Bioorganic Chemistry 87 (2019) 335–365 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Bioorganic Chemistry journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/bioorg Review article Promising anti-inflammatory effects of chalcones via inhibition of T cyclooxygenase, prostaglandin E2, inducible NO synthase and nuclear factor κb activities ⁎ Haroon ur Rashida,d, Yiming Xua, Nasir Ahmadc, Yaseen Muhammada, Lisheng Wanga,b, a School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University, 530004 Nanning, China b Medical College, Guangxi University, Nanning, China c Department of Chemistry, Islamia College University, Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan d Department of Chemistry, Sarhad University of Science & Information Technology, 25000 Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Keywords: Chalcones (1, 3-Diphenyl-2-propen-1-one) consist of a three carbon α, β-unsaturated carbonyl system and act as Chalcone precursors for the biosynthesis of flavonoids in plants. However, laboratory synthesis of various chalcones has Inflammation also been reported. Both natural and synthetic chalcones are known to exhibit a variety of pharmacological Cyclooxygenase activities such as anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antibacterial, antifungal, antimalarial and antituberculosis. Inhibition These promising activities, ease of synthesis and simple chemical structure have awarded chalcones considerable Cardamonin attraction. This review focuses on the anti-inflammatory effects of chalcones, caused by their inhibitory action primarily against the activities and expressions of four key inflammatory mediators viz., cyclooxygenase, prostaglandin E2, inducible NO synthase, and nuclear factor κB. Various methodologies for the synthesis of chalcones have been discussed. The potency of recently synthesized chalcones is given in terms of their IC50 values. Structure-Activity Relationships (SARs) of a variety of chalcone derivatives have been discussed. Computational methods were applied to calculate the ideal orientation of a typical chalcone scaffold against three enzymes, namely, cyclooxygenase-1, cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible NO synthase for the formation of stable complexes. The global market of anti-inflammatory drugs and its expected growth (from 2018 to 2026) have been discussed. SAR analysis, docking studies, and future prospects all together provide useful clues for the synthesis of novel chalcones of improved anti-inflammatory activities. 1. Introduction response is responsible for healing infections, injuries, and any im- pairment to the tissues. A number of physical responses initiated by the Leukocytes or white blood cells are involved in counteracting for- immune system as a reaction to a physical injury or an infection cause eign substances, microorganisms, and infectious diseases and therefore, inflammation [5]. Acute inflammation initiates quickly and becomes constitute a key component of the host immune system. However, they intense in a short period. Symptoms last for several days but may can also generate cellular impairment in host tissues in inflammatory continue for a few weeks in some conditions. Acute inflammation is disorders via degranulation and production of reactive species [1–3]. characterized by pain, redness, immobility, swelling, and heat. Acute Inflammation is a defensive strategy in higher organisms in which the bronchitis, infected ingrown toenail, a sore throat from a cold or flu, a immune system identifies impaired cells, irritants, pathogens, and other scratch or cut on the skin, high-intensity exercise, acute appendicitis, harmful stimuli, and initiates the curing process [4]. Inflammation dermatitis, tonsillitis, infective meningitis, sinusitis, and physical constitutes part of the body's immune feedback. An inflammatory trauma are the conditions and diseases which can cause acute Abbreviations: NSAIDs, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; COX, cyclooxygenase; NOS, nitric oxide synthase; CAM, cell adhesion molecules; LOX, lipoox- ygenase; PGs, prostaglandins; PGE2, prostaglandin E2; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; LOX, lysyl oxidase; mPGES-1, microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1; LPS, Lipopolysaccharide; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α; NO, nitric oxide; nNOS, neural NO Synthase; eNOS, endothelium NO synthase; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; IFN-g, interferon-g; IκBα, the inhibitor of kappa B; IL-1, interleukin-1; EMSA, electrophoretic mobility shift assay; IKK, inhibitor κB kinase; IκB, inhibitor κB; RANKL, receptor activator of NF-κB ligand; TRAP, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase ⁎ Corresponding author at: School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University, 530004 Nanning, China. E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Wang). