14 OPTION Robotics and automated systems

CHAPTER OUTCOMES KEY TERMS

You will learn about: Actuators Magnetic gripper • the history of robots and robotics output devices, such as motors type of end effector used to pick and end effectors, that convert up metallic objects • different types of robots energy and signals to motion Motion sensor • the purpose, use and function of Automated control system automated control component robots group of elements that maintains that detects sudden changes of • automated control systems a desired result by manipulating movement • input, output and processing the value of another variable in Optical sensor devices associated with automated the system automated control component control systems. Controller that detects changes in light or in You will learn to: processes information from colour sensors and transmits appropriate • defi ne and describe robots, Robot commands to actuators in robotics and automated control automatically guided machine automated systems systems that is able to perform tasks on Cyborgs its own • examine and discuss the purpose humans who use mechanical or Robotics of robots and hardware devices electromechanical technology to associated with robots science of the use and study of give them abilities they would not robots • examine and discuss hardware otherwise possess Sensor devices associated with automated Degrees of freedom control systems input device that accepts data measure of robotic motion—one from the environment • investigate robotic and automated degree of freedom is equal to one Solenoid control systems. movement either back and forth type of actuator that produces (linear movement) or around in a movement using a magnetic circle (rotational) current End effector Temperature sensor mechanical device attached to the automated control component end of a robotic arm that carries that measures temperature out a particular task

280 IN ACTION Electric humans The combination of artifi cial materials within the body has long fascinated humans and been the basis for captivating science fi ction. From the 1970s Six Million Dollar Man to recent movies such as Ironman 2, we have been enthralled by the idea of the half-human, half-machine with super- human abilities. Cyborgs are humans who use mechanical or electromechanical technology to give them abilities they would not otherwise possess. ‘Cyborg’ is actually a science fi ction shortening of ‘cybernetic organism’. Research in robotics, digital technology, electronics and nanotechnology may, over the next half century, alter the way we think about cybernetic technology. The fi rst generation of cyborgs is already walking among us. Millions of people around the world today have implanted medical devices, from pacemakers and artifi cial joints, to cochlear implants and artifi cial retinas, to brain chips and insulin pumps. Deep brain implants that alleviate the disabling tremors of Parkinson’s disease are also in use. On the horizon are bionic eyes to let the blind see, and muscle implants that could allow paraplegics to stand and even walk. Artifi cial bones, blood, skin, eyes and even noses are now all being developed, and each could conceivably help people with a variety of medical conditions. Brain-machine interfaces are in the development phase and may eventually enable quadriplegic patients to control devices with their mind. Creating a reliable brain-machine interface is a tough job, since we don’t fully understand how the brain works. In Australia, researchers are developing brain implants that can detect the onset of epileptic seizures and suppress them. They are also exploring new electrically conducting plastics that could stimulate and guide nerve fi bres to repair spinal cords. Technologies developed here for pacemakers and cochlear implants can be transferred to many conditions where nerves have been damaged and need to Figure 14.1 Cyborgs may seem far-fetched, but the combination be stimulated. of human beings with mechanical technology is already assisting Despite the obvious benefi ts of cyborg and robotic people with a variety of medical conditions. technologies, they are presenting society with an ethical challenge. There is a concern they may be used by people without a genuine need. For example, retinal implants and wearable computers could be used to allow people to ? secretly record and transmit their vision. There is an ethical Questions leap between using technology to help people overcome 1 Provide a defi nition of a cyborg. disabilities, and using it to ‘improve’ healthy humans. 2 Identify the high-tech implants and prostheses which are currently restoring function for people with disabilities or injuries. 3 Describe the ethical challenge presented by cyborg and robotic technologies.

281 14.1 Robotics

Robotics is the science of the use and study of robots. The term 'robot' is usually applied to an automatically The history of robots guided machine which is able to perform tasks on its Mechanical, computerised robots have been around for own. Robots currently perform many functions, from less than fi fty years but the concept of robotic humans making cars to defusing bombs. Children and adults is not so new. The ancient Greeks spoke of ‘mechanical play with toy robots, while vacuum-cleaning robots helpers’. In the fi fteenth century, Leonardo da Vinci, a are sucking up dirt in a growing number of homes. famous Italian mathematician, artist and designer, drew plans for a mechanical knight (see Figure 14.2). The knight was for entertainment and it was designed to The use of robots keep a perfect beat once its handle had been wound. A robot can be programmed to perform tasks During the 1920s, a playwright named Karel Capek normally carried out by humans. These tasks are often wrote a play called R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots). repetitive, tedious, dangerous, very precise or even In Capek’s play, the Rossum’s factory produced impossible for people to undertake. Robots have the mechanical devices which were called ‘robota’, the advantage of never getting tired, being able to work Czech word for work. At fi rst, these human-like with much higher accuracy than humans, and even machines are merely unintelligent slaves, but later, being able to do things that humans can’t do, such a scientist gives the creatures emotions. The robots as working in extreme temperatures. When robots eventually turn bad, kill the humans and take over perform boring, repetitive tasks in place of human the world. workers, employees can spend more time performing creative, less tedious tasks. Following the early instances of robots in plays and science fi ction stories, robots started to appear on Early and modern robots television shows, such as Lost in Space, and have since featured in many movies including 2001: A Space The earliest robots were built specifi cally to perform Odyssey, Star Wars, Judge Dredd and Transformers. simple tasks on an assembly line. These types of robots are still widely used in manufacturing. Modern robots usually have sensors to accept data from the environment and are increasingly found in the area of artifi cial intelligence. Intelligent robots are designed to imitate human behaviour and thought processes. Their inputs may include the senses of vision, touch, hearing and smell. An intelligent robot must be able to do two things: • obtain information from its surroundings • carry out physical tasks. Modern robots possess three characteristics: • programmability—they can be programmed to perform tasks like a computer • mechanical capability—they can perform tasks in the environment like a machine • fl exibility—they can perform a variety of tasks by being reprogrammed or by responding to external conditions.

INFOBIT The word ‘robot’ comes from the Czech word ‘robota’, which means drudgery or work.

Figure 14.2 Leonardo da Vinci’s drumming robot, created by engineer Gabriele Niccolai from da Vinci’s sketches.

282 Information and Software Technology Asimov’s Laws of Robotics Isaac Asimov (1920–1992) took a different view of robots from those writers before him. He was the fi rst to give robots characteristics which showed respect for humans. Asimov thought robots should be regarded as a very important technological innovation. In 1942, he wrote a story about robots, ‘Runaround’, which contained his Three Laws of Robotics. He later added a fourth law and called it the zeroth law. These laws are: • Zeroth Law: a robot may not injure humanity or, through inaction, allow humanity to come to harm. • First Law: a robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm, unless this would violate the Zeroth Law. • Second Law: a robot must obey orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders would confl ict with the Zeroth or First Law. • Third Law: a robot must protect its own existence, as long as such protection does not confl ict with the Zeroth, First or Second Law. The robot industry The history of robots is quite new. While the ideas Figure 14.4 When robots fi rst appeared in movies, they were have been around for some time, the construction and often depicted as unfeeling villains with the potential to run use of robots did not really begin until the mid-1950s. amok and take over the world. More recently, robots have been portrayed as intelligent, social beings with a range of human-like • In 1956, the fi rst robot company was formed by emotions. George Devol and Joseph Engelberger. • In 1959, the fi rst instance of computer-assisted manufacturing was demonstrated at a laboratory at INFOBIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archytas of Tarentum, a friend of Plato’s, built a • In 1961, the fi rst industrial robot, called UNIMATE, mechanical bird driven by a jet of compressed air— came online in a General Motors car factory in New arguably history’s fi rst robot—in the fi fth century BCE. Jersey, USA.

Identify 1 Defi ne the term ‘robot’. 2 Defi ne the term ‘robotics’. 3 Identify two characteristics of an intelligent robot. 4 Identify three main features of modern robots. Analyse 5 Scientists have a very different view of robots from science fi ction readers and movie-goers. Explain these differences. 6 Discuss the relevance of Asimov’s Laws of Robotics to the robotics industry today.

