Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12

Review Article GJAH (2019) 2:12

Global Journal of Arts and Humanities (ISSN:2637-4765)

Kinship, and

Kebede Lemu Bekelcha1, Aregash Eticha Sefera2

Department of Social , Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Bule Hora University

Introduction This paper focuses mainly on marriage, family and . An- *Correspondence to Author: thropologists traditionally have a strong interest in , along Kebede Lemu Bekelcha with larger systems of kinship and marriage. These terms are core in anthropology discipline. They are socially constructed Department of , and have different meanings across culture. All these three con- Faculty of Social Sciences and Hu- cepts are discussed in this paper accordingly with necessary ex- manities, Bule Hora University amples.

How to cite this article: Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera. Kinship, Marriage and Family . Global Journal of Arts and Humanities, 2019, 2:12

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GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 1 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12 Kinship relatives—people related by birth. Affines are “in-laws”—people related by marriage. Among Studies of kinship and have long your consanguineous relatives are your been a hallmark of sociocultural anthropology. , , , parents’ When people form an organized, cooperative siblings, and . Your affines include your group based on their kinship relationships, ’s , ’s , and ’s anthropologists call it a kin group (Peoples and sister’s husband. In many societies, people Bailey, 2012:165). incorporate unrelated people into their family Kinship is considered the lifeblood or the social and , acting and feeling toward them building blocks of the people anthropologists in the same way as they do consanguineous study. In non- industrialized, non-literate relatives. This practice is widespread enough cultures, kinship, marriage and the family form that there is a phrase for it: , in the bases of social life, economic activity and which individuals who are not actually biological political organization. The behavior and relatives act toward one another as if they were activities of people in such societies are usually kin. is the most familiar example kinship oriented (Keesing, 1981). (Peoples and Bailey, 2012:165). Anthropologists distinguish between two kinds of relatives. Consanguines are “blood” Key terms:

Kinship: A network of relatives within which individuals possess certain mutual rights and obligations. Consanguines: “Blood” relatives, or people related by birth. Affines: In-laws, or people related by marriage. Fictive kinship: Condition in which people who are not biologically related behave as if they are relatives of a certain type.

How kinship can be create? wife; husband and his wife's group; wife and Kinship can be created through three ways: her husband’s group, etc. (Zerihun, 2005:117). 1. Through Blood: this is the principle of 3. Through Adoption (fictive), fostering, god- . A consanguine is a person who parenthood, etc. This is called the principle of is related to another person through blood. fictitious kinship. Fictitious kinship is, in other Consanguines include kin, not friends. words, a kind of relationship in which two Examples of consanguines are the following: a individuals create a kind of - parent's (father/mother/grand-parent) relation to relationship without any blood or marriage ties a child; relation between siblings ( and (Zerihun, 2005:117). ); an individual’s relation to his/ her Why do Anthropologists study Kinship? , , niece or nephew; etc. (Zerihun, Anthropologists study kinship because it is the 2005:117). relationship between people through marriage, 2. Through Marriage: this is the principle of family, or other cultural arrangements. Through . E.g. kinship ties between husband and kinship there is a transmission of goods, ideas and behavior. Kinship is defined as a sense of GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 2 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12 being related to a person or people through In Western society and that of developed descent, sharing or marriage. This provides the nations, kinship relationships certainly are base for an examination of different styles of important in individuals’ lives. But, compared to partnership, community and reproduction many other peoples that anthropologists work across the globe. Anthropologists study kinship among, kinship is not an important organizing relationships along with the family to fully principle of society as a whole. Instead, comprehend how individual thought and different kinds of specialized groups organize behavior are influenced by these interacting different kinds of activities (Peoples and Bailey, aspects of communities (Scupin and 2012: 192). DeCorse, 2011:307). Family of Orientation and Family of Procreation

Family of Orientation: in which one is born and grows up. Family of Procreation: Nuclear family established when one marries and has children.