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioorg.2019.03.033 Received 29 December 2018; Received in revised form 27 February 2019; Accepted 14 March 2019 Available online 15 March 2019 0045-2068/ © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. H. ur Rashid, et al. Bioorganic Chemistry 87 (2019) 335–365 COX can provide relief from inflammatory pain [11,12]. Side effects, particularly gastric corrosion, ulcer, and kidney toxicity have been as- sociated with the use of NSAIDs. Consequently, modern research has been focused on the design and development of new anti-inflammatory drugs with minimum or no side effects as an alternative to NSAIDs [13]. Natural products carrying anti-inflammatory properties have long been Fig. 1. Chemical structure of chalcone. practiced as a traditional medicine for inflammatory ailments such as fevers, pain, migraine, and arthritis. As the inflammatory mechanism of inflammation [6,7]. Chronic inflammations refer to a long-standing diseases becomes obvious, anti-inflammatory foods attract more at- inflammation and can last for a few months and even years. Symptoms tention [14]. According to British nutrition foundation, foods consisting of chronic inflammation include fatigue, mouth sores, chest pain, ab- of flavonoids, terpenoids, allied phenolic and polyphenolic and sulfur- dominal pain, fever, rash, and joint pain. Asthma, hepatitis, ulcerative containing compounds have been reported to be useful as anti-in- colitis, crohn's disease, periodontitis, rheumatoid arthritis, tuberculosis, flammatory diet [15]. Chalcone (Fig. 1) is a simple chemical structure and chronic peptic ulcer are the commonly known diseases caused by which forms the backbone of many natural products and is widely chronic inflammations [8]. Some common medications such as Non- distributed in vegetables, fruits, teas, and other plants. Chalcones are steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids and herbal 1,3-diphenyl-2-propene-1-one, containing two aromatic rings (A and B) supplements are used to reduce the pain caused by various inflamma- connected by an electrophilic three carbon α, β-unsaturated carbonyl tions [9]. However, numerous chronic inflammatory diseases such as structure [16–19]. Kostanecki and Tambor, for the first time, reported rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease etc. still present a the synthesis of natural products consisting of α, β unsaturated car- challenge to the researchers since no safe medicines are available to bonyl link and named them as “chalcones” [20]. The presence of re- cure these ailments [10]. Currently, NSAIDs, e.g. aspirin and ibuprofen active keto ethylenic group (eCOeCH]CHe) and α, β- unsaturated are extensively used to reduce inflammatory pain. The underlying carbonyl system in chalcones derivatives enable them to exhibit a wide mechanism indicates that NSAIDs exert their effect by inhibiting cy- range of biological activities (Fig. 2) including antimicrobial, analgesic, clooxygenase (COX). COX is a crucial enzyme responsible for the anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcerative, antiplatelet, antiviral, antimalarial, synthesis of prostanoids, biologically active substances involved in anticancer, antileishmanial, antihyperglycemic, antioxidant and anti- numerous physiological processes and pathological disorders, such as tubercular [16,21,22]. Though chalcones possess numerous medicinal inflammation. Research indicates that pharmacological suppression of applications, their broad bioactivity spectrum shows a casual target Fig. 2. Biological activities of chalcones. 336 H. ur Rashid, et al. Bioorganic Chemistry 87 (2019) 335–365 Scheme 1. The Claisen-Schmidt condensation. Scheme 2. Carbonylative Heck cou- pling reaction. profile, which offers a challenging task for their clinical application. Schmidt, and it illustrates a method in which a benzaldehyde and Due to the electrophilic nature of α, β-unsaturated carbonyl moiety, it acetophenone are condensed together after their treatment with each has the potential to form irreversible bonds with biological macro- other in the presence of strong basic or acidic catalysts in a liquid molecules, causing a number of harmful effects, for example, allergenic solvent at 50–100 °C for several hours. In base-catalyzed reactions, the reactions, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity [23,24]. On the contrary, chalcone is produced from the aldol product through dehydration in an the decoration of the aromatic system and α-X-substitution of the enolate mechanism, whereas in the acid-catalyzed reaction, it is pro- double bond in the enone group can both effectively affect the re- duced by an enol mechanism. A key limitation of this reaction is the activity of chalcones. Consequently, the design and synthesis of novel mild