Figure 14.3 In 1999, Sony built their fi rst AIBO (robotic dog). Investigate The fi nal version, released in 2006, could speak one thousand 7 Write a short story involving Asimov’s Laws of words, react to an owner’s commands, take photographs and Robotics. play music.

Chapter 14 Robotics and automated systems 283 14.2 Types of robots

There are many different types of robots. One simple arm, an operator simply selects from among choices way to classify robots is according to whether they that the robot itself offers; a worker can teach a robot’s are stationary or mobile. Stationary robots are fi xed eyes to recognise a new part in less than fi ve minutes. in place, but their arms can reach out and manipulate Most robots used in manufacturing are stationary, but parts and tools. These robotic arms have an end recently, progress has been made in the development of effector (see page 296) attached to carry out a task. more mobile robots.

Figure 14.6 Robots in manufacturing Figure 14.5 Robotic arm with end effector attached

Stationary robots are often found in assembly lines, INFOBIT where they perform simple tasks, such as placing Industrial accidents and the prevalence of some cancers objects on a conveyor belt. Mobile robots, on the other have declined as a result of robots performing hazardous hand, can move around in their environment and are jobs in the workplace. not fi xed to one physical location. Industrial robots Mobile robots Industrial robots have been around for over fi fty years, Mobile robots usually move around on wheels, tracks performing simple, repetitive tasks with superhuman or legs. Mobile robots began to appear in the 1980s in speed and precision. They are now responsible for a the area of nuclear science. In 1979 a nuclear accident remarkably wide variety of tasks, from assembling at Three Mile Island in the USA caused a leak of computers to popping frozen dinners into trays. radioactive material. The accident was a major concern In the manufacturing industry, robots perform a variety because of the amount of radioactive substances of tasks, including: • welding • spray painting • assembly operations • palletising and material handling • dispensing operations • laboratory applications. Some robots used in manufacturing are designed to perform one particular task, while others are designed with interchangeable body parts, which make them more versatile. For example, a robot may act as a ‘welder’ for one task, but by changing the end gripper, Figure 14.7 This mobile robot is used to rescue distressed it may be turned into a ‘spray painter’. Signifi cant swimmers. Its sonar device scans for the underwater movements of improvements have been made in robotics technology swimmers in trouble and an in-built speaker allows a lifeguard on in recent years. For example, to reprogram a new robot shore to calm and instruct the person being rescued.

284 Information and Software Technology released into the environment. This incident led to the development and use of special robots, called Domestic robots teleoperators, to handle the radioactive material. Robotic toys include remote-control cars, remote- Today, mobile robots are used in areas such as security control boats, barking dogs and crying dolls. Other control, bomb disposal, planet exploration, transporting domestic robots perform boring and repetitive hazardous materials, and disaster rescue and recovery. household chores, such as vacuuming. Educational robots Robots, or robotic kits, are used extensively in education. Robotic equipment in the classroom is used to teach and learn about programming and computer control. One example is the Mindstorms NXT kit developed by LEGO. The kits usually consist of building blocks, sensors and motors, which are assembled into models. These models are interfaced to a computer through an infrared tower block. A model can be programmed to carry out simple tasks. For example, a robotic car may be programmed to move forwards or backwards, and a model traffi c light may be confi gured to imitate a pedestrian traffi c light. Another educational example is the programming of robots to play soccer in the RoboCup competition. Teams from all over the world enter the competition. The robots operate completely autonomously—there is Figure 14.9 Many modern toys are considered robotic because no external control by humans. they are programmed devices. They may do things such as walk, sing, dance or jump up and down. In order to perform these actions, the toys may react to light, sound and touch, using special sensors for input.

Figure 14.8 The current standard platform used in the RoboCup competition is the Nao. Naos, such as this one from the University of New South Wales, are bi-pedal robots with a body shape inspired by the human body.

INFOBIT Interactive ‘social robots’ called Petimos have been designed to help protect children when they make friends Figure 14.10 Kompai is a domestic robot which can record on social networks. Petimos’ primary function is to guard grocery lists via voice commands, call an emergency number against cyberbullies and adults masquerading as children. for medical assistance and remind elderly people to take their medication.

Chapter 14 Robotics and automated systems 285 ! The changing nature of work Spill something in a nuclear reactor core and you can’t just send in the janitor to clean it up. (Well you can, but just once). What you can do, though—over and over again—is send in remotely operated robots designed by Matt Cole. At 33, Cole is chief engineer of Colorado-based SA Technology which pulls in more than 20 million dollars a year making bots for nuclear facilities. For a kid who taught himself to weld, mill and lathe before he was old enough to vote, it’s a dream gig. ‘We do the worst, the hottest, the weirdest jobs,’ Cole says. Like what? For starters, his creations mop up areas that are so radioactive they’ve been dubbed infi nity rooms—take a Geiger counter in there and the needle goes past eleven. Each task gets its own unique bot. For example, if a piece of nickel lodges in a pipe at a reactor plant and turns into the extremely radioactive and dangerous isotope cobalt-60, Cole and his team of engineers might whip up an agile bot that can go in, extend a telescoping arm, spray liquid nitrogen to cool the pipe, and then cut away the radioactive segment. Other bots are designed to plunge into giant waste tanks and hose down radioactive materials like caesium-137. SA Technology bots have landed gigs at every major nuclear weapons facility in the US, as well as most nuclear power plants. And because more and more Cold War-era weapons Figure 14.12 In order to reduce the safety risks to humans, facilities are being decommissioned, business has never robots can venture into radiation-exposed areas. been better.

INFOBIT During the 2011 nuclear crisis in Japan, many people were surprised that robots were not deployed to repair the crippled reactors. Despite being a technological powerhouse and a world leader in robotics, Japan essentially relied on a small team of engineers, fi re fi ghters and helicopter pilots to perform the task of cooling the reactors.

? Questions 1 Describe the tasks carried out by Matt Cole’s robots. 2 If robots such as those created by Matt Cole did not exist, how would we deal with toxic accidents and the decommissioning of nuclear weapons? 3 Automation and the development of robots for dangerous tasks, such as those described in the article, are viewed by most people as benefi cial to society. However, many workers in less dangerous jobs have been made redundant by robots. Do you think the development of new robotic technologies, and their implementation, is inevitable? What, if anything, should we as a society do for those people Figure 14.11 Matt Cole’s robots perform tasks which are too who lose their jobs? dangerous for humans.

286 Information and Software Technology TASK 1 What components are plugged into the output ports? LEGO Mindstorms NXT What components are plugged into the input ports? Using your LEGO Mindstorms NXT kit, or equivalent, you will 6 Use one of the Mindstorm NXT tutorials to build a familiarise yourself with the robotics kit and programming model. environment required for this chapter. Most robotics kits 7 Copy the program in the tutorial to make your model supply tutorials with the accompanying program. functional. 1 Examine the building blocks contained in your robotics 8 Run the program and observe the model in action. kit. Identify special components such as the light 9 Write another program for the model and run it. sensor, touch sensor, sound sensor, motors and lights. 2 Create a poster of all the components in your robotics kit, with pictures and labels. Hang the poster in your classroom or laboratory to use as a quick reference guide during this topic. Note the way the pieces are measured. For example, with LEGO, the building blocks are measured according to the number of bumps on each piece. 3 Open the software you will use to operate the robotic equipment. For LEGO, this may be Mindstorms NXT. 4 Work through the available tutorials to familiarise yourself with the program. Pay particular attention to the icons and buttons in the program. 5 Identify the output ports and the input ports. What names are they given in the program? Figure 14.13 Mindstorms NXT tutorial