Anthropologists distinguish family between the contributing members of society. The family of family of orientation (the family in which one is procreation (formed when one marries and has born and grows up). This family exists to children) (Kottak, 2009:141). develop, nurture and socialize the children into My family types using kinship diagram

Descriptive and kinship. For example, the term ‘father’ and The kinship is classified in to two types ‘mother’ are applied to our parents only and to depending on the range of application of the no one else. term. These are descriptive and classificatory 2.2. Classificatory Kinship kinship. The kinship term which applies to persons of 2.1. Descriptive kinship two or more kinship categories, is known as The kinship term which applies to only one classificatory kinship. For example, the term particular kin category is known as descriptive “” is used for referring to father’s GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 3 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12 ’s , father’s sister’s son, mother’s Every society has a coherent system of labeling brother’s son as well as to mother’s sister’s various types of kin. However, cultural son. Similarly, the term ‘uncle’ refers to anthropologists have identified six basic mother’s brother, father’s brother, mother’s classification systems. These are Eskimo, sister’s husband and father’s sister’s husband. Hawaiian, , Omaha, Crow and Kinds of Kinship systems across the world systems.

6% Crow

9% Sudanese Hawaiian

36% Hawaiian Iroquois 9% Omaha

Eskimo 11% Eskimo

Omaha

Sudanese

29% Iroquois Crow

(Source: Ferraro, 2008:249)

Let me see all of them as follows; is distinguished from the father’s brother, who is 1. Sudanese Kinship System distinguished from the father; the mother’s sister is distinguished from the mother, as well Sudanese kinship system (also known as as from the father’s sister. Each cousin is descriptive system) is found among the peoples distinguished from all others, as well as from of southern Sudan in Africa. Hence, the name siblings. It is therefore more precise than any of Sudanese. In this system, the mother’s brother the other systems (Haviland, 1999:311).

GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 4 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12 2. System and cousins) are lumped together. This Found in approximately 1/10 of the world’s emphasis on the nuclear family is related to the societies, the Eskimo kinship system is fact that societies using the Eskimo system lack associated with . The major large descent groups such as lineages and feature of this system is that it emphasizes the . Moreover, the Eskimo system is most nuclear family by using separate terms (such as likely to be found in societies (such as the US mother, father, sister, brother) that are not used and certain food collecting societies) in which outside the nuclear family. Beyond the nuclear economic conditions favor an independent family, many other relatives (such as , nuclear family (Ferraro, 2008:249).

3. System system, which uses the least number of Found in approximately one third of world’s terms, is often associated with ambilineal societies, the Hawaiian system uses a single descent, which permits a person to affiliate term for all relatives of the same sex and with either the mother’s or father’s kin. The . To illustrate a person’s father, Hawaiian system is found in societies that father’s brother and mother’s brother are all submerge the nuclear family into a larger kin referred to by the single term father. In group to the extent that nuclear family EGO’s own generation, the only distinction is members are roughly equivalent in based on sex, so that male cousins are importance to more distant kin (Ferraro, equated with brothers and female cousins 2010:246). are equated with sisters. The Hawaiian

4. System different term. Likewise EGO’s mother and In Iroquois system EGO’s father and father’s mother’s sister are lumped together under brother are called by the same term, and one term, and a different term is used for EGO’s mother’s brother is called by a EGO’s father’s sister. Thus a basic GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 5 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12 distinction of classification is made between father’s sister). Thus terminological the sex of one’s parent’s siblings (that is distinction made between cross and parallel mother’s brothers and sisters and father’s cousins are logical, given the distinction brothers and sisters). Within EGO’s own made between the siblings of EGO’s parents. generation, EGO’s own siblings are given the The Iroquois system emphasizes the same term as the parallel cousins (children importance of unilineal descent groups by of one’s mother’s sister or father’s brother), distinguishing between members of one’s and different terms are used for cross own and members of other lineages cousins (children of one’s mother’s brother or (Ferraro, 2008:249-50).

