Planning History • + • • • • • + + ••••• • • • • •• + •• • Bulletin of the Planning History Group

Vol. 13 No. 3 1991 Planning History Bulletin of the Planning History Group Contents

Editor Dr Stephen V. Ward School of Planning Oxford Polytechnic Gipsy Lane Editorial 1 Headington Oxford OX3 OBP Letters 2 Telephone: 0865 819421 Telex: G83147 VIA Notices 3 Fax: 0865 819559 Articles 5 Associate Editor for the Americas· Professor Marc A. Weiss Early Metropolitan Planning in Perth, Western Australia 5 Graduate School of Architecture, Planni ng and P. McManus and 0 . Yiftachel Preservation Columbia University 410H Avery Hall Origins of Segregatory Urban Planning in South Africa, c. 1900-1940 8 New York, NY 10027 A. Mabin USA Associate Editor for the Pacific Research 17 Dr Robert Freestone School of Town Planning Planning in Milan at the End of the 19th Century: The Contribution University of New South Wales of 17 P 0 Box 1 Research Study Kensington, NSW 2033 C. Morandi Australia An Atlas of Historic Centres in Latin America: Brazil 21 Production G. Piccina to Design: Rob Woodward Word Processing: Sue Bartlett This issue is printed by Oxonian Rewley Press Ltd Reports

Planning History is p ubli shed three times a year ACSP-AESOP Joint Congress, Oxford, July 8-12, 1991 28 fo r distribution t o members of the Planning S. Ward History Group. The G roup as a body is not responsible fo r the views expressed and statements made by individuals writing or Lewis Murnford: Exploring An Intellectual Legacy 32 reporti ng in Planni ng History. No part of this J. R. Gold publication may be reproduced in any form without permission from the editor. Architectural Conservation; Informing the Professionals 33 C. Tranmer (ed.) Notes for Contributors The prime aim of Planning History is to increase an awareness of developments and ideas in Publications 37 planning history in all parts of the world. In pursuit of this aim, contributions arc invited Abstracts 37 from members and non-member!> alike for any secti on of the bull etin. Articles should normall y not exceed 2500 words, and mav well reflect work in p rogress. Photographs and other il lustrati ons may be incl uded. Contribut ion::. submitted on a disc, with accompanying ha rd copy, are to be encouraged; please contact the editor for format details. Editorial Planning 1-Ustory Vol. 13 No. 3

A particularly happy outcome of the 1991 international conferences has been to greatly Editorial strengthen the informal and personal links between the Society for American City and Regional Pl~nning History (SACRPH) and our own Planning 1991 has been an interesting and important year for H1story Group. The debate about finding a suitable planning historians. We have had the unusual way to bring these groups together in a formal bonus of two major international conferences that arrangement that avoids the need for dual have focused wholly or partly on our subject area. membership for PHG's American members The ACSP I AESOP Conference at Oxford, UK in continues. Of course personal contacts do not July, (reported in this issue), and the 4th National overcome all misgivings about moving to a more Conference on American Planning History, expensive international society format for the doubling as the 5th International Conference of the Planning History Group. Many UK and non-UK Planning History Group at Richmond, Virginia i n members of the Group are clearly happy with the November, have provided rich opportunities for present arrangements. But at least the major figures meeting a nd getting to know our fellow involved in SACRPH and PHG have now met each p~ac titi oner s from other countries. (A report of the other and been able to talk in a relaxed way about Richmond Conference wi ll appear in the next the different issue). options and their particular concerns. One point which I hope has now become fully clear The personal links fostered by such international to SACRPH members is the truly international basis events a re of tremendous value in advancing our of the PHG. Despite its British base, it looks across area of common interest. However effective journals like Planning History or Planning the globe. in a ~ay that is a remarkable testimony to the tra1l blazmg efforts of its two founders, Perspectives are in spreading the word about the Cordon Cherry and Tony Sutcliffe. Those who wish work of individuals and groups, personal contacts add a further d imension to this, sometimes in to equ~te PHG with larger structures might see it as a nurror of the pragmatic restlessness of British unexpected ways. For example, not the least ~st-imperialism, on the one hand forging links significant event at the Richmond conference was w1th Europe, while maintaining them with the when your editor r ediscovered a long-lost ability to former British Empire and the wider world dance during a night out at one of the local especially the USA and Japan. But whether'we nightspots in the delightful company of Greek, explain it in terms of personalities or structures is American, Japanese, Finnish, German and British ultimately irrelevant because this international delegates! Others will, I feel sure, have come away from these conferences with similar memories of network has itself become a tremendously valuable new or renewed friendships. In such relaxed resource, capable of being experienced at a variety of levels. circumstances eminent names on the pages of academic journals quickly become friends; letters no longer need be addressed formally, as to Planning History continues to demonstrate and strangers. reflect this internationalist spirit, and the present issue is a good example of the range of our There is, I hasten to add, a scholarly spin-off from conce~n s. There is, as usual, no shortage of suitable such socialising. Thus the very scholarly journals matenal and I have again had to hold over some that formalise our academic interchanges also thrive articles and other reports until the next issue. on international conferences because of the ~lea~e keep the material coming though. I am often unrivalled showcase they provide for academic fmdmg out about seminars and conferences too late papers and their presenters. I am certainly finding, to includ~ them in the notices section, so I hope as did my predecessor, that such conferences are the orgarusers of such events will think ahead and tremendous generators of articles, research material, help me inform readers of their events. information on research and study networks, A~ter this very minor admonition, Planning History forthcoming publications and the like. Even the w1shes all its readers a Merry Christmas and Happy New Year. May 1992 be as fruitful ~ost cynical observer of the international planning for our h1 story conference network, with mind coloured subject as 1991 has been! perhaps by fanciful images from the novels of Oavid Lodge or Malcolm Bradbury, would have to Stephen V Ward concede, I hope, that it generates better and more diverse reading in these pages. PlaMing History Vol 13 No. 3 Planning History Vol. 13 No. 3 Letters NoliCEll

interrelationships between public administration Jorge Augusto Arredondo-Vega and professional planning practice in such a way Correction that, if those responsible have their wits about (mailing address) Notices them, better, more adaptable systems will result. School of Architecture UABC 211 First Street, Box 35085 Regrettably three of the illustrations in Professor The Temple Hoyne Buell Center for the I have argued from time to time that if planning Calexico, CA 92231 Jeremy Whitehand's article in the last issue of Study of American Architecture, history as a field of endeavour is to flourish in the California were transposed. The illustration PIJJ nning History long term, the academic-practitioner bridges need USA Columbia University, 400 Avery Hall, s~own as Figure 3 should have been Figure 5, to be strengthened and its implicit relevance to day New York, NY 10027 hould have been Figure 6 and Figure 6 Ftgure 5 s to day practice which we 'affidondos' take for have been Figure 3. Planning History should granted, made more explicit. 1992 Buell Talks on American expresses its sincere apologies both to Professor and to readers for this confusion. Architecture Whitehand Mr Larkham has done us proud. I for one am Readers wishing to have receive a correct version of drawing his commentary to the attention of the the article should contact the editor. The Temple Hoyne Buell Center for the Study of relevant people in this State's central and local American Architecture is pleased to announce its planning administrations. I hope others do as well. 1992 series of Buell Talks on American Architecture, which will be held on Saturday, April 25, 1992, at Yours faithfully Columbia University. This event will bring together a select group of doctoral students Letters ssioner Alan Hutchings Commi working under the broad rubric of American Planning Appeal Tribunal architectural history. The programme is structured Sir, Adelaide to strengthen the intellectual and academic South Australia qualifications of these emerging young scholars by I have been meaning for some time to write to providing a forum fo r collegial discussion of their congratulate Peter Larkham about his very pointed Dear Friends work, as well as by associating them collectively and timely paper When PIJJnning becomes Planning and individually with some of the finest teaching History: Reflections on Recent Research in Volume 12 I am writing on behalf of the Research Team in scholars in American architectural history. The No. 3, 1990. Urban Development at the School of Architecture Center holds these Talks every other year, in order from the Universidad Autonoma de Baja California to bring together the most interesting students and Mr Larkham in his concluding comments says in Mexico; we are interested in joining your group to explore the new themes developing in the field. for Academic and Research matters. Practitioners may, rightly, question its For further information contact: Gwendolyn relevance to development control and At present we are working in a project related with Wright, Director, Temple Hoyne Buell Center for townscape management as practised into the the New Town concept applied to the development the Study of American Architecture, Columbia 1990s. of New Settlements as a result of the impacts to be University, New York, NY 10027 or call (212) 854- caused by the implementation of the Free-Trade 8165. (Fax: (212) 854-2127). He is selling himself short. Any practitioner who Treaty between Canada, the USA and Mexico. questions his commentary and conclusions would Association of European Schools of be wrong to do so. Our project is concerned with the desert region in the north-western part of Mexico, a city by the Planning (AESOP) Whether or n ot we are in a NIMBY era (an name of Mexicali, and it is based on the 6th AESOP Conference, Stockholm, Australian as well as a n orthern hemisphere assumption that the existing natural energy sources Sweden, June 3-6, 1992 phenomenon) is irrelevant, he has focused upon of this region can be used in the new settlements, some of the enduring dynamics of development to ameliorate the dependency on electricity as the Planning in a Time of Change control. I have never seen them so well put and in only way to cool a built space. The energy sources doing so he has been of great potential service to we are planning to use are Geotherrnic and Solar The aim of the congress is to discuss the role of the planning profession in particular and the Energy that are to some extent abundant in this planning and planning competence, in Europe in planning 'industry' in general. I speak from three region; our project is called Urban Cells: the Desert the 1990s and beyond i n the new economic and decades of experience in policy formulation, City of Tomorrow. political context of European interdependence. As designing for d evelopers, controlling development an example, the planning systems of the Nordic and, nowadays, sitting back and trying to sort it all We hope you will be interested in our ideas and in countries, and the corresponding planning out from the 'bench'. sharing knowledge and information; it will be an educations, will be presented. honour for us to establish thls line of Mr Larkham h as analysed bureaucratic procedures communication with you, for this is one of the first The programme of the congress will cover three Urban Development Projects we are conducting. in a public authority - using the methodology of an di~fe rent aspects of the general theme. Each day historian - a rare thing in itself. More to the point, wtll be devoted to a special set of questions m you soon. he has done this from a planning history Hope to hear fro pertaining to the theme of that day as follows: perspective and in doing so has highlighted the

2 3 Planning History Vol 1 3 No. 3 Planning History Vol. 13 No. 3 Notica Articles

1. Planning for environmental change. which includes the botanical gardens of the Bold was also instrumental in drafting the first University of Leicester - April 9-10, 1992. The West Australian Town Planning Bill, incorporating trip to 2. Planners in a changing environment. Economic History Society Meeting will follow on Articles material and ideas from his 1914 research April 1Q-12, and a panel on Early Modem Towns is Europe and America. Boa~ recognised Bold's 3. Planning education. scheduled. Further details can be obtained from contribution to developing planning at a larger either David Reeder or Richard Rodger, scale than the city centre, through a m etropolitan ed Accepted papers will be organised under one of the Department of Economic and Social History, Early Metropolitan emphasis in (parts o f) the bill. Bold was requir it y three themes above, and subthemes formed University of Leicester, LEl 7RH, or 0533-522588. to redraft the bill six times before was finall was according to the composition among abstracts. Planning in Perth, proclaimed on 1st November 1929. There The Urban History Association reluctance to accept planning in what had Venue Western Australia traditionally been regarded as the domain of the market. The efforts of the Town Planning rban History Association is conducting its The U Association, formed in 1916 following the visit of C annual round of prize competitions for The 6th AESOP Congress will take place at the third Reade, an Associate of the Town Planning Institute of the Nordic Institute for Urban and ly distinction. Phil McManus and Oren Yiftachel premises scholar of London, w ere crucial in lobbying for the Regional Planning, on the island of Skeppsholmen Curtin University of Technology, introduction of planning and specifically for Stockholm, Sweden. 1. Best doctoral dissertation in urban history, in downtown securing the passing of the Town Planning Acf. without geographic restriction, completed Perth, Australia during 1991. Organisation The Metropolitan Town Planning The first metropolitan plan for Perth, Western The congress is organised jointly by The Nordic 2. Best book, North American urban history, Australia, was published in 1930 by the Commission and its operation In April1928, the bill for the Metropolitan Town Institute for Urban and Regional Planning, The published during 1991 (edited volumes Metropolitan Town Planning Commission which Planning Commission was gazetted. This bill was Royal Institute of Technology and Stockholm ineligible). was chaired by a prominent Perth's planner, University. It is sponsored by The National Board Harold Boas. This article will briefly review and almost identical to the Melbourne Act passed by using, Building and Planning, The National 3. Best journal article in urban history, without the State Government of Victoria fi ve years earlier of Ho analyse this plan by discussing its context, 7 Swedish Road Administration and the Swedish geographic restriction, published during 1991. recommendations and consequences. in 1923 • The delay in passing the Town Planning Council for Building Research. Act m eant that the Metropolitan Town Planning Commission w as established twenty months before The next competition for best book in n on-North Early planning initiatives in Perth The members of the local organising committee are: American urban history will be conducted during the Town Planning Act came into effect. This The context in which t he 1930 plan (also known as resulted in the Commission carrying out many Folke Snickars, Royal Institute of Technology, 1992, for titles published in 1991 or 1992. the Metropolitan Town Planning commission functions that should have been the responsibility chairman; Goran Cars, Royal Institute of Report) emerged, reflects the confused nature of Olsson, Nordic Deadline for submissions is June 15, 1992. To of local authorities and other r egulatory planning Technology, secretary; Gunnar early planning initiatives in Perth. In 1929, Perth, 8 obtain further information please write to: authorities • Institute for Urban and Regional Planning; Ulk the largest city and capital of Western Australia, Sporrong/Lennart Tonell, Stockholm University; Professor Charles W. Brockwell, Jr., Department of had a metropolitan region population of 202,000, The Metropolitan Town Planning Commission Carl-Johan Engstrom, National Board of Housing, History, University of Louisville, Louisville, most of whom lived within eleven miles of the comprised eight members working in an honorary Building and Planning. Kentucky 40292, United States of America. Perth Town Hal1.1 The city was small by capacity. In his role as Chairman of the Australian standards (Melbourne and Sydney were Commission, H. Boas and C Klem, another m ember Rob Freestone: Change of Address approximately five times larger) and geographically Congress Secretariat of the Commission, went to Melbourne for two isolated. Early steps towards planning in Perth weeks and avoided many mistakes and costs by can be directed to the congress secretariat Planning History readers should note that our ' included the establishment in 1911 of a Joint Inquiries learning from the experience of the Melbourne at the following address: Associate Editor for the Pacific, Robert Freestone, Committee of the City of Perth and several address is: Town Planning Commission. They also visited has changed address. His new surrounding Councils ' to formulate a scheme or 9 Sydney, Adelaide and Canberra • In addition t o The 6th AESOP Congress schemes for the improvement or remodelling of the these visits, the Commission investigated town Department of Regional Planning School of Town Planning city of Perth and its immediate suburbs'.2 planning practices and ideas throughout Australia Royal Institute of Technology University of New South Wales and New Zealand. 5-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden P 0 Box 1 This action coincided with the rise of the Greater Tel: 46 8 790 8493 Fax: 46 8 790 6761 Kensington, NSW 2033 Perth Movement which encouraged municipalities Detailed information about the scientific and social Australia bordering the City of Perth to amalgamate and The Metropolitan Town Planning programmes of the congress will be distributed to create the Greater Perth municipality.3 It is Commission Report, 1930 all participants in April 1992. Tel: (02) 697 4837 significant that W Bold, the then Town Clerk of the The Commission sat for three years and in Fax: (02) 663 4278 Perth City Council, led the Greater Perth December 1930 presented, at a cost of three The Urban History Group is holding a Movement and wrote the report for the Joint !housand pounds, a report which d evoted many of convention on The 20th Century City: Private Place Committee mentioned above. He was only partly tts o ne hundred and seventy nine pages to and Public Space. Suburbanisation in the 20th successful on these two fronts, with several inner promoting the idea of state intervention in the century; Council Housing; and Conservation, The city Councils (such as Subiaco and South Perth) development process. This largely reflected the of Environment and Public Policy, are among the opting not to amalgamate with the City of Perth, ideological conflict around the establishment main topics to be considered. The location will be while the Joint Committee took no action on his planning in Western Australia. in a very fine institutional space - Beaumont Hall, comprehensive report.•