Identify • security 1 Identify the main difference between a robotic arm and • entertainment a mobile robot. • other. 2 Why are robots used in industry? b How much would you be prepared to pay for a 3 List four tasks performed by robots in manufacturing. domestic robot? • < $100 Analyse • between $100 and $500 4 Find one example of a robot used in manufacturing. For your example, answer the following questions. • between $500 and $2000 a What is manufactured? • over $2000. b What tasks does the robot perform? c A sample of questions for industrial robots might include the following. c Is the robot a stationary arm or a mobile robot? • How aware are you of robots being used in 5 Find an example of a robot used for security control. industry to manufacture goods? Describe the function of the robot in the system. • Why do you think robots are used in industry? Investigate • What advantages do robot workers have over human workers? 6 Develop and conduct a survey on the use of robots in industry and the home. Develop a chart to illustrate 7 Visit the RoboCupJunior Australia website and read the fi ndings and present them to the class. A sample about the RoboCupJunior competition. of questions for domestic robots might include the a Locate two Australian schools that have entered the following. competition and read about their project. a What would you want a domestic robot to do? b Find out where and when the next RoboCupJunior • housework Competition is going to be held. • gardening c With your teacher, discuss the possibility of entering the competition. • cooking

Chapter 14 Robotics and automated systems 287 14.3 The purpose of robots

The most common use of robots has been in manufacturing, where robotic equipment often replaces human workers on production lines. Robots are preferred because they: • can operate equipment more precisely than humans • can work 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, without getting tired or losing concentration • may be cheaper to use over a long period • can work in environments which may be too dirty or dangerous for humans • may be able to do work that is impossible for humans to perform. Dirty tasks In manufacturing, many jobs in factories are messy or dirty. Dirty tasks may include welding, grinding, moulding and casting. When robots are used to perform these tasks, it enables human workers to partake in more meaningful and creative pursuits. Repetitive tasks Robots are reliable workers. They do not have emotions and therefore do not feel worthless when performing menial tasks. For most people, repetitive tasks performed in industry are considered very dull or boring. For example, a robot’s only task may be to pick up an object from a conveyer belt and place it in a box. The robot can perform this task all day, every day, without getting bored. Figure 14.14 Purpose-built robots include prosthetic arms that can handle heavy or delicate tasks. Dangerous tasks In manufacturing, robots often perform tasks which INFOBIT Impossible tasks are very dangerous for The fi rst known case of Working deep under water, exploring live volcanoes robot ‘homicide’ occurred people. Using robots for at short distance or travelling to far away planets are in 1981, when a robotic tasks involving extreme simply impossible for humans to execute. Robots temperatures, for example, arm crushed a Japanese Kawasaki factory worker. are often called upon to perform underwater salvage reduces the risk of missions to fi nd sunken ships or planes. The Titanic, workplace accidents. Apart which sank in 1913, sat on the ocean fl oor at a depth from dangerous tasks in of 3811 metres for more than seventy years before manufacturing, robots are also being used to carry being reached. At this depth, the ship was too deep out other important but dangerous activities such as to be explored by human divers. In 1985, a team of clearing landmines, helping in rescue missions and researchers, with the aid of a robot named Jason Junior mopping up toxic leaks. (JJ) were able to locate the wreck of the Titanic. Police robots are used to defuse and remove explosive Following the explosion and fi re on the Deepwater devices. In cases where a bomb isn’t easily accessible Horizon drilling rig in 2010, underwater robots or appears to have a movement triggering mechanism, operating one and a half kilometres under the ocean’s police may have to detonate the device on-site. Some surface played a vital role in the fi ght to stop oil robots are so tough that they can survive multiple gushing into the Gulf of Mexico. blasts.

288 Information and Software Technology Animatronics engineer Grant Imahara Grant Imahara is an animatronics engineer who has worked on such movies as The Lost World: Jurassic Park, Star Wars: Episode 1—The Phantom Menace, Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines and The Matrix Reloaded. Grant was one of those kids who would disassemble remote controls and take all the wheels off toy cars. His life changed at the age of four when he Figure 14.15 Grant Imahara is an received his fi rst LEGO animatronics and robotics expert Figure 14.16 In Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace, Star set. It introduced him to who is best known for his work Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones, and Star Wars Episode III: on the American television show robots and provided a Revenge of the Sith, R2-D2’s movements were controlled by Grant MythBusters. Imahara. foundation for his interest in engineering. After graduating from college, he was asked to work for Lucasfi lms ? where he worked in the special effects model shop. Questions He made spaceships and miniature cities as well as robots. He 1 Identify the event that changed Grant Imahara’s life. was part of the R2-D2 development team for episodes one, 2 Research and provide a job description of an two and three of Star Wars. Then the MythBusters opportunity animatronics engineer. came along and now he gets paid to blow things up. Grant 3 Research and explain the relationship between has also written a book on building robots called Kickin’ Bot animatronics and robotics. and his combat robot, Deadblow, was featured on BattleBots.

Identify Investigate 1 Outline the reasons why robots are used in 6 Apart from the Titanic discovery, describe another manufacturing. situation where underwater robots were used for 2 List four areas of robotic use today, apart from the dangerous tasks. manufacturing industry. 7 Underwater robots proved invaluable following the 3 List the reasons why robots are considered to be more 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill (also referred to as the reliable workers than humans. Gulf of Mexico oil spill). Research this environmental disaster, paying particular attention to: Analyse • the reasons why robots were used to contain the oil leak 4 Imagine you could have a robot that would do any task you requested—a companion to do all the work • the diffi culties encountered during the cleanup you fi nd tedious or tiring. How do you think this might • the tasks performed by the robots. affect you as a person? 8 Investigate the ways in which robots are used to help 5 Describe the types of jobs which would not be suitable people with disabilities. for robots.

Chapter 14 Robotics and automated systems 289 14.4 The use of robots Robots are used in many areas of our modern life to Robots in the Antarctic perform a wide range of tasks. In manufacturing, robots are used in assembly production lines. They are also Compared to a century ago, the Antarctic is relatively used in all types of exploration, both in space and here accessible to scientists who wish to study its climate, on earth, in medical science to perform operations, in ecosystems and glaciers. However, there are still places agriculture, and to maintain and repair machinery. too dangerous, too remote or simply too expensive for humans and standard research equipment. Robots in the Antarctic are involved in a range of Exploration research activities including fl ying low over vast ice For centuries, explorers and scientists have been sheets and mapping the hidden realms below ice- gathering data about Earth and our solar system covered lakes and seas. The types of robots include through missions and voyages, often at great risk to pilotless aircraft capable of fl ying pre-programmed themselves. Today, robots have enabled research and routes or automated submarines that venture far below data-gathering to take place without directly involving ice shelves at depths considered unsafe for humans. humans.

Figure 14.18 Nomad (pictured) was the fi rst robot to explore an extreme polar environment. It is equipped with a sophisticated laser rangefi nder and sensors, which are used to detect obstacles and make the robot cognisant of potentially dangerous terrain. Space missions Much of the research work performed by scientists and geologists in space has only been possible through the use of robots. Robots are suited to space exploration because they can perform tasks less expensively and more quickly. They operate for long durations, often ‘sleep’ for extended periods before their mission begins or while waiting for suitable exploration conditions. NASA’s twin robot geologists, the Mars Exploration Rovers, for example, have been exploring Mars since 2004 (see Figure 14.19). They periodically enter a Figure 14.17 Robots have an evolving and varied role in society. low-power hibernation mode as the daily sunshine on Mars declines and their solar panels struggle to provide suffi cient energy to their batteries. When the weather conditions become more favourable, the robots INFOBIT ‘awaken’ and recommence exploration. Moving from Unlike hardware robots that we can see and touch, web place to place, the rovers perform on-site geological robots are programs that traverse the web automatically investigations. Each rover could be considered the collecting and analysing data. They are also known as web mechanical equivalent of a geologist walking the wanderers, bots, crawlers or spiders. surface of Mars. Their robotic arms are capable of

290 Information and Software Technology Figure 14.19 The Mars Exploration Rovers have been performing on-site scientifi c investigations of the ‘red planet’ since 2004. movement in much the same way as a human arm with an elbow and wrist, and can place instruments directly up against rock and soil targets of interest. In the mechanical ‘fi st’ of the arm is a microscopic camera that serves the same purpose as a geologist’s handheld magnifying lens. Underwater exploration Exploration also takes place underwater where temperatures are at the other extreme to that of volcanoes and pressure may be strong enough to crush the human body. The design of the latest underwater robots is closely based on the anatomy of crabs—known for their ability to walk both on land and underwater. With the help of such amphibious robots, scientists have been able to study marine plant and animal life, as well as ocean currents and underwater ecologies.