5. Omaha Kinship System sisters. Cross cousins on the maternal side The Omaha system (named for the Omaha are raised a generation, while those on the Indians of Nebraska) is the patrilineal paternal side are equated with ego’s equivalent of the matrilineal crow system. children’s generation. Thus, children born of Thus, a mother and her sister are designated women from one patrilineage for the men of by a single term, the father and his brother another patrilineage are lowered by one are merged under another, and parallel generation (Haviland, 1999:311). cousins are merged with brothers and

6. System is the mirror image of the Omaha system. It is a kinship system associated with The crow and Omaha systems are similar in matrilineal descent, in which similar terms that both use similar terms of EGO’s father are used for (1) one’s father and father’s and father’s brother, EGO’s mother and brother, (2) one’s mother and mother’s sister mother’s sister, and EGO’s siblings and and (3) one’s siblings and parallel cousins. It parallel cousins. But because of its less

GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 6 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12 important nature, the father’s side of the mother’s side of the family, which is the family merges . That is, all males important descent group, generational in the father’s line, regardless of generation, distinctions are recognized (Ferraro,2010: are combined under a single term, as are all 247). women in that line. However, on EGO’s

Moiety, and Lineage Key terms:

Lineage: A unilineal descent group larger than an whose members can actually trace how they are related. Clan: A named unilineal descent group, some of whose members are unable to trace how they are related, but who still believe themselves to be kinfolk. : Group that results from a division of a society into two halves on the basis of descent.

a. Lineage their . This means lineage members A lineage is a unilineal kinship group must find their marriage partners in other descended from a common or founder lineages (Haviland, 1999:300). who lived four to six generations ago and in b. Clan which relationships among members can be The term clan and its close relative, the term exactly stated in genealogical terms (Haviland, sib, have been used differently by various et al, 2010:504). A lineage uses demonstrated anthropologists, and a certain amount of descent. Members can recite the names of their confusion exists about their meaning. The clan forebears in each generation from the apical (sib) will be defined here as a noncorporate ancestor through the present. (This doesn’t descent group whose members assume mean their recitations are accurate, only those descent from a common ancestor (who may be lineage members think they are (Kottak, real or fictive) but are unable to trace the actual 2010:454). genealogical links back to that ancestor. This The lineage is ancestor oriented; membership stems from the great genealogical depth of the in the group is recognized only if relationship to clan, whose founding ancestor lived so far in a common ancestor can be traced and proved. the past that the links must be assumed rather The lineage is a strong, effective base of social than known in detail. A clan differs from a organization. A common feature of lineages is lineage in another respect; it lacks the GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 7 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12 residential unity; because clan membership is clans use stipulated descent. Clan members dispersed rather than localized. It tends to be merely say they descend from the apical more a unit for ceremonial matters. Only on ancestor. They don’t try to trace the actual special occasions will the membership gather genealogical links between themselves and that for specific purposes. Like lineage they may ancestor (Kottak, 2010:454). regulate through exogamy. Members usually c. Moiety are expected to give protection and hospitality If the entire society is divided into only two to others in the clan (Haviland, 1999:302-3). major descents groups, whether they are Hence, these can be expected in any local equivalent to clans or phratries or involve an group that includes people who belong to a even more all-inclusive level, each group is single clan. called a moiety (after the French word for A clan is an extended unilineal kinship group, “half”). Moiety members also believe they share often consisting of several lineages, whose a common ancestor but cannot prove it through members claim common descent from a remote definite genealogical links. ancestor, usually legendary or mythological Marriage (Haviland, et al 2010:504). Unlike lineages, Key terms:

Marriage: A culturally sanctioned union between two or more people that establishes certain rights and obligations between the people, between them and their children, and between them and their in-laws. Such marriage rights and obligations most often include, but are not limited to, sex, labor, property, childrearing, exchange, and status.

Marriage is an institution with significant roles economic rights and obligation between them. and functions in addition to reproduction. No Marriage usually involves an explicit contract or definition of marriage is broad enough to apply understanding and is entered into with easily to all societies and situations. Marriage is assumption that will be permanent. a union between a and a such that Persons with little knowledge of cultural the children born to the woman are recognized diversity might say that marriage is a as legitimate offspring of both partners (Royal relationship between a woman and a man Anthropological Institute 1951: 111). involving romantic , sexual activity, Marriage is a set of cultural rules that bring , child rearing, and shared joys and together a man and a woman (usually) to burdens of life. People trained in law might also create the nuclear family and to define their note that marriage has legal aspects, such as behavior toward each other, their offspring, and joint property rights and obligations to share their society (Park, 2010:178). support of children. Religious people may want Ferraro (2010) defined marriage as a series of to include their beliefs that marriage is a customs formalizing the relationship adult relationship sanctioned by God, a relationship partners with the family. Marriage is a socially that should last until the parties are separated approved union between two or more adult by death. However, there is still no agreement partners that regulates the sexual and on the “best” one. Most anthropologists agree,

GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 8 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12 however, that marriage in most human ✓ An assignment of responsibility for societies involves the following: nurturing and enculturating children to ✓ A culturally defined (variable) the and/or to one or both sets of relationship between a man and a their relatives. woman from different families, which ✓ A creation of variably important bonds regulates sexual intercourse and and relationships between the families of legitimizes children. the couple that have social, economic, ✓ A set of rights the couple and their political, and sometimes ritual families obtain over each other, including dimensions (Peoples and Bailey, rights over children born to the woman. 2012:169). Marriage and Economic Exchange

Key terms:

Bridewealth/Price: Marriage gifts or payments made from the family of the groom to the family of the bride. : Goods and wealth paid by the bride’s family to the groom’s family. : A situation in which a male resides with his wife’s family for a specified amount of time.

In many societies marriage involves a transfer Bridewealth is the widespread custom that or exchange of property. requires a man and/or his relatives to transfer Bride Wealth/price wealth to the relatives of his bride. It is easily the most common of all marital exchanges, Bridewealth is the transfer of symbolic goods found in more than half the world’s cultures. from the husband’s family to the bride’s family. The term bridewealth is well chosen because This form of economic exchange is most often the goods transferred are usually among the found in agricultural and pastoral patrilineal102 most valuable symbols of wealth in the local societies, though it is not limited those culture. In sub-Saharan Africa, cattle and lifestyles. Usually, bridewealth represents some sometimes other livestock are the most form of compensation to the bride’s family from common goods used for bridewealth (Kottak, the husband’s family, for their loss of her labor 2009:157). and ability to bear them children. This is because when a woman marries, she goes to Bride Service live, produce children, and work with her Bride service is the custom in which a husband husband’s family, leaving her own. In many is required to spend a period of time working for cases, bridewealth also serves to create a the family of his bride. Bride service is the positive relationship between the families of the second most common form of marital husband and wife. When the wife's family exchange; it is the usual compensation given to receives the bridewealth, they use the goods the family of a bride in roughly one-eighth of the they receive for their to find her world’s cultures. Sometimes it occurs in brother a wife (Peoples and Bailey, 2012:181) addition to other forms of marital exchange, GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 9 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12 however, and occasionally it can be used to would if dowry were the opposite of reduce the amount of bridewealth owed bridewealth; rather, the bride and her husband (Peoples and Bailey, 2012:182). receive property when they marry, rather than Dowry when the bride’s parents die. By providing dowry, parents give their female children extra Dowry is a transfer of wealth, usually flowing years of use of the property and publicly from a woman’s parents or family when she is demonstrate their wealth. Sometimes dowry is to be married in the form of money, land or the share of a woman’s that she other goods. Often, the husband brings various takes into her marriage for the use of her new forms of wealth to a newly created household, family. Dowry may represent an occasion for a and a dowry is thought of as the wife’s family to display their wealth publicly by donation, to the household or the husband. ostentatiously moving furniture and clothing Dowry can also be viewed as inheritance for from their to that of their daughter’s the woman, though this is usually in cultures husband. Among other peoples, the family of a where both men and women are heirs (Kottak, man will not allow him to marry a woman unless 2009:157). she and her family are able to make a dowry Marital exchange is called dowry when the payment. Typically, the cultural rationale is that family of a woman transfers a portion of its own women do not contribute as much to a family as wealth or property to the woman (their do men, so a family must be compensated for daughter) and/or to her husband and his family. admitting a new female member. (Interestingly, The main thing to understand about dowry is this rationale is usually found among societies that it is not simply the opposite of bride wealth; in which the domestic labor of the female is that is, it is not “groom wealth.” The woman and both difficult and valuable.) (Peoples and her family do not acquire marital rights over her Bailey, 2012:182) husband when they provide dowry, as they Marriage Types