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Gone are the days when a land owner was Metropolitan Region. By world standards this was inter-urban rapid electric tramway system (see It was not until the 1950s, in the context of large 'king of his castle' and when individual rights not visionary. The Plan of Chicago had, for Figure 1); scale industrial development south of Perth, that in property over-rode the common rights. In example, extended the scope of planning beyond • establishment of a regional transport authority; the impetus for regional planning was regained. this country, where a great proportion of the the central area of Chicago with regional proposals • allocation of ten percent of all newly developed Significantly, many of the proposals contained in 12 people are home owners, the necessity of as early as 1911 • However, given the history of land for open space and the positioning of such the Metropolitan Town Planning Commission protecting their savings has demanded a planning in Western Australia, this report was a space no further than half a mile from any Report of 1930 reappeared twenty fi ve years later in condition that will definitely regulate the use to bold step that could potentially have seen planning dwelling; the gazetted blue print for Perth's future which lands shall be put.10 in Western Australia develop a strong regional 19 • introduction of uniform building codes over the development • Therefore, although the 1930 report focus from an early period in its history. metropolitan area; was not visionary in a w orld context, it was far Bad planning is expensive planning, not only • protection of the river and ocean foreshores by a ahead of its time for Perth. to the land owner but ultimately to the local Regional planning proposals contained in the 1930 continuous strip of public open space; authority and the people generally.11 report were not explicitly labelled as 'regional • introduction of local land zoning schemes; and planning', with the exception of the proposal to Notes: • increase in State Housing activity throughout the The report also dwelled extensively on local widen the newly passed Town Planning Act to region.14 1. Boas, H. (Chairman), 1930 Report of the engineering matters, which partly reflected the 'provide for a regional aspect of the metropolitan Metropolitan Town Planning Commission, requirement of the commission to consult with local area components of planning', rather than on the 5 13 Boas' wrote that the Metropolitan Town Planning Government Printers, Perth. government and also the general lack of clarity on planning should be focused • The scale at which Report what was expected to be produced. following proposals which were put forward by the Metropolitan Town Planning Commission extend 2. Boas, H ., 1956, 1 'The Evolution of Town 'strives to create in the future development of The Metropolitan Town Planning Commission of local planning. Planning in Western Australia until 1956', a beyond the scale the metropolitan area: report did look beyond the city centre of Perth and paper presented to the 4th Congress of the beyond the local planning matters of the twenty Australian Planning Institute, Perth. • design of a new regional road plan; 1. Consolidation one local authorities comprising the Perth • replacement of the existing rail services with an 2. Co-ordination 3. Yiftachel, 0 ., 1991, Theory and Practice in 3. Economy Metropolitan Planning: The Case of Perth, Centre 4. Efficiency' for Architecture and Planning Research, Curtin METROPOLITAN TOW N PLANNING COMM ISSION PtRTH.W:A. 1930 University Press, Perth. INTER URBAN EL£CTAIC TRAMWAY-· RAILWAY PROPOSALS. CMC CENTRE.l" The report contained some proposals on equity issues at a regional level, but in no way could this 4. Clerk, R., 1969, 'The City Beautifu l - Promise be perceived as significant in relation to the above and Reality' in The Architect, Vol 10, No 2 pp mentioned pillars of the report. The report's 25-32. emphasis was on co-ordinating the planning of land use so as to minimise land use conflicts. In 5. Boas, H., 1956 (op. cit), 2. the Modernist tradition of the time, there was an emphasis on zoning to separate activities and land 6. Boas, H ., 1930 (op. cit), 164. uses so that the existing economic system could function without disruption. Zoning was 7. Ibid, 8. highlighted in the report as being 'town planning by regulation'16 8. Ibid, 5.

Conclusion 9. Ibid, 13. The Metropolitan Town Planning Commission Report of 1930 was not new by world standards, 10. Ibid, 126. but it was a significant development in the history of planning in Perth. Few proposals of the report 11 . Ibid, 144. were implemented in the ensuing years, partly as a response to the Depression and later because of the 12. Wringley, R. (1 983), 'The Plan for Chicago', in urgency of preparations for World War Two. The Krueckeberg, D. (ed), Introduction to Planning temporary nature of the Commission (it was History in the United States, Centre for Urban dissolved following completion of the report) and Policy Research, Rutgers University, New the inadequate provisions in the Town Planning Jersey. Act, also limited the implementation of the 7 Metropolitan Town Planning Commission Reportl • 13. Boas, H. (1 930) (op. cit), 172. The demise of organised groups lobbying for planning reduced the public awareness of planning 14. Yiftachel, 0 . (1 991), (op. cit). and the importance of implementing planning 1 S .. · d new centr:ll terminal station at East Perth, route of propo~d electric tramway ayateru, p~sition of proposals and legislation • 15. B oas (1930) (op. cit), 5. new 6:~;c ' ~ nst~~~ ~~t;g esl cll treatment of railway lands in the City, propoaed new by·paas roada and suggested railway by· pn ss north of the City.

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16. Boas (1930) (op. cit), 126. incomes, town plans left the indigenous population that the Government be asked to amend the Origins of Segregatory whose lack of money excluded them from the law so as to prohibit Asiatics residing or 17. Webb, M. (1983) 'The Evolution of Regional property market to fend largely for themselves on trading in places other than those set apart Planning in Metropolitan Perth, 1911-1981', Urban Planning in the periphery of more formal settlements, assuming for their occupation? presented at the 18th annual conference that they chose or were forced by circumstance to of the 3 Royal Australian Planning Institute, Resources, South Africa, c. 1900- seek access to urban activities. Perth. Union and town planning 1940 The specific allocation of land to segregated After Union of the four colonies, including the two 18. Neglie, D. (1984) Planning and Politics, 'locations' for people other than the generally former republics, in 1910, the constitutional Postgraduate Diploma Report, Western dominant whites began to gather momentum in question of the division of powers between central, Australia Institute of Technology Alan Mabin places such as Port Elizabeth from the 1850s on. In provincial and local government had to be the Transvaal the republican government also (unpublished), Perth. addressed; the South Africa Act by no means University of the Witwatersrand sought to demarcate areas for minority groups - determined the matter. As with so many other Malays and Indians - with the result of numerous 19. Stephenson, G. and Hepburn, A. (1955), Plan areas of policy, however, the First World War and Johannesburg, South Africa 'Asiatic Bazaars'. In the Cape Colony, for the Metropolitan Region: Perth and Fremantle, the its attendant social upheavals delayed the setting of municipality of East London acquired specific policy and allocation of powers relating Government Printers, Perth. Along with th eir fellow citizens, urban planners in to urban powers to segregate Indians, but that was unusual planning. With the influenza epidemic of 1918, South Africa are engaged, whether they welcome both in discriminatory principle and in the public health concerns - important at least as the fact or not, in a process of change which will conferring of such powers on a municipality. The rationalisations in the planning challenge their position and practices in the society of segregated emergence of large mining companies in the 1880s locations in the early years of the more fundamentally than any previous events. As century - came to and 1890s led to the development of the segregated, the fore. The Public Health statutory racial segregation comes to an end, Act of 1919 conferred single-sex compound as a model for urban new powers on municipalities, with the added stick indeed, many of the key processes in the creation segregation.• Soon after the turn of the century that local authorities failing to of the divided cities may now crumble - and past preserve public several local authorities began to embark on public health could lose considerable roles played by planners may alter accordingly. amounts of housing programmes both in locations and in autonomy, including financial, to the central compound form, which usually required specific Department of Health. These familiar public health The history of planning in the country has not yet 5 central (colonial) governmental approval. Thus, if origins of urban planning yielded to much scholarly scrutiny. This essay extended further, to the a general pattern could be said to exist, local Housing Committee of 1919 and forms an early report on a project which has been the subsequent authorities enjoyed little autonomy in the allocation passage of the 1920 Housing in train over the past two years, and which will Act. Again the key of land to different uses or occupation by different initiators of action were to be the continue for some time yet: a research project the local authorities, 'races'. though their field of action purpose of which is to produce a useable past was limited by the which can inform present debates on urban purse strings held by the Central Housing Board! Colonial legislation during the immediate post­ Indeed, its practice of approving only schemes for planning as an instrument of reconstruction in the Anglo-Boer War phase altered this situation by post-apartheid city.1 The present piece treats some specific racially-defined 'groups' enhanced already­ providing for some control over the subdivision of entrenched segregation through public housing, a aspects of the emergence of planning and its land and expanding local authority powers. relationship to the structuring of racial segregation phenomenon which has received considerable Especially in the Transvaal, in a general attention in the literature.9 between the close of the nineteenth century and the environment of 'reconstruction', the colonial second world war. government began to establish the rudiments of Those responsible for health, at least in the larger planning control (through creating a Townships municipalities, recognised in the Publk Health and Board to guide subdivision of land) and generally Town layout and segregation Housing Acts the potential to achieve desired transformed the nature of local authorities. improvements through spatial manipulation. Thus Planning urban land use has a long history in However, when elections occurred the franchise William Porter, the Johannesburg Medical Officer of South Africa, beginning mainly in association with was restricted to property owners, almost all white, Health, came back to the city the surveying of land for towns in areas newly from the Town or explicitly to white residents. Amongst other Planning Summer School occupied by settlers of European origin, especially held at University powers, the government transferred control of College, London in the late during the nineteenth century. This form of teens an enthusiast for Asiatic Bazaars to municipalities and gave at least town planning. His vision of planning applied more or less equally both to the planning required some of them the power to establish 'native' and that 'undesirable uses of land' British colonies of Natal and the Cape, and to the - including black 'coloured' locations. Some authorities acted on residences -should be moved Orange Free State and South African (Transvaal) as far as possible out these powers; Johannesburg, on a wave of racism of the city.10 Local authorities republics.2 Initially, and unlike other colonial , however, lacked the fed by an outbreak of plague in crowded inner city powers and resources to accomplish such ambitious settlements of the era such as Singapore, Soyth neighbourhoods, moved as many Africans as it planning, a fact recognised in African town layout did not make provision for the appointment of could manage to its first 'native location', at the Transvaal Local Government Commission of housing each 'ethnic' group in separate districts. Klipsrruit where part of Soweto stands today, in Enquiry in 1921. Besides his infamous dictum that The towns were conceived as primarily white 1904. In all aspects of land use control including 'natives' should be in town only to 'minister to the places; while poorer, rented housing areas, at least racial zoning, however, public powers were weak, needs of whites', its chairman, Stallard, also held in the Cape Colony, might tend to evidence a as the following (1909) resolution of the Ermelo that correlation between darker skin colour and lower Town Council illustrates:

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housing problems and overcrowding with Bill, leaving compulsory urban segregation 1939. He appointed various South African moving their occupants to newly planned, highly their concommitant evils (are) intimately incompletely affecting Africans. Prominent among representatives, the most significant of whom was ordered public housing schemes divided according connected with neglected town planning.11 those demanding this 'solution' was the Natal Colonel P.J. Bowling, who left a position in to 'race'. In the Johannesburg case, for example, Municipal Association, which held that 'every race Northern Rhodesia to become perhaps the most residents of inner city 'slumyards' in Doornfontein The limited abilities of local authorities received should have its own area ... The local authority influential figure in South African town planning (Figure 1) found themselves moved - in order of attention in a way which developed the segregatory should have the power to compel people to reside from the late thirties until the fi fties. distance from the city - to Jan Hofrneyr for whites, tendencies of nascent urban planning through the in Oass Areas' .'5 But if the government failed to Coronationville for relatively well-off coloureds, Ffassage of the 1923 Natives (Urban Areas) Act. For satisfy in this arena, it nevertheless began a great Noordgezicht for poorer coloureds and Orlando for the next three decades, local authorities which expansion of municipal planning powers in the Planning and segregation: the thirties Africans (Figures 2 and 3) - the city council's made successful proclamations of their areas under direction of comprehensive land allocation and use Over succeeding years the other provinces followed officials drawing the lines between 'races' long this Act gained the power to restrict most Africans control. In a clause tacked on to the 1925 Financial the Transvaal lead and established their own before the infamous Population Registration Act 17 to townships and compounds; doing so, of course, Relations Act (Act 46 of 1925) which restructured planning ordinances, though little effective facilitated such racist allocation procedure. required a certain amount of planningP As Dan the division of powers between central and planning activity under these later Ordinances got Similar cases occurred in Cape Town and many Smit notes, 'ethnic engineering' acquired legitimacy provincial governments, powers over land use were under way until after the second world war. But other cities and towns.18 Here was planning on as a concern of urban planning from its early days placed in the hands of provinces, opening the the concerns which had predominated in the early the g=-and scale: co-ordinated allocation of 13 in South Africa. The power to accomplish such prospect for those bodies to extend municipal twenties, when the town planning movement began widespread areas of land to new uses. engineering through planning, however, remained powers. to gather momentum in South Africa, were greatly incomplete. altered. Instead of rapid economic expansion, During the thirties an increasingly noisy lobby These tendencies developed into planning depression and urban deterioration required pushed for racial zoning in the cities. Yet While Stallard investigated local government in the legislation. First in field was the Cape Province, attention. The major white political parties agreed governments did not hasten to pass new Transvaal, another commission engaged in which passed a Town Planning Ordinance in 1927. readily if not absolutely on the central issues, and segregatory legislation, busying themselves with reviewing the 'Asiatic problem'. The Lange But that legislation was permissive: it did not formed a coalition government under J.B.M Commissions of Enquiry into such alleged ills as commission recommended in 1921 that compel local authorities to undertake town Hertzog in 1933. Local authorities acquired more 'Indian penetration' of predominantly white municipalities should have the right to establish planning; none did so, probably because the extent powers under the 1934 Slums Act: now they could residential and business areas.19 But if little new areas for Indian residence, but not to compel of property owner influence over local councils condemn buildings or whole neighbourhoods, and formal regulation of racial segregation emerged, the people to move. The Minister of the Interior, prevented enthusiasts from implementing its move people - provided the funds were available - growing practice of town planning undoubtedly Patrick Duncan, responded by introducing a Oass provisions at municipal level. The Transvaal was to new housing estates. Of course, segregation had racial wning in view. Certainly in the Areas Bill in 1924. The bill proposed that local the first province to adopt a Town Planning ruled, as municipalities condemned racially Transvaal, the activities of the Joint Town Planning authorities could ask the minister to set up Ordinance which required municipalities to plan, in integrated (and genuinely overcrowded, poorly Committee rapidly evolved to include commissions to investigate the establishment of 1931. Modelled closely on the British Town serviced) buildings, blocks and neighbourhoods - considerations of the 'best' sites not only for areas reserved for any 'class' of persons, either for Planning Act of 1905, it provided for preparation residence or trade or both, and for the proclamation by. municipalities of schemes controlling land use, of such areas. Following the Lange commission it density, building size and position - the traditional expressly preserved existing property rights.14 technical controls of town planning. For the larger With the defeat of the South African Party at the municipalities town planning in this sense became polls later in the year, and the framing of the large compulsory, while the province retained powers of legislative programme of the first National Party approval and review. government, this bill disappeared. However, the new Minister, D.F. Malan (later the Prime Minister For the first time, a demand for the services of who introduced apartheid after 1948), introduced planners as such emerged. Most of the essentially similar provisions in an Areas municipalities which were required to undertake Reservation Bill in 1925. On its reintroduction in planning joined in the Witwatersrand and Pretoria 1926, the bill was referred to a select committee Joint Town Planning Committee, established in which heard evidence but recommended that the 1933. This body initially attempted to appoint its bill be withdrawn in order not to embarrass the own planning staff, and on the recommendation of government in the course of a round table Raymond Unwin among others hired Charles conference with the Indian government on the Reade, well known for his work in initiating town possibility of Indian 'repatriation'. The conference planning in South Australia, Malaya and Northern resulted in agreement to an assisted emigration Rhodesia (now Zambia).16 But Reade died within scheme for Indian South Africans which ensured days of arriving in Johannesburg to take up his that the government could ride out the racist appointment, and the Joint Committee moved on to ct-mour for restriction of Indians for a few more appoint consultants instead of its own staff. In the years. obvious absence of experienced planners inside the country, the English firm Adams, Thompson and Loud among the chorus calling for urban Fry accepted appointment. Longstreth Thompson segregation was the cry for municipalities to be became 'regional planner' for the municipalities of 1. A scene in Doornfontein, Johannesburg, given even greater powers than those denied by the the Witwatersrand and Pretoria, spending several in the early 1930s (Source: History Workshop, University of the Witwatersrand). government's failure to pass an Areas Reservation months each year in South Africa between 1935 and

10 11 Planning HJstory Vol. 13 No. 3 Articlee Articles Planning History VoL 13 No. 3 residential and industrial expansion, but for Hertzog and the coalition under D.F. Malan, and 'locating' the African and Indian population.20 the Afrikaner Broederbond (AB), a secretive society Town planning practice thus took on the growing which evolved policy positions advocating, concerns of segregation a s part of its 'normal' amongst other things, segregation between whites modus operandi. and coloureds from the time of its first policy 2 documents in 1933. ' This adoption of racial zoning along with the requirement of use zoning as part of 'nonnal' A draft Cape ordinance at the close of the decade planning p ractice must be placed in the context of proposed a number of new features: it would have the clamour for segregation between whites and allowed the segregation of amenities As well as others during the period. One source of this residences; it defined whites married to blacks as demand lay in the obstacle which Indian property blacks, just as the Group Areas Act did later.25 In on the fringes of cities, especially in Natal, posed to one crucial respect, however, it differed from the expansion of municipal areas, industrial sites and later legislation: it provided for municipalities to white property 'development' generally.21 Another plan and execute spatial segregation: strand of the demand for racial geographical separation came from various local authorities in s. 2(1). A local authority may by notice in the Cape, which pressured the provincial the Provincial Gazette define and set administration to g ive them powers to remove aside any area within its area of coloured people to segregated locations. In 1931, jurisdiction for the occupation for the Cape Province Municipal Association resolved residential purposes by Europeans or at its annual congress - a ttended by delegates from non-Europeans only, provided it over a hundred local authorities - to ask the complies with ... conditions ... Administrator to a dd powers to the existing municipal ordinance (No 10 of 1912) replicating the This proposal fitted well with the developing ideas location provisions of the 1923 Act, thus to promote of urban planning in South Africa in the late white-coloured segregation. Similar requests thirties, for it potentially expanded the general conti nued during the decade.22 control of land use which local authority planners and their supporters saw as increasingly vital, rather than the more technical regulation for which town planning ordinances had begun to provide.26 'Further powers of local authorities', the official title of the draft ordinance, represented what planners wanted. And, of course, they wanted those powers to extend to racial as well as other forms of large-scale and long-term zoning. The draft ordinance went down to defeat in 1940 not because it would have allowed municipalities to determine racial zoning - indeed the rights of local authorities would probably have been strongly 7 defended in the Cape2 - but because the appropriate relations between national and local policies, national and local planning bodies had not )"!t been worked out; and because national policy on coloured-white segregation, like that affecting 2. Council housing estates established in Indian segregation, had entered a period of ad hoc reasons of early political conjunction with 'slum clearance' in management, partly for LlUU Johannesburg during the 1930s (courtesy of paralysis in the United Party government. -----·- - =- - Susan Pamell). ---- ·- .... Urbanisation and segregation ..., ___ _ - It may be that these requests were sparked by Underlying many of the strains of the period lay nervousness at the rise of militancy among the fact, unc8omfortable for white administrators, _., _ .. _ - 23 - coloured organisations in the thirties. Probably that the cities and towns were rapidly losing their more powerful than these fairly tame local white majorities and becoming predominantly black pressures, however, was the rise of the new white places. That urbanisation and industrialisation Afrikaner nationalism in organisations which accelerated in the thirties is a commonplace. Local included the Gesuiwerde Nasionale Party (GNP - authorities, struggling to cope with these changes Purified National Party) which broke away from and at the same time to foster industrial 3. Prizewinning design for the layout of Orlando township, Johannesburg, 1931.

12 13 Planning History Vol. 13 No. 3 Planning History Vol. 13 No. 3 Artidee Artldee development in their own areas of jurisdiction (and Central government responses on these issues Towards a conclusion 'Representations from public - Transvaal - revenue), produced volumes of material which has remained either vague or unimplemented. But This paper has sought to demonstrate that an Johannesburg City Counci l', schedule attached to only recently begun to receive the attention which Prime Minister Hertzog insisted that policy should intimate relationship existed between the D.R. Blaine to Deputy Town Clerk 02.07.38; and on it deserves, from scholars such as Bonner, Maylam be national in scope, not provincial or local. After segregation of South African cities and the early Klipspruit, N. Kagan, African settlements i n t he and Sapire.l8 Central government departments, Hertzog's defeat on the neutrality issue in development of town planning in the country. Johannesburg area, 1903-23 (unpublished MA too, grappled with the issues; apart from the September 1939, the Smuts government did not South African society was highly segregated prior thesis, Uni v. of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, obvious importance of the Native Affairs change this policy; Lawrence, the new Minister of to the implementation of the Group Areas Act, 1978 ). bureaucracy, others investigated, debated and the Interior repeated a commitment both to partly due to the contributions of urban recommended courses of action. Among those was segregation measures and to the need for national planners.35 Further work will illuminate the the department traditionally concerned with policy in early 1940. But the war effort overtook relations between planners a nd apartheid in the 7. TA, Local Government series (TPB) 539, TA 1395 matters of housing and urban affairs, the other matters in determining national priorities, period after 1950. Ideas and other experiences of 'Asiatic Bazaar general file 1907-21', Town Clerk Ermelo to Colonial Secretary, Pretoria, 28.07.09. Department of Health. Its most visible act in the including segregation. the relationships between planning and segregation late thirties was to appoint a committee to would be gratefully received by those involved in For a s tudy of the roles of local and central investigate what it called 'Irregular' settlement on For local authorities the occupation of potentially this research. 8. ousing the fringes of municipal areas, a phenomenon lucrative land by irregular settlers, rapid growth of government in initiating different typesh of orp: a which had become widespread. This committee, both industrially employed and unemployed Notes projects, see J. Butler, Housing in a Karoo d survey of sources and an examination of the chaired by Sir Edward Thornton, chairman of the population and pressure on housing meant that 1. This project involves the present author as well development of segregation before the G roup Areas Central Housing Board, travelled widely, heard action seemed rather more urgent. Hilary Sapire as Professor Dan Srnit of the University of Natal, Act, 1950, South African Historical Journal 17 hundreds of witnesses, produced scores of interim provides an illuminating account of the Brakpan Durban. Research assistance has been provided by (1985), pp. 93-119. reports on particular areas and finally reported to Council's attempts to persuade central government lnga Molzen, and financial support by the Centre the Minister of Health in 1939 (its report was to take action, and its varied local initiatives.31 The for Science Development and the University of the 9. e.g., S. Parnell, Racial segregation in published in 1940). Among its concerns was the Durban City Council established a committee to Witwatersrand. Johannesburg: the Slums Act, 1934-39, South fact that few powers existed to cortrol 'irregular' investigate the possibilities of post-war African Geographical Journal 70 (2) 1988, pp. 112- urbanisation by non-Africans: the committee development; Kuper, Watts and Davies noted how 2. A.J. Christopher, Southern Africa (Folkestone: 126; N. Bamett, The racial fac tor in the (Cape identified a its report featured racial zoning based on large Dawson, 1976), chapter 4. Town) City Council's housing policy, 1918-1939 zones (at least one of which was a satellite Indian Need for preventing the establishment of city), a radial pattern and the use of the rivers and 3. A.J. Christopher, Port Elizabeth, in A. Lemon, (unpubl. paper, Dept of History, University of Cape 32 Town). further uncontrolled areas. The vast majority ridges as 'buffers' between zones. In Cape Town, Homes Apart: South Africa's Divided Cities of w itnesses who appeared before [the] the City Council engaged planners who (London: Paul Chapman Publishing, 1991), pp. 43- Committee stressed the need for the recommended wholesale demolition in racially 45. 10. W. Porter, Town planning: its historic and prevention of further uncontrolled peri-urban mixed, working class District Six and new roads to public health aspects (1922), in G.E. Pearse (ed) settlements ... [L]ocal authorities pointed out link the land thus released for commercial and 4. A. Mabin, Labour, capital, class struggle and the Addresses and Lectures by Members of the that ... there would be nothing to prevent industrial, as well as more salubrious residential origins of residential segregation in Kimberley, Transvaal Town Planning Association nd, [irregular] settlements arising beyond [their] uses, to the new areas reclaimed from Table Bay - 188CH920, Journal of Historical Geography 12 (1) (Johannesburg: Uni versity of the Witwatersra boundaries. Your Committee agrees ... and envisioned, according to Naomi Bamett, as the 1986, pp. 4-26. Faculty of Architecture, 1931). considers that the first essential should be to recreation of inner Cape Town.33 The nt prevent the creation of similar areas in the Johannesburg Council's planners busied themselves 5. For some of this history see M. Swanson, The 11 . Report of the Transvaal Local Governme future. As far as Natives are concerned the with plans to remove Indians to an out-of-town sanitation syndrome: bubonic plague and urban Commission (Stallard), T.P.1-1922, para. 224. matter is sufficiently provided for [if s.6 of location - vociferously opposed by the Trans'vaal native policy in the Cape Colony 1900-09, Journal of the 1923 Natives Urban Areas Act were Indian Congress- and, as Van Tonder shows, to African History 18 (3) (1977), pp. 387-410; A. Mabin, 12. T.R.H. Davenport, The Beginnings of Urban enforced] ... As regards other clas:es of the clear the 'Western Native Areas', linked to the op. cit. Segregation in South Africa: the Natives (Urban community the position is not so well establishment of new townships on land owned by Areas) Act of 1923 (G raharnstown: Rhodes 29 University, Institute for Social and Economic safeguarded ... the Council beyond the municipal boundaries.34 6. On the little-known field of planning in the early Research, Occasional Paper, 1971 ). Sapire, Kuper et. al., Bamett and Van Tonder all years of the century, see T.B. Aoyd, Geskiedenis This hint in the direction of measures to control, point out how these plans prefigured later policies van Stadsbeplanning in Suid-Afrika, in E.W.N. 13. Srnit, op cit, p. 57. particularly, the activities and settlement of and projects carried out by the National Party (NP) Mallowes (ed), Summer School of the South African coloured and Indian people did not crystallise as a government after 1948, sometimes, ironically, Institute of Town Planners Uohannesburg, 1959), n specific recommendation of the Thomton report, against the opposition of the local councils pp. 6-19, and D. Srnit, The political economy of 14. Report of the Asiatic Inquiry Commissio /24. perhaps because of the delicacy of such issues in concerned. In the war years, United Party central urban and regional planning in South Africa 1900- (Lange), UG.4-1921; Class Areas Bill, AB41 party politics at the time. But the committee's and local governments faced the same issues of 1988: towards theory to guide progressive planning general view that all blacks, particularly coloureds, economic and social change, proposed much the practice (unpublished PhD thesis, University of 15. Report of the Select Committee on the Areas should be segregated from whites found clear same 'solutions' as did the NP from 1947, but failed Natal, Durban, 1989) pp. 97-110. On the specific Reservation Bill, SC.9-1926, evidence, para. 2404- expression in the tone of the report, which showed to implement them in anything but piecemeal points see Transvaal Archives, Pretoria (TA), 2406. horror at fashion. It was only with the adoption of apartheid Colonial Treasurer series (Cf) 152, 1'34/8 'Transfer urban policies from 1950 onwards that local of Asiatic Bazaars from Government to 16. TA, Gerrniston Town Clerk's series (MGTI 247, occupation of land and buildings in-espective 92(2) Witwatersrand Joint Town Planning of race with the result that Europeans were planning became a contested means to implement Municipalities', and South African Central controversial but powerful national policy. Archives, Pretoria (SA), Land Tenure Advisory Committee, correspondence of 1933; Krugersdorp found to be occupying premises and living Town Clerk's series (MK.R) 138, 9G Town Planning cheek by jowl with non-Europeans ...30 Board series (ARG) 10, Act 1/1/2/3/16