INFOBIT Underwater robots are often large and when they crash into things such as delicate coral they can cause a lot of damage. Robotic engineers in the United States are developing small, agile, fi sh-like underwater robots which Figure 14.20 Live volcanoes are extremely dangerous places will explore sunken ships and monitor coral reefs. They for people to be near. Robots such as Dante II are able to travel may also be used to move through urban industrial pipes into live volcanoes to collect gas, water and rock samples for to track down illegal pollution spills. scientifi c research.

Chapter 14 Robotics and automated systems 291 changes to the nature of work in the car industry. Many jobs were replaced by robots. Workers who did retain their positions were required to retrain, since the remaining jobs require more technical skills. Maintenance and repair Robots are well suited to performing maintenance and repair work. You may have noticed how roads tend to show signs of wear after long periods of heavy use or under extreme weather conditions. Roads can develop long cracks, which can make driving hazardous, and therefore need to be repaired constantly. It has also been found that by taking preventative maintenance measures, the durability of a road is signifi cantly enhanced. Assisting people with disabilities The world’s most sophisticated robots are now designed to support our surging population of elderly and disabled citizens. There is a range of household Figure 14.21 Dr Roboto is a remotely operated surgeon featuring robots that can understand instructions and help with four arms. household chores. What household chores? Almost anything like taking a bottle from the fridge, using tongs to lift bread from the toaster onto a plate and Medical science carrying a tray of food from the kitchen to the dining table can be performed by robots. Extensive research has been carried out into the use of robots in medical science. Researchers believe robotic technologies can improve existing procedures and INFOBIT provide new approaches to current problems. Swimming robots are micro or nano robots that can swim when injected into the body. Their applications include One example is the use of robots to perform surgery removing parasites and breaking kidney stones. through very small incisions, greatly reducing the risk to patients (see Figure 14.21). Assembly Robots and computer-controlled systems have made a signifi cant impact in the manufacturing industry, particularly in assembly lines. In the modern world, much of what is produced is done so on an assembly line. High-speed assembly lines produce cars, furniture, soft drinks, computers, razor blades, toasters and numerous other items. These goods are produced in massive quantities, and all have to be of the same quality. In 1961, the fi rst industrial robot was introduced to the assembly line at General Motors’ vehicle manufacturing plant. The system allowed the company to manufacture cars quickly and at a low cost. The robot, called UNIMATE, was developed by the father of robotics, Joseph F. Engelberger. The task of the huge robotic arm was to sequence and stack hot pieces of die-cast metal by following step-by-step instructions. Figure 14.22 This wheelchair contains two robotic arms It greatly improved the speed and accuracy of vehicle programmed to help users perform everyday tasks such as manufacturing. But this new technology resulted in cooking, dressing and shopping.

292 Information and Software Technology Robots in space NASA researchers envision futuristic robots that act like people and work more effi ciently with astronauts. The idea of building dexterous, human-like robots capable of using their hands to do intricate work is not new to the space travel. The original Robonaut was conceived in the 1990s.

Robo naut 2 (R2), developed by NASA and General Motors, can lift and hold four times the weight of any previous robotic assistant. R2 is stronger, more dexterous and more technologically advanced than the original Robonaut, according to NASA. The dexterity of R2 allows it to use the same tools as astronauts, removing the need for specialised robot components.

The robot has two highly fl exible arms and hands on a torso that will be bolted onto a fi xed spot in NASA’s space station’s Destiny laboratory. Astronauts can replace an arm, a hand, a limb as needed and will be able to bring individual pieces for the next stages in its life. The greatest benefi t of R2 may eventually be in performing jobs too diffi cult or dangerous for humans. Figure 14.23 Robonaut is a human-like machine which, when fully The NASA team hopes to eventually teach R2 to do all developed, is expected to perform tasks and seek help only when it kinds of things on the space station. For example, R2 encounters problems it cannot solve on its own. might perform delicate tasks such as setting up science experiments for the crew, or it might just as easily run a ? vacuum cleaner. Questions R2 is also destined for car assembly plants. It can lift 1 Robonaut 2 is classifi ed as a humanoid. Research and approximately fi ve kilograms with each arm, about write a defi nition of the term humanoid. four times that of other humanoid robots. Its nimble 2 Outline the characteristics of Robonaut 2 which hands, fi ngers, and opposable thumbs also enable it to allow it to perform more dexterous tasks than its perform more specialised or intricate jobs. predecessor. 3 Describe the features of Robonaut 2 which could be considered human-like.

Identify 5 Discuss the ethical issues which arise from the introduction of computer-controlled systems to replace 1 List three different areas of exploration in which robotic human labour. technologies are used. 2 How are robots used to help people with disabilities? Investigate 3 Identify the type of creature which has been the 6 Research some of the changes to the nature of work inspiration for underwater exploration robot design. that began with the introduction of the fi rst automated assembly line. Analyse 7 How have advances in robotic and computer 4 Scientists would be better off spending valuable funds technology enabled surgeons to perform operations on developing robots to help the disabled, rather than remotely on patients who may not even be in the same on exploring live volcanoes. Do you agree or disagree? country? Justify your answer.

Chapter 14 Robotics and automated systems 293 14.5 The function of robots

Like other computer systems, robotic systems are Robots move in three ways: pick-and-place, point-to- composed of hardware and software. Movement is point and contouring. an important function of many robots and it is the • Pick-and-place—this movement has only two hardware and software which facilitate this process. positions per axis and suits loading and assembly functions in mass-production situations. Movement • Point-to-point—this movement is controlled from one point location in space to another. Each point Robotic motion is described in terms of degrees of is programmed into the robot’s control memory and freedom. One degree of freedom is equal to one then played back during the work cycle. This type of movement either back and forth (linear movement), or movement is suited to tasks such as spot welding. around in a circle (rotational). To understand how this works, consider the human arm. The human arm has six • Contouring—this movement allows the robot to follow a path which forms the shape of a degrees of freedom, allowing the following movements: smooth curve. The robot’s gripper carries out • shoulder—up and down (one degree) a programmable path movement and performs • shoulder—forward and backward (one degree) variable functions on this path. Applications include spray painting, continuous welding and grasping • elbow—up and down (one degree) objects moving along a conveyor. • wrist—rotate (one degree) • wrist—up and down (one degree) Wrist left and right • wrist—left and right (one degree). Wrist up and down Additionally the operation of thumbs and fi ngers gives Rotate wrist several more degrees of freedom. Lengthen and shorten arm In a robotic system, usually one robotic joint corresponds to one degree of freedom, but this depends on how the hardware is connected. Most jointed robots have six degrees of freedom that are similar to the human arm; an Arm up and down Rotate body articulated arm type, for example, usually has six degrees of freedom. Six degrees of freedom is usually suffi cient to conduct most simple tasks. So, in a robot with an articulated arm, the following movements are possible: Figure 14.25 Degrees of freedom in a robotic arm • arm—up and down (one degree) • arm—lengthen and shorten (one degree) Hardware • body—rotate (one degree) • wrist—up and down (one degree) The hardware used to control robotic systems can also be likened to human body parts. The human • wrist—rotate (one degree) body is considered to be made up of fi ve main • wrist—left and right (one degree). physical components: a body, muscle system, sensory system, power source and brain system. The physical Wrist left and right components of a robot resemble that of a human (see Figure 14.26.) Wrist rotate Robot sensors receive signals from the environment and pass them to the controller. In humans, our eyes act as Shoulder up and down Elbow up Wrist up and down sensors, collecting signals from our environment and and down passing these signals to our brain. The robot controller processes signals from sensors into output signals Shoulder forward which enable movement or some other event to take and backward place. Our brain processes signals received from our eyes and sends messages to drive particular body parts. For example, when we see a step in front of us the brain sends a message to lift the leg to climb the step. Figure 14.24 Degrees of freedom in the human arm

294 Information and Software Technology Gripper Manipulator Gripper Control Control system syster Sensor Sensor system system

Effector Effector

Manipulator Power supply Power supply (stomach)

Figure 14.26 The human body and computer-controlled systems have similar components.

