grafted plants [59]. Good cultural practices based on the respect of tree densities per hectare, thinning, cleaning fallen branches and leaves, burning or burying the infected tissues are other methods used to reduce the anthracnose disease [2].

3. CONCLUSION

Cashew is an important crop for producing countries. Its plantations draw many pests and diseases which harm its production. The control methods are mainly related to chemical control, cultural practices, resistant selection and biological control. Among which, chemical use is the most developed. The information provided by this paper needs to be capitalized by cashew growers to improve and increase their production. However, further research is needed, especially on ecological management of pathogens and pests.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors are grateful to Laboratoire de Défense des Cultures (LDC) of Institut National des Recherches Agricoles du Bénin (INRAB) for financial support.

4. REFERENCE

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Corresponding author: Dr.Dénis E. Tonon Houndahouan, 1Laboratoire de Défense des Cultures (LDC), Centre de Recherches Agricoles d‟Agonkanmey, Institut National des Recherches Agricoles du Bénin (INRAB), 01 BP 884 Cotonou, Bénin. 2Laboratoire de Physiologie Végétale et de Stress Environnementaux, Département de Biologie Végétale, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques, Université d‟Abomey-Calavi (UAC), Bénin. Online publication Date: 03.1.2021

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