14 15 Planning 1-Ustory Vol. 13 No. 3 Artlclee Research Planning I Uitory Vol. 13 No. 3

ASSOCiation Transvaal 1939-1942, 'Town planning 26. cf. D. Smit, .Q£..£ll, p. 85. original documents relating to the period in wruch on the Witwatersrand - its rustory and the city's development plan was being worked on development' memorandum by Acting Town 27. For an example of this concern, see the Research intensively. Engineer, Krugersdorp, 20.05.1942; J. T-regenza, antipathy of Sir F. de Waal, Cape Administrator, to Charles Reade: town planning missionary, in A. interference with the powers of local authorities as By means of this study it has been possible to Hutchings and R. Bunker (eds) With Conscious earl y as 1920, in CA, PAS 2/1151, L 120/C/126 clarify characters, aims and events of the master Purpose: a History of Town Planning in South 'Report on Housing Commission', A. Weisbecker Planning in Milan at plan, and of the period at the beginning of its Australia (Adelaide: Wakefield Press, 1986), pp. 45- for PS to Secretary of Government Housing implementation. 60; and W.C.D. Veale, Charles Compton Reade: first Commission, 03.03.1920. the End of the 19th town planner, South Australia, in Australian Town N ineteenth Century Milan Century: The During the last decades of the nineteenth century in Planning Jubilee Conference 1967 (Australian 28. P. Bonner, The politics of black squatter Milan the beginning of a process of Intense rtanning Institute, 1967), pp. 75-80. movements on the Rand, 1944-1952, Radical History Contribution of development substituted the slow urban growth of Review 46/7 (1990), pp. 89-116; P. Maylam, The rise the previous period, concentrated within the 17. S. Pame ll ,~. and decline of urban apartheid in South Africa, Research Study ancient walls (circondarlo interno) and along the African Affairs 89 (354) (1990), pp. 57-84; and H. principal ways connecting the urban settlement 18.Grange, Working class housing, Cape Town Sapirc, African urbanisation: struggles against with the surrounding territory. A first Important 1890-1947, in A. Spiegel (ed) Africa Seminar municipal control in Brakpan, 1920-1958 (unpubl. Corinna Morandi event of this process was in 1873 the annexation of Collected Papers Vol. 5 (UCf, Centre for African PhD thesis, Univ. of Witwatersrand, 1988). the municipality called 'Corpi Santi', the suburban Studies, 1985), pp. 13-37; J.P Joyce, Cape Town and Dipartimento di Scienze del area surrounding Milan (circondario esterno). The the origins of the Slums Act of 1934 (unpubl. 29. Report of the Committee appointed to BA urbanisation of Corpi Santi was concentrated (Hons) dissertation, UCf, 1981). investigate the administration of areas wruch are Territorio del Politecnico di Milano, around the borghi (the roads radiating becoming urbanised but wruch are not under local out of the Italy centre) and at the gates and arrival points of the government control (Thornton), UG.8-1940, p. 15, 19. cf. Report of the Commission of Inquiry into railway, within an area which was s till mamly Indian Land Purchases (Broome), UG.39-1941, and para. 47. 1989 ma rked the passing of a century since the first agricultural. The first manufacturing and L. Kuper, H. Watts and R.J. Davies, Durban: a actual town planning project in Milan was warehousing activities were attracted to Corpi Santt Study in Racial Ecology (London: Jonathan Cape, 30. ibid, p. 11, para. 25. approved. In this plan the origins of the urban by the proximity of the rich Milanese market and 1958)op cit, pp. 148-9. layout of today's city are easily recognisable, both by taxes and duties wruch were lower than in the 31. Sapire, op ci t, pp. 208-224. in the districts surrounding the Spanish walls in 20. TA, MGT 251,92/11938 Vol. 4 Minutes of Joint city, while for the workers the main attraction was those parts of the central area related to 'les grands the lower cost of living. Town Planning Committee, Joint report by 32. Durban Corporation, Programme of Post-War travaux' which were carried out at the end of the Johannesburg City Engineer and Regional Planning Development: Report of the Special Committee last century. lt is also possible in this early plan to In the circondario the increase Consultants, 15.12.1938; SA, Department of Lands (Durban, 1943); Kuper, Watts and Davies, op cit, esterno, in urban see the origins of most of Milan's present problems, development was very evident: around the series (LDE) 200, 1012/454 Pretoria: Town planning pp. 187-8. The radial racial zone scheme for gates such as the fact that it is a single-centre city, and and along the new roads which were laid to and city development scheme, 'Preliminary Durban seems to have had its origins in a report to that it is a very high density one with little public connect the main arterial roads, houses and statement of proposals for development, 12.08.1936: the post-war development committee by the open space and few green areas. A reconstruction factories were continually springing up. The data Adams, Thompson and Frye, consultants'. Durban City Valuator, dated 22.04.1943; Natal of the ci rcumstances in which the plan and the regarding the demographic characteristics throw Arcruves, Pieterma.ritzburg (NA), Durban Town infrastructural system were realised often reveals a light both on the growing dynamism of the 21. J. McCarthy, Problems of planning for Clerk's series (3/DBN), 4/1/3/243,310 'Post-war surprising anticipation of technical or managerial Milanese settlement from the 1870s onwards, and urbanisation and development: the case of Natal's development' vol. 1. themes and solutions which were at the centre of on the 'two speed' development of coastal margins, Geoforum 17 (2) (1986), pp. 267- the two town planning and administrative debates in circondari. The total population increased from 287. 33. N. Barnett, A chapter in the rustory of Cape subsequent decades. 242,457 inhabitants in 1861 to 261,985 Town's District Six: destruction planned, 1940 in 1871 and to 321,839 in 1881. This is a very substantial increase, 22. Cape Arcruves, Cape Town (CA), Provincial (unpubl. paper, Dept of History, UCf, 1989). In the Faculty of Architecture of Milan Polytechnic above all if one compares it with the period Secretary series (PAS) 3/171, AL39, Minutes of 24th there are several teaching and research programmes preceding the unification of Italy: during the f1rst Annual Congress of CPMA, 1931; marginal notes 34. D. Van Tonder, First win the war, then dear the on the subject of t he city of Milan and, in 60 years of the century the population grew from by Provincial Secretary (PS); Town Oerk, Fort slums: the genesis of the Western Areas Removal particular, on this period of the city's growth (i.e. around 134,000 to about 243,000 inhabitants. Beaufort, to PS 13.08.38, and reply, 30.08.38. Scheme, 1940-49 (History Workshop Paper, 1990); the end of the nineteenth century) which also has and SA, Land Tenure Advisory Board series (ARG), considerable significance nowadays. It seemed In the circondario esterno the increase in population 23. G. Lewis, Between the Wire and the Wall: a Act 1/ 1/2/3/10 'Representations from public­ important that researchers and students should History of South African 'Coloured' Politics (Cape was particularly large during the 1870s w1th an Transvaal - S AIRR'. have access to the origins of the Beruto General Town: David Philip, 1987), pp. 179-192. increment of about 63,000 inhabitants, 1.e. the Plan, and to details of the political, administrative 35. For further material on the relationsrup between population doubled. The natural component of the and cultural debate wruch accompanied it. An increase in population is rather modest, and, tn fact, 24. I. Wilkins and H. Strydom, The Superafrikaners; town planning and the origins and implementation extensive research study has been underway since Inside the Afrikaner Broederbond (Johannesburg: of the Group Areas Act, see A. Mabin, the origin of the considerable demograpruc increase 1987 involving researchers from the Department of Comprehensive segregation: the origins of the is to be found in immigration: the rate of jonathan Ball, 1980). Territorial Sciences and the Department of Group Areas Act and its planning ap'paratuses, immigration, having reached 27 per thousand tn Architectural Planning of Milan Polytechnic. Their 25. Draft Further Powers of Local Authorities forthcoming in Journal of Southern African Studies. 1878, increased again to 30.2 per thousand m 1881, Ordinance, Cape Provincial Gazette, 22.07.38, p. task has been to collect, classify and study the 276, s. 8, s. 11 .

16 17 Planning History Vol. 13 No. 3 Research Research Planning History Vol 13 No. 3 and to 34 per thousand in 1882. importance both in the building sector and in the Later Planning Efforts which was forcibly put was linked to the gravity realisation of infrastructures. In particular, In the February of 1885 the city council nominated which hygienic problems were assuming after a Economic activities (artisan, financial and important Italian and foreign banks were involved a committee composed of Mayor Negri, councillor new cholera epiderruc which, in 1884, had caused commercial in the drcondario interno, and in two large real estate operations in which there Luca Beltrarru, some members of the building many deaths in Milan. production in the circondario esterno) exerted a was a change of ownership of vast areas of land in committee, amongst whom was Camillo Boito, and strong pull as far as population is concerned. The the circondario esterno. some other councillors including Giuseppe The debate and protests regarding these matters not origin of this flood of immigration in the 1870s and Colombo and Giovanru Battista Pirelli (as only forced the adrrunistration to face the problem 1880s was, however, mainly formed by manual The first case was the transformation of Piazza chairman); their task was to examine the plan of adaptation or of creating e ntirely new network workers who moved to the city with their families, d' Armi promoted by the Societa Fondiaria, whose drawn up by Beruto. In the version which the systems, but also had a direct influence on the from the province of Milan. As regards the city, a first project, which proposed exchanging some of committee produced (presented at the end of 1885) morphology of the planrung project through the stimulus to the economy also came from the large the areas it owned with the city council in order to there was clear evidence of a greater connection fi xing o f rrunimum dimensions for the width of the investments in public works and from the create new military equipment in an area further with the projects proposed by the land owners and streets and increasing the green areas. integration of the transport system with short range out, envisaged an intensive 'chequered' the presence of an advanced 'entrepreneurial' lines connecting the city with the suburbs and the construction of the whole area between the Arco component which was pushing for some parts of Another way in which the 1885 version of the plan rest of the province. Another important factor in della Pace and the Castello. At the beginrung of the plan to be given priority. Another question was d early more complete and refined was in its economic development was connected with the the 1880s another great building operation took strengthening of credit structures and with the shape before the general plan was established: the growing involvement of foreign capital, both in the building up of the ex-Lazzaretto area. form of investments in securities and in the establishment of joint-stock companies. In 1881 the In December 1883 the council entrusted Cesare National Exhibition documented the role of Milan Beruto to draw up a proposal for a general town­ as not only the most important commercial centre planning scheme for the two drcondari, which was but also the most important industrial centre in to be presented at the end of the following year. Italy. At that time Cesare Beruto was head of the city's technical office in which he had worked since 1862. Although artisan activities and small workshops, The most significant elements of the Master Plan linked above all to the sectors of clothing, printing are connected to these principal aims: and jewellery-making, continued to find their natural location in the drcondario interno and in the - the proposal of taking down the Spanish walls borghi, the centrifugal movement which had begun and covering the interior circle of the Navigli canal in the 1870s led to factories being located in the to facilitate the communication between the ancient suburban band and, for the largest ones, in the al)d the new town; outskirts of the city. - the opening of a large, representative street in the mediaeval core to connect the Castle and the Dome; The Beginnings of Town Planning - to develop a network of roads all around the The opening of new roads and the consequent ancient central area to allow the transformation building activity, which was increasingly the result from agricultural to urbanised land; of partial town-planning schemes, was the main - to design large blocks (about 200/400 m. per reason why the city council was asked to set up an side), appropriate for different purposes. instrument to co-ordinate the many requests received by the council to promote the urbanisation ln Beruto's intention some of the block areas should of the external district. In 1876 the municipality have been left as green spaces and their dimension prepared a sort of outline for a master plan drawn was meant to allow to provide large gardens inside up by the municipal engineer A. Fasana. This plan the buildings. Moreover, the large dimension was aimed at co-ordinating the partial plans already also intended to save considerable expenses for the approved, and at marking out a new ring road to Municipality to urbanise the land that should have connect the most important points in the suburban been charged to the private developers. district. As regards the building transformation of the old With the arrival of the 1880s a radical change of Piazza d' Armi and the Fondiaria's proposals, scale could be observed as regards the character of Beruto prepared a series of successive projects the operations which were put forward to which gradually introduced elements which then transform the city, and the urgency of drawing up came together in the final plan: the creation of a a general plan for the whole city became more large avenue at right angles to the Serrupione­ evident. Important financial groups, credit Castello route (Via XX Settembre), and the two institutions and joint-stock companies appeared on herruspherical avenues (Foro Bonaparte and Via the scene and proposed projects of great Canova-Melzi d'Eril) with the building of detached houses.