In a robot, these output signals are sent to actuators to vacuum grippers or magnetic grippers; all of which tell them to carry out some action, such as switching possess a specifi c set of commands. a motor on or off, opening or closing a valve, moving an arm to a specifi ed point or avoiding bumping into A robotic arm can only be fi tted with one type of end an object. Actuators are output devices, such as motors effector at a time. If the end effector on the arm needs and end effectors, which convert energy and signals to to be changed, then the robot would need a new set of motion. commands or program instructions to operate it. For example, it is not possible to replace a gripper with End effectors are particular types of actuators or output a screwdriver head and expect the robot to perform devices for robots and are connected to the end of a the same task. It would be necessary to change the robot arm. Different types of end effectors exist, and programming of the robot controller and use a different all perform a physical task. End effect ors may be tools, set of end effector motors to drive it.

Components of the human body Components of a robotic Functions of the robotic system system components

Body structure Physical structure, for example gears, Provides movable body parts screwdrivers and levers (hardware)

Muscle system to move the body Actuators (motors), for example Converts energy and signals to structure electric motors, solenoids, actions to move the body parts pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders

Sensory system that receives Sensor system, either direct contact Receives information about the information about the body and (for example touch sensors, strain robot’s environment the surrounding environment, for gauges or pressure sensors) or non- example sight, touch contact (for example infrared, light, sound, radar, sonar, laser beam or visual)

Power source to activate the muscles A power supply, for example mains Provides the necessary power to and sensors electricity or batteries activate the actuators and sensors

Brain and nervous system that Controller (brain), for example Processes information from the processes sensory information and microprocessor(s) and software, or sensors and sends appropriate tells the muscles what to do wired into the hardware commands to the actuators

Figure 14.27 The physical components of a human body compared to the components of a robotic system

Chapter 14 Robotics and automated systems 295 Software programs Magnetic gripper Vacuum gripper Tools Used for fragile Uses suction Drills, All robotic systems use software to instruct the parts of magnetic cups to lift polishers, hardware on how to perform tasks. As a rule, industrial materials fragile parts screwdrivers, robots perform quite specifi c tasks. The software that glue guns, drives the hardware is often a specialised control spray guns language. Other robots are designed to perform more general tasks, such as the LEGO robots constructed for home and educational use. These general-purpose robots are instructed by more general-purpose programming languages. Programming languages may use different techniques Vacuum Magnetic to control robots in performing tasks. They fall into strips two categories: online programming and offl ine programming. Online programming involves ‘teaching’ the robot the path it must take. This is done by manually Figure 14.28 Types of end effectors moving the robot arm through the required motions. The path is recorded and a program is generated. Offl ine programming requires programming code to control the robot’s motions before the robot is put to action.

Figure 14.29 A magnetic gripper in action

296 Information and Software Technology your academic qualifi cations are less important than practical Robot developer Hugo Elias experience. ‘My degree didn’t qualify me to do my job. When Hugo Elias was eight, rather than make him set the Practically everything can be self-taught or learned on the table for dinner, his dad would teach him how to wire a job,’ he says. circuit with a knife and fork. By the time he was fourteen, The best piece of advice Hugo can give budding robot Hugo had joined the local robot club, which met every developers is to build a portfolio of projects. ‘I’m interested Wednesday evening to tinker with robots and discuss the in seeing what projects people have worked on in their group’s grand visions for the future. The group went on to own time—competitions, and projects they have done for become the Shadow Robot Company which now makes themselves,’ he says. everything from a pigeon-feeding robot for the BBC to a robotic hand claimed to be as dexterous as a human one. For Hugo, building his portfolio meant taking part in competitions such as Robot Wars. Although each project For Hugo, a typical day includes designing mechanical parts takes a long time to complete, and can be set back by small on a computer-aided design program, testing prototypes, mistakes, Hugo still regards his career as ‘play’ rather than writing software, wiring electronics and researching new work. ‘If I won the lottery, I would still be doing this,’ he says. ideas. He has a degree but believes this is one job where ? Questions 1 Identify the tasks carried out by Hugo Elias in a typical day. 2 To be an effective robot developer, Hugo Elias states that ‘academic qualifi cations are less important than practical experience’. Why do you think he holds this belief? 3 Investigate the Robot Wars competition mentioned in the article. Explain the purpose of the competition and describe the robots used by participants.

Figure 14.30 According to Hugo Elias, taking part in competitions such as Robot Wars is one of the best ways to launch your career as a robot developer.

Identify 7 Describe the difference between pick-and-place movements and point-to-point movements. 1 Explain the term ‘degrees of freedom’ as it applies to robotics. Investigate 2 Identify the number of degrees of freedom possessed 8 Research one type of end effector used by robots. In by an articulated arm. your research include: 3 List three types of end effectors. a the name of the end effector 4 Name two ways that robots may be programmed. b a picture or diagram 5 List the main components of a robotic system and c an explanation of the task it performs describe the function of each. d a poster or digital presentation on the fi ndings of Analyse your research 6 How many degrees of freedom are in a human elbow 9 Use the online simulator at the BBC’s joint? Describe these movements and draw a diagram Robot World Techlab to build and to illustrate them. program a robot.

Chapter 14 Robotics and automated systems 297 14.6 Automated control In our everyday lives we use devices that are operated Components of automated control by manual control; that is, they need to be operated by humans. Examples include cars, sewing machines, systems vacuum cleaners and electric drills. Automated Signal conditioners are used to ensure data signals can systems, on the other hand, are designed to operate be understood and measured by a data acquisition under automatic control. Automatic control means device. Often, control systems need to convert analogue they will operate independently or without human data to digital data (and vice versa). During this intervention. These devices are given appropriate process, the signals may suffer from interference— instructions through special programs. Robots sometimes referred to as noise. Signal conditioners help can be classifi ed as computer systems which use remove any unwanted interference and may be used on automated control. both input and output data signals. Automated control systems Components Functions These systems accept data, process this data and Sensors Input devices that detect conditions produce data signals or actions to change the in the environment then send the operations of another system. The purpose of an results as signals to the controller automated control system is to maintain a desired Signal Devices that help keep the signals result. It achieves this result by manipulating one or conditioners passed to and from the controller more variables of another system. A good example of ‘clean’; that is, reduce the amount of this is an air conditioning unit which uses a thermostat interference in the signals to maintain a constant programmed air temperature. This involves: Controllers Devices that process the input signals from the sensors to produce • input—the air conditioner reads the room the output signals required to drive temperature using a temperature sensor the actuators • process—this reading is compared to the set temperature entered by the user Actuators Output devices that perform the • output—signals are sent to turn the thermostat on physical actions that have an effect to adjust the temperature. on the environment Figure 14.32 The components of an automated control system

