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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Journal of Personality and Social Psychology The Nature of Creativity: The Roles of Genetic Factors, Personality Traits, Cognitive Abilities, and Environmental Sources Christian Kandler, Rainer Riemann, Alois Angleitner, Frank M. Spinath, Peter Borkenau, and Lars Penke Online First Publication, January 21, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000087 CITATION Kandler, C., Riemann, R., Angleitner, A., Spinath, F. M., Borkenau, P., & Penke, L. (2016, January 21). The Nature of Creativity: The Roles of Genetic Factors, Personality Traits, Cognitive Abilities, and Environmental Sources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000087 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology © 2016 American Psychological Association 2016, Vol. 110, No. 2, 000 0022-3514/16/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000087 The Nature of Creativity: The Roles of Genetic Factors, Personality Traits, Cognitive Abilities, and Environmental Sources Christian Kandler, Rainer Riemann, Frank M. Spinath and Alois Angleitner Saarland University Bielefeld University Peter Borkenau Lars Penke Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg Georg August University Göttingen This multitrait multimethod twin study examined the structure and sources of individual differences in creativity. According to different theoretical and metrological perspectives, as well as suggestions based on previous research, we expected 2 aspects of individual differences, which can be described as perceived creativity and creative test performance. We hypothesized that perceived creativity, reflecting typical creative thinking and behavior, should be linked to specific personality traits, whereas test creativity, reflecting maximum task-related creative performance, should show specific associations with cognitive abilities. Moreover, we tested whether genetic variance in intelligence and personality traits account for the genetic component of creativity. Multiple-rater and multimethod data (self- and peer reports, observer ratings, and test scores) from 2 German twin studies—the Bielefeld Longitudinal Study of Adult Twins and the German Observational Study of Adult Twins—were analyzed. Confirmatory factor analyses yielded the expected 2 correlated aspects of creativity. Perceived creativity showed links to openness to experience and extraversion, whereas tested figural creativity was associated with intelligence and also with openness. Multivariate behavioral genetic analyses indicated that the herita- bility of tested figural creativity could be accounted for by the genetic component of intelligence and openness, whereas a substantial genetic component in perceived creativity could not be explained. A primary source of individual differences in creativity was due to environmental influences, even after controlling for random error and method variance. The findings are discussed in terms of the multifaceted nature and construct validity of creativity as an individual characteristic. Keywords: perceived creativity, tested figural creativity, personality, intelligence, multitrait multimethod twin study Creativity is a crucial driving force spurring progress and civi- result of diversity in definitions of creativity, theories, and meth- lization. Most of our prosperity and wealth is attributable to ods of measurement. creative persons’ inventive and beneficial ideas at some point in Here, we investigated creativity from different perspectives and human history (Runco, 2004). Thus, there has always been a strong added a behavioral genetic approach to gain new insight into the interest in psychological research on creativity (e.g., Eysenck, structure and sources of creativity. We first highlighted creativity 1995; Guilford, 1950; Simonton, 2003b). This research varies as a from different theoretical and empirical points of view. Second, we This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. Planck Research Prize awarded to Alois Angleiter. In addition, many other Christian Kandler, Rainer Riemann, and Alois Angleitner, Department investigators contributed to both studies. We thank the whole GOSAT and of Psychology, Bielefeld University; Frank M. Spinath, Department of BiLSAT research teams as well as the twins for spending part of their Psychology, Saarland University; Peter Borkenau, Department of Psychol- lifetime with both study projects. We are also indebted to the many ogy, Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg; Lars Penke, Institute of experimenters for collecting the data, in particular to Simone Penke and Psychology, Georg August University Göttingen. Anna-Karen Stürmer for their help in rating the T-88 creativity test data. The present research used data from two German twin studies—the Finally, we thank our master’s candidate students, Katharina Buchenau, German Observational Study of Adult Twin (GOSAT) and the Bielefeld Miriam Horneber, Rebecca Kniep, Kirsten Metzger, Ruth Nahrgang, Tiago Longitudinal Study of Adult Twins (BiLSAT)—which were both con- Schmidt-Riese Nunes, Valeska Stephan, and Kerstin Vogler, for their ducted at the University of Bielefeld. GOSAT was supported by a grant important contributions to the current study. from the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemein- Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Christian schaft: AN 106/13-1) to Alois Angleitner, Peter Borkenau, and Rainer Kandler, Department of Psychology, Bielefeld University, Univer- Riemann. BiLSAT was initiated by Alois Angleitner, Rainer Riemann, and sitätsstrasse 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany. E-mail: christian.kandler@uni- Frank M. Spinath as a joint research project with funding from the Max bielefeld.de 1 2 KANDLER ET AL. examined different aspects of creativity using multiple methods of ways to solve problems. They may all reflect different aspects of measurement (tests, observations, and questionnaires) and multiple creativity. informants (self, peers, and observers). Third, we analyzed how these different aspects are associated with intelligence and other (Re)Sources of Creativity core traits, such as openness to experience and extraversion. Fourth, we investigated the genetic and environmental sources of In their investment theory of creativity, Sternberg and Lubart individual differences in creativity using genetically informative (1991, 1992) argued that the creation of innovative and useful (and environmentally sensitive) twin data. And finally, we exam- products requires a confluence of six resources: intelligence, ined to what degree genetic sources of variance in creativity knowledge, thinking styles (i.e., preferences of specific ways of aspects could be accounted for by genetic variance in verbal and information processing), personality traits (e.g., tolerance of am- nonverbal intelligence, openness to experience, and extraversion. biguity, willingness to grow, risk-taking boldness), intrinsic moti- vation, and supportive environment. Although the environment sets the contextual conditions (e.g., positive innovation climate, Theoretical Perspectives stimulating milieu, absence of evaluation pressure) to foster cre- ativity, the other five components can be treated as relatively stable Creativity as Product and Process and less contextualized internal, personal, or individual character- istics (rather than resources). Despite common agreement that Einstein, Mozart, Darwin, Pi- The role of personality traits and intelligence has been empha- casso, and Steve Jobs are prototypical creative persons, it is quite sized by many other researchers (Barron & Harrington, 1981; hard to describe individual differences in creativity. There is no Guilford, 1950; Simonton, 2014). Individual differences in toler- explicit and common definition of creativity or what it consists of. ance of ambiguity and willingness to grow, as well as cognitive On the one hand, individuals’ creativity can be assessed by the flexibility, fantasy, open-mindedness, and having broad interests in quantity and quality of their products, which have to be original several issues (e.g., science, arts, and aesthetics), can be econom- (innovative, novel, or highly unusual) and useful (problem-solving, ically described in terms of openness to experience. This person- fitting, or adaptive) for one’s own life, a group of others, or even ality trait is characterized by breadth, depth, and permeability of the entire society (Barron, 1955; Mumford, 2003; Stein, 1953). consciousness, and involves preference for variety, intellectual Because the originality and the utility of a product depend on the curiosity, and enduring need for novelty and new ideas to enlarge zeitgeist and evaluation by the social context, creativity can be knowledge and expertise (Denissen & Penke, 2008; Goldberg, assessed with ratings on observable products with high interrater 1993; McCrae & Costa, 1997). Moreover, openness is conceptu- consensus (Amabile, 1982). ally and empirically associated with a wide array of specific, On the other hand, it has been emphasized that a creative intrinsically motivational characteristics, in particular, cultural- product may reflect an innovative and problem-solving idea that intellectual and artistic-creative interests (Barrick, Mount, & does not have to get realized completely in observable products Gupta, 2003; Kandler, Bleidorn, Riemann, Angleitner, & Spinath,
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