18 19 Planning History Vol. 13 No. 3 Research Research Planning History Vol 13 No. 3

'aesthetic' value which the city did not have to designed and displaced in the newly urbanised In 1889 the town-planning scheme for the circondari forego as a result of the development of its suburban district, according to the examples (to inferno was put into action, while the plan for the An Atlas of Historic 'modem' role. Streets, squares and public spaces which the Master Plan clearly refers) of the most circondari esterno, in a new version again drawn up (among them emerges the new Sempione Park in important European countries. with the assistance of the Pirelli committee, Centres in Latin the area of the Piazza d' Armi) look more carefully received final approval the following year. This third version, approved when the crisis of the America: Brazil building sector induced the Municipality and the buildings societies to review and to reduce their PROGETTO os PIANO REGOLATORE OELLA CITTA. 01 MILANO. programmes of urbanisation, shows the increasing Giorgio Piccinato pressure of the building programmes negotiated between the Municipality and the private Dipartimento de Urbanistica developers. It has the consequence of an lstituto Universitario di Architettura impoverishment of the most unusual aspects of the original Master Plan: the street network became di Venezia, Italy closer, the buildings of the blocks (whose dimensions are greatly reduced) was mainly Europe has developed a long standing interest in addressed to residential use, while little public the protection of historic cities, although this was space was left for gardens and public services. As born out of a tough struggle with the converging regards the reduction in the size of the blocks, for interests of modernists and land speculators. A reasons dictated by hygiene, the streets were wide knowledge of its urban heritage is now the increased in number and in width, and part of the basis for developing policies and techniques aiming gardens and the zones with low-density housing, as to protect and enhance its historical cities. laid down in the 1885 plan, were maintained. The minimum width of the streets was fixed at 14 With few exceptions, this is not the case of Latin metres and that of the new ring road at 25/30 America. Conservation policies are much more metres; the area of road surface created increased recent, and seem still heavily dependent on the from 2.3 million sq. metres in 1884 to 3.8 million sq. European models. Until very recent times it was metres in 1894. normal to get rid of whole urban districts of the late 1880s or the 1920s, while colonial cores were Bibliography left to the poorest sections of the society, so as to The first results of this research were published in: become places of physical and social decay. Moreover, conservationists concentrated on M. Boriani and A. Rossari, 'La Milano del piona architectural landmarks of the seventeenth and Beruto (1884-1889)', Rivisla Milanese di Economia, 10 eighteenth centuries and there is very little sign of (1984) public policies aimed towards the rehabilitation of historic cities themselves. C. Morandi, '11 piano Beruto: le fasi della formazione', Politecnico 3 (1989). The Urban Planning Department of the School of Venice, with the collaboration of some 15 local Monographic texts on Milan which also deal with researchers, has undertaken a study aimed to the period in question are: present in a comparable format the actual conditions and the social and physical F. Reggiori, Milano 1800-1943, Milano, 11 Milione, transformations of a number of Brazilian cities, 1947. representative of different roles and times of foundation. The main goal is to start building G. De Finetti, Milano, costruzione di una cilia, some kind of social atlas of the historic urban Milano: Etas Kompass, 1969. heritage in the country, as a basis for better rooted conservation policies. In fact, while there is already E. Dalmasso, Milano capitale economica d'Italia, a large and reliable amount of work on local Milano, Franco Angeli, 1972. architectural heritage, cities are still very little known, and we hope that such an attempt will help M. Grandi, A. Pracchi, Milano. Guida all'architellura to raise public interest in this issue. moderna, Bologna: Zanichelli, 1980. Conservation in Latin America M. Boriani, C. Morandi, A. Rossari, Mi/ano Interest in the conservation of historic cities of contemporanea. ltinerari di architellura e urbanistica, Europe is already a century old; Sitte (1889), Buts Torino: Designers Riuniti, 1986. (1893) and Ciovannoni (1913) must be here

20 21 Research Planning History Vol 13 No. 3 Planning History Vol. 13 No. 3 Resevch

speculation restrained public and private investors mentioned as the first ones consistently presenting has turned researchers' interests toward European country in Latin America where not the Spanish but the Portuguese provided the language and (in from dissipating urban land in large scale projects. the argument. For the first time, in a systematic history and models. Among the greatest difficulties part) the tradition. And, with Mexico, although for Britain and France embodied most characteristics of way, historic centres were indicated as places encountered by conservation policies is the lack of very different reasons, it shares a high self­ modernity, and it is no wonder that their heavy deserving protection per se and not just for its knowledge and research on the urban heritage. confidence in its originality and belief in a shining involvement in the Brazilian economy - mainly in monuments. Certainly, it was always that city (or This regards less the capital and larger cities future. Here too independence brought together a form of infrastructural works and industrial the part of it) where most relevant architectural (although, for a European observer, we are still at wave of attacks to the colonial heritage, including supplies - came to be reflected in the new urban monuments were located and where the general the beginning) than the small centres, where even its architectural testimonies. Yet, slow nineteenth projects. While British architecture set the model value was higher; yet, the interest in the city is basic information, such as city maps, can be century growth helped to preserve the landmarks for industrial and cast-iron buildings, French marked by the acknowledgement of the testimony difficult to find. Now, a wide interest in the of the past and, while a new kind of civic pride trained architects were more often called to design of the past as a value itself. This has displaced the problems of the historic centres is growing. Its was growing, Emperor Don Pedro 11 (1840-1889) the new urban spaces. It was the time of revivalist interest from the single monument to the city, its origins must be found in the long and successful succeeded in establishing the first national architecture, when overseas eclectic models alone fabric, its morphology. Later it was clear that even process of recognition and establishment of its museums. He was also frustrated in several were seen as entitled to represent the country's will the conservation of the monuments could not be cultural identity on one side an, on the other, on conservation issues, hoping unsuccessfully to carry to enter the number of advanced nations. At the divorced from that of the context. the impact of recent European debate and experiences. Today, the pioneering works of out ad hoc legislation, deriving from the lack of time, the colonial Portuguese heritage appeared interest on the part of the dominating rural only as a burden to get rid of, as a mark of Conservation policies for the historic centres are historians such as Jose L. Romero, Jorge E. Hardoy oligarchy of the time. actually a reaction to the aggressive policies or Ramon Gutierrez provide a fascinating insight in decadence and backwardness. New aesthetic and developed within the process of growth and the meaning and the structure of the city hygienic principles offered the pretext to demolish organisation of the modem city. it is true that the development in the subcontinent, while other France, Britain and the Metropolis old buildings and, sometimes, entire section of historic city normally grew on itself, often groups are producing interesting works in almost Two opposite factors affected the historic heritage towns: Rio de Janeiro is the best example of such destroying even the most relevant signs of its past, every Latin American country. at the end of the nineteenth century. One was the works, but Recife, Sao Paulo and Salvador must but the argument for conservation was born with stagnating economy of a large part of the country, also be included in the picture. the modern industrial city, when there is a clear But there is another fundamental aspect that makes where historic settlements, having lost their change with the past and the meaning and the the American scene so peculiar: except the productive and functional raison d'etre, entered a The Modem goes Nationalist functions of the city are definitely altered. Size and metropolises, the historic city here is still, fully, the time of stagnation and decay, marked by sharp One must come to the '20s to see the neo-colonial rhythm of growth of the industrial city were such city. There are very few signs of that process of population decrease: here architectural and urban movement taking place. It was intended to as to dash all plans for conservation for many social or functional specialisation that makes decay derived from abandonment and poor emphasise the value of colonial architecture against decades (with few exceptions). This was no European historic centres so easy to isolate, maintenance. The second one consisted of the dominating historic styles, in the attempt to show a obstacle to new techniques of survey and mentally or physically, from the remaining urban beginning of the process of modernisation, which tradition to which linking new architectural and interpretation of historic urban centres, to the area: here it makes no sense to consider the old developed rapidly in the new republican era. Great decorative designs. An interesting development merging of urban history more and more into social section of the city per se. Such conditions should cities were the first ones to start large renewal can be spotted in the regionalist movement as history and, what is more important, to enlarging p~Jt conservation policies in the middle of the programmes, as they were affected by new waves described in 1926 by the great anthropologist the notion of historic, to consider times and debate regarding general urban policies. of immigrants looking for shelter and a booming Gilberto Freyre, which claimed the need to preserve morphologies unthinkable only a few years ago. it Unfortunately this is still not so: architectural economy in search of a modern urban the region's cultural roots even in the architectural is then no wonder that while such techniques were historians seem until now the only ones who infrastructure. and urban realms. Also, in 1922, modern artists, becoming more sophisticated (although through actually care, but their approach is often short writers, poets, painters, architects - people who will non-linear procedures, as is typical of intellectual sighted and their impact on public policies The time had come for grandiose urban plans, often become famous - organised a week in the Opera work), knowledge of specific cases developed necessarily weak. designed by European architects, which were theatre of Sao Paulo to present the avant-garde greatly; we have now accumulated studies covering intended to express power and modernity, rather ideals. great part of the European scene. This makes unlikely an automatic transfer of than continuity with the past. Rio de Janeiro, conservation strategies and policies as developed in capital city since the mid eighteenth century is National spirits yet came to the forefront only a This does not mean that there is nothing left to do; Europe, but does provide a wide field for where these developments are most visible, but decade later, with the innovative political regime such studies are in fact the necessary premise for collaboration in research and analysis. The amount large scale modernisation touched all the main inspired and later headed by Getulio Vargas. The new and deeper investigations. It must also be of material to be investigated in Latin America is cities, like Salvador, Sao Paulo, Belem. Old colonial state became the main actor while restructuring the considered that the results can be used by different enormous, and it is necessary to increase the efforts sections disappeared to give place to new systems country's economy, which soon moved from an fragments of the society, historians, students, if we want effectively to implement protection of squares and avenues, important architectural oligarchy-controlled agrarian base to an urban­ architects or administrators, which all constitute the policies. On the other side, the Latin American landmarks were destroyed to allow new, more industrial-financial mainframe. A more powerful basis for developing policies of protection of the scene offers a very stimulating frame for rethinking impressive buildings to mark modem times and ?ureaucracy developed, with the stronger historical heritage. These policies are nothing in both our approach and the rationale of such functions. The new republican era started cutting mvolvement of the state in matters like labour fact but the last consequence of a social process of policies: the size of urban problems, the peculiarity all the ties with the past and substituting it with relations, education, urban and regional cultural awareness. of their developments and the rhythm of social and the imagery of the industrial civilisation. Like infrastructures. New cultural institutions were economic change offers great challenges to all other Latin American countries, Brazil is the place cre~ ted ?r .re~nforced, with the aim of building a This is rather new in Latin America. There are working in the realm of urban analysis and where the dream of the new city, unsuccessfully nahonahstic tdeology that incorporated the values many explanatory reasons for it, but the main one planning. pursued in many European countries, came true. of history. Several actions, in the form of acts and is cultural dependence on Europe, its institutions Parks, avenues, waterfronts, large squares, all the codes, dealt with the recording and the protection and research fields. This has largely contributed to The Brazilian Case repertoire of the beaux-arts architects were applied of art works and monuments, up to the underestimate the original characters of local Brazil constitutes a very special case. it is the in a much wider way than in Europe, where land establishment, within the reorganised Ministry of achievements in the urban field and, most of all,

22 23 Planning History Vol. 13 No. 3 Research Planning History Vol. 13 No. 3

Education, of the National Service for the Historic National attitudes toward these problems seemed for more than four centuries, and indeed has not were: and Artistic Heritage (SPHAN). to change only much later, during the '70s, when, ceased; urban history is marked by an through several international gatherings sponsored extraordinary variety of political motivations, social - north-eastern sugar production areas; In this context, where structural changes in the by UNESCO, Architects' associations, etc., came the characteristics, local or international economies and - mining areas of Minas Gerais and of the west; society were s upported by strong cultural idea that not the single monument but all relevant cultural attitudes. To present the complex - conquest towns of the southern littoral; mobilisation, modem artists assumed the leadership documents of a people's culture (and therefore articulation of such history should contribute to - capitanias of Maranhao and Gran Para; in the image-making of the new state. It was the urban fabrics) deserve protection. Yet, if this is the spread and reinforcement of the principles of - the centre of colonial power in Bahia; modernistic movement (movimento modernista) that official position today, there are few signs that national identity and therefore to better take into - the areas of the bandeirantes; claimed to be the real interpreter of the Revolution consistent policies will derive: the gap is still too account the efforts to preserve its documents. The - nineteenth century immigration cities. of 1930. Therefore it is no wonder that the writer wide between the society - its institutions, but also initial idea was to concentrate on small centres, Mario de Andrade, author of Macunaima, with well its basic culture- and the small group of those who generally the least known, although sometimes The Cities known surrealistic roots, was called in 1934 by the care. The strict alliance between the modernists extremely interesting: here there are very few signs Within these systems, which include some hundred Minister of Education Gustavo Capanema to design and the new state characterising the '30s was of the reductive touristic image that is present in cities, a sample was chosen that should offer not the main policy lines for the protection of the possibly the closest the intellectuals and power the main cities. only an idea of such heritage, but also of the historic heritage. The same ministry had the structure could come. They left a mark that was various problems connected to its preservation. responsibility for the magnificent building designed simultaneously simple and appealing: only what is The Method and the Difficulties Following is a list of the cities. by Le Corbusier with local architects and artists excellent, be it in the past or in the future, deserves The research is intended to use documentary Lucio Costa, Oscar Niemeyer and Candido protection. Unfortunately the idea of excellence material, to reduce it to a common or comparable Be/em (Para) Portinari, while the same Lucio Costa (belonging was applied in a very restricted way, consistently format and present it in a homogeneous way, to Founded in 1616 as a military outpost to secure the before to the neo-colonial movement and later with an ideology of progress and order (where the emphasise the basic characteristics of the urban occupation and control of the mouth of the designer of Brasilia) was given the direction of the second had the leadership) that was ruling also development process throughout the country. We Academy of the Beaux-Arts: all this gives the during the military regimes of 1964-84. thought at the beginning, given the difficulties greatest evidence of the strict links between the connected to this form of international cooperation modernistic movement and the ruling authoritarian That experience cannot be repeated today, when and to financial constraints, of making use of regime. the authoritarian regime does not exist any more existing literature and research work on every city. and new political subjects are coming on the stage. This however proved to be impossible, given the It is in fact an original mixture of nationalism and In a democratic society even the elite's role is extraordinary lack of any kind of systematic modernism that characterised the discussions and different. Saving the nation's historic heritage calls information in most places. We had therefore to the actual practices regarding the protection and for social awareness and appropriate economic look in the archives of Rio de Janeiro and Lisbon the conservation of monuments. The radical policies instead of legal measures from above: here for old maps, asking the electric companies for up­ positions of European modem architects (with Le is the place for scientific research. dated ones, going through pamphlets and local Corbusier always on the front line) met those of the minor publications for some record of past events. traditionalists in the effort to isolate the monuments The Research Cultural differences among the researchers were or the buildings deserving protection out of a In the past two years, in the framework of sometimes evident but this helped, instead of supposedly modest context. Through such increased exchanges of students and scholars hampering, a better understanding of the research 1. Belem: The meat market, an iron work of 1867, unnatural alliance great damage was brought to between the school of. Venice and several Latin goals. Several research seminars, both general and renovated in 1908. many cities, under the well known blanket of a American countries, we decided to work on some with smaller groups, took place in Brazil during functional and artistic modernisation. At the same kind of atlas of Brazilian cities. A team of Brazilian two years, with the help of the Italian cultural Amazon river. Important commercial city of the time when modem architects headed the researchers, headed by doctoral student Jose, institutes in Rio and Sao Paulo. The work Brazilian colony, it became the centre of the pure conservation policy we saw the disappearance of Pessoa, was set up. The long term objective was to developed through some basic stages such as rubber production in the area at the end of the important documents of material history. Such an create a synthesis of most up to date knowledge on identification of the centres to be examined, approach, which many criticise today, was very the process of foundation, construction and definition of the classification criteria, sample successful, and apparently is still working, despite transformation of historic centres, up to the point of definition, collection of all published material, many official decl