The working of an automated system

External inputs External outputs

Sensors Actuators

Signal conditioners Signal conditioners

Controller

Figure 14.31 A diagrammatic representation of an automated control system

298 Information and Software Technology Historical perspectives Microcomputer The history of control systems is categorised In 1972, the microcomputer appeared and made according to developments in technology. There are signifi cant changes to the way computers were used. four main periods: Programmable controllers were developed and replaced the older styles, which used hard-wired relay logic. • mechanical and hydraulic This meant that process controllers could be built for • direct digital control systems. • minicomputer • microcomputer. INFOBIT The IBM ASCC (Automatic Sequence Controlled Mechanical and hydraulic Calculator) was the fi rst large-scale automatic digital computer built in the USA. Built in 1965 it contained over The mechanical and hydraulic period began during 800 kilometres of wires and weighed more than 3000 the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth and kilograms. Mathematical problems were entered into this nineteenth centuries. The development of control massive machine using 1440 dials. systems at this stage was based on mechanical devices, with inventors having little understanding of how machines could be automatically controlled. Developments in control systems during this period were slow and not usually planned. However, a number of machines, such as looms and lathes, were designed to be self-regulating. Direct digital In 1959, the fi rst digital computer was used to control an automated system. Computers were installed to monitor the control system from a central location using analogue controllers. The development of control systems during this stage was still limited by slow and unreliable computers. During the direct digital period there was a growing need for: • more organised methods of controlling systems, which could be achieved by viewing the whole system as dynamic • a set of good mathematical models to program computers correctly, which involved developing a better way of controlling computer hardware. Transistors were developed during this period and built into computers. Minicomputer In 1965, the fi rst minicomputer was introduced by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). During this period, improvements in computing technology had a direct effect on process control. Computers became extremely reliable and were able to process large amounts of data more quickly. The number of computers used in automated control grew considerably.

Figure 14.33 Digital Equipment Corporation introduced this minicomputer, used in automated control, in 1965.

Chapter 14 Robotics and automated systems 299 Types of automated control Household control In the manufacturing industry, a common method of Computer control systems are a common feature in categorising automated control systems is according many households already. These include automated: to the type of operation they perform and the type • security systems of products they produce. The three main types of • climate control systems automated control systems are continuous, batch and discrete. The features of each are outlined in • sprinkler systems Figure 14.34. • audio/visual sound systems. Control systems Features TASK 2 Continuous Designed and built to perform one manufacturing task, 24 hours a Automated systems day, 7 days a week, with some time required for system maintenance. Write a program to control a LEGO model. The program Not fl exible, e.g. new model car may is to control a set of traffi c lights to manage vehicles at an require a new assembly plant to be intersection. In a later task, you will develop the model. built. 1 On paper, design a set of vehicle traffi c lights. Draw the lights and list the components, such as green Batch Produces large quantities of a light, amber light and red light. particular product, but can be quickly altered to produce new or 2 Write down the rules required to operate the model. alternative products. The control For example, the light will be green for 10 seconds. system is capable of being quickly Next the amber light should go on for 2 seconds, and reprogrammed. the red light will turn on for 10 seconds. Discrete Entire system is involved in 3 Build the traffi c light with your LEGO kit. Connect the producing a single item. Produces traffi c light to the computer or interface if necessary. items only in small quantities, e.g. Write the program by converting your set of written CAD/CAM. Least suited to large- instructions to appropriate computer instructions. scale production. Expensive. 4 Run the program and document the results. Now modify the program to control a T-intersection. Figure 14.34 Features and examples of different types of control Remember, when the lights are green one way, they systems must be displaying red for the other direction. The lights must not change to red without fi rst showing amber.

Figure 14.35 Automated security locks are just one example of a variety of control systems which can be found in the home.

300 Information and Software Technology ! Scientists worry machines may outsmart humans A robot that can open doors and fi nd electrical outlets to recharge itself. Computer viruses that no one can stop. Predator drones, which, though still controlled remotely by humans, come close to a machine that can kill autonomously. Impressed and alarmed by advances in artifi cial intelligence, a group of computer scientists is debating whether there should Figure 14.36 Predator drones, like this one in Afghanistan, still be limits on research that might lead to loss of human control need a human hand to work, at least for now. over automated systems that carry a growing share of society’s workload, from waging war to chatting with customers on or will be soon. Such scenarios raise important questions about the phone. military personnel being sheltered from the consequences of Their concern is that further advances could create profound their actions. social disruptions and even have dangerous consequences. As What could a criminal do with a speech synthesis system that examples, the scientists pointed to a number of technologies could mimic the human species? What happens if artifi cial as diverse as experimental medical systems that interact with intelligence technology is used to mine personal information patients to simulate empathy, and computer worms and from smartphones? viruses that defy extermination and could thus be said to have reached a ‘cockroach’ stage of machine intelligence. ? Questions While the computer scientists agreed that we are a long way from Hal, the computer that took over the spaceship in 2001: 1 Identify the concerns researchers have raised in A Space Odyssey, they said there was legitimate concern that relation to advances in artifi cial intelligence. technological progress would transform the workforce by 2 Discuss the threat that artifi cial intelligent systems destroying a widening range of jobs, as well as force people such as self-driving cars, software-based personal to learn to live with machines that increasingly copy human assistants and robots pose to human jobs. behaviours. 3 Do you think automated systems are benefi ting The researchers generally discounted the possibility of highly humans and improving society in general or are centralised super intelligences and the idea that intelligence they perhaps moving us towards a technological might spring spontaneously from the internet. But they agreed catastrophe? that robots that can kill autonomously are either already here

Identify Investigate 1 List and describe three types of automated control 5 Find at least one example (different from those systems. mentioned in the text) of each type of control system— 2 Identify four periods in the development of process batch, continuous and discrete—and, for each example, control. discuss why you think this type of system is used. 3 Describe the types of automated control systems which 6 Research one control system and write a report. Include were developed in the fi rst four periods of automated the category of control system, list the inputs and control. outputs, describe the main processes, and explain the role of the computers in the system. Analyse 7 Research the origins of automation and draw a timeline 4 Draw up a table as shown and write down the showing the major developments in this area of advantages and disadvantages of each type of robotics. automated control system. 8 Smart homes use a variety of tools in an attempt to make our lives easier and more organised. Automated Advantages Disadvantages systems may also help reduce our impact on the Continuous environment. Investigate and present a report on Batch how modern homes are being equipped with a variety of technological tools that automate tasks and Discrete enhance living. Figure 14.37 Advantages and disadvantages of automated control systems.

Chapter 14 Robotics and automated systems 301 14.7 Sensing devices

As mentioned earlier, sensors obtain information from Type of sensor Function the environment. The type of sensor used will depend on the type of data required by the system. Sensors Temperature Measure current temperature and may be classifi ed as active or passive. settings may include control units, such as those used to control temperature Active and passive sensors in air-conditioning units. Motion and pressure Detect sudden changes of Active sensors require physical interaction between sensors movement. the sensor and another device. These sensors use sound waves rather than light or visual data. For Optical (light) Detect changes in light or changes example, active sensors may be used to track people in sensors in colour. a building or they may be used to trace the location of Chemical sensors Detect the presence and quantity ships at sea. of various chemicals. Passive sensors require a change in the environment in Figure 14.39 Various forms of sensors are used to measure order to operate. For example, most security systems different types of data. use sensors called passive infrared detectors (PIR) to detect intruders and turn on an alarm. PIRs are electronic devices that detect body heat when intruders INFOBIT enter or move around a protected area. The latest touchless thermometers are able to detect body temperature from a distance. A person simply stands in front of a small mirror on the device and the temperature sensor displays a reading within seconds. TASK 3 3 Note which of the components are input devices Build a traffi c light with sensors (sensors), and those which are output devices (actuators). Inductance loop sensor Traffic 4 Build the model of a pedestrian traffi c light, including a beneath the light touch sensor. road 5 Using individual phrases, write a program for the model which obeys the following rules: a the light is green unless the sensor is activated b the touch sensor is to be activated when a Control signals from pedestrian pushes the button the computer Data to the computer c when the sensor is activated, the light is to turn amber for a set time, then red Figure 14.38 A traffi c light system uses an inductance loop d the light should remain red long enough for which is controlled by computer. someone to cross the road, and then turn green again. For this task, you are required to use your robotic 6 Convert your written phrases into a programming code equipment to simulate a pedestrian traffi c light. You may using the appropriate language. base your work on the vehicle traffi c lights completed in an earlier task if you wish, or start from scratch. In small 7 Run the program and observe the results. groups, work through the following steps: 8 Did the program run as expected? If not, make the 1 Draw a sketch of a pedestrian traffi c light, identifying necessary changes and run it again. the red, amber and green lights and a push button 9 In your group, discuss how the system could be made (sensor). safer for pedestrians by including a walk/don’t walk light. 2 Choose the correct components from the LEGO Mindstorms NXT or other kit needed to build the 10 Challenge: implement your pedestrian safety ideas into model. the model.