Key terms:

Monogamy: one-to-one marriage, usually male to female : one-to-many marriage : one woman married to more than one male at a time Fraternal polyandry: two or more brothers taking one woman as their wife simultaneously. : One male marrying more than one wife at a time. Serial : One man marries one woman after he divorced his wife. Wife inheritance/ levirate marriage: A man marries his deceased brother’s wife. Sororate marriage: a man marry the sister of his deceased wife.

i. Monogamy Monogamy is a form of marriage in which both partners have just one . It is the most common form of marriage worldwide.

GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 10 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12 ii. Polygamy acknowledged as his legitimate offspring, even Monogamy is the most common marriage form though his brother is their biological father worldwide, but it is not the most culturally (Haviland, et al, 2010:483). preferred. That distinction goes to polygamy A related marriage tradition is the sororate (one individual having multiple spouses) (Latin ‘soror’ means “sister”), in which a man specifically to polygyny, in which a man is has the right to marry a (usually younger) sister married to more than one woman and of his deceased wife. In some societies, the polyandry, the marriage of one woman to two sororate also applies to a man who has married or more men simultaneously. It is known in only a woman who is unable to bear children. This a few societies (Haviland, et al, 2010: 482). custom entitles a man to a replacement wife In some societies, if a man dies, leaving behind from his in-laws. In societies that have the a wife and children, it is customary that one of levirate and sororate—customary in many his brothers marries the widowed sister-in- traditional foraging, farming, and herding law—but this obligation does not preclude the cultures—the in-law relationship between the brother having another wife then or in the two families is maintained even after the future. This custom, called the levirate (from spouse’s death and secures an established the Latin ‘levir’, which means “husband’s alliance between two groups (ibd). brother”), not only provides security for the There are several other marriage forms, each (and her children) but also is a way for with its own particular cultural expressions and the husband’s family to maintain the reasons for being. For instance, the social established relationship with her family and practice of occurs in a few their rights over her sexuality and her future societies. Also known as co-marriage, this is a children: It acts to preserve kin relationships rare arrangement in which several men and between families previously established. The women have sexual access to one another levirate also ensures that the deceased man’s (ibd). lineage will be perpetuated, as all children born Rules of to his remarried widow are formally

Key terms:

Exogamous rules: Marriage rules prohibiting individuals from marrying a member of their own social group or category. Endogamous rules: Marriage rules requiring individuals to marry some member of their own social group or category.

Whatever its cause, the utility of the is defined as one’s alone, taboo can be seen by examining its effects on then societies generally prohibit or at least social structure. Closely related to prohibitions discourage and practice or at least against incest are rules against endogamy, or encourage exogamy, or marriage outside the marriage within a particular group of individuals group (Haviland, 1999:237). (cousins and in-laws, for example). If the group Exogamy GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 11 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12 Everywhere, norms identify members of some Rules of endogamy maintain the exclusiveness social groups or categories as potential of the endogamous group in two ways. spouses and specify members of other groups First, they reduce social contacts and or categories as not eligible for marriage. One interactions between individuals of different set of rules is exogamous rules. Exogamy (“out- ranks. Intermarriage creates new relationships marriage”) means that an individual is between the families of the wife and husband prohibited from marrying within her or his own and potentially is a means of raising the rank of family or other kin group or, less commonly, oneself or one’s offspring. Endogamy keeps village or settlement. (Recall that the incest affinal relationships within the caste, class, taboo prohibits sex, whereas rules of exogamy ethnic group, race, or whatever. Over forbid intermarriage.) Because the generations, this reinforces ties within the applies to those people whom the local culture endogamous groups and decreases defines as close relatives, members of one’s interactions between the groups. own nuclear family and other close kin are Second, endogamy symbolically expresses almost everywhere prohibited as spouses and strengthens the exclusiveness of the (Peoples and Bailey, 2012:173). endogamous group by preventing its Endogamy “contamination” by outsiders. This is most Other kinds of marriage rules are endogamous apparent with Indian castes because the rules. Endogamy (“in-marriage”) means that an cultural rationale for caste endogamy is to avoid individual must marry someone in his or her ritual pollution: the Hindu religion holds that own social group. The classic example of an physical contact with members of lower castes endogamous group is the caste in traditional places high-caste individuals in a state of Hindu (Peoples and Bailey, 2012:173). spiritual danger, precluding the possibility of Endogamous rules have the effect of marriage between them (ibd, 174). maintaining social barriers between groups of Post Marital Residence people defined as having different social ranks. Key terms:

Patrilocal residence: A residence pattern in which a married couple lives in the husband’s father’s place of residence. : A residence pattern in which a married couple lives in the wife’s mother’s place of residence. Ambilocal residence: A residence pattern in which a married couple may choose either matrilocal or . : A pattern in which a married couple establishes the household in a location apart from either the husband’s or the wife’s relatives.

There are several common patterns of 1. Patrilocal residence: is when a married residence that a newly married couple live. As couple lives in the husband’s father’s (Haviland, et al, 2010:495-6) elucidate; place of residence. This arrangement is

GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 12 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12 favorable in situations where men a replacement marriages (levirate and sororate) predominant role in subsistence, also work to preserve group alliances. particularly if they own property that can tends to be more common in matrilineal than in be accumulated, if polygyny is customary, patrilineal societies. When residence is if warfare is prominent enough to make matrilocal (in the wife’s home village), the wife cooperation among men especially may simply send off a man with whom she’s important, and if an elaborate political incompatible (Kottak, 2009:159). organization exists in which men wield Some anthropologists have argued that the authority. higher the bride wealth payment, the more 2. Matrilocal residence, in which a married stable the marriage and less likely a divorce, couple lives in the wife’s mother’s place since it would require the return of bride of residence, is likely if cultural ecological wealth, which may be difficult in such circumstances make the role of the societies. Others have said that frequency of woman predominant for subsistence. It is divorce and stability of marriage are related found most often in horticultural societies, not to the amount of bride wealth but to the where political organization is relatively degree of incorporation of a wife into her uncentralized and where cooperation husband’s family or kin group (Rosman, et al, among women is important. 2009:105). 3. Ambilocal residence (‘ambi’ in Latin Family means “both”), a pattern in which a A family is the basic unit of the social group. married couple may choose either Anthropologists are interested in looking at matrilocal or patrilocal residence. families and how they reckon kin since kin Because the couple can join either the behavior has specific rules in each culture. A bride’s or the groom’s family, family family is a group of people (e.g., parents, membership is flexible, and the two can children, siblings, grandparents, grandchildren, live where the resources look best or uncles, aunts, nephews, nieces, cousins, where their labor is most needed. spouses, siblings-in-law, parents-in-law, and 4. Neolocal residence, a married couple children-in-law) who are considered to be forms a household in a separate location. related in some way, for example, by “blood” This occurs where the independence of (common ancestry or descent) or marriage. the nuclear family is emphasized. Some families, such as the nuclear family, are Reasons of Divorce residentially based; its members live together. In some societies marriages may seem to go Others are not; they live apart but come on forever, but in our own they are fairly brittle. together for family reunions of various sorts Ease of divorce varies across cultures. What from time to time (Kottak, 2009: 141). factors work for and against divorce? As we’ve As Ferraro (2010) elucidated, family is a social seen, marriages that are political alliances unit characterized by economic cooperation, between groups are more difficult to dissolve the management of reproduction and than are marriages that are more individual childrearing and common residence. It includes , of concern mainly to the married couple both male and female adults who maintain and their children. Substantial bridewealth may socially approved sexual relationships. decrease the divorce rate for individuals; Family Types and Challenges on its Future GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 13 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12

Key terms:

Nuclear family: consists of a married couple together with their unmarried children. Extended family: Culturally recognized relatives of varying degrees of distance.