24 25 Planning History Vol. 13 No. 3 Research Research Planning History Vol 13 No. 3 nineteenth century. Capital city of the Para state, it but remained a religious centre. is still the main centre of the Amawn region; in the historic core there are important architectural and Sal Salvador da Baia de Todos os Santos (Bahia) urban landmarks. Capital of the colony, founded on the hills .~ .~ A f_ v \ according to a Portuguese plan (a grid surrounded Sao Luis (Maranhao) by walls). It maintained its position as the main Founded by the French in 1613, was conquered by political centre until the mid eighteenth century the Portuguese two years later. It developed when, for strategic reasons, the capital was moved through the activity of the Commercial Company of to Rio de Janeiro. It has important remains of the Maranhao and Gran Para, staying independent of sixteenth and seventeenth century pattern and a the colonial administration. In the nineteenth very valuable, although very degraded, set of century if enjoyed a new prosperity due to the religious and civilian buildings. The nineteenth cotton production in the region. It is one o f the century city is also relevant. more extended historic centres of Brazil; it contains many examples of Pombaline a rchitecture. Cachoeira and Sao Felix (Bahia) Founded at the end of the sixteenth century, on the 0/inda (Pernambuco) left bank of the main river of the bay of Salvador. Founded in 1537, it became the administrative At the beginning it was a centre for the production centre for the whole area of s~>~ gar cane production. of sugar cane and later an important commercial Classic example of the Portuguese model of interchange between the littoral and the inland colonial city, with a hill settlement and a (sertao), from where the roads converged on the

~~ ... ~ . ,. (

4. Salvador: Dutch vessels trying to enter the bay, XVII century (from the National Library of Rio de Janeiro).

unified urban structure with Sao Felix, developed Brazilian baroque architecture. in the nineteenth century with stocking facilities and workers housing. Mariana (Minas Gerais) Developed n ear a gold mine in the early eighteenth Diamantina (Minas Gerais) century, because of the metropolitan demand for It was born at the beginning of the eighteenth stricter control over the area, it became capital and century in connection with the exploitation of the bishop's see. It was modified by a Portuguese diamond mines. During the whole century it was urban plan, the only example of a planned city in considered a 'closed city', because it was inside the the region. In 1746 the capital moved to Ouro diamond area, which had controlled access. It Preto and Mariana remains a religious centre. developed peculiar architectural and urban characteristics. Pirenopolis (Goias) Although less important than the mining a rea of Uoro Preto (Minas Gerais) Minas Gerais, the mining a rea of Goias developed a Capital of Minas Gerais, it is the country's most relevant urban system, still well maintained, in the important mining area. It was established in 1711, eighteenth century. Pirenopolis, with Vila Boa de through the merging of three settlements Goias, was the centre of such n etwork, but it shows established near the mines at the end of the in its modest urban structure t he poorer economic sixteenth century, and became soon the main resources of the area. 3. Project for a cable-boat between Cachoeira and Sao Felix, XVlli century (from the National Library of Rio de regional centre. It lost its political role in 1897, Janeiro. when the capital moved to Belo Horizonte, but its economy was declining from the early nineteenth Corumba (Mato Grosso do Sui) commercial harbour on the estuary, the original opposite bank, where Sao Felix developed. It had century because of the exhaustion of the mines. It A border town already existing in the eighteenth nucleus of Recife. With the Dutch invaders moving its highpoint in the eighteenth century, when the is characterised by an irregular urban pattern, and ce.ntury, i.t was rebuilt in the nineteenth century, the capital to Recife in 1631 it lost its political role, main architectural features appeared. It is today a houses some of the most important monuments of wtth a gnd plan, after its destruction following the

26 27 Planning History Vol. 13 No. 3 Planning History Vol. 13 No. 3 Reports Reports

different themes were pursued in a conunon Paraguay. It was the main commercial The Planning History Track war against session. With the benefit of hindsight a reporter of and the warehouses Amidst all this activity planning historians were centre on the river Paraguay, such sessions is able to regroup the papers to int he harbour area are still viable. Reports able to pursue their own concerns and interests. Planning history was the theme of one of the tracks highlight the conunon themes that emerged. nine sessions Accordingly the present account, though it retains Petrapolis (Rio de Janeiro) and 28 papers were presented in the week. Of these no less than 17 the conference themes, differs slightly from the City founded in 1846 according to a German urban throughout e United States with a original ordering. The paper by Gerd AJbers plan to acconunodate German immigrants. Located ACSP/AESOP Joint were by authors from th Only four were by UK (Munich Technical University, Germany) on the in a hill area, the plan permitted the urbanisation of further two from Canada. Italy and one each from 'Influences of US City Planning on Germany' was the valleys leaving the slopes as open green spaces. Congress, Oxford, authors with three from therefore the most wide ranging. Thus it noted the impacts Thanks to its position it became the place of Germany and Norway. Not surprisingly very pronounced North of the City Beautiful movement before 1914, sununer holidays for the imperial court. July 8-12, 1991. the sessions took on a American flavour, so much so that a German planning for the automobile, Radbum and the TV A of US planning between the wars, planning theory, urban renewal Santa de Parnaiba (Sao Pau/o) professor commenting on an aspect his remarks with the words 'In th is from the late 1950s and environmental protection Founded in the seventeenth century as a departure Stephen V Ward prefaced country .. .' before correcting himself! However this and the publi<.-private partnership today. point for the conquest of new lands in the interior, North American bias was not peculiar to planning Connections in the other direction were examined for gold digging and the hunt of indios to trade on Oxford Polytechnic, UK historians. In fact the proportions of the US and by William F. Menking (Pratt Institute, USA) in a the slave market. Like all bandeirante cities it did By any standards the first Joint International Canadian papers to others was very similar to the paper entitled 'Catherine Bauer: An American not experience a significant growth. Being in a ern Architecture and Congress of the Association of Collegiate Schools of Conference as a whole. Account of European Mod marginal position with respect to modem looked at American Planning (of North America) and the Association of Housing Estates'. This development axes, it has maintained its original modernism of social European Planning Schools was a unique and But there was a significant under-representation of interests in the emergent character. other parts of Europe extraordinary event. This claim might be regarded British papers in the planning history track housing in Germany and where they between the wars. Sao Francisco do Sui (Santa Catarina) as a typical piece of promotional hyperbole, coming compared to the conference as a whole, almost a quarter of the papers. This Founded in 1658 as a necessary support base for as it does from a member of the host institution's made up ber of British planning Kermit C. Parsons (Comell University, USA) the course linking Rio de Janeiro and Sao Vicente organising committee. But the facts speak for reflected the very low num s attending, raising the interesting question acknowledged the more complex nature of to the colony of Sacramento at the mouth of the Rio themselves: 700 delegates, half of them from North historian this should be the case. For some international transfers of planning ideas in his de la Plata. Economically weak, it remained a America with the remainder split more or less as to why the timing of the conference, which was paper 'British and American Conununity Design: halting harbour on this route until the nineteenth equally between Britain and the rest of Europe, certainly with Clarence Stein's Manhattan Transfer 1922-1972'. He clear example of a conquest city converged on Oxford making it the largest ever near-perfect for the North Americans, clashed century and it is a transfer, beginning with t centres. gathering of planning educators anywhere. Just academic or other duties. Others were wearing identified a three cycle ensuring the trade among more importan and Welwyn under 400 papers were presented, mainly in 16 other hats elsewhere at the Conference, but perhaps Stein and Wright's visit to Letchworth in 1922, followed by their development of Radburn Antonio Prado (Rio Grande do Sui) parallel 'tracks', each with American and European the most important point is that most British in and other community designs, the impact of these Founded in the second half of the nineteenth eo-chairs. Conference sessions were balanced by a planning historians are not actually based therefore part of the on British thinking and the transfer of British New century with a grid plan on an uneven land. It full complementary programme of study visits, planning schools and not Although this did not absolutely Town ideas back to North America evident in stays as the best kept example of timber social events, receptions etc. AESOP network. out, it effectively rendered such Kitimat, Reston and Columbia. In another session, architecture, typical of Italian immigrants. rule them Most of this activity was heroically (again no false individuals less likely to attend, particularly since and also in the pursuit of the transatlantic demand for places at the Conference exceeded dimensions of the garden ci ty movement, Gordon References modesty)- packed into the not always conducive setting of a late twentieth century UK PolytQChnic, supply by a considerable margin. P. Scholz (University of Nebraska-Lincoln, USA) its confusing collection of cramped (and in attempted to reconstruct Ebenezer Howard's few Campofiorito, Italo. 1984. 'Mudo o mundo do with rather stuffy) rooms, ugly buildings and less The nine 95 minute sessions of the planning history months in Nebraska vainly attempting to become a Patrimonio', Reuista do Brasil 4: 32-43. July than outstanding facilities. A vast marquee was track were divided up into dear themes. There frontier farmer in 1871. By showing the grim and temporary conference eating were two sessions on 'Transatlantic Connections' inhospitable nature of the area at that time he Ferreiro Dos Santos, Carlos N. 1988. A Cidade com erected to provide only at lunch time. However, and two that focused 'On the Study of Planning succeeded in showing why Howard stayed such a um jogo de ca rtas (Sao Paulo: Editora). facilities, thankfully as sometimes happens on such occasions, human History'. Two sessions were devoted to 'The City short time. But the very scant nature of the endeavour far exceeded the limitations of in the Americas' and one on 'The City in Europe'. evidence yielded only a few flashes of insight into Gutierrez, Roman. 1983. Arquitectural y urbanismo immediate environment. The sheer hard work and Reflecting the focus of offered papers, one session this period and certainly showed no 'Nebraska en lberomerica (Madrid: Edidones Catedra). commitment of the Oxford Polytechnic team and was devoted to 'Christopher Tunnard: Multi­ connection', in the garden city tradition. However the tremendous reservoir of goodwill on the part of National Visionary Planner' while the final session Howard's meeting with Buffalo Bill, one of the few Hardoy, Jorge E., Santos, Mario R., 1983. lmpacto de the delegates enabled the conference to rise above was a roundtable discussion, with no paper recorded events of these months, provides one of en Ios centros historicos la urbanizacion all this. And of course the wider setting of Oxford presented, on 'Periodicity and Patterns of Change the great footnotes of planning history. latinoamericanos (PNUD-UNESCO). also provided something of a diversion, samples in in Planning History'. receptions at the Ashmolean Museum and The other three papers in these sessions pursued Millet, Vera. 1988. A teimosia das pedras (Olinda: Blackwell's Bookshop and dinner at the Randolph Transatlantic Connections rather different issues. The paper by Elwin c. de Olinda) Prefeitura Hotel. As in all such conferences constructed from Robinson (Kent State University, USA) followed submitted papers, the grouping of papers seemed v~ry much in the approach to planning history Romero, Jose Luis. 1976. lAtinoamerica, las ciudades y to be rather arbitrary and several distinctly p1oneered by John Reps. In his paper 'British las ideas (Buenos Aires). Proposals for American Settlement: Granville