302 Information and Software Technology Traffi c lights INFOBIT Traffi c lights use a range of sensors to control traffi c Some early versions of traffi c control inductance loops and help keep people safe on the roads. Commonly, were not sensitive enough to pick up the presence of small vehicles such as motorcycles. Consequently, it was traffi c light systems use an inductance loop placed in not uncommon for a motorcyclist to be stranded until a the road. As a car goes over the loop, a small current car came along! is induced. This is fed to the processor controlling the system. The system then recognises that a car is present. Some traffi c lights do not use sensors. At busy intersections, for example, traffi c lights may simply Satellites orbiting operate on timers in order to ensure that traffi c moves the earth as smoothly and safely as possible. Navigation systems in cars Satellite navigation systems (sat navs) provide drivers with directions as well as traffi c and estimated time of GPS receiver arrival information. Sat navs use global positioning to in car help drivers determine where they are at any one time. Earth

INFOBIT Most late-model cars contain an astonishing array of Figure 14.41 Global positioning systems rely on a process sensors to allow engines and electronic systems to run at of triangulation whereby the location of a transmitter can be peak effi ciency. determined by measuring either the distance or the direction of the received signal from three or more different points. !

Unlocking the GPS functionality of mobile phones opens up Location-based services a whole new world of convenience but has also increased Location-based services (LBS) are software applications which concerns around privacy and raised questions about the provide users of mobile devices—particularly GPS enabled measures location-based service providers are implementing smartphones—with personalised services based on their to protect users’ information. Not surprisingly, concerns current location. There are applications (apps) for example, have been raised about the threats to privacy posed by LBS which notify friends of your location in real time or allow users technology. to locate the nearest automatic teller machine. Other services Locational privacy refers to the ability of an individual to move allow businesses to direct advertising at people—transmitting in public space with the expectation that their location will not digital coupons, for example, based on users’ proximity to be systematically and secretly recorded for later use. Location- particular shops. based services have the potential to strip away locational privacy, making it possible for individuals and organisations to harvest data on the movements of LBS subscribers. Users must provide their consent before a service provider can determine positioning data from their mobile phone. However, once consent is given, information may be quietly collected by organisations—particularly advertisers—who may assemble profi les on users without their knowledge. Privacy activists say consumers may be surprised to learn companies monitor LBS users’ activity and profi t from their data. ? Questions 1 Identify two advantages of location-based services. 2 Provide a defi nition for the term ‘data harvesting’. Figure 14.40 Trends in social media and the prevalence of smartphones with in-built satellite positioning have encouraged an 3 Outline the privacy concerns associated with increasing number of people to broadcast their whereabouts via location-based services. location-based services.

Chapter 14 Robotics and automated systems 303 Figure 14.42 Engine control units accept inputs from a range of sensors and display a variety of information about a vehicle’s performance.

Security alarms There are many types of security alarms used in homes and commercial buildings. You may have one in your home. A common design is an alarm which uses a motion sensor detector to pick up unexpected Figure 14.43 Motion detectors are often connected to security movements in its path. These types of systems have alarms. two main components: • a source of light such as a laser beam • an optical/light sensor. In a home security system, the light beam is aimed at the light sensor, across a passageway. When somebody walks between the light source and the sensor, the path of the beam is momentarily blocked. The sensor registers a drop in light levels and sends a signal to the control box. This activates a timer and allows the homeowner to enter a security code. If the light source is disturbed by an intruder and the security code is not entered, then the alarm sounds. Automatic doors Automatic doors use a sensor to open doors at the required time. The sensor is often placed at the head of the door. It is passive and may be an ultrasonic device or a passive infrared detector. When the presence of a person is detected a message is sent to the controller to open the door.

INFOBIT Developments in chemical sensors now enable doctors to visit patients and perform an immediate blood test. The handheld sensors allow physicians to get an immediate on-site chemical analysis, without having to wait days or Figure 14.44 Automatic doors use optical or motion detection weeks for laboratory reports. sensors to activate their motorised opening and closing mechanisms.

304 Information and Software Technology Nanosensors can work inside a patient’s body. Nanotechnology may The development of nano-enabled sensors is in the enable engineers to construct sophisticated nanorobots early stages but the technology is expected be a that can navigate the human body, transport important strong force in the treatment of a range of illnesses molecules, manipulate microscopic objects and from the common cold to cancer. The present era of communicate with physicians by way of miniature nanotechnology has reached to a stage where scientists sensors, motors, manipulators, power generators and are able to develop tiny programmable machines which molecular-scale computers.

TASK 4 4 Build the model of the vehicle with a touch sensor and Build a car with sensors light sensor. You may need to refer to the resource In this task, you are going to use your robotic equipment material in your kits to help you with this construction. to simulate a car turning a corner on a road. The vehicle is 5 Write a program which will enable the car to follow to follow a set path on the road, which goes around a 90º the path. corner. 6 Convert the phrases into the appropriate programming 1 On a large sheet language. Hint 2: use the light sensor to determine of white cardboard when the car strays from the path. Hint 3: to make a draw the path the small turn, the car should use one motor for a short car is to follow. time. Draw the path using a thick black 7 Run the program and observe the results. felt marker so that 8 Did the program run as expected? If not, document it is about 2 cm in Figure 14.45 what did happen and make the necessary changes to width, as shown in The path of a car the program and run it again. This step may need to be Figure 14.45. repeated several times until successful. 2 Sketch the car, identifying the wheels, axles, motors 9 Modify the program so the car follows the same path and sensor. in the opposite direction. 3 Choose the correct components from the LEGO or 10 Modify the activity again by extending the path so it other kit needed to build the model. Hint 1: the car will resembles a rectangular shape. Make a decision as to need two motors to perform a turn. whether or not you will need to adjust the program so that the car remains on the path while it completes a full ‘lap’ of the path.

Identify Investigate 1 Identify three types of sensors. 8 Toll roads with electronic payment sensors can be 2 Identify two types of sensing devices. found in several Australian cities. Explain the purpose of a toll road system and draw a diagram to represent the 3 Outline the purpose of chemical sensors. system, showing its main components. 9 Fibre-optic sensor systems are now widely used and are Analyse becoming the fi rst choice for a range of applications. 4 Explain the difference between active and passive Investigate the benefi ts of fi bre-optic sensors and sensors. identify the areas where they are in operation. 5 Explain the purpose of a sensor. 10 Countdown timers are being trialled on pedestrian 6 Explain the function of an induction loop in a traffi c traffi c lights in some parts of New South Wales. Explain light system. how these systems operate and discuss whether or not you believe they will improve pedestrian safety. 7 How are alarms activated in home security systems that contain light sensors?

Chapter 14 Robotics and automated systems 305 14.8 Actuators and controlling devices

Actuators and controlling devices are the unsung A push movement may be used to connect the starter heroes of automated control systems. In simple terms, motor of a system, such as a car starter motor. A pull they represent the muscles and brains of automated movement may be used to open a valve, such as in an systems. automatic watering system. Actuators Electric motors Actuators convert commands to actions; that is, Electric motors provide smooth, continuous rotational they perform the physical work of a control system. motion in a clockwise and anti-clockwise direction. Figure 14.46 lists the types of actuators available. Motors are the most commonly used type of actuators in a control system. They can produce a wide range of Actuator Function movements using gears and levers.

Solenoids Used to move an arm though a small movement

Motors Provide smooth, continuous rotational motion in a clockwise and anticlockwise direction

Stepping Provide precise movement to a motors specifi ed location

Relays Act as a switch to control mechanical movement

Pumps Used to force liquid or gas into piston chambers to cause mechanical movement

Figure 14.46 The types of actuators and their functions Solenoids Figure 14.48 Electronic motors are often used in LEGO models. A solenoid consists of a magnetised iron rod surrounded by a tightly bound coil of wire. When Stepping motors an electric current passes through the wire, a strong magnetic force is produced which is strong enough to Stepping motors provide precise movement to a move the rod. When the current is switched on, the specifi ed location. The rotational movement may be force moves the rod in one direction. When the current controlled to an accurate number of degrees. Stepping is switched off, the rod moves in the opposite direction. motors are useful in automated systems when very precise movements are required.

Degree of movement Relays Relays are also called switches. They consist of a On/off solenoid connected to a mechanical switch. Relays are electric current often used with a small electric current to turn on a large electric current. For example, a 5 volt signal from a computer could be used to turn on a 240 volt power Magentised iron rod supply to an electric motor. Relays often serve as a Solenoid safety mechanism for systems using large currents. coil

Figure 14.47 A solenoid uses magnetic currents to move a rod.

306 Information and Software Technology state of the food. In the manufacturing industry, open- Pumps loop automation usually involves devices which pick Pumps can be hydraulic (oil) or pneumatic (air). The up and place objects. forces created by a pump make the pistons move, A closed-loop system uses feedback. The input of the causing a mechanical action. Pumps are often used in system depends in some way on the output of the robotic arms and can achieve very rapid and precise system. An example is a temperature control system, or movements. thermostat, used to control an air-conditioning unit in a building.

Input Process Output

Feedback

Temperature Process/adjust Cold air Gas is pumped into the chamber. When the chamber is full, gas travels input cooling unit output through tubes, forcing the pistons to move. Temperature Figure 14.49 A pump pushes gas into a chamber until it is so full that it forces pistons to move. Figure 14.51 An example of how a closed-loop system, such as a thermostat, works Controlling devices The controlling devices in automated control systems are responsible for coordinating a range of processes. The controller usually consists of a microcomputer and Identify a memory unit. 1 Provide a defi nition of an actuator. 2 What is a controlling device in a control system? Microprocessors Give an example. 3 What is the difference between a closed-loop system Often the controller of an automatic control system is and an open-loop system? the microprocessor of a computer. Like other systems, the microprocessor is set up to accept data from input Analyse devices, process it and send data to output devices. 4 Describe the functions performed by actuators in In a controlled system, the microprocessor receives automated control systems. its input from sensors and, once processed, sends the 5 List the actuators in your robotic kit. appropriate signals to the actuators. 6 Think of a system that does not use feedback. Draw the system as a simple block diagram. Use of feedback to the 7 Draw a block diagram of a closed-loop system. Build controller a closed-loop system with your robotic kit (note that this would require sensors, such as a light, sound or There are several methods of classifying automated touch sensor). control systems. An open-loop control system does 8 Compare and contrast how the models of open-loop not use feedback. The system has some form of input, and closed-loop systems function. process and output, but the input does not rely on the system itself. An example of an open-loop system is an Investigate oven, where the cook chooses the oven temperature 9 Build an open-loop system with your robotic kit and settings to initiate the cooking cycle. While the (note that this would not contain sensors). food is being cooked, there is no check made on the 10 Design and build a model with your robotic kit using the motor actuator. The model should include Input Process Output a sensor to control the movement of the motor. Examples include:

Temperature Cooking Cooked food a a car that travels in one direction until it touches a wall, then reverses b a conveyor belt that stops when a particular Figure 14.50 An example of how an open-loop system, such as coloured item passes a light sensor on the belt. an oven, works

Chapter 14 Robotics and automated systems 307 14.9 Project development and additional content Outline of task: build a robot The project should include: • a block diagram of how the system functions In the following unit you will design and build a robot. To complete this project successfully it is recommended • a description of what the model will do (if you that you work in teams comprised of three or four have completed Chapter 15: Software development people. and programming, this may be in the form of a fl owchart) • the working model, with a brief explanation from Robotics scenario each group about what it does Use your robotics kit to construct and program one of • a working saved program for the model the models suggested in the kit. Examples of LEGO • a presentation and demonstration of the project to models include: the class. • voice-controlled car You will need to follow the stages outlined in • bumper car Chapter 1: Project: design, produce, evaluate to complete the project. • ball hunter • forklift • robot arm Defi ning and analysing the • crazy lawn mower problem • door alarm • Form groups of three or four students. • Segway with • Discuss what the project model will do. This will rider. form the criteria for the project. For ideas, look at real-world applications of robots and automated systems. • Document your discussion, using a word processor. Include the names of your group members. • Submit it to your teacher for approval. • If appropriate, break down the system into small components and list them. • Assign team members to the following roles: – build the model components – program the model components – document the progress of the project (in a written format as well as taking pictures, drawing diagrams and other relevant documentation). • Establish a timeline for completing all parts of the project and include it in the documentation. Allow time for testing and modifi cation. • Determine the building blocks necessary for the model. This is likely to include the contents of your robotic kit, along with any additional hardware or components. • Determine the software required for the project. In most cases, this will be the software accompanying the robotic equipment, but you may also include a digital presentation application and a graphics editor for your photographs. Figure 14.52 Crazy lawnmower, forklift and Huskies pulling a sleigh

308 Information and Software Technology Designing possible solutions Evaluation • Create a block diagram of the system. • All team members contribute to the documentation, • List the rules and/or steps required for the including a description of their part in the project. programming components of the project. • Each group takes a video of the working model and uses it with the documentation to create a digital Producing solutions presentation of the completed project. • Test the model components using the programming • Build the model components. code you have written. • Write the robotic programs according to the • Make any necessary modifi cations. language specifi cations and save them. • Did the model perform as outlined in the planning stage?

The future of robots Despite being highly effi cient, robots which are currently in existence are devoid of sensibility. The great success of robots so far has been in automating repetitive tasks in process control and assembly but the next step towards cognition and more human-like behaviour has proved elusive. It has been diffi cult to make robots that can truly learn and adapt to unexpected situations in the way humans can but scientists believe an intelligent robot is achievable and they are working towards this vision. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology robotics group, for example, is developing a robot called Coco who, it is hoped, will be able to engage in intelligent and enjoyable social interactions with people and learn commonsense by independently investigating its environment. Scientists say there are two obstacles to creating a robot with human-like intelligence: vision and processing sensory information. If such challenges are overcome, the fi eld of robotics could be poised for a breakthrough, leading to a new generation of intelligent machines Figure 14.53 A shortage of caregivers to assist ageing capable of assisting in homes, offi ces and public places. populations is an emerging problem in many countries. Helper robots have the potential to alleviate this problem and may play In the immediate future the energies of the robotics an important role in aged care in the not-too-distant future. industry are likely to be focused on the elderly. With millions of Baby Boomers set to retire, ageing populations are quickly becoming a concern in many ? countries. The availability of health professionals in Questions Japan and the United States, for example, is not keeping 1 Identify two obstacles which are currently pace with the needs of the aged population. With preventing the creation of a robot with human- an increasing number of senior citizens moving into like intelligence. retirement villages, scientists believe robots can help the elderly maintain their independence and quality of life 2 There are people who say they would rather while easing the pressure on besieged health systems. have a robot help them take a bath than rely There are already mechanical helpers which can on help from another person. Discuss whether monitor a person’s blood pressure, pulse, blood sugar or not you believe the sick and elderly would and oxygenation levels. There are also robots which prefer a robot carer as opposed to a human. assist stroke victims and make it easier for elderly 3 Robots are not substitutes for humans. Do you people with weak muscles to move around. agree, however, that before long we will consider In the near future we are likely to see the use of robots it commonplace for people to have emotional expand into more social and caring roles. bonds with robots? Discuss your answer.

Chapter 14 Robotics and automated systems 309