1. The Nuclear Family group, they form a unit known as the extended A nuclear family is impermanent; it lasts only as family. This larger family unit, common in long as the parents and children remain traditional horticultural, agricultural, and together. Most people belong to at least two pastoral societies around the world, typically nuclear families at different times in their lives. consists of siblings with their spouses and They are born into a family consisting of their offspring, and often their parents. All of these parents and siblings. When they reach kin, some related by blood and some by adulthood, they may marry and establish a marriage, live and work together for the nuclear family that includes the spouse and common good and deal with outsiders as a eventually children (Kottak, 2009: 141). single unit (Haviland, et al.2010: 493). 2. Extended Family Theoretical Arguments Explaining Incest Taboo When two or more closely related nuclear families cluster together in a large domestic

Key terms:

Incest taboo: Prohibition against sexual intercourse between certain kinds of relatives.

Anthropologists have wondered a lot about why offspring. That part is the cultural universal nuclear family incest is almost universally (Park, 2010:178). taboo. This wonder sometimes surprises A cultural rule that long has fascinated people who are not anthropologists, who anthropologists as well as other student of usually think that intercourse within the family is human behavior is the incest taboo. This universally prohibited because inbreeding is prohibits sexual relations at least between genetically harmful to the children (Peoples and parents and children of opposite sex and Bailey, 2012:167). usually siblings as well. Once thought to be A taboo (from the Polynesian tabu) is a universal, save for a few exceptions involving negative rule; it tells you not to do something. siblings, the taboo has become something of a The incest taboo is a rule that says one cannot challenge for anthropologists to explain, both have sex with or marry persons to whom one is regarding this supposed universality and why too closely related. Every society does include incest commonly should be regarded as such under the incest taboo the prohibition against loathsome behavior. The incest taboo ensures sex and marriage within the nuclear family that children and their parents, who are between siblings and between parents and constantly in intimate contact, avoid regarding

GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 14 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12 one another as sexual objects (Haviland, do know is that out breeding, which occurs in 1999:235). human populations with strong incest taboos, The prohibition of incest, which is universal and has positive genetic consequences. According requires the avoidance of union between close to Bernard Campbell (1979) cited in (Ferraro, relations, has as its positive counterpart the 2008), the benefits outbreeding include institution of †exogamy, the obligation to increases in genetic variation, a reduction in choose a marriage partner outside the close lethal recessive traits, improved health and family group. The prohibition of incest leads to lower rates of mortality. This inbreeding theory exogamy, which implies marriage with others has, no doubt, led to numerous state laws (Barnard and Spencer, 1996:528). There are prohibiting in the United some theories to elucidate incest taboo. States. It should be noted, however, that there is hardly consensus on this issue among state 1. Natural Aversion Theory legislatures because thirty states have laws It was popular about a hundred years ago, rests against cousin marriage whereas twenty do not. on the somewhat unsatisfying concept that Moreover, no European nations prohibit cousin there is a natural aversion to sexual intercourse marriage (Ferraro, 2008:211). among those who have grown up together. 3. Theory Although anthropologists now recognize no natural (genetically produced) aversion to Whereas the inbreeding theory focuses on the having sexual relations within the nuclear biological consequences of incest, a third family. According to this theory, people who theory centers on its negative social have grown up together have little sexual consequences. This theory which is most interest in each other. Nevertheless this closely linked with Bronislaw Malinowski (1927) familiarity theory does not appear to be a holds that mating between a mother and son, particularly convincing explanation for the father and daughter, or brother and sister would existence of the incest taboo. The natural create such intense within the aversion theory does not explain why we need nuclear family that the family would not be able a strongly sanctioned incest taboo if people to function as a unit of economic cooperation already have a natural aversion to incest and socialization. For example, if adolescents (Ferraro, 2008:210). were permitted to satisfy their sexual urges within the nuclear family unit, and 2. Inbreeding Theory and and would be A popular theory that attempts to explain the competing with one another, and consequently existence of the incest taboo focuses on the normal family role relationships would be potentially harmful effects of inbreeding on the seriously disrupted. The incest taboo according family. This inbreeding theory, proposed well to this theory, originated as a mechanism to before the introduction of the science of repress the desire to satisfy one’s sexual urges genetics, holds that mating between close kin, within the nuclear family (Ferraro, 2008:212). who are likely to carry the same harmful In addition to causing disruption among nuclear recessive genes, tends to produce a higher family members through sexual competition, incidence of genetic defects (which result in an incest creates the further problem of role increased susceptibility to disease and higher ambiguity. For example, if a child is born from mortality rates). There is, however, little solid the union of a mother and her son, the child’s genetic evidence to support this view. What we GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 15 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12 father will also be the child’s half-brother, the family, or other cultural arrangements. The child’s mother will also be the child’s three types of kinship which exist are grandmother, and the child’s half-sister will also consanguinial (related by blood), affinal (related be the child’s aunt. These are just some of the by law/marriage) and fictive kinship. Through bizarre role combinations created by such an kinship there is a transmission of goods, ideas incestuous union. Because different family and behavior. Kinship is defined as a sense of roles, such as brother and father, carry with being related to a person or people through them vastly different rights and obligations, and descent, sharing or marriage. This provides the behavioral expectations, the child will have base for an examination of different styles of great difficulty deciding how to behave toward partnership, community and reproduction immediate family members. Thus, the incest across the globe. taboo can be viewed as a mechanism that Marriage, family, and kinship systems are prevents this type of role ambiguity or confusion institutionalized social arrangements in all (ibd). known societies. However, the nature of the 4. Theory of Expanding Social Alliances arrangement differs greatly across societies, Incest avoidance can also be explained in over time, and even within a given society at a terms of positive social advantage for societies specific time. Understanding the principles of that practice it. By forcing people to marry out kinship, marriage, and the family; the diverse of their immediate family, the incest taboo forms of family and marriage practices; the functions to create a wider network of values and norms that are associated with interfamily alliances, thereby enhancing them; etc., are very important. Marriage and the cooperation, social cohesion and survival. Each family form the foundation of all societies; time one of your close relatives mates with a without sound and proper family and marriage person from another family, it creates a new set systems, society will collapse. of relationships with people toward whom your References family is less likely to be hostile. This theory 1. Barnard, Alan and Jonathan, Spencer (1996). first set forth by Edward Tylor (1889) and later Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural developed by Claude Levi-Strauss (1969) holds Anthropology. Routledge: London and New York. 2. Dana, Walrath, Bunny, McBride, Harald, Prins, that it makes little sense to mate with someone and William Haviland (2010). Anthropology: from one’s own group with whom one already Human Challenge: Wadsworth: Belmont. has good relations. Instead there is more to be 3. Ferraro, Gary and Andreatta Susan (2010). gained both biologically and socially, by : An Applied perspective th expanding one’s networks outward (Ferraro, (8 ed.). Wadsworth: Belmont. 4. Haviland, William (1999). Cultural Anthropology 2008:212). (9th ed.). Florida: Harcourt Brace. Not only does mating outside one’s own group 5. James, Peoples and Garrick Bailey (2012). create a more peaceful society by increasing Humanity: An Introduction to Cultural th one’s allies, but it also creates a larger gene Anthropology (9 ed). Wadsworth: Belmont. 6. Kottak, Conrad (2009). Mirror for Humanity: A pool, which has a greater survival advantage Concise Introduction to Cultural Anthropology (7th than a smaller gene pool (ibd). ed). New York: McGraw Hill. Conclusion 7. Kottak, Conrad (2010). Anthropology: Appreciating Human Diversity (14th ed.). New Anthropologists study kinship because it is the York: McGraw Hill. relationship between people through marriage, GJAH:https://escipub.com/global-journal-of-arts-and-humanities// 16 Kebede Lemu Bekelcha, Aregash Eticha Sefera., GJAH, 2019 2:12 8. Park, Michael (20100. Introducing Anthropology: an integrated approach (5th ed). McGraw Hill: New York. 9. Rosman, Abraham, Rubel, Paula and Weisgrau, Maxine (2009). The Tapestry of Culture: An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology. UK: Altamira press. 10. Royal Anthropological Institute (1951). Notes and Queries on Anthropology (6th ed.). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. 11. Scupin, Raymond and DeCorse, Christopher (2011). Anthropology: A Global Perspective (7th ed). New York: Pearson. 12. Zerihun, Doda (2005). Introduction to Socio- cultural Anthropology. 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