28 29 Reports PlaMing History Vol 13 No. 3 Planning History Vol. 13 No. 3 Reportt

a Vision for Modem 1912-1923: How a City Can be Invented', using Sharp's Plan for Town and Township' he looked at great urban thinkers. In a paper entitled The City Planned Village Suggests this early example of contemporary film to show how the new identity of a specific settlement model for new town as Discourse: The Origins of American City Urban America' re-examined fashionable resort was fostered. plantations in eighteenth century British colonial Planning' which had to be delivered by a colleague US garden village planning, focusing particularly the dereliction which has settlement in the Americas and elsewhere. The because of her illness, Katherlne Tehranian on its success in avoiding afflicted the wider locality. Hancock's paper '"And The final session where papers were presented, on colonial theme was updated by Michael Safier (University of Hawaii, USA), offered a new a Few Marines": Military Bases and City Planning Christopher Tunnard (1910-79) contained just two (University College, London, UK) in his paper interpretation of the emergence of US planning. in San Diego' represented an early review of a papers, permitting a more leisurely presentation 'Transatlantic Contributions to the Transition from She presented it in terms of several alternative research project intended to examine the tong term and discussion. Both presenters, Ralph Warburton Colonial to Developmental: Urban Planning in the hegemonic projects for the industrial city which impact of a major military presence on planning (University of Miami, USA) and James P. Wider World 1940-1965'. This explored a rather underwent significant shifts in the early twentieth efforts from 1916 through to the present. DeAngelis (University of Pittsburgh, USA) had neglected aspect of planning history and century to form the basis of a new profession of worked closely with Tunnard and clearly been highlighted key episodes in this important urban planning. Marc A. Weiss (Columbia University, USA) gave a greatly influenced by him. Warburton's paper transition from the imposed master plan of the fascinating account of The Evolution of Skyscraper 'Christopher Tunnard: The Anticipatory Generalist colonial era into the self-help, action plan and other The other two papers were more European in Zoning in American Cities', which showed why Planner' gave a more general overview of responses of developmental approaches. Finally focus. Thus Dennis Hardy (Middlesex Polytechnic, zoning efforts were necessary, how they influenced Tunnard's work in his homeland of Canada and Stephen V Ward (Oxford Polytechnic, UK) UK) reviewed visionary planning literature about skyscraper architecture and how they resolved later in Britain and particularly the United States. explored the antecedents of local economic the year 2000 and beyond in his paper 'Pragmatists various problems arising from uncontrolled DeAngelis dealt with a more specific aspect of his development policies in his paper 'the Local Role in and Prophets: Planning History and the Third development. By contrast the picture given by work in his contribution 'Christopher tunnard: The Promoting Economic Growth 1870-1939: A Millennium' concluding that it cast important light Bruce Stephenson (Rollins College, USA) in his Transportation Connection in Planning at Yale Transatlantic View (UK and Canada)'. Here the on the nature of change. By contrast Morton paper 'Saving Eden: The Merging of Ecology and University (An Idea Whose Time May Be Here, theme was of experience following broadly similar Edvardsen (Agricultural University of Norway) Planning in Florida' was of a rather more Again!)'. paths, albeit with different timing, in two different offered a critique of the common distinction depressing conflict between planning and countries, rather than of a transfer of ideas and between 'planned' and 'organic growth' in historic rather different papers it was a practice. town plan analysis in his paper 'On the Track of development concerns. Two After listening to so many Planning in Urban History'. pictures of the planner-developer relationship were wonderful liberation to engage in a roundtable by Michael Ebner (Lake Forest College, USA) discussion was On the Study of Planning History given discussion for the final session. The and Charles E. Connerly (Florida State University, initiated by contributions by David Johnson These sessions were given a stimulating beginning The City in the Americas USA). Both focused on the role of planning and (University of Tennessee, USA) and Seymour Roweis (University of Toronto, As in the conference as a whole, the USA was by Shoukry public investment in encouraging private Mandelbaum (University of Pennsylvania, USA) Canada) in a paper called 'Writing Our Own dominant in the focus of these papers. However investment and urban growth. Ebner's account of who discussed the applications of Kondratieff and argued that too much planning three of the nine papers in these sessions addressed History'. He 'Experiencing Megatopolis in Princeton' was of a other cyclical theories of history to planning history an enculturating role, underlining non-US topics. Thus Cordon R. Echols (Texas A & history performs town's success in becoming the focus of a new and challenged the whole notion of periodisation the 'lessons of history' and essentially being too M University, USA) gave a fascinating account of growth corridor, which directly influenced Jean respectively. What followed was a relaxed and judgemental about planning efforts of the past. He 'Planning and Design of the Early Hispanic Cities Gottmann in the articulation of his theory of fruitful exchange of ideas and views about wanted a more careful separation of ideology and in the New World', involving extensive use of the Megalopolis. By contrast Connerly's paper 'One planning history in general and the experiences of analysis in planning historiography and teaching. various Spanish 'Laws of the Indies' which Great City: Birmingham's Struggle for Greatness particular countries. It was in fact a fine way to of this were little short of explosive on incorporated a detailed set of urban design and The effects through Suburban Annexation and Consolidation, end our deliberations. there planning guidelines. This was complemented by a some other North American delegates and 1945 to the Present' was of a rather less . paper by Glorgio Plccinato (University Institute of followed a vigorous and at times fierce debate spontaneous growth process requiring much more of Venice, Italy) entitled 'For an Atlas Roweis' main antagonist, Lawrence Mann Architecture conscious public action. (University of Arizona, USA), presented his own of Historic Centres in Latin America: Brazil'! This gave an account of a Venetian-initiated study of schematic framework for planning history in a The Other Sessions paper entitled 'Privatism and Alternative Historic Brazil's historic cities, intended to foster increased A rather more limited selection of papers were on Patterns in the Evolution of Urban Development awareness of conservation issues. The paper is offer in the session on The City in Europe. J. C. S. and Its Planning', which attempted to counteract reproduced in this issue of Planning History. The Cavalcanti (University of Manchester, UK) the usual 'collectivist' emphasis of much planning third of the non-US papers was by Godfrey L. examined 'The Development of the Water Industry historiography. Spragge (Queen's University, Kingston, Canada) who examined 'Early Town Planning in South in Nineteenth Century Britain', trying to reinterpret the roots of the collectivist impulse which brought Three other papers explored various approaches to Western Ontario: A Tale of Three Cities', showing the industry largely into public ownership by 1900. American planning history. Thus June Manning how public health concerns and new planning Infrastructure provision was also the theme of Thomas and Richard W. Thomas (Michigan State ideas were important formative influences in the Corinna Morandi's (Milan Polytechnic, Italy) paper University, USA) argued for merging our concerns pre-World War I period. 'The Infrastructuralisation Process and Town with other historical specialisms in their paper, Development in Milan at the End of the Nineteenth 'Understanding the Present State of US Cities: Several themes were apparent in the U5-oriented Century'. Her paper explored the connections Joining Black Urban History and Planning History'. papers. Michael Lang (Rutgers University, USA) between this activity and the origins of more David R. Hill (University of Colorado, USA) gave and John L. Hancock (University of Washington, comprehensive town planning activity. Finally a spirited account of 'Street Life in Lewis USA) were concerned with military impacts on Institute of Mumford's Philosophy of Urban Form History', a planning. Lang's paper, 'Yorkship Village, Leonardo Ciacci (University Architecture, Venice, Italy) spoke on 'Italian Rhodes welcome insight into the work of one of America's Camden, New Jersey: Success of a World War I Era

30 31 Planning lllstory Vol. 13 No. 3 Report. Report• l'lannlng I fl•tury Vol 1:1 No. 'I

Phllip then cast the net wider to include fragments stut.lent !l who t.l o not stay In this country. This Lewis Mumford: from the poetry of William Carlos Williams and Architectural prob){•m Is being 01ddresscd by COTA C the Charles Olson, David Byme's post-modem film Conference on Training In Archiwctu ral Exploring An 'True Stories', and John Hume's writings on Conservation: Con'lCrva tl on - which hopcll to encompass Ireland. The result was, at best, a digression, albeit lltructured development of training from blu£• collar Intellectual Legacy one which provoked lively debate. Informing the S<.'Ctor to lev(•l 4 In higher education.

In the afternoon session, Eric Mottram (King's Professionals Con'lCrvntlon Issues nl'(:d to be nddre'l.!l('

32 33 HJstory VoL 13 N o. 3 Plai\J\lng History Vol. 13 No. 3 Reports Reports Planning discovering how historic buildings and townscape disciplines, but stressed the value of concentrating after' conservation projects. Special survey The Centre's collection includes monographs, form a unity. York is a very appropriate place for on one's own skills in order to maintain one's real collections include the Corpus Vitraeanum (historic ICOMOS publications, over 8,000 slides and 350 such studies and the course is able to involve City expertise. That may mean being 'bookish', glass) and a survey of wall paintings. The current periodical titles. Part of the stock covers planning and conservation oHicers. although historians did need to get out of the RCHME's own county surveys and inventories of the conservation of historic monuments and sites library as well. He outlined certain 'demons' which buildings, published and unpublished, are also (ICOMOS) and the o ther covers museology and the Also included in the programme are the various bedevil conservation work - the preoccupation with kept, as are emergency records of buildings made conservation of objects (ICOM). UNESCO software charters and statements of conservation policy such local conservation associations (the Blue Plaque just prior to demolition. Other records include (CDS-ISIS) provides both a computer housekeeping as those of Venice, Icomos, and Burra. mentality), and the temptation to see, and thus some from English Heritage, including the register system for the stock and also a b ibliographic Conservation is seen as an interdisciplinary activity, value, buildings in terms of individual parts or of historic gardens. database - ICCOMOS. Its thesaurus is bi-lingual with the involvement of all kinds of experts and details rather than looking at the whole (of a English and French. In 1990 the ICCOMOS practitioners, and with preconceptions as to which building, a locality or a town). There is also a In 1983 work was begun on the creation of a database became available to selected n ational type of person should be the team leader. tendency to cope with the care of a building, once computerised index to the NMR records, to be libraries and also to UNESCO on CD-ROM. Documentation and the collection of the relevant it is shown to be important, in a grudging, searchable by location, building type and date. sources of information concerning buildings are uninspired way. These approaches almost always Much work is still to be done on this including the The Centre benefits from a n etwork of partners, seen as important elements in the educational lead to superficiality of treatment and inadequate development of a thesaurus of architectural terms. including the Council of Europe and UNESCO, and programme. conservation measures. Possible future developments include image benefits from their resources. The Council of retrieval systems, based on digitised information. Europe has an active policy on d ocumentation Robert Thorne, who is architectural historian with The architectural historian should counter this by problems, and is preparing a questionnaire to Alan Baxter Associates, and who is well known for seeking to analyse buildings and places as a Robin Thornes, from the RCHME at York, spoke compile a directory of European documentation his previous work with the Greater London Council totality, to consider the site as a whole, and to give about the project to computerise details of listed centres. and also with English Heritage, spoke about the due regard to materials and function. It must be buildings. Up to now, these details have been kept role of architectural historians in building and remembered that a building is generally more than in 'green-backs' - paper files by district, produced ICOMOS resources are a t the disposal of all conservation. He agreed with Peter Burman as to that which is seen from the outside. Robert gave by the Department of the Environment and bound enquirers w ho call in person, b ut the Centre also the need for historians to w ork with other us several examples of surprise discoveries in in green, which contain details of about 500,000 ha ndles telephone and fax enquiries. It produces buildings which appeared unremarkable from the buildings, and are virtually inaccessible to most bibliographies and supplies copies of documents. 1t exterior, and also of buildings which had collapsed people including, in many instances, RCHME staff! has no acquisitions budget and relies on donations during refurbishment, due to ignorance about their The records of individual buildings vary in detail - and exchanges, a system which is not always construction systems and methods. Stressing the some being very full, others only brief descriptions satisfactory. The periodical collection is 'interesting importance of using and compiling accurate records of the exterior. U pdating the files has involved but not systematic'. of buildings, he referred to the forthcoming index literally cutting out or sticking in countless untidy to The Builder, with which he has been involved. sheets of paper. This is clearly a suitable case for The database covers publications from many computer treatment, and is likely to benefit not countries, and entries are very full with a Diana Hale from the Royal Commission on only those who constantly work with the 1ists', but translation field. Languages covered include Historic Monuments of England, spoke about the other researchers. A pilot project has been carried French, German, English, Spanish, Russian and National Monuments Register as a source of out, helping to establish the minimum information Ja panese, which created cataloguing and indexing information for architectural historians and required for each building. English Heritage and problems with organisations, names, titles and conservationists. She briefly explained that the RCHME have devised a standard for core data, but ori gins of documents. Its main weakness is that it National Buildings Record had been started in 1941, much time and effort (and money) is needed before can be interrogated onJine from only three sites in when wartime damage had created a concerh that the complete database, which will have many Paris. To solve this problem, ICOMOS have the nation's building heritage should be recorded. additional fields of information and capacities for developed 'profile diskettes' on individual themes, Thus the NBR is celebrating its fiftieth birthday this linking to other documentation, will be available. e.g. vernacular architecture, which can be sold to year, with an exhibition and a commemorative subscribers. Since the system is IBM compatible, volume. International conservation documentation was this makes costs low, and the software to run the covered by Richard Blandin, Head of the diskette is available free from UNESCO. In 1963, the NBR merged with the Royal Documentation Centre at ICOMOS in Paris, who Commission on Historic Monuments to form the described the Centre's operations and database Ruth Harman, Senior Archivist of Sheffield City, National Monuments Record. The NMR's 1.5 services. He began by telling us about the creation spoke about the types of documents available in million items consist of architectural photographs in of ICOMOS in 1965, on the initiative of UNESCO local record offices which are used by architectural the broadest sense of the term - aerial photographs, 'to gather, study and disseminate information historians and conservationists, and provided a very early photographs, those of demolished or concerning principles, techniques and policies for useful handout with an extensive list of sources. moved buildings and collections given to the the conservation, protection, rehabilitation and Primary sources, which would be useful in Record, including the collection compiled by enhancement of monuments, groups of buildings conservation work, can help to define the Numbers 47-50 Manchester Street, Marylebone, a Country Life magazine. The NMR has little and sites'. These principles were later modified as significance of a building and put it in context, 1785-9 terrace, which collapsed during difficulty in acquiring materials. more heritage documentation centres appeared, and often stimulating public interest and thereby refurbishment in May 1990. Photograph used by the current practice is more pragmatic - to collect helping in the raising of money. These documents Robert Thorne with the permission of the City of Also kept are surveys of various kinds, including and dispatch information and documents useful to include business, auctioneers' and valuers' records, Westminster, who called in Alan Baxter & those carried out before the sale of country houses, the Council of Europe, UNESCO and legal records, wills and inventories, diocesan and Associates to investigate the cause of the collapse. conservation reports and surveys made 'before and conservationists. parish records, insurance, licensing and personal

34 35 Planning f-Ustory Vol. 13 No. 3 Planning HJstory Vol. 13 No. 3 Reports Publications records, photographs, topographical drawings and Even when some information is found, it may not early eighteenth century Mansion House in which others. Structural information, especially sets of provide what is needed by the technologist the mayors of York must live during their terms of drawings, can save time and money, and can involved in conservation. T he quality of office - no ha rdship this! We proceeded, passing Publications supply a case for conservation, or simply a date as information provided by manufacturer varies what remained of a Norman house of the thirteenth a starting point. However, it is first necessary to greatly as far as detail is concerned. In certain century, to Coffee Yard to look at a somewhat look at the building in question, which can supply cases, for example that of early reinforced concrete, controversial restoration of a mediaeval hospice many clues to its origin and history. a licensed contractor tendered and supplied the which is to become a mediaeval experience Abstracts complete design, not the manufacturer. In others, museum. The root of the controversy is that the Records in demand by conservation workers are for example that of reinforced concrete bars, earliest part of the building has been demolished to Stuart Lowe and Davld Hughes (eds), A New often scattered amongst various collections. manufacturers produced large technical volumes to make way for the new scheme. Along Swinegate Century of Social Housing Leicester: University Press, Bibliographies and lists of holdings can help to sell a particular system. This pattern goes back to and Grape Lane we came to the long redundant 1991, 201 pp, £35, ISBN 0 7185 1353 3 1 locate information • An increasing number of the turn of the century. church of Holy Trinity which has been preserved guides area available in microform from NIDS with help from the Redundant Churches Fund. (National Inventory of Documentary Sources) Scientific information regarding the nature and The church is mainly fifteenth century with early Subsidised housing for the working classes began published by Chadwick-Healey, and many record behaviour of building materials is also necessary in stained glass In the east window, and delightfully to emerge as a central feature of British urban life offices produce their own guides. conservation work, but the main body involved in higgledy piggledy eighteenth century box pews In the nineteenth century. Its practice and this kind of work, the Building Research Station which slope and dip with the uneven floor. We philosophy have changed markedly. Chapters The talk concluded with a series of slides of (now the Building Research Establishment), did not then went on to Lady Row, in which are to be recount the significance of the 1890 Act, the origins original sources, using documents relating to a always make the results of its tests public and some found some of the oldest small houses in Europe. and development of local authority housing in public house in Sheffield - an agreement between work is still confidential. Research work was done Nottingham, the history of council housing and the the Duke of Norfolk's agent and one Joseph for members by the various trade associations, and On our way back to King's Manor, we took a look development of a national housing policy, the Saunders who leased the plot, a plan from 1748 and results were unlikely to reach libraries, so there is a at the Shambles, and our guides pointed out sites financi ng o f public housing, the legal dimension of a photograph and OS map from 1890 - and the lack of recorded information available here as well. where decisions have been taken contrary to their rents and income, tenants' rights, design for living Sheffield Lyceum Theatre, built 1893, - the Sprague recommendations. Even in York the conservation (Patrick Nuttgens), housing management, and the refurbishment of 1897, deposited building plans, a Standards in building change regularly, and the lobby does not win every planning appeal! role of local political attitudes. Richard Best Sprague elevation and programmes from early only complete collection is at the British Standards However, our overall impression as we skirted the provides a chapter on Housing Associations. productions. Institution itself. There is no central collection of Minster and the daffodil-bedecked banks of the city building by-laws, of which there is a vast number walls in the mellow light of late afternoon, was of a Larry Bennett, Fragments of Cities: The New The final speaker, David Yeomans, Lecturer in because each authority worked to its own. (In the historic city with a rich architectural heritage American Downtowns and Neighbourhoods. Architectural History, University of Manchester, inter-war years professionals in the industry found coping well with the pressures of commercial Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1990, spoke about the problems encountered by it difficult to work outside their own areas because development and tourism. It has staunch and pp 171., ISBN 0-8142-0524-0, $2950, cloth. researchers looking for technical information they could not easily find the appropriate tireless defenders in its conservation officers. This relating to the early twentieth century building regulations.) was altogether a fascinating end to a highly In a brief volume, Larry Bennctt examines the fate industry. Buildings of this period were using new enjoyable and instructive seminar. of American cities during the last generation and and more sophisticated technologies, and David ended with a plea that there should be a concludes that architects, planners, and others conservators need to know what information is national collection of this kind of material to References making design decisions have accelerated rather available and what is needed to carry out facilitate the technical work connected with 1. Record repositories in Great Britain, 8th ed., than retarded urban segmentation. He argues that conservation work. Required documents include conservation of twentieth century buildings. HMSO, 1987. Poster, J. and Sheppard, J., British contemporary urban design such as the Boston trade literature, standards and legislation and Clearly this is an area which the library profession Archives, a guide to archive resources in the UK, 2nd Government Center and the Renaissance Center in scientific research information. has found easy to ignore, and the cost is now being ed., 1989 Detroit have segmented urban space, thus realised. separating the races and classes and destroying the Trade literature, including manufacturers' 'four crucial attributes of urban life' - surprise, catalogues, seems to have always caused problems The seminar concluded with an informative and tolerance, Innovation, and democratic participation. to librarians. It is·difficult to handle, is ephemeral highly enjoyable stroll around the environs of Bennett concludes that broad political coalitions and can be seen as dangerous to keep - regulations King's Manor which took us through some of the must be developed in order to overcome the and standards change, materials go out of use. To oldest parts of York. Our guides were the two segmentation of cities through design. research a building thirty years after construction, conservation officers for the City, Jane Jackson and fi nding out whose floor system was used and what Anne Simpson, who steered us round the key sites Wal!A!r L. Creese, TV A's Public Planning: The load it can carry may prove difficult. There has carrying on an enthusiastic and knowledgeable Vision, The Reality, Knoxville, Tennessee: University been no national policy of collecting and retaining double act. First we visited the sumptuous of Tennessee Press, 1990, 388 pp., ISBN 0-87049-638- this type of information, and consequently existing Assembly Rooms designed by Lord Burlington in 7,$38.95. collections are less than satisfactory. The RIBA 1731 and recently restored with help from English Library has some information, the British Library's Heritage. A new use is still being sought for this Waiter L. Creese uses the industrial architecture Science Reference Library's collection is patchy and building which exotically recalls a long gone age of and riverscape design of the Tennessee Valley accessible only by manufacturer's name, which is elegance. We went on to a much older part of the Authority (lVA) to analyse changes in the agency's OK if you know it! The Property Services Agency City and one of its best set pieces - Stonegate - policies. Using this technique, he traces the Library has now discarded its (almost unusable) which is essentially a mediaeval street and in which transformation of agency first concerned with broad collection. every building is listed. We paused to admire the

36 37 Planning History Vo.l. 13 No. 3 Publlcatlona Publications Planning History Vol 13 No. 3 social purposes to a technocratic institution Ruth Kark, Jaffa: A City in Evolution 1799-1917, objectives. The first is to examine the regional comparative history and social theory of the two narrowly focused, dedicated almost exclusively to Jerusalem, Yad lzhak Ben-Zvi Press, 1990, 328 pp., experiences. The second is to probe and explain regimes. O.ne of the book's chief arguments is that the generation of electric power. This monograph ISBN 965-217-065-8 such aspects as growth prospects, the realities of the planning schemes of both countries are the speaks not just to liberal reform in America but deindustrialisation, and the development of policies visual realisation of their respective social systems. also to the role that ideas can play in the Emphasises the interplay of political, demographic, at different geographical scales, and thirdly formulation of policy. social, economic and regional forces in the chapt~rs focus on the implications of what has been Joann P. Krleg, ed., Robert Moses: Single Minded transformation of one of the world's oldest port found for Europe, Japan and the many newly Genius. Interlaken, New York: Heart of Lakes Melvin Kalfus, Frederick lAw Olmsted: The Passion cities from a small, walled settlement, to one of the developing industrialisating countries. Publishing, 1989, 220 pp., ISBN 1-55787-040-3, of a Public Artist. New York and London: New major harbours on the eastern coast of the $30.00, cloth, ISBN 1-55787-041-1, $18.00, paper. York University Press, 1990, 415 pp., ISBN 0-8147- Mediterranean, at a time when Jaffa played an S'tanley Buder, Visionaries and Planners: The Garden 4606-3, $49.50 cloth. especially central role in the history of Palestine. City Movement and the Modern Community. New This volume includes 18 essays presented at a York: Oxford University Press, 1990, 260 pp., ISBN conference on Robert Moses sponsored by the Long Kalfus has written a psychobiography of Olmsted Frederlck R. Steiner, Soil Conservation in the United 0-19-506174-8, $35.00, cloth Island Studies Institute at Hofstra University on that opens doors to some of the puzzling aspects of States: Policy and Planning. Baltimore and London: June 10 and 11, 1988. This collection of essays Olmsted's career. Although historians of planning Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990, 249 pp., Visionaries and Planners tells the story of a major seeks to re-evaluate the assessment of Moses may gain little learning from this book, they will ISBN 0-8018-3997-1, $45.00 cloth, ISBN 0-8018-3998- effort to create a whole, new, urban form. It begins offered b y Robert A. Caro in his Pulitzer Prize increase their knowledge of both Olmsted and his X, $18.50 paper. with Ebenezer Howard and describes the winning book, The Power Broker: Robert Moses and work. The author has written a brave book, one establishment of the Garden City Movement in the Fall of New York. Taken together, essayists in celebrating Olmsted's great achievements while This book on ecological-based planning and land both Great Britain and the United States. Special this book, such as Kenneth T. Jackson, provide a understanding them on levels deeper than those of management techniques in rural areas is divided attention is given to Letchworth and Welwyn in much needed balanced and judicious assessment of design analysis. into three major sections. First, there is a England and Sunnyside and Radburn in the United the man. description of the severity of the soil erosion States. The author also examines the post World Bernard J. Frieden and Lynne B. Sagalyn, problem and a thorough analysis of federal and War ll New Town Movement in both England and V. Hastaogiou-Martinidis, K. Kafkouia and N. Downtown, Inc.: How America Rebuilds Cities, state soil conservation laws, policies and programs the United States. The book is particularly strong Papamihos City Plans in 19th Century Greece Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: over the past century. The second section of the when discussing the development of Howard's Thessaloniki: Annuar of the Aristotle University of MIT Press, 1989, 382 pp., ISBN 0-262-06128-7, £17.95 book uses four case studies to illustrate the thought. Thessaloniki, 1990, 239pp. No price stated. cloth. problems of soil erosion in the United States. Finally, the last section recommends a two-phase Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York This work, published in Greek with an English This book explores the recent success of a number national soil conservation policy. City: Dwelling Type and Social Change in the summary, is a revised version of the research of cities in stimulating downtown revitalisation. Ameriam Metropolis. New York: Columbia project City Plans and their Implementation in 19th Focusing primarily on retail redevelopment, the Sylvia Collier with Sarah Pearson, Whitehaven University Press, 1990, 422 pp., ISBN 0-231-06296-6, century Greece commissioned by the Greek Ministry book explores the experiences of five downtown 1660-1800 A New Town of the lAte Seventeenth $52.00 cloth. of Research, Industry and Technology. It examines projects designed and developed in the 1970s and Century: a study of its buildings and urban the role played by town planning in the emergence 1980s: Pike Place Market in Seattle, Faneuil Hall development, London, HMSO for the Royal Plunz provides a rich and fascinating chronological of the modem Greek state and contains 80 pages of Marketplace in Boston, Horton Plaza in San Diego, Commission on the Historical Monuments of account of almost every type of dwellings built illustrations. Town Square in St. Paul, and Plaza Pasadena in England, 1991 , 146 pp., ISBN 0-11-300018-9. within New York City since 1850. The book is Pasadena, California. The authors pay particular particularly effective in its discussion of the attention to how the failures of urban Under the Lowther family a simple fishing village emergence of tenements, shantytowns, garden Peter J. Larkham and Andrew N. }ones A Glossary redevelopment from 1940s to the 1960s influenced became one of the largest ports in the country. The apartments and philanthropic and publicly of Urban Form Bristol: Historical Geography the successes of the 1970s and 1980s. volume traces the progress and process of building subsidised housing. This is primarily an Research Series, No. 26, 1991, 98pp ISBN 1 870074 construction and identifies the dates, types and architectural history with strong social dimensions, 08 4 £7.95 Ruth Kark, Jerusalem Neighbourhoods. Planning and distribution of buildings, both surviving and including a strong emphasis on the class character By-laws 1855-1930, Jerusalem, Magnes Press, demolished. It discusses the social topography of of ho,,sing. This glossary provides a guide to terms used in Hebrew University, Mount Scorpus Press, 1991, 195 the town, relating complex and variable living recent studies of urban morphology, particularly of pp., ISBN 965-223-747-7, $20. patterns to town layout and individual properties. Diane Ghirardo, Building New Communities: New studies of medieval and twentieth century change Deal America and Fascist Italy. Princeton, New as carried out by the Urban Morphology Research Reviews the conditions that influenced the building Lloyd Rodwin and Hidehiko Sazanami (eds), Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1989, 223 pp., Group at the University of Birmingham and their of the new Muslim, Christian and Jewish Industrial Change and Regional Economic ISBN 0-691-()4067-2, $35.00 cloth. close contacts abroad. It is arranged alphabetically neighbourhood s outside the walls of old Jerusalem Transfonnation. The experience of Western Europe, and integrates aspects of other specialist directories. during the final decades of Ottoman rule in London, Harper Collins Academic, 1991, 402 pp., As the title suggests, this book compares the New Palestine and the first years of British rule. Views ISBN 004-4458827, £40.00, hardback, ISBN 004- Town programs of Mussolini's Italy to the efforts of as to the planning, construction and concept of 4458835, £15.95, paperback. the American Resettlement Administration and the public domain management and social Public Works Administration which built housing relationships, based partly on Jewish legal tradition, Prepared for the United Nations, the analyses of ft9r displaced fanners and satellite towns for both were quite advanced compared to those prevailing trends and desirable changes in the industrial and farmers and urban dwellers. The book leaves in contemporary European, American and Ottoman regional evolution of western Europe, and policies behind the stylistics of architecture and urban towns. designed to guide them, has three principal planning, and instead concentrates on the

38 39 Planning History Group

• • • • • ••• • •••••• • • • • •• • •

The Planning Hi!>tory C roup, inaugurated in 197 -1 , is an international body. lt!> members, drawn from many discipline!>, have a working interest in hi:,tory, planning and the environment.

Chainnan Professor C .F.. Cherry Department of Geography U ni versity of Birmingham PO Box 363 Birmingham 815 2TT 021--11-1 5537

Membership Membership of the group i'> open to all '"''ho have an interest in plannmg history The annual subscription i!> £ l(l (currency equivalent'> available on rcquc ~ t ) Membership Secretary: Or Pat Garside Planning History Croup Department of Civil Engineering Sa lford University The Cre scent Sal ford M S -IWT 061-736 SR-13

Professor Cordon Cherry i'> Joint r:ditor with Professor Anthonv Sutcliffc of an internat ional journal conce rned' with hi ~torv , planning and the environment: Planning Perspectives. There is a link between Planning History and Planning Perspectives and member.., of the Planning History Croup arc ,,bll' to ..,ub.,cribc to tlw latter journal at very favourable di'>count